Concepts and practices in agricultural extension in developing ...

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Sohng SSL. 1995. Participatory research and community organizing. Working paper presented at the New SocialMovement and Community Organizing Conference, University Of Washington, Seattle, WA, November 1–31995. http://www.interweb-tech.com/nsmnet/docs/sohng.htm.Susman GI. 1983. Action research: A sociotechnical systems perspective. Sage Publications, London, UK. pp.95–113.Waring B. 1997. HIV/AIDS networking guide. International council of AIDS service organizations.Willard T. 2001. Helping knowledge networks work. Version 1.0. International Institute for SustainableDevelopment, Winnipeg, Canada. Available at: https://doc.telin.nl/dscgi/ds.py/Get/File-23047/social_capital_gigacscw_final.pdfWorld Bank. 2002. The CGIAR at 31: An independent meta-evaluation of the Consultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research. Volume 3. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.Wu F and Butz W. 2004. The future of genetically modified crops: Lessons from the Green Revolution. RandCorporation, Santa Monica, USA.29
2 The past, present and future of extension service2.1 Introduction2.2 Historical evolution of agricultural extension2.3 Generic problems and approaches to address them2.4 Factors of success in the knowledge/technology dissemination process2.5 Factors affecting clients’ access to extension services2.6 Changing paradigms in extension, and roles of extension agents2.7 Emerging challenges and opportunities2.8 The future of extension services2.1 IntroductionThe economy of most developing counties is dependent on rural based small-scale agriculture whoseproductivity is not increasing (in some cases, even declining) contributing towards household foodinsecurity, malnutrition and poverty. The ever-increasing decline in agricultural production has beenattributed to a number of factors, one of which has been inappropriate and/or ineffective disseminationof technologies.Agriculture has already reached the limits of land and water, and so future increase in food productionmust exploit biological yields on existing land. In Asia, the growth rate fostered by the Green Revolutionhas slowed. In Africa, per capita food production has declined in most years since 1970. In many partsof Latin America and the Caribbean, population pressure and extensive agriculture seriously threatensthe environment. In the industrialized world, opposition to high input of agriculture is mounting inresponse to such issues as animal rights, fear of genetically engineered products, and soil and waterpollution. Extension funding and delivery face difficulties inherent in the extension mandate due to themagnitude of the task, dependence on wider policy and other agency functions, problems establishingthe cause and effect necessary to obtain political and financial support, liability for public servicefunctions beyond agricultural knowledge and information transfer, fiscal sustainability, and interactionwith knowledge generation.For a long time, development of agriculture in developing countries mainly consisted of farmers andcommunities being told what to do, often by institutions and agents who have not taken sufficienttime to understand their real needs and practices. Over the last two decades, government and nongovernmentalorganizations have recognized the need to move away from instruction and blue printsolutions, towards more participatory approaches which involve communities in setting and fulfillingtheir own development goals and solutions. Hence, the system-oriented and participatory approachesare being increasingly integrated into the emerging research and development (R&D) paradigm.31
Page 1 and 2: www.ipms-ethiopia.orgConcepts and p
Page 3 and 4: Authors’ affiliationsAnandajayase
Page 5 and 6: 5.5 Actor analysis 1895.6 Participa
Page 7 and 8: PrefaceThis source book is a produc
Page 9 and 10: civil society, farmer organizations
Page 11 and 12: Table 1.1. Key features of paradigm
Page 13 and 14: farmers analyse, choose, experiment
Page 15 and 16: experimentations are conducted with
Page 17 and 18: Steps/participants Objectives Activ
Page 19 and 20: Action research not only enables th
Page 21 and 22: 3. From research findings to tentat
Page 23 and 24: that governs the way these interact
Page 25 and 26: improvement to enhance supply chain
Page 27 and 28: often managing a ‘portfolio’ of
Page 29 and 30: Figure 1.7. An example from the fur
Page 31 and 32: go for each value—with added comp
Page 33 and 34: 1.3.10 Positive devianceThis is a n
Page 35: Hall A and Nahdy S. 1999. New metho
Page 39 and 40: they were geared to production and
Page 41 and 42: the basic premise of T&V was traini
Page 43 and 44: some reforms, especially in Latin A
Page 45 and 46: Complexity: Involves the diverse so
Page 47 and 48: is further aggravated by difficulti
Page 49 and 50: - Decentralization is the transfer
Page 51 and 52: • In situations where farming is
Page 53 and 54: • Coupons to agricultural bank lo
Page 55 and 56: Privatization has been attempted by
Page 57 and 58: Thus, inter-connectivity is closely
Page 59 and 60: departments, foreign and local data
Page 61 and 62: information on agricultural practic
Page 63 and 64: among field professionals. Similar
Page 65 and 66: • Linkages and support—resource
Page 67 and 68: Outside interventions normally inte
Page 69 and 70: In many cases potential partners al
Page 71 and 72: towards sustainability, extension i
Page 73 and 74: • Taking some risks by including
Page 75 and 76: communities understand their person
Page 77 and 78: intensive organization, which is in
Page 79 and 80: In addition, the competitive intere
Page 81 and 82: • The extension service’s oppor
Page 83 and 84: Ameur C. 1994. Agricultural extensi
Page 85 and 86: Mulhall A and Garforth C. 2000. Equ
Page 87 and 88:
Zijp W. 1998. Extension: Empowermen
Page 89 and 90:
MethodsMethods refer to the techniq
Page 91 and 92:
extension agent responsible for dif
Page 93 and 94:
deprived and the excluded in terms
Page 95 and 96:
the community’s own facilitators.
