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230 Managing Systems of Secondary CitiesPhilippines 49, 91, 100, 106, 110,111, 118, 119, 182dispersion patterns of cities 45Gini Coefficients (GCs) 62remittance system 154Phnom Penh 101planning and managementreforms 92–94best practices 93, 94development control andregulation enforcement 93integrated developmentplanning 67, 93Land Governance AssessmentFramework 94land management andadministration 94peri-urban land management93–94strategic planning 93structure planning 93toolkits 93pollution 56, 63–64, 63, 66, 115, 119polycentric cities 73, 73, 74, 76, 118polycentric megacities 75, 76populations 13, 37, 38densities 46–47, 56, 61, 62global 40urban growth trends 40–43,42, 43, 44, 45Port Elizabeth 63, 103Portland 52ports 53, 96post-industrial phase 19, 55,71, 145poverty 13, 16, 30, 55, 79, 134alleviation 112–113, 115,183, 184Pretoria 34primacy distribution 44–46,46, 47primary (primate) cities 14, 17,20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 35–36, 52, 53,54, 58, 59, 64, 73, 73, 76, 77, 84,85, 118, 137, 199, 204, 208competitiveness 58definition 20exogenous growth model 84expanded primate cities 73, 73GDP 26as global secondary cities26, 36populations 36vital for functioning ofsecondary cities 76see also megacitiesprivate-sector development 177pro-business environments 54production systemsclustered 66dispersed 66relocation back to developingeconomies 12, 17, 19, 32production-distribution supplychain 21productivity 52, 59, 189property tax and revenuecollection 100prosperity, key dimensions of 59protectionism 96provincial capitals 27provincial cities 27Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)101–102, 104, 107, 177, 188Pusan 34, 167Putrajaya 191Qatar 154quality of life 53, 59racketeering 30re-industrialization 81Red Crescent 184redevelopment and revitalization107–110, 122affordable housing 109slum-improvementprogrammes 108–109urban-upgradingprogrammes 109refugee settlement 30–31, 31–32,37, 39regional capitals 35regional case studies 124–165regional cities 27, 82networked cities 73–74, 73regional development 18,183–184regional imbalances 124regional market centres 35regional poles 70–71religious centres 29, 34remittances 80, 124, 154rent-seeking 91, 110rents 47resource management 82,199–200resource-endowed secondarycities 77–78resource-leveraging 67, 87, 94–95,111, 167–168responsive cities 78revenue-collection capacity 100,189Rio de Janeiro 51, 74, 75, 151road and rail networks 32, 81,106, 195rural–urban migration 41, 135, 148Russia 34Rwanda 58, 83, 112, 121, 123St Louis 34San Francisco 62, 75San Salvador 80São Paolo 29, 51, 52, 60, 73, 151satellite cities 14, 21, 73, 118–119,143, 147, 195Saudi Arabia 29, 34, 119, 120Seattle 24, 34, 54, 167secondary citieschallenges 15, 16–17, 21,88–89environmental systemsmanagement 113–116infrastructure backlog104–106land development banks106–107overcoming 90–115problem-tree analysis 89social systemsdevelopment 110–113urban economics andfinance 95–102urban governance 90–95urban redevelopment andrevitalization 107–109urban services 102–103definitional issues 20–21, 22,23, 24–39, 192failure, impacts of 21–22fresh approach to urbanpolicy 196–198international agency support190investment strategies 202–203number of 15populations 13, 16, 21, 36,38, 41, 41research deficit 14, 17, 23–24typologies 28–34vital functions and roles11, 15, 17, 21, 29, 38–39,76–77, 192, 208see also DevelopmentInitiative for SecondaryCities (DISC)self-reliance 85, 87self-sufficiency economic model 81Senegal 130–131Seoul 52, 141service sector 35, 54service-driven economy 29, 66Shenyang 122Shenzhen 62, 113Singapore 52, 104, 106, 118Singapore, Johor Bahru Batam/Bintan Growth Triangle 74, 75,120, 167slums 17, 56, 62improvement programmes108–109small- and medium-scaleenterprises 102social capital 59, 61, 64, 80, 85social media engagement 189–190social stratification 29social systems 204, 205, 206social systems development110–113human capital development110–112poverty alleviation 112–113social-support programmes 109socialist planning systems 27, 81socioeconomic developmentdisparities 14South Africa 25, 29, 34, 49, 50, 53,62–63, 103, 131–133Spain 74, 208spatial distortions in economies48, 50, 52spatial organization of economicactivities 68, 86spatial planning policies 117–122growth poles 120industrial enterprise zonesand business parks 119new towns 117–118satellite towns 118–119technopoles 121–122urban revitalization 122spatial typologies 11, 71, 73,73, 193Christaller model 193economic agglomeration,relationship with 71–72expanded primate cities 73, 73linear cities 74, 74metropolitan cities 71, 73–74polycentric cities 73, 73polycentric linear cities 73, 74primate cities 73, 73regional networked cities73–74, 73Special Economic Zones (SEZs)119specialization of cities 12, 24,25, 33, 37, 56, 68, 69, 70, 76,78, 194difficulties 194industry cluster analysis 69location quotient analysis 69versus diversification 86specialized poles 70spillover growth cities 37, 73sports centres 38squatter settlements 162Sri Lanka 34, 62, 102, 103, 120, 176Stone Town 78, 122, 122strategic interventions 87, 107–108structural adjustmentprogrammes 65, 131sub-global cities 27sub-Saharan Africa 112, 133–134,170anti-urban biases and policies90, 133