Undercurrent-Issue-Fall-Winter-2014-3

three variables used to calculate the overall index, combined with penalty applied to the all three malevariables.! While the HDI measures average achievement, the GDI adjusts the average achievement toreflect the inequalities between men and women in the following three dimensions: a long and healthylife measured by life expectancy at birth, knowledge as measured by the adult literacy rate and thecombined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio and a decent standard of livingmeasured by estimated earned income (UNDP, 2008). !! For a further explanation of GDI calculation, the indices used, and results see Appendix C and D.!" The GEM and the GDI were developed and adopted by the UNDP. However, they differ withrespect to their theoretical foundation and calculation; the GDI focuses on the loss of humandevelopment due to gender gaps and the GEM measures women’s agency to access certain resourcesand their roles within society (Bardhan & Klasen, 1997). The GEM measures women’s politicalparticipation and decision-making power measured by, “women’s and men’s percentage shares ofparliamentary seats” (UNDP, 2008, p. 360). The second feature includes women’s economic participationand decision-making power measured by two indicators. The first indicator measures women’s andmen’s share by percentage of positions of legislators, senior officials and managers. The secondindicator evaluates women’s and men’s percentage shares of professional and technical positions. Thefinal indicator measures women’s access to economic resources by assessing women’s and men’sestimated earned income." Bardhan and Klasen argued that certain aspects of GEM are an effective tool in evaluatingopportunities that are open to women when they state that, “a society that neglects the economic andpolitical potential of half its population is likely to perform worse than a society that draws on all its besttalent, regardless of gender”(1997, p. 21)." There are several fundamental elements similar to the GEM in the calculation of the GDI formula.Similar to the GDI, the GEM also penalizes all of the three male indicators for aversion to inequality toadjust for the already present inter-group inequalities between males and females. GEM and GDIcalculate estimated earned income in the exact method by using the, “ratio of the female nonagriculturalwage to the male nonagricultural wage, male and female shares of the economically active population,total female and male population and GDP per capita” (UNDP, 2008, p. 360). For a further detailedexplanation of calculation see Appendix A and B.SOCIO-ECONOMIC HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA" In order to understand the implications of utilizing the GEM and GDI with respect to women’swellbeing in South Africa, it is helpful to discuss the historical background of the country.! The main cause of widespread poverty is due to the apartheid regime that institutionalizedracism across every level of society including the access to healthcare, land, employment, educationand political rights. Several laws were passed that systematically reinforced the status quo of the poortreatment and type of access to services the majority of the population was allowed to receive. TheGroup Areas Act passed in 1950, enforced the segregation of the different races to specific areas andallowed for the two oppressed ethnic groups (Blacks and Coloreds) to only own certain zones of land(Worden, 2012). In practice, Blacks and Coloreds were forced off their own land, which in many caseshappened to be high quality land due to the type of soil fertility and location, and moved to areas furtherfrom city centers with poor land quality. With poor quality housing, schools and healthcare, combinedwith a lack of job opportunities in the areas the Blacks and Coloreds were forced to live, levels of povertyrose and continue to exist today as these areas or townships struggle to break free from the povertycycle.31