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underestimation of the great comple
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International development agenciesa
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• The performance of researchers'
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3.3.3 Commodity extension modelThis
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3.3.5 NGO (international and local)
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public demand for change, many indi
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Usually decisions have to be made c
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• The most important factor is th
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Bennet C. 1990. Cooperative extensi
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4 Group formation and management fo
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• Farmer or producer organization
Page 119 and 120:
• Research induced FRGs potential
Page 121 and 122:
• Other activities that are not d
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a group does not guarantee equal ac
Page 125 and 126:
4.4.3 Groups as individual enhancem
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that FGs can be effective mechanism
Page 129 and 130:
Experience in Tanzania revealed adv
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organizations are registered under
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of groups is a process that both gr
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• set SMART objectives to fulfill
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Table 4.1. Stages in the group deve
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Stage Purpose Behavioural patterns
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2. Formulation of group goals and o
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positions, members need to understa
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It is very important that all those
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Leadership style Characteristics of
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In discussing bad leadership with g
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iv. Withdrawing: acting bored and i
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• be a good listener and monitor
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A template for work plan is provide
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Logical Framework (Project Planning
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All groups want to succeed in their
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MotivationMotivation can simply be
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eflections on the life of the group
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At point A both conflict and perfor
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List all problem areas• Prioritiz
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2. Mapping of group structureOne vi
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Asgelil D and Tekalign M. 2001. Cli
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Rural Development Committee monogra
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Participatory Learning and Action (
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Box 5.1. Tools and techniques used
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5.2.3 Formal/verification surveyAlt
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3. Define and understand the local
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problems and opportunities. A trans
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5.2.11 Venn diagram/’chapati’ d
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This may also yield valuable inform
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Key questions on benefits• What b
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Table 5.5. Format for the Stakehold
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Co-operativeFarmerResearchExtension
Page 195 and 196:
5.5.3 Actor determinant diagramThis
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NAR S to developc apac ity in P R A
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The tools discussed in this section
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• Specify what, when, who, how et
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eflection;• Action: the process a
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2. Ranking. A method of ranking can
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are out of the control of farmers m
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Figure 5.19. Example of participato
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Figure 5.21. Example of a resource
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5.9.2 Implementing PRCAPRCA uses PR
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• Idioms, and existing/new images
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• Systems thinkingSituations are
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5.11 Participatory Extension Approa
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During implementation, new question
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Purpose of community mobilizationCo
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Step 2: Identifying potential leade
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Step 9: Implementing selected proje
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• Aim for a comprehensive respons
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Bianchi RR and Kossoudji SA. 2001.
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4. Information storage, whether man
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Evaluation in general addresses fou
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6.1.4 ImpactThe term ‘impact’ m
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Box 6.2. Types of research outputTh
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quantitative methods. Retrospective
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Table 6.1. Impact types, techniques
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However, the ARR measure is not alw
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2. It can contribute to the develop
Page 249 and 250:
evaluation. The evaluators collect
Page 251 and 252:
In order to make this step particip
Page 253 and 254:
• The third style is when the eva
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attributes, traits or characteristi
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• Experience suggests that it is
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This means that:- Inaccurate observ
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is appropriate, such as tables, gra
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• Looks at both internal and exte
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• It is useful for process monito
Page 267 and 268:
• What information do we need and
Page 269 and 270:
Who? Which provides the partners, s
Page 271:
www.ilri.orgISBN 92-9146-234-9
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