Kuhn vs Popper - About James H. Collier

original distinction between the transcendentaland instrumental justification of inquiry in termsof what they call ‘Mode 1’ and ‘Mode 2’ knowledgeproduction. Mode 1 stands for discipline-basedresearch and Mode 2 for a hybridised sense ofresearch that blends together the interests ofacademia, the state and industry. Seen stereoscopically,the origins of Mode 1 are pushed back tothe founding of the Royal Society in the 17thcentury (if not the ancient Greek philosophers),while the roots of Mode 2 are brought up to theperiod starting with the Manhattan Project thatbuilt the first atomic bomb (if not the post-ColdWar devolution of the welfare-warfare state).However, historically speaking, it is only in the lastquarter of the 19th century – the Golden Age ofmandarinisation – that both Modes come intobeing, almost simultaneously, in Germany. Thiscorresponded to the mass assimilation of thelaboratory-based natural sciences into theuniversities. Laboratories had been traditionallyexcluded from universities (and confined topolytechnics) for reasons that amounted tointellectualised class snobbery. Specifically, labwork required manual skills alien to the hands-freeworld of liberally educated élites for whom practicalapplications were an inferior form of knowledge.Yet, once the laboratory sciences were ensconced137