Write Right - Defence Academy of the United Kingdom

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ContentsIntroduction………………………………..………………………………..What is effective writing? …………….…………………………….……..House Style…………………………………………………………………Structure what you want to say………………………………..………….Style………………………………………………………………………….Grammar…………………………………………………………………….Vocabulary…………………………………………………………………..The sentence and the paragraph……………………………..………….Americanisms………………………………………………….…………...Clichés, metaphors and similes………………………………………......Some phrases we could easily do without ……………………………...Foreign words……………………………………………………………….Gender……………………………………………………………………….Jargon ……………………………………………………………………...Slang…………………………………………………………………………Tautology……………………………………………………………………Punctuation…………………………………………………………………The apostrophe……………………………………………………………..Brackets……………………………………………………………………..The colon……………………………………………………………………The semicolon………………………………………………………………3467891011121314151617181920212223241

The comma………………………………………………………………….The dash……………………………………………………………………The exclamation mark…………..…………………………………………The full stop…………………………………………………………………The hyphen…………………………………………………………………The question mark…………………………………………………………Quotation marks……………………………………………………………Initial capitals……………………………………………………………….Double trouble………………………………………………………………Pairs and snares……………………………………………………………Which word?........................................................................................Could, would and should………………………………………………….A hundred words which are sometimes mispelt (sic)!..........................Words which are sometimes used wrongly…………………………….Some rules that aren’t really rules ………………………………………Parts of speech…………………………………………………………….DW conventions……………………………………………………………Recommended reading……………………………………………………Useful websites…………………………………………………………….252627282930313234353637383940424751512

What is effective writing?Some people would say that writing is effective as long as it isgrammatically correct. But grammatically correct sentences don’talways make sense. If grammatically correct was the only thing weneeded to worry about the following 2 passages would be alright.A meeting to discuss the use of the Stn squash courts as atemporary morgue during Exercise BLOWHARD will take place at1000 in the Stn Conference Room. All interested bodies are invitedto attend.Cpl Barber was only slightly injured when attacked by a fellow doghandler’s Alsatian. The OIC RAF Police said the dog would begiven another chance.Both passages are grammatically correct, and we may think that weknow what the authors meant. But because the meaning is ambiguousthe writing cannot be described as effective.To make up sound yet useable hard-and-fast rules for effective writing isvery difficult. With English there is often no single correct method ofputting things; ideas can usually be expressed in several different ways.Also, English is a living language in that it changes over time. So ifenough people were to say we was for long enough, it would eventuallyreplace we were as the accepted form.It is perhaps better if we say that:Writing is effective if it achieves the purpose that the writerintended.In this booklet we offer guiding principles that will help you to writeeffectively. They are not strictly rules; rules, as the old proverb goes, are‘for the guidance of wise men and the obedience of fools’. Let’s start bylooking at exactly what it is that makes writing effective.4

Here are some objectives that effective writing can be used to achieve:to give informationto obtain informationto persuadeto recordto bring about actionto seek commentWriting is not usually something that we do for ourselves; it is nearlyalways aimed at creating a response in a reader. Some writers seewriting as an opportunity to impress. Showing how intellectual they canbe and how expansive their vocabulary is, often at the expense of theirreaders understanding. A simple direct message that is clear and to thepoint is easy for all to understand.Effective written communication is a very useful means of gettingbusiness done. Effective writing is largely about simplicity of expression,accurate content and brief style. Clear writing reflects clear thinking.Standard formats, often called ‘house styles’, help to provide structure toa document and ensure that you don't leave out key elements ofinformation.When do you need to write? You need to write if:A record has to be kept to account for expenditure or to recordfinancial or other important decisions.Information or a decision has to be passed to a wide audience.Your message is too detailed or complex to deliver verbally or mayneed to be studied carefully.Things to bear in mind. When you write anything, bear in mind thefollowing points:What is the purpose of the document?Who are you writing to?What is the most appropriate style?5

VocabularyThe type of writing you use will vary depending on who you are writingto. It may be that you are writing to a Service colleague, an official in agovernment department, or a member of the public. No matter who therecipient is, certain principles apply to all writing:Use language that is familiar rather than starchy and old fashioned.Keep it simple so that everyone will understand. Use phrases likeeasy to use instead of user friendly and words like latest instead ofstate of the art.Prefer a single word rather than a wordy phrase. Often, scarceand so mean the same as in several instances, in short supply andwith the result that.Listed below are some alternatives that you may find useful.Why say...?a majority ofa proportion ofat the present timeconsequentlyfurthermorein order toin the event thatin the neighbourhood ofprovided thatthe question as to whetherthere is reason to believewhether or notwith the minimum of delayyour attention is drawn to the fact (that)When you could say...mostsomenowsoalsotoifabout, or near toifwhetherwe thinkwhetherquicklyplease noteCheck out the Plain English Campaign’s A-Z Guide of alternative wordson their website: www.plainenglish.co.uk10

