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ODD.CD.APDdevelopment of APD in adulthood, all of whichmay serve as narrow, behavioural indicators of ageneral psychopathic personality. Examiningthese behavioural disorders from adevelopmental standpoint is important asseveral implications related to childdevelopment and the criminal justice system canbe drawn.The DSM-IV-TR describes ODD as apattern of “negativistic, defiant, disobedient, andhostile behaviour towards authority figures”(Rowe, Costello, Angold, Copeland, &Maughan, 2010, p. 726) lasting at least sixmonths and causing significant distress orimpairment in the child’s life. Some typicalbehaviours include irritability, frequently losinghis or her temper, arguing with adults,deliberately provoking people, and blamingothers for his or her own misbehaviour(American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Thisbehavioural disorder usually onsets early inchildhood, around two to four years of age, andis characterized by a display of oppositionalbehaviours and emotions in contexts involvingother people, particularly those in positions ofauthority (Hofvander, Ossowwki, Lundstrom, &Anckarsater, 2009). There has been somespeculation as to whether these behaviours areindicative of an actual disorder or are merelytypical childhood acts of rebellion (Hofvander etal., 2009). However, it is the persistence ofthese behaviours (i.e., lasting at least sixmonths) and their ability to cause significantdistress in a child’s life that distinguishesbetween such normal acts of rebellion andclinically-disordered behaviour (AmericanPsychiatric Association, 2000). Additionally,several longitudinal studies have noted strikingsimilarities between ODD and other childhooddisruptive behaviour disorders (e.g., ADHD,CD) and have proposed that they may reflectmanifestations of the same behavioural disorderat different stages in development (Burke et al.,2010).Rowe et al. (2010) assessed cohorts ofchildren aged three to seven to examine thepredictive validity of ODD to CD. They foundthat ODD was a significant predictor of childonsetCD with 79% of the children diagnosedwith CD meeting diagnostic criteria for ODDdirectly before, or at the same time as the CDdiagnosis. Other longitudinal evidence confirmsthat ODD typically has an earlier onset and ismore prevalent than CD, with ODD childrenbeing at greater risk of being diagnosed with CDlater in life (Burke et al., 2010).It is important to note that in order to bediagnosed with ODD, the child must not meetcriteria for CD (American PsychiatricAssociation, 2000). However, clinical studieshave demonstrated that 60 to 95% of CD casesinclude a comorbid ODD diagnosis (Rowe etal., 2010). Such a high rate of comorbidity inCD patients suggests that CD may be a moreserious form of ODD along the samebehavioural trajectory. It is also significant tonote that ODD has been shown to predict lateronset of CD, but there has been no confirmingevidence of a reciprocal relationship (i.e., CDleading to ODD), thereby lending more supportto the developmental pathway of thesedisruptive behavioural disorders.Since CD is often seen as a more seriousform of ODD, it is not surprising that many, ifnot all, of the features of ODD are usuallypresent in cases of CD. CD is characterized bygeneral violation of the basic rights of others,with other defining features includingaggression towards people and animals,destruction of property, deceitfulness, theft,rule-breaking, and serious violation of societalnorms (American Psychiatric Association,2000). CD has an age of onset similar to ODD,with symptoms emerging as young as four tofive years old, and can be diagnosed inchildhood, adolescence, or adulthood(Hofvander et al., 2009). Of course, not allchildren diagnosed with ODD go on to developCD (American Psychiatric Association, 2000);however, child-onset cases of CD are typicallypreceded by ODD and patterns of physicalviolence and family instability appear to beimportant factors in the transition (AmericanPsychiatric Association, 2000; Rowe et al.,2010).Milan and Pinderhughes (2006)examined the relationship between familyinstability and child development and suggested