Concepts and practices in agricultural extension in developing ...

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ForewordAgriculture has once again been identified as the lead sector for growth which will help meet theMillenium Development Goals. It is being advocated that it should get a more prominent place inthe world’s development agenda. Even though rapid strides have been made in the last few decadesin agricultural development, hunger still exists and rural populations are amongst the poorest. Africa,particularly, sub-Saharan Africa has not kept pace with the developments.The agricultural sector in developing countries is facing rapid changes and unprecedented challenges.The knowledge intensive nature of the sector is more evident now than ever before. The trends of urbanmarkets, globalization, changing consumption patterns, land and water constraints, climate change,need for alternative sources of energy including biofuels, and emerging diseases are driving developmentin agriculture. Private sector is increasingly playing a role, as also the civil society. Innovation is theorder of the day.Extension worldwide has been transforming in response to various challenges and developments. Thereis no gainsaying the crucial role of agricultural extension services in promoting agricultural innovationprocesses. They can play the boundary spanning role and help link farmers to various technical andnon-technical services and markets. They are the major conduits for knowledge sharing.There is a large amount of literature that has been and is being generated in this field of inquiry.This source book, a joint effort of ILRI and IFPRI/ISNAR, compiles available and recent literature ondevelopments in the agricultural extension approaches and practice, mainly focusing on developingcountries. This will help both practitioners and students of extension to access knowledge regardingvarious changes in various parts of the world and help learning from these experiences.I congratulate the authors for their dedicated efforts in bringing out this volume and contributors whosework shaped this piece. We have no doubt it will be of immense use to policy analysts, policymakers,and the research and development community at large.Carlos SeréAberra Deressav
PrefaceThis source book is a product of joint activity between ILRI–IPMS project, CaSt and IFPRI–ISNAR. It wasdeveloped to address the felt needs of practitioners, students and researchers in the area of agriculturalextension to have a compilation of available literature on developments in concepts and practice ofagricultural extension in developing countries.Agricultural sector in the developing world is changing rapidly and is driven by a number of externaland global factors. The challenges the sector is facing are ever increasing and becoming morecomplex. Consequently, the demands placed on extension services which have a crucial role to play inpromoting agricultural innovation to keep pace with the changing context and improve livelihoods ofthe dependent poor, have also increased manifold. A number of innovative approaches and methodshave been tried in various developing country contexts in agricultural extension, to transform thesystem and to capacitate them to respond to the demands and challenges. This source book bringstogether these various experiences and developments in thinking, to facilitate learning and use bypractitioners and students.The first chapter outlines the emerging challenges faced by agricultural R&D sectors and how paradigmsare evolving in response to these changes and challenges. The second chapter traces the evolutionof agricultural extension thinking and practice. It highlights some generic problems faced at variousstages of evolution and approaches to address them. It highlights the factors identified in literature ascontributing to successful knowledge dissemination processes and creating higher access to clientsto the services. While reflecting on the challenges and opportunities, the chapter also explores thepossible future of extension services in developing countries.The third chapter gives an account of the various extension models, approaches and methods that havebeen tried out in developing countries and the experiences. The chapter concludes with the transitionbeing made to agricultural innovation systems from Research & Extension systems and highlights therole of extension services in this context. Chapter four highlights the importance of farmer groups inproviding effective extension services and promoting innovation. It explains in detail the processes,approaches and methods involved in group formation and development, management, performanceassessment and, monitoring and evaluation.Chapter five lists and describes in detail the various tools and methods used in participatory research anddevelopment processes. Chapter six focuses on the very important issues of Monitoring and Evaluationas systems for learning and for facilitating reflective action cycles. The importance of participatoryapproaches in M&E, process monitoring and outcome mapping are highlighted.This book can be used by students and practitioners of extension, researchers and decision-makers.This is a collation of knowledge regarding the practice of extension and is not intended to be used asa recipe or blue print. Based on the context and the requirement, the approaches and tools should beselected, adapted and used. There is a built-in flexibility that would allow the user to employ his/herexperience, creativity and imagination in adapting and using the approaches and tools described inthis source book.The authors encourage the readers to provide feedback and constructive comments for furtherdevelopment of this source book. Your inputs are very much appreciated.Authorsvi
Page 1 and 2: www.ipms-ethiopia.orgConcepts and p
Page 3 and 4: Authors’ affiliationsAnandajayase
Page 5: 5.5 Actor analysis 1895.6 Participa
Page 9 and 10: civil society, farmer organizations
Page 11 and 12: Table 1.1. Key features of paradigm
Page 13 and 14: farmers analyse, choose, experiment
Page 15 and 16: experimentations are conducted with
Page 17 and 18: Steps/participants Objectives Activ
Page 19 and 20: Action research not only enables th
Page 21 and 22: 3. From research findings to tentat
Page 23 and 24: that governs the way these interact
Page 25 and 26: improvement to enhance supply chain
Page 27 and 28: often managing a ‘portfolio’ of
Page 29 and 30: Figure 1.7. An example from the fur
Page 31 and 32: go for each value—with added comp
Page 33 and 34: 1.3.10 Positive devianceThis is a n
Page 35 and 36: Hall A and Nahdy S. 1999. New metho
Page 37 and 38: 2 The past, present and future of e
Page 39 and 40: they were geared to production and
Page 41 and 42: the basic premise of T&V was traini
Page 43 and 44: some reforms, especially in Latin A
Page 45 and 46: Complexity: Involves the diverse so
Page 47 and 48: is further aggravated by difficulti
Page 49 and 50: - Decentralization is the transfer
Page 51 and 52: • In situations where farming is
Page 53 and 54: • Coupons to agricultural bank lo
Page 55 and 56: Privatization has been attempted by
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Thus, inter-connectivity is closely
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departments, foreign and local data
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information on agricultural practic
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among field professionals. Similar
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• Linkages and support—resource
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Outside interventions normally inte
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In many cases potential partners al
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towards sustainability, extension i
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• Taking some risks by including
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communities understand their person
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intensive organization, which is in
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In addition, the competitive intere
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• The extension service’s oppor
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Ameur C. 1994. Agricultural extensi