The sentence and the paragraphShort sentences are easier to write and to understand than long ones.Remember your objective when writing is to make it as easy as possiblefor your reader to get your message. Don't overload your writing withconditions, exceptions and consequences - these can swamp yourmeaning and bore your reader. Poor writing often results from sentencesbeing too long. A sensible average might be between 15 and 20 words.Vary the length of your sentences. Short punchy sentences can be astiring to read as long and verbose ones. Several consecutive sentenceswith the same number of words can be monotonous.A formal sentence should consist of at least a subject and a verb, butneed contain no more, so that Sue laughed is a grammatically correctsentence.The paragraph has 2 roles:To help the reader follow your argument by indicating where you aremoving on from one point to another.To break up the appearance of the page and make it look morereadable (long paragraphs discourage readers before they start).With too many paragraphs your writing will look jerky; but with too few,the reader has no breathing space.11

AmericanismsThe English and American language and literature are both goodthings; but they are better apart than mixed.H W FowlerIf we took Fowler's recommendation to heart we would throw out wordslike teenager, commuter, bluff, boom, stunt and hundreds of otherAmerican words which have found a place in our language. Ourlanguage has been derived from many different influences: America isjust one of these. However British English has a habit of rejecting thoseinfluences that it doesn't like. Using Americanisms can irritate people,and you should try to avoid doing that, particularly in official writing. Hereare a few examples:Americanaffirmative actioncounterclockwise…back of…letter carrier…fix up…prior to…prioritize…zip code…veteran…additionally…ball park figure…corporation…Britishpositive discriminationanticlockwise…behind…postman…arrange…before…give priority to…post code…ex–serviceman…and…approximate…companyAmerican English is very fond of what is called the verbal phrase. Butverbal phrases are only useful if they mean something different from thesimple verb; otherwise they just clutter a sentence. Examples are:Check up on.Face up to.Miss out on.Meet up with.Visit with.(check)(face)(miss)(meet)(visit)All these verbs do their job better if left alone.12

Clichés, metaphors and similesClichés. A cliché is an overused expression or idea: a phrase or wordthat has lost its original effectiveness or power from overuse. We useclichés because we think they somehow add colour and vigour to ourwriting - but they don't. Expressions such as at one fell swoop and theworld's my oyster would have sounded refreshingly new whenShakespeare first coined them - but not any more.Should we stop using clichés? No. Just think twice before rolling out anover-familiar phrase, and then use it only if you can’t think of a better wayto express what you want to say.Metaphors. A metaphor is an implicit comparison: the application of aword or phrase to somebody or something that is not meant literally butto make a comparison. For example saying that somebody is a snake ora business is a bit of a lame duck is speaking metaphorically.Beware of mixed metaphors! This is the application of 2 or moreinconsistent metaphors to a given situation, for example ‘the leadershiphave gone over the top and taken up fully entrenched positions’ or ‘incoal mines, mice are used as human guinea pigs’. Mixed metaphorscreate confusing imagery and distract the reader from your message.Similes. A simile is a figure of speech that draws a comparison between2 different things, especially a phrase containing the word ‘like’ or ‘as’, forexample ‘she stood like the image of the muse’ or ‘as white as a sheet’.By all means make your writing colourful and imaginative, but knowwhere to draw the line – especially in official documents.McMurphy fell 12 floors, hitting the pavement like a paper bag filledwith vegetable soup.13

Some phrases we could easily do withoutas a matter of fact…at the end of the day…at this moment in time…in the final analysis…in view of the fact that…it should be understood…last but not least…other things being equal…the fact of the matter is…to all intents and purposes…what can only be described as…when all's said and done…that said…with due regard to….14

Foreign wordsSome originally foreign words such as brochure (French) and arsenal(Arabic) have been thoroughly absorbed into our language. Many more- vice versa (Latin), vendetta (Italian), kudos (Greek) - have becomewell-established and well understood. There are others, however, whichare borderline: understood by some but not all. It is this last group whichposes problems. A reader confronted by a Latin tag or foreign phrasefeels irritated if he or she doesn't understand it, and doubly irritated if it'sbeen used in the wrong way.Listed below are some foreign phrases and their English alternatives.ad hoc (Latin)carte blanche (French)cri de coeur (French)fait accompli (French)glasnost (Russian)modus vivendi (Latin)prima facie (Latin)volte face (French)schadenfreude (German)zeitgeist (German)for a special purposea free handheartfelt appealalready doneopennessway of livingat first sightreversal of opinionpleasure from another’s misfortunethe mood of a period of historyBefore using a foreign word or phrase you should be confident yourreader will understand and appreciate it. If in doubt find a simple Englishexpression that does the job as well.Cave quid dicis, quando, et cui15

