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PULSES AND THE GLYCEMIC INDEX - Pulse Canada

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UNIVERSITY OF TORO<br />

<strong>PULSES</strong> <strong>AND</strong> <strong>THE</strong> <strong>GLYCEMIC</strong> <strong>INDEX</strong><br />

Alexandra L. Jenkins, PhD, RD, FICN<br />

Bean, <strong>Pulse</strong> and Lentil Symposium<br />

Toronto, January 31, 2008


Same Amount of Carbohydrate -<br />

Different Glucose Tolerance<br />

Blood Glucose Curve<br />

Glucose (mmol/L)<br />

6<br />

5.5<br />

5<br />

4.5<br />

4<br />

0 15 30 45 60 90 120<br />

Food A<br />

Food B<br />

Time


<strong>THE</strong> <strong>GLYCEMIC</strong> <strong>INDEX</strong><br />

GI =<br />

____AUC FOR 50g CHO OF TEST FOOD___<br />

AUC FOR 50g CHO OF REFERENCE FOOD<br />

X 100<br />

Reference Food<br />

Test Food<br />

WB<br />

Jenkins D. et al. Am J Clin Nutr 1981


Sources of Variation of Glycemic<br />

Responses<br />

• Within-subject<br />

• Between-Subject<br />

• Test meal<br />

• Analytical


Within Subject Variation


Sources of Variability: Within-subject<br />

Example of Repeated Tests<br />

300<br />

Incremental AUC<br />

200<br />

100<br />

0<br />

Subject A<br />

CV=22%<br />

Subject B<br />

CV=66%<br />

Without diabetes: CV = 25%<br />

Type 2 diabetes: CV = 15%<br />

Type 1 diabetes: CV = 30%


Sources of Within-Subject Variation<br />

•Stress<br />

• Exercise<br />

• Length of fasting time<br />

• Nature of previous meal<br />

Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4<br />

U C C U C U U C<br />

Campbell et al. Nutr Res 2003;23:621


%CV of Blood Glucose Response under<br />

Controlled and Uncontrolled Conditions<br />

Within-subject CV<br />

40<br />

1-tailed Fisher's Exact Test: p


Between Subject Variation


GI vs AUC<br />

300<br />

200<br />

AUC<br />

GI<br />

100<br />

0


Blood Glucose Response<br />

• Venous Plasma<br />

• Capillary Plasma<br />

• Capillary whole blood


Correlation Between Plasma and<br />

Capillary AUC<br />

Plasma Glucose AUC<br />

(mmol×min/L)<br />

300<br />

200<br />

100<br />

0<br />

0 100 200 300<br />

Capillary Glucose AUC<br />

(mmol×min/L)


Sources of Variation: Blood Sampling<br />

Within-subject Variation<br />

100 23±15% 57±20%<br />

80<br />

CV (%)<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

Capillary<br />

Venous


Glycemic Index Ranking<br />

HIGH GI (70-100)<br />

• Most Breads<br />

• Plain Crackers<br />

• Most Breakfast Cereals<br />

MEDIUM GI (55-69)<br />

• All Bran<br />

• Oatmeal<br />

• Most biscuits or cookies<br />

• Rice<br />

LOW GI (


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High GI Food Low GI Food


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High GI Food Low GI Food


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High GI Food Low GI Food


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High GI Food Low GI Food


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High GI Food Low GI Food


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Glycemic Index Ranking<br />