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Mulhall A and Garforth C. 2000. Equ
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Zijp W. 1998. Extension: Empowermen
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MethodsMethods refer to the techniq
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extension agent responsible for dif
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deprived and the excluded in terms
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the community’s own facilitators.
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underestimation of the great comple
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International development agenciesa
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• The performance of researchers'
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3.3.3 Commodity extension modelThis
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3.3.5 NGO (international and local)
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public demand for change, many indi
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Usually decisions have to be made c
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• The most important factor is th
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Bennet C. 1990. Cooperative extensi
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4 Group formation and management fo
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• Farmer or producer organization
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• Research induced FRGs potential
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• Other activities that are not d
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a group does not guarantee equal ac
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4.4.3 Groups as individual enhancem
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that FGs can be effective mechanism
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Experience in Tanzania revealed adv
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organizations are registered under
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of groups is a process that both gr
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• set SMART objectives to fulfill
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Table 4.1. Stages in the group deve
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Stage Purpose Behavioural patterns
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2. Formulation of group goals and o
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positions, members need to understa
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It is very important that all those
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Leadership style Characteristics of
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In discussing bad leadership with g
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iv. Withdrawing: acting bored and i
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• be a good listener and monitor
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A template for work plan is provide
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Logical Framework (Project Planning
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All groups want to succeed in their
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MotivationMotivation can simply be
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eflections on the life of the group
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At point A both conflict and perfor
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List all problem areas• Prioritiz
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2. Mapping of group structureOne vi
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Asgelil D and Tekalign M. 2001. Cli
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Rural Development Committee monogra
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Participatory Learning and Action (
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Box 5.1. Tools and techniques used
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5.2.3 Formal/verification surveyAlt
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3. Define and understand the local
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problems and opportunities. A trans
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5.2.11 Venn diagram/’chapati’ d
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This may also yield valuable inform
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Key questions on benefits• What b
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Table 5.5. Format for the Stakehold
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Co-operativeFarmerResearchExtension
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5.5.3 Actor determinant diagramThis
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NAR S to developc apac ity in P R A
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The tools discussed in this section
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• Specify what, when, who, how et
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eflection;• Action: the process a
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2. Ranking. A method of ranking can
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are out of the control of farmers m
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Figure 5.19. Example of participato
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Figure 5.21. Example of a resource
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5.9.2 Implementing PRCAPRCA uses PR
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• Idioms, and existing/new images
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• Systems thinkingSituations are
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5.11 Participatory Extension Approa
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During implementation, new question
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Purpose of community mobilizationCo
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Step 2: Identifying potential leade
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Step 9: Implementing selected proje
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• Aim for a comprehensive respons
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Bianchi RR and Kossoudji SA. 2001.
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4. Information storage, whether man
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Evaluation in general addresses fou
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6.1.4 ImpactThe term ‘impact’ m
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Box 6.2. Types of research outputTh
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quantitative methods. Retrospective
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Table 6.1. Impact types, techniques
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However, the ARR measure is not alw
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2. It can contribute to the develop
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evaluation. The evaluators collect
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In order to make this step particip
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• The third style is when the eva
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attributes, traits or characteristi
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• Experience suggests that it is
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This means that:- Inaccurate observ
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is appropriate, such as tables, gra
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• Looks at both internal and exte
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• It is useful for process monito
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• What information do we need and
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Who? Which provides the partners, s
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www.ilri.orgISBN 92-9146-234-9
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