JargonIn a calm market the cash burn rates could indicate negative cashflow benefits resulting in a management dehire programme.AnonJargon consists of the technical terms used by specialised groups. Asan expert-to-expert form of communication it can save a great deal oftime. There’s no problem so long as one pilot is speaking to anotherabout the effects of vertical envelopment or a trainer is writing to acolleague about the cognitive domain. It is only when such terms spillover into general communication that the writer should think hardwhether to explain them or look for more understandable alternatives.Jargon is a style of writing of which management consultants have, fairlyperhaps, been accused of being the chief exponents. The MOD is alsooccasionally guilty of using jargon.Defined and minimalist levels of commonality will facilitatemaximum intra-operability and interoperability, leading to enhancedcontextualisation and fusion of best practice.Translated this becomes:We need to agree the best ways to work. This will help peoplework well in their own, or other, departments.Also try to avoid fashionable words if at all possible. Words and phraseslike:Drill down, synergy, critical mass, quantum leap, ducks in a row,ramp up, no brainer, big ask, 24/7 and JFDI!.At its worst, jargon lends itself easily to evasive answers and coldheartedness.You should avoid it as much as you can, especially whenwriting to people outside the MOD.17

SlangNew slang flows into the language all the time, enlivening and stirring upour speech. This would be fine if only we disposed of the used-up slangat the same rate. But we don’t. It hangs around long after its charm hasgone, just cluttering the national vocabulary. An example of this is theexpression in the red, which goes back to the days when bankstatements showed overdrawn accounts in red. They no longer do so,but in the red still lingers on.Rhyming slang should also be avoided because, although amusing, itrequires your readers to know the code being used before they canunderstand what you are saying.He’s been having some trouble with his chalfonts!Chalfonts Noun. Haemorrhoids. Rhyming slang. From Chalfont StGiles, a town in Buckinghamshire, rhyming with piles.Phil Vickery, the England Rugby Captain, left the pitch covered inclaret.Claret Noun. Blood. From its colour.Different styles of language are appropriate for different forms ofcommunication. In speech, unless we are making a special effort, wetend to use slang reasonably freely, be inexact, ungrammatical and a bitsloppy. But slang in our official writing is another matter; it rarely helpscommunication. It is either old or new. If old, then it's stale and boring; ifnew, then it may not be understood by others. It is far better to leaveslang to spoken English unless you know your reader well.18

TautologyThey laughed happily as they collaborated together on the project.AnonTautology is the repetition of the same idea or meaning in a phrase orsentence, as in a free gift (all gifts are free), a new innovation and lonelyisolation. We tend to commit this fault when we want to be emphatic.Avoid for instance, associating most or very with such words as ideal orperfect, which are themselves the highest degree possible. Soexpressions such as exclusive monopoly or most absolute would also bewrong.Here are some examples. Redundant words are shown in brackets:The work of this branch is not limited (only) to legal matters.Only one additional (new) pilot has joined the sqn.The regiment returned (back) to its starting point.The reason is (because) there are none left.We continued (on) with our 2 (fellow) companions.The Stn Cdr is in a position of (lonely) isolation.The words in brackets can be dropped from their sentence without anyloss of sense because their meanings are contained in other words. Thiskind of tautology is not good style and you should avoid it, especially inwriting.19

PunctuationPunctuation is the use of commas, semicolons, apostrophes, questionmarks and so on, for grammatical or other purposes. Withoutpunctuation, most written or printed text would make little sense:a year ago polly perkss brother marched off to battle nowpollys willing to resort to drastic measures to find him so she cutsoff her hair dons masculine garb and aided by a well placed pair ofsocks sets out to join this mans armyUsed correctly punctuation can make your writing flow easily, impressyour reader and deliver your message in a clear and professionalmanner.Punctuation is a powerful tool and can also change the meaning of asentence:These are my daughters. (2 or more daughters).These are my daughter’s. (Things that belong to my daughter).An English professor asked 2 groups of students, one male and onefemale, to punctuate the sentence ‘A woman without her man is nothing.’Not surprisingly the male group came up with:A woman, without her man, is nothing!However the female group had:A woman: without her, man is nothing!The same words, but with different punctuation, the whole meaning ischanged!20

The colonConscience: the inner voice which tells us someone may bewatching.H L MenckenFowler considered the colon's special function was ‘to deliver the goodsthat have been invoiced in the preceding words.’ The colon indicates afuller pause than the semicolon and is now used almost exclusively toprecede lists, summaries or quotations. Normally in English you shouldmake sure that what you write before the colon is grammaticallycomplete:The Warsaw Pact comprised 7 countries: the USSR, EastGermany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania andBulgariaHe briefly outlined a few of the problems facing the project: lack ofagreed guidelines, disputes within management, shortage of staff,rising costs and collapsing moraleHowever, DW convention allows us to use a grammatically incompletestatement before the colon when it is used to introduce sub-paragraphs,but only provided that the statement is completed grammatically by eachsubsequent sub-paragraph in its entirety. No such sub-paragraph mayeither have a heading or contain an additional sentence. Subparagraphs,whether consisting of single words, phrases or clauses,must all be of similar construction.The colon can also be used to separate 2 statements in order toemphasise the contrast between them:Man proposes: God disposes.23