HIGH GI (70-100)<br />

• Most Breads<br />

• Plain Crackers<br />

• Most Breakfast Cereals<br />

MEDIUM GI (55-69)<br />

• All Bran<br />

• Oatmeal<br />

• Most biscuits or cookies<br />

• Rice<br />

LOW GI (


GI and Mixed Meals


Mixed meals are predictable<br />

in subjects with type 2 diabetes<br />

100<br />

Single food<br />

Mixed meal<br />

80<br />

60<br />

GI<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

Bread<br />

Potatoes<br />

Pasta<br />

Rice<br />

Lentils<br />

Kidney Beans<br />

Bornet et al. Am J Clin Nutr 1987; 42: 1192


Potatoes<br />

Potatoes and Peas<br />

Peas<br />

Schafer et al, Am J Clin Nutr 78, 99-103, 2003


Glycemic Index and Risk of Chronic<br />

Diseases


Glycemic load and risk of<br />

diabetes<br />

Nurses Health Study 6 years of follow-up in 65,000 women<br />

Relative<br />

risk of<br />

Type 2<br />

Diabetes<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

1<br />

1.28<br />

1.51<br />

2.5<br />

P < 0.03<br />

adjusted<br />

for<br />

known risk<br />

factors<br />

0<br />

Low Medium High High GI +<br />

low fibre<br />

Glycemic load<br />

Salmeron et al. JAMA 1997;277:472-7


Glycemic load and risk of heart<br />

attack<br />

Nurses Health Study 10 years of follow-up in 65,000 women<br />

P < 0.0001 adjusted for<br />

known risk factors<br />

2<br />

1.9<br />

Relative<br />

risk of<br />

CHD<br />

1<br />

1 0.98<br />

1.21<br />

1.49<br />

0<br />

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5<br />

Lowest Glycemic load Highest<br />

Liu et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2000,71: 1455


Glycemic load and risk of colon<br />

cancer<br />

Case-control study (1950 cases and 4154 controls) from Italy<br />

Relative<br />

risk of<br />

colon<br />

cancer<br />

2<br />

1<br />

1<br />

p < 0.001 for trend, adjusted for age, sex,<br />

education, exercise, fibre, alcohol and<br />

energy<br />

1.9<br />

1.2 1.2<br />

1.6<br />

0<br />

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5<br />

Lowest Glycaemic load Highest<br />

Franceschi et al. Ann Oncol 2001, 12: 1


GI and Glycemic Load in<br />

Endometrial Cancer<br />

3<br />

Glycaemic load<br />

GI<br />

2.7<br />

Odds Ratio of Endometrial Cancer<br />

2<br />

1<br />

1<br />

1<br />

1.5<br />

1.4<br />

1.5 1.5<br />

1.1<br />

1.5<br />

2.1<br />

0<br />

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5<br />

Augustin L et al, Int J Cancer 105, 404-407, 2003


Diet GI predicts HbA 1c<br />

in type 1 diabetes<br />

EURODIAB study in diabetes clinics throughout S. Europe<br />

HbA 1c<br />

(%)<br />

6.8<br />

6.3<br />

5.8<br />

P for trend = 0.0001<br />

5.3<br />

4.8<br />

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4<br />

adjusted for energy, fibre, alcohol, sex, age, BMI, smoking<br />

Buyken et al. 2001 Am J Clin Nutr 73; 574


HDL-C correlates with GI of diet<br />

Type 1 diabetes EURODIAB study<br />

1.6<br />

Northern, western and eastern Europe<br />

p for trend = 0.02<br />

HDL cholesterol (mmol/L)<br />

1.5<br />

1.4<br />

1.3<br />

1.2<br />

1.1<br />

1<br />

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4<br />

Quartiles of GI<br />

adjusted for energy, fibre, alcohol, sex,age, BMI<br />

Buyken et al. 2001 Am J Clin Nutr 73; 574


Low vs high GI: a meta-analysis<br />

% difference in glycated proteins (HbA1C)<br />

Gilbertson et al. 2001<br />

Komindr et al. 2001<br />

Giacco et al 2000<br />

Luscombe et al 1999<br />

Jarvi et al 1999<br />

Lafrance et al 1998<br />

Frost et al 1993<br />

Wolever et al 1992<br />

Wolever et al 1992<br />

Fontvieille et al 1992<br />

Brand et al 1991<br />

Jenkins et al 1991<br />

Fontvieille et al 1988<br />

Collier et al 1988<br />

% -35 -25 -15 -5 5 15<br />

OVERALL RESULT<br />

Mean %difference in 14 studies = -7.4% (CI -8.8 to -6.0%)<br />

Brand-Miller et al. unpublished


<strong>Pulse</strong>s and the Glycemic Index


Postprandial Glucose Response<br />

to Different Foods<br />

Jenkins et al, BMJ 281:578-80, 1980


