WWF Cover photo - Soufriere Marine Management Association ...

managed with reserves alone, while others may not need them at all. In between there is a very large number ofspecies whose management would be improved by incorporating marine reserves into the management toolkit.At all times it must be remembered that reserves are multi-species tools. The objective is to design them so thatthere is a maximum aggregate benefit across the spectrum of species and fisheries.13. What are the social effects of marine reserves on local communities?Studies of ecological effects of marine reserves far exceed those of their effects on people (Beaumont 1997).While a growing body of work is looking at fisheries effects, much is concentrating on changes in yields andcatch per unit effort, measures that reveal very little about the experiences of the people involved. Few studieshave directly assessed the social and economic impacts of marine reserves on fishers and the wider localcommunity, but those that do give valuable insights into issues of equitability and coping strategies in fishingcommunities (Malleret-King 2000). Nance et al. (1994), in their study of the social impact of a temporaryseasonal closure of the shrimp fishery off Texas, pointed out the importance of this type of social research. Theyreported “surprise and dismay” amongst the scientific committee for management of the closure when theirresearch revealed that after six years, more than 40% of fishers interviewed did not understand what was thepurpose of the closure.One problem with social studies is that social impacts and perceptions of communities are dynamic andchange rapidly over time. The best way to build up a picture of social impacts is with long term socio-economicmonitoring, but this has rarely been attempted. One of the best examples of formalised socio-economicmonitoring is the work of Leeworthy (2001), who monitored the Sambos Ecological Reserve in the Florida KeysNational Marine Sanctuary for four years (T. Murray and Associates 2001). One area of particular interest is thedistribution of costs and benefits of the reserve across the community, and whether people who lost the most(those who previously fished in the closed area) also benefited most from the biological and economicconsequences of protection. Contrary to prior expectations among fishers, he found that all fishers locallyexperienced increases in income over the study period. However, those displaced by the reserve gained anaverage of 67% compared to 22% gained by fishers further away.Poaching, which occurs to some extent in virtually all marine reserves discussed in this report, canmean that fishers benefiting from the biggest fish and best catches may be those acting illegally. This canundermine the confidence and support of those who are honest. In an economic assessment of the SMMA in StLucia, Clark (2002) estimated that if growth rates in fish catches observed during the first 5 years ofmanagement were sustained over the next 15 years (a possibility suggested by findings from Apo Island, Maypaet al. 2002), reef fishers’ incomes would eventually rise above the St Lucian poverty line.Positive social effects of establishing marine reserves include increased environmental awareness andeducational opportunities amongst local communities. Marine reserves often form a focus for conservationactivities which spread into more general practice. The initial consultation process often includes a strongeducational element. The SMMA in St Lucia offers school programmes and takes local people out to view thereef in glass bottom boats. At Apo Island, revenue generated by the marine sanctuary was used to providescholarships to local students (Bernando 2001). Park offices that double as information centres for local useallow people to share park resources.Direct involvement of local communities in monitoring marine reserves can increase people’s interestand enthusiasm for them. The Eastport lobster closures in Newfoundland involved local schools and othercommunity members in collecting and analysing lobster landings to assess the effectiveness of closed areas(Rowe and Feltham 2000, see case study). Community monitoring has also been successful for invertebratefisheries in Fiji (Tawake et al. 2001, see case study). Neis (1995) suggests that information and interpretationcentres could become places of education for fishers, and somewhere for them to disseminate their traditionalknowledge to communities, tourists, visiting researchers and policy-makers. Involving recreational andcommercial fishers in tagging programmes to study movements of fish has also been successful, for examplewith recreational linefish in South Africa (Bullen et al. 2000). Whenever communities are involved inmonitoring, the regular feedback of research findings is important to success (Tawake and Aalbersberg 2001,Horrill et al. 2001). Obura et al. (2002) found that community fisheries monitoring was fundamental tomanagement in the Kiunga Marine National Reserve in Kenya. Participatory monitoring increases awareness ofthe need to manage resources and allows the community to contribute (Obura et al. 2002).In some cases marine reserves have increased community harmony and reduced conflicts between usergroups and managers when people have had to work together on committees and make joint managementdecisions. Committee-based management can also act as a social leveller whereby fishers, tourist businessoperators and local politicians interact on the same level to make decisions. In Fiji, Tawake et al. (2001) reportedthat the success of closed areas for invertebrate fisheries had led to community pride and confidence in thestrength of people to bring about change. This community became a role model for others in the region and sentadvisors out to other projects.20