The semicolonThe semicolon marks a longer pause than a comma, but a shorter onethan a full stop. It is useful:As a means of avoiding confusion in lists.The guests included Colonel Blanchard, leader of theexpedition; Major Fielding, his chief assistant; Captain Buck,the technical adviser; ...To separate 2 or more clauses which are of more or less equalimportance and are linked as a pair or a series.The idea of including ethnic groups in emerging governmentsis both bold and potentially fruitful; moreover it is nowpossible.To emphasise a contrast.On this occasion I will let your insubordination gounpunished; but in future I will not be so lenient.If you are uncertain about the semicolon, avoid it; however correctly usedit can be a very effective punctuation mark.24

The commaAll generalisations are dangerous, even this one.Alexandre DumasAlthough the rules for using the comma are really very simple, it isfrequently used wrongly. Forget anything you've ever been told aboutusing a comma "wherever you would pause", or anything of the sort; thiswell-meaning advice is hopelessly misleading. The comma tends to beused either too often or not enough. There are 3 distinct uses for acomma:To separate each item in a list.In his backpack Sgt Jarvis carried his mess tins, a sleepingbag, some dry socks and a copy of Sun Tzu’s ‘The Art of War’.Where there is a danger of ambiguity or doubt (and should bepreceded by a comma).The train will stop at Harrow, Pinner, Watford, and Bushey.Otherwise Watford and Bushey might be interpreted as one station(like Bushey and Oxhey).As a pair to enclose words that can be left out without affecting thegrammatical structure of the sentence.Cpl Davis, a former member of 304 Sqn, was accused of settingfire to the hangar.To separate clauses in a sentence.This brief outlines Britain's defence policy, examines NATO'sstrategy, and considers the problems facing the Alliance.25

The dashWar does not determine who is right – only who is left.Bertrand RussellThe dash tends to be overused by lazy writers who see it as an allpurposepunctuation mark. It should not replace commas, colons,brackets, and so on. The dash has 3 main uses:To show a sudden break or shift in thought.I shall be in early tomorrow - if my train is on time - tohelp you prepare for the meeting.After a multiple subject.Integrity, sincerity, honesty - these are just 3 of the qualitiesyou need to fake to be a politician.To insert a remark into a sentence which is already grammaticallycomplete.The main reason for the Minister's decision - and this has sofar not been mentioned - is that the economic situationdemands it.Some people used to add a dash after a colon (:-). This use is archaicand should be avoided.26

The exclamation markThe exclamation mark denotes the expression of surprise or strongfeeling. It can be used:After exclamations, especially those beginning with what or how.What a day!How amazing!That’s fantastic!Aaarrgh!After a statement considered surprising by the writer.They met on Monday and were married on Friday!After months of work the tomb was opened. It was empty!After emphatic commands, exhortations and wishes.Drop it!Come and join us!Long live the Queen!Tyronne, don’t touch that!Although it is widely used by sports writers, the exclamation mark, likethe dash, has little place in official writing. Using them frequently willgive your work a breathless, almost childish quality.Don’t use an exclamation mark unless you’re sure it’s necessary – andnever use 2 or 3 of them in a row!!27

The full stop‘Where shall I begin, your majesty?’ ‘Begin at the beginning,’ theking said gravely, ‘and go on till you come to the end, then stop.’Lewis CarrollThe full stop is one punctuation mark which most of us could well usemore often. Even so, if used too much it will give your writing a stiltedlook.Please call me at the office tomorrow. I have something todiscuss. I shall be in by 0900. It will not take long.This would read better as:Please call me tomorrow, as I have something to discuss. I shall bein by 0900 and it will not take long.In standard English, as well as ending a normal sentence, you will seefull stops used with abbreviations that do not end with the same letter asthe unshortened form.Capt. (captain)Min. (minimum)Max. (maximum)But not where the shortened form ends with the same letter as thecomplete word.Ft (feet)St (Street)Revd (Reverend)It is not usual practice to have full stops with such familiar abbreviationsas USA, BBC or RAF.Note: This practice is not the convention that we use in the military andJSP 101 states that you should not use punctuation within or afterabbreviations, except when it is part of normal sentence construction.For example, use Dr and eg not Dr. or e.g.28

The hyphenA well-tied tie is the first serious step in life.Oscar WildeFowler's Modern English Usage devotes about 1000 words to thehyphen! We won't detain you quite that long; but a few points would behelpful. The hyphen should be used:Where its absence could lead to misunderstanding.In India he shot a man-eating tiger. (He shot a tiger which atemen.)In India he shot a man eating tiger. (He shot a man who waseating tiger meat.)Where it makes the meaning clear.This department contains sixty-odd people. (Without ahyphen this would read very strangely).With compound adjectives.Face-saving.Public-spirited.Red-hot.Dark-blue.Some word combinations are hyphenated when they come before anoun, but not when they come after.It is an out-of-date system. But: The system is out of date.This is a long-term problem. But: The problem is long term.29