Glucose Response to Starchy Foods vs<br />

Legumes in Type 2 Diabetes<br />

Jenkins et al, Diabetologia 24,257-64, 1983


Glycemic Index of Foods<br />

Root<br />

Vegetables<br />

Vegetables<br />

Breakfast<br />

Cereals<br />

Cereal<br />

Products<br />

Biscuits<br />

Fruit<br />

Dairy<br />

Products<br />

Legumes<br />

Peanuts


Possible Causes of Low GI of <strong>Pulse</strong>s


Factors Affecting GI of a Food<br />

• Nature of Starch<br />

– Ratio of Amylose to Amylopectin<br />

– Degree of retrogradation of starch<br />

– Degree of hydration: method of cooking (eg regular vs. parboiling)<br />

• Fiber: eg viscous fibers vs. insoluble fiber<br />

• Antinutrients, enzyme inhibitors, phytates, lectins, tannins<br />

• Particle size and food form: eg pumpernickel vs refined flour bread<br />

• Protein-starch interaction in wheat products<br />

• Food preparation: Bread vs. pasta; canned vs. dried beans


Amylose vs Amylopectin Starch<br />

Byrnes et al, J Nutr 125:1430-1437, 1995


Factors Affecting GI of a Food<br />

• Nature of Starch<br />

– Ratio of Amylose to Amylopectin<br />

– Degree of retrogradation of starch<br />

– Degree of hydration: method of cooking (eg regular vs. parboiling)<br />

• Fiber: eg viscous fibers vs. insoluble fiber<br />

• Antinutrients, enzyme inhibitors, phytates, lectins, tannins<br />

• Particle size and food form: eg pumpernickel vs refined flour bread<br />

• Protein-starch interaction in wheat products<br />

• Food preparation: Bread vs. pasta; canned vs. dried beans


Fiber vs CHO Malabsorbed<br />

Carbohydrate losses (g)<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0<br />

barley<br />

pumpernickel a lentils<br />

long grain rice<br />

bread<br />

pumpernickel b<br />

instant rice<br />

macaroni instant potato<br />

wholemeal bread bread<br />

bulgur<br />

parboiled rice white bread<br />

spaghetti rye bread<br />

corn chex<br />

rice chex<br />

chick peas<br />

oat bran<br />

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35<br />

Fiber per 80 g carbohydrate portion (g)<br />

romano beans<br />

kidney beans


GI vs CHO Malabsorbed<br />

150<br />

Glycemic index, published<br />

values<br />

100<br />

50<br />

0<br />

rice chex<br />

corn chex<br />

instant rice<br />

instant potato<br />

white bread<br />

wholemeal bread<br />

rye bread<br />

long grain rice<br />

bulgur oat bran<br />

macaroni<br />

canned romano beans<br />

Dimpflmeier pumpernickel bread<br />

parboiled rice<br />

spaghetti Kasseler pumpernickel bread<br />

canned kidney beans lentils canned chick peas<br />

pearl barley<br />

0 5 10 15 20 25<br />

% Carbohydrate malabsorbed


Factors Affecting GI of a Food<br />

• Nature of Starch<br />

– Ratio of Amylose to Amylopectin<br />

– Degree of retrogradation of starch<br />

– Degree of hydration: method of cooking (eg regular vs. parboiling)<br />

• Fiber: eg viscous fibers vs. insoluble fiber<br />

• Antinutrients, enzyme inhibitors, phytates, lectins, tannins<br />

• Particle size and food form: eg pumpernickel vs refined flour bread<br />

• Protein-starch interaction in wheat products<br />

• Food preparation: Bread vs. pasta; canned vs. dried beans


Particle Size and Food Form<br />

80<br />

70<br />

60<br />

Glycemic Index<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

White Bread<br />

Chick Peas<br />

Boiled<br />

Chick Peas<br />

Canned<br />

Chick Peas<br />

Ground


Legumes<br />

• High amylose content<br />

• Tight binding of protein to starch<br />

• Presence of phytates and lectins<br />

• Amylase inhibitors


Effect of Processing


Golay et al, Diabetes Care 9,260-66.1986


Effect of Processing<br />

Jenkins et al, Am J Clin Nutr 36, 1093-1101, 1982


Conclusions<br />

• Low GI foods may reduce incidence of<br />

chronic diseases<br />

• Low GI foods may improve diabetes<br />

control, lipid profile and inflammation


Conclusions<br />

• Peas, Beans and Lentils are Low GI<br />

Foods<br />

• Processing may Effect the GI of a Food

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