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ODD.CD.APDbehavioural disorders such as ODD and CD.Inasmuch as patterns of family instability maycontribute to the progression of a mentaldisorder, the initial development is more likelyto occur in someone with a geneticpredisposition to that behaviour. The reverse isalso true. For example, Foley et al. (2004)examined a gene-environment interactioninvolving the monoamine oxidase A genotype inorder to predict risk of conduct disorder inantisocial boys. They found that the merepresence of the monoamine oxidase A genotypeonly slightly increased the risk of developmentof CD; however, being exposed to an adversechildhood environment (such as familyadversity, inter-parental violence, parentalneglect, and inconsistent discipline)significantly increased the risk of a CDdiagnosis. Complicating the effects even more,many behavioural disorders (i.e., ADHD, CD,and ODD) are inherited through a combinationof multiple genes, not just a single one(Comings, 2000). This means that genes mayexert their combined effects on variousneurotransmitter systems and receptor sites(e.g., dopamine, serotonin, monoamine oxidase,and gamma-aminobutyric acid) and interact tocharacterize the behavioural patterns of ODD,CD, or APD. Separating out the effects may bedifficult; however, it is important toacknowledge the interaction of both genetic andenvironmental factors in the development ofbehavioural disorders and their treatment.Understanding this developmentalpathway is also important in terms of labeling.The possibility of incorrect diagnoses at a youngage is dangerous in terms of the negativeimplications that such a label may have on achild’s self-identity and development. However,there are potential benefits of diagnosis andlabeling that can be applied to the criminaljustice system. Understanding how thesebehavioural disorders relate to psychopathy, asmeasured by scores on Hare’s PCL-R can helpto predict conviction and recidivism rates ofantisocial offenders (Laurell & Daderman,2005). As previously mentioned, thoseoffenders scoring higher on the ‘socially deviantlifestyle’ dimension may be more likely toreoffend due to boredom and poor behaviouralcontrols than those scoring higher on the‘personality aggressive narcissism’ dimension.This kind of information may be helpful duringconviction or after an offender is released onparole.The DSM-IV-TR has supported thisnotion that APD may be related to psychopathy.The American Psychiatric Association has evensuggested the addition of an“Antisocial/Psychopathic Type” category in thepersonality disorders section of the DSM-V withan emphasis on personality and character(American Psychiatric Association, 2000).Additionally, researchers have also noted thatthe inhibitory control deficits and patterns ofbrain activity observed in individuals withAttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder(ADHD) are similar to those deficits present inindividuals with CD, ODD, and APD. Thisfinding has allowed some to speculate thatADHD may be another behavioural disorderfalling somewhere along this spectrum (Barkley,1997), which may prove to be another excitingavenue of future research.As this paper presents, it is veryimportant to be critical of psychologicalclassification efforts and the implications thatthey may have on individuals. As ourunderstanding of mental disorders changes overtime, the corresponding nosology must also beupdated and improved. It is this kind of analysisthat has ultimately moved the DSM forward tothe more reliable and valid classification systemthat it is today.First Received: 1/13/2013Final Revision Received: 3/1/2013