Geographical titles or regions. France, Rome, Rhine, Pacific,Lower Rhine, North Wales and South London.National titles. Norwegian, Dutch, Jew, Protestant.Titles of organizations and buildings. RAF Division, JointServices Command and Staff College. If you repeat the title inshortened form, continue to use initial capitals: the Division islocated at the College.Days and months. Thursday, New Year’s Day or November.Government departments and agencies. The Ministry ofDefence.Ranks, professions and appointments. When writing of onespecific person (Col Smith was one of 4 cols present). Dr Brownwas using one of the doctors’ surgeries.Titles and names. For the first word and for all important wordsin titles of books, essays, films, and so on (The Holy Bible, ThePleasures of Reading, Gone with the Wind). Use initial capitals forthe names of historical events, periods and documents (SecondWorld War, The Stone Age, Magna Carta).Paragraph headings. For the first word in paragraph and subparagraphheadings and in each item in a list of annexes,references and so on.33

Double troubleSome word combinations just seem wrong. If you are able to spot thesecombinations easily, so much the better. If you can’t then watch out forthe following:Double superlativesWrong: My schooldays were the most happiest days of my life.Right: My schooldays were the happiest days of my life.Double comparativesWrong: I was more happier then than at any time since.Right: I was happier then than at any time since.Double past tensesWrong: I would have liked to have gone.Right: I would have liked to go.Double negativesWrong: I wouldn't be surprised if it didn't start to rain.Right: I wouldn't be surprised if it started to rain.A linguistics professor was lecturing to his class one day.‘In English,’ he said, ‘A double negative forms a positive. In somelanguages, though, such as Russian, a double negative is still anegative. However, there is no language wherein a double positive canform a negative.’A voice from the back of the room piped up, ‘Yeah, right.’34

Pairs and snaresadverse (unfavourable)affect (to influence)agree to (a plan, a proposal)alternate (every other)apposite (appropriate)appreciable (noticeable)beside (next to)biannual (twice a year)canvas ( a cloth)complementary (balancing)defective (faulty)exceedingly (outstandingly)flaunt (to show off)ingenious (clever)insidious (cunningly harmful)intense (strong)judicial (relating to law)licence (a permit)luxuriant (abundant)perquisite (additional benefit)practicable (can be achieved)prescribe (to recommend)principal (chief, head)stationary (not moving)stimulant (a drug)summon (to call)swat (to hit an insect)titillate (to arouse mildly)averse (opposed)effect (result, to bring about)agree with (a person)alternative (instead of)opposite (facing)appreciative (grateful)besides (as well, also)biennial (every two years)canvass (to seek support)complimentary (admiring)deficient (lacking)excessively (too much)flout (to disregard)ingenuous (without guile)invidious (offensive)intensive (concentrated)judicious (wise, sensible)license (to authorise)luxurious (in luxury)prerequisite (prior condition)practical (useful)proscribe (to ban)principle (rule)stationery (office supplies)stimulus (an incentive)summons (a legal command)swot (to study hard)titivate (to smarten oneself)35

Could, would and shouldThere is sometimes confusion over when to use could, would andshould.Could is connected with the word can. I could can be explained as I can,under certain conditions. Could is, therefore, known as the conditional ofcan.Similarly ‘should’ is the conditional of shall and would is the conditional ofwill.Could implies a physical possibility without indicating whether or not theaction will take place or ought to take place.Should gives the idea of duty or preference, and can often be replacedby ought to.Would implies that, under the given circumstances, the action will takeplace whether it is desirable or not.If he were stronger he could lift this weight. (He could lift it, but wedo not know whether he will or ought to).If he were stronger he would lift this weight. (He will lift it, if hebecomes stronger).If he were stronger he should lift this weight. (He ought to lift it, butwe don’t know if he will).As a further example, consider the following short passage:The visitors could travel by train, but they would then have difficultywith their luggage and equipment. Therefore a car should beprovided for them.’This passage could be rewritten as:It will be possible for the visitors to travel by train. However, if theydo, they will have difficulty with their luggage and equipment.Therefore a car ought to be provided for them.37

A hundred words which aresometimes mispelt (sic)!accessibleaccessoryaccommodateacquiesceadmissibleadvantageousadvisoryaerialagreeableallegeasymmetricaudibleauxiliarybattalionbenefitedbicyclebulletinbuoyantbureaucalendarcamouflagecampaigncoherentconscientiousconsciouscurriculumdeferreddesultorydeterrenteligibleembarrassmentequippederroneousexistenceexpedientfallacyfeasibleforfeitGibraltargovernorgradientgraffitigrievousharasshumoroushygieneillegibleinaugurateindependenceindispensableinfallibleinferenceinnocuousinoculateinstalmentinstilintractableirrelevantliaisonlieutenantmaintenancemanoeuvremaritimemedievalmortgagenegligiblenoticeableobsoleteoccasionoccurredomittedOttawaoverratedparallelpermissiblepersistentprecedentprofessorprofitedquerulousreconnaissancerefereerhetoricrhythmsatellitesecedeseparatesergeantserviceablesoliloquystupefysupersedetargetedthresholdtransferabletransienttunnellingtwelfthquestionnaireultimatumThe truth about spelling is that some words can be really difficult tospell. Some people find spelling easy and some people find it veryhard. If you are one of the latter, consult a dictionary or use the spellingand grammar checker on your PC – and remember:If GH stands for P as in HiccoughIf OUGH stands for O as in DoughIf PHTH stands for T as in PhthisisIf EIGH stands for A as in NeighbourIf TTE stands for T as in GazetteIf EAU stands for O as in PlateauThen the right way to spell POTATO is GHOUGHPHTHEIGHTTEEAU!38

Words which are sometimes usedwrongly...Aggravate. This does not mean the same as irritate or exasperate.It means to make a bad situation worse.Alibi. An alibi is a claim to have been elsewhere when an incident tookplace. It is not an alternative word for an excuse.Billion. In Britain a billion used to mean a million million. But now theAmerican definition of a thousand million is generally accepted.Chronic. Means lingering, lasting, long-established. It does not meanbad, intense or severe.Dilemma. A dilemma is an awkward choice between 2 or more options.It is not a synonym for problem.Leading question. A leading question is a question phrased so as toprompt the desired answer. It is not a searching or the most importantquestion.Presently. This means soon, not at present or present which mean now.Transpire. It is a common error to use transpire as if it meant happenor occur. What it means is to become known.39

Some rules that aren’t really rulesYou will hear various ‘rules’ banded about by so-called experts inEnglish. Most of these are not really rules at all and really fall into thecategory of ‘advice to beginners’.And and ButAnd and But may be used to begin either a sentence or a paragraph.And why not? If we followed the ‘rule’ we would deprive ourselves of 2 ofthe most useful words for connecting sentences smoothly.ContractionsContractions (don't, wouldn't, it's) should be used sparingly. Contractionslend themselves best to an informal style of writing. But shunningcontractions completely in official writing can have the effect of making itappear ponderous and remote.Repeating wordsIt is both natural and good that we should try to avoid repeating the sameword too often and too closely together. But more important than varietyis clarity. By being over-concerned with finding new words to describethe same thing we can end up confusing our reader.Split infinitivesWhen another word comes between to and the verb (to boldly go, tocarefully consider), that is a split infinitive. Split infinitives used to beconsidered a cardinal sin in good English; but there are some instanceswhere they may be justified. He was asked to discreetly drop a hintwould have a different meaning if changed to He was discreetly asked todrop a hint.Tail-end prepositionsA preposition expresses the relationship of one word with another (of,for, below). Normally sentences should not end with prepositions.However, many sentences do naturally end in this way and often thepreposition needs to be at the end. She is the most suitable person I can40

Parts of speechEvery word in a sentence is there for a reason. A word in itself cannot beidentified as a particular part of speech unless we know what job it isdoing in the sentence. The function defines the part of speech. But becareful; sometimes the function is not clear.For example, we might say that ‘salt’ is a noun, meaning a flavouring.But, in these sentences, it performs a different function.The salt (adjective) water may sting your eyes.You must salt (verb) the potatoes before you boil them.The old salt (noun) spoke about shipwrecks.You need salt (noun) on fish and chips.In the same way, we might say that ‘fast’ is an adjective, as in a ‘fast car’.But again, in the following sentences it performs differently.He was driving too fast (adjective).The protesters are on a seven-day fast (noun).We have decided to fast (verb) for Lent.They have included 2 fast (adjective) bowlers in the team.VerbsThe function of a verb is to show doing, having or being. Verbs havetenses to show when they take place.Present tenseI am speaking to him now.It is raining.I have a picture of her here.You are late again.The choir sings superbly.42

Past tenseI spoke to him yesterday.It was raining this morning.I had a picture of her.You have been late every day this week.The choir sang last night.Future tenseI will be speaking to him tomorrow.It will rain later.I will have a picture of her tomorrow.You will be late.The choir will be singing next week.AdverbsThe main function of an adverb is to show how, where or when a verbhappens, such as:Quickly, slowly, sadly, carefully, beautifully, arrogantly.Most adverbs end in -ly, but some don't, such as:Fast, well, often, now, there, later.Adverbs can also be linked to adjectives or other adverbs, as in:Completely safe.Totally worn out.Very gently.Too quickly.43

NounsThe function of a noun is to name a person, place or thing.There are 4 types of noun:Common nouns, such as:Door, car, trees, building, woman, offices.Proper nouns, which are names and begin with a capital letter, suchas:Liverpool, Lillian, France, MOD, Tuesday, January.Abstract nouns, which are things we can't see or touch, such asDecisions, concentration, honour, friendship, bravery, ability.Collective nouns, which are the names of groups, such as:Teams, crews, herds, audiences, committees, crowds.PronounsPersonal pronouns take the place of nouns to make sentences run moresmoothly. So:We wrote to the manufacturers because the manufacturers wereconcerned.becomes:and:becomes:... because they were concerned.Andy was late because Andy was delayed at the airport.... because he was delayed...44

SingularPluralfirst person subject I weobject me uspossessive mine ourssecond person subject you youobject you youpossessive yours yoursthird person subject she he it theyAdjectivesobject her him it thempossessive hers his its theirsThe function of an adjective is to describe a noun. Adjectives are wordssuch as:Quick, slow, sad, careful, beautiful, arrogant.ConjunctionsConjunctions are linking words. They can link words, sentences, or partsof a sentence.The moon and sea were breathtaking.We tried her number several times. But still there was no reply.We sold your ticket because you failed to pay for it.Some other common conjunctions are:although, so, until, when, since, as, while and however.45

PrepositionsPrepositions come before nouns or pronouns and usually show aconnection.I left it in the car.We went to the library.He sat on the kitchen table.Some other common prepositions are:Articlesat, for, up, over, with, by, from, near.There are 2 kinds of article: definite and indefinite. The definite article isthe. The indefinite article is a or an.The ruler.A complaint.An agreement.We use an before a vowel (a, e, i, o, u).We use a before a consonant (the other letters of the alphabet).But there are exceptions, for example:A unique suggestion.A European country.A useful idea.An MP.An hour.An heir.An hotel.46

DW conventionsThis is a quick reference guide to DW conventions. It does not list all ofthe conventions, just the most commonly used ones. For a full list of DWConventions see JSP 101 Chapter 6.Capital letters 1. Normal punctuation rules apply.2. Use a capital letter for Service(s) when it refers to the UKarmed forces.3. Use capital letters for code words, and names of exercises,projects, operations, Royal Navy ships, protective markings anddescriptors.Paragraphnumbers1. A paragraph has an Arabic number, followed by a full stopand a tab space. The numbering sequence and conventions areshown below:a. A sub-paragraph is block-indented one tab space.b. A sub-paragraph is identified by a lower-case letter,followed by a full stop and a tab space:(1) A sub-sub-paragraph is block indentedanother tab space.(2) A sub-sub-paragraph is identified by anArabic number, in brackets, followed by a tab space:(a) A sub-sub-sub-paragraph is blockindented another tab space.(b) A sub-sub-sub-paragraph is identifiedby a lower-case letter, in brackets, followedby a tab space.This represents the final part of Paragraph 1, and the text startsagain at the left margin. If you continue the paragraph, do not usefurther subdivisions until the next paragraph.2. Number the next paragraph and start it at the left margin.3. If there is only one paragraph in a document, do notnumber it, and start the text at the left margin. It is not necessaryto use paragraph numbering in letters to a person outside theMOD or in letters of condolence.4. Text introducing sub-paragraphs ends with a colon.47

Line spacing 1. Use single line spacing for a block of text. Leave one blankline above and below subject, main and group headings; andbetween all types of paragraphs.2 Leave at least one blank line between the last line of textand the page number.Drafts 1. If sending documents electronically use single line spacing.If sending documents in hard copy use double line spacing for themain body of the text.2. Either word ‘DRAFT’, in bold capitals (not underlined), topcentre of every page, leaving one clear line below any protectivemarking or descriptor, and one clear line below the word ‘DRAFT’3. Or add the watermark ‘DRAFT’ by using the ‘Format’,‘Background’ ‘Watermark’ facility on your PC.Protectivemarkings anddescriptors4. Use the signature block of the person who will sign the finalversion of the document. Enter the month and year of the date.The person signing will add the day when the draft is approved.1. In general, always use a protective marking with adescriptor. A protective marking or a descriptor, are written inbold capitals and entered at the top and bottom of each page.2. In hard-copy documents, repeat the protective marking ordescriptor at the top and bottom on the reverse of the final pageas well.Originator’sdetailsAddressesFootnotes3. JSP 440 (the Defence Manual of Security) gives guidanceon protective markings, descriptors and how to number copies ofprotected documents.1. The originator’s details must include enough information toallow a recipient to contact the sender.2. The details should include the originator’s address, phonedialling code and number (normally on both a civilian and militarynetwork), (fax number), email address (Internet or DII), and,where appropriate, the signal message address or telexOutside MOD. On letters to people outside the MOD, show thefull postal address of the originator and the recipient.Inside MOD. In letters and documents to MOD addressees, usethe originator’s full address, but you may use the recipient’sabbreviated address: Unit (Job title).Use footnotes (not endnotes) to show references to letters ordocuments, or to provide detail which would otherwise clutter thetext.48

Signature block 1. Use a signature block to identify the person signing adocument. Show the initials and name of the person signing,using upper-case and lower-case letters. Do not include postnominalletters.2. For military staff, show the rank of the person signing.Write military ranks with initial capitals only. Include the job title ofthe person signing. You may add the job title or department theperson represents. Check on local practice.3. In loose minutes show originator’s contact details in thesignature block. Include phone number, room number and emailaddress.Page numbers4. A signature block must never appear by itself at the top of apage. Leave part of the previous page blank so that at least oneline of text is above the signature block.5. Do not include a facsimile signature in the signature block Ifyou send a document by email.Put page numbers at the bottom centre of the page, without a fullstop. Single-page documents are not normally numbered.Abbreviations 1. Abbreviations are commonly used for dates, ranks orgrades, job titles, formations and units. Other abbreviations mayonly be used when they are well understood by the recipients. Donot use the ampersand (&) to replace the word ‘and’ in writtenEnglish. Use ‘&’ only in abbreviated titles: ‘R&D’ or ‘P&SS’.2. Do not use abbreviations when the tone and purpose of adocument make them inappropriate, such as in a citation, alaudatory letter or a letter of condolence. If you are thinking ofabbreviating a word, or words, follow these guidelines:a. Do not overuse abbreviations, or you will make ithard for the reader to understand what you have to say.b. Do not introduce an abbreviation if you do not use itagain in the document.c. The first time you use the word or words, either in aheading or in the text, write them in full. Then show theabbreviation in brackets immediately after; for example ‘thehilltop is a key-point (KP) position’.d. Thereafter, use the abbreviation consistentlythroughout the subsequent text, headings, tables, annexesand appendices.Dates, days andtimeDates. Dates are written in the order day, month, year. Do notstart a date with ‘the’ or use superscript (‘ th’ ) after the day of thedate, and do not use a leading zero with single-digit days. Toabbreviate a date, write the number of the day, the first 3 letters of49

the month (‘Jan’, ‘Feb’ etc), and the last 2 digits of the year.Days. To abbreviate a day of the week, use only the first 3letters of the day (‘Mon’, ‘Tue’…).Time. Express time in 4 figures by reference to the 24-hour clock.Only use the suffix ‘hrs’, or a time-zone suffix to avoid confusionwith other figures. The suffix 'L' means time zone LIMA, not 'localtime'. In correspondence with people outside the MOD, use the12-hr clock system, followed by ‘am’ or ‘pm’ as appropriate.Numerals,fractions andordinal numbers1. Numerals and fractions. In most circumstances, writenumerals and precise numerical fractions in Arabic figures. Thefollowing conventions also apply:a. Because the figure ‘1’ could be confused with theletter ‘I’, spell out the number ‘one’. Use the Arabic figure'1' in dates; page numbers; paragraph, chapter and serialnumbers; titles; measurements; enclosure and appendixnumbers; and in figures, diagrams and tables. If you needto avoid confusion, use ‘zero’ or ‘nought’ instead of thenumber ‘0’.b. Where a number starts a sentence or subdivision ofa paragraph, spell it out: ‘Sixty years after the event….’. Ina point brief, you may start a sentence or follow aparagraph numbers or a bullet with a number. When anumber that forms part of a title begins a sentence, write itin figures: ‘1 Armd Div is to….’.c. When a number refers to quantitative amount ofService formations or units, always spell it out to avoidconfusion. Use ‘three sqns’, not ‘3 sqns’ (which could bemisunderstood to mean ‘No 3 Sqn’)d. Decimal fractions. Write a decimal fraction byplacing the decimal point on the base of the line: ‘8.346’. Ifthe fraction is less than one, place a zero before thedecimal point: ‘0.346’.e. Marking thousands. Use blank spaces to divide alarge number of digits into groups of 3, counting from thedecimal marker: ‘15 762’ or ‘14 945.762 21’. .2. Quantities and dimensions. If you write a quantity and adimension together, either spell out the first number: ‘fifteen2-metre pallets', or separate adjacent numbers by themultiplication sign: ‘15 x 2-metre pallets’.3. Ordinal numbers. Ordinal numbers (‘first’, ‘second’ andso on) do not need to be spelt out. The style ‘21 st century’ isacceptable. Do not use ordinal numbers with dates.50

Recommended readingJoint Service Publication (JSP) 101 V3 – The Defence Writing Guide.Electronic Defence Writing eDW Edition 2.0 Oct 2006.Modern English Usage, revised by Sir Ernest Gowers.The Complete Plain Words, by Gowers (revised 1986).Eats, shoots and leaves, by Lynne Truss.The Good Grammar Guide by Richard PalmerRediscover Grammar by David Crystal.Making Sense of Grammar by David Crystal.The Penguin Dictionary of English Grammar by R L Trask.The Penguin guide to Punctuation by R L Trask.Useful websitesPlain English Campaign www.plainenglish.co.uk.Economist Good Style Guide www.economist.com/research/styleguide.eDW website www.defac.ac.uk/edw.51