Concepts and practices in agricultural extension in developing ...

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1 Agricultural research and development (R&D)systems: Challenges and changing paradigms1.1 Introduction1.2 The reform agenda and emerging challenges1.3 Paradigm shifts in agricultural R&D1.1 IntroductionIn a rapidly changing world, food and agricultural innovation systems in developing countries are facingnew and increasingly complex challenges. Fighting poverty, ensuring food and nutrition security whileprotecting the environment still remains a major challenge facing global development practitionerstoday. New mechanisms to foster development and diffusion of innovation are needed to strengthenthe ways in which information, knowledge and technology are developed and disseminated to ensurethat the global changes benefit smallholder farmers, food insecure households and other vulnerablegroups.The scientific methods of experimentation and discovery have not changed since the 19 th century,nor will they change. However, the environment in which discovery and innovation occurs changesconstantly and this influences the organization and social process of innovation. The Researchand Development (R&D) community responds to the changing needs and emerging challenges bydeveloping innovative tools and approaches. Since the introduction of technology transfer model, theR&D arena in the developing world has seen a number of paradigm shifts. In this chapter an attempt ismade to briefly describe these concepts so that the R&D practitioners can comprehensively internalizethe desirable features of these concepts in designing the future policies strategies and programs.Over the years the R&D system has been testing, adopting and adapting a number of concepts andprocedures to make it relevant, effective and efficient. Some of these concepts include: FarmingSystems Approach; Participatory Research Methods; National Agricultural Research Institutes (NARIs);National Systems Framework (NSF) including National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), NationalAgricultural Extension System (NAES) and National Agricultural Education and Training System(NAETS); Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems (AKIS); Agricultural Innovation Systems(AIS); Rural Livelihoods; Agri-Food Chain/value chain; Knowledge Quadrangle; Action Research;Agricultural Research for Development (ARD); Doubly green revolution and Rainbow revolution; andPositive Deviance. These concepts are briefly discussed in this chapter to understand the contemporaryperspectives and their evolution with respect to agricultural R&D systems.1.2 The reform agenda and emerging challengesThe policy and institutional context in which agricultural research and innovation occurs has changeddramatically. Rapid changes continue to take place in the structure and authority of governments, theglobal economy, the structure of the farming sector and in the global and local food industries andretail businesses. The institutional landscape is also changing dramatically. The ‘third parties’ (such as1
civil society, farmer organizations and NGOs) are increasingly playing an important role in agriculturalR&D. Cross sectoral linkages between agriculture and other sectors (such as water, health, energyand education) are becoming increasingly important. The agricultural sector is expected to play asignificant role in poverty alleviation and food and nutrition security, while protecting the environment.Research and support services are now inextricably linked to the broader development questions. Withreduced funding support, the agricultural R&D system is now forced to face questions on its continuingrelevance, approaches, accountability and impact.Since independence from colonial powers, most developing country research and extension managershave been forced to grapple simultaneously with five complex transitions which ultimately willinfluence the productivity and sustainability of the R&D system. These are:• Managerial transition—from colonial to local research and extension administrators;• Scientific transition—from expatriate to national scientists;• Financial transition—from dependence on financial support from colonial governments and largescalefarmers to mobilizing support from national governments, donors and beneficiaries;• Political transition—from commercial farms to smallholders to private research and extension; and• New forms of public–private–civil society research–extension partnerships.At present the three core institutions in the agricultural knowledge triangle—research, extension andhigher education—have been downsized and restructured and new private institutions are now in stiffcompetition with their public counterparts.In most developing countries, the public sector agricultural R&D system has been characterized bybuild up of research personnel, declining levels of operating resources per researchers and growingreliance on donor funds. Today most NARIs are constrained by recruitment freezes or lack of finance tohire new staff or retain existing staff (inadequate support, low pay); budgets highly committed to staffsalaries and benefits, i.e. existing establishment costs; budgetary constraints that focus on short-termactivities, geographical areas and limited number of commodities; and lack of strong national or ruraldevelopment policies in favour of resource-poor smallholders and sustainability.Recent studies (Biggs and Smith 1998; Hall and Nahdy 1999; Ashby et al. 2000; Chema et al. 2003)show that many organizations, especially publicly funded agencies dealing with agricultural R&D indeveloping countries are facing a crisis of confidence among key stakeholders due to:• lack of strategic planning that indicates future directions• inward looking attitudes• poor participation and cooperation of end-users in research activities• inadequate monitoring and evaluation systems• top-heavy, bureaucratic procedures• insufficient resources for effective implementation of priority research• lack of effective external linkages and• lack of evaluation and performance culture.This crisis has been found to result in organizational inefficiencies, lack of adequate stakeholderparticipation and responsiveness, decreasing investor confidence, inadequate staff motivation andmorale, limited research and service outputs, limited uptake and utilization of research findings and a‘brain-drain’ from the public sector.The reform agenda within the R&D arena includes: redefinition of the role of government in agricultural2
Page 1 and 2: www.ipms-ethiopia.orgConcepts and p
Page 3 and 4: Authors’ affiliationsAnandajayase
Page 5 and 6: 5.5 Actor analysis 1895.6 Participa
Page 7: PrefaceThis source book is a produc
Page 11 and 12: Table 1.1. Key features of paradigm
Page 13 and 14: farmers analyse, choose, experiment
Page 15 and 16: experimentations are conducted with
Page 17 and 18: Steps/participants Objectives Activ
Page 19 and 20: Action research not only enables th
Page 21 and 22: 3. From research findings to tentat
Page 23 and 24: that governs the way these interact
Page 25 and 26: improvement to enhance supply chain
Page 27 and 28: often managing a ‘portfolio’ of
Page 29 and 30: Figure 1.7. An example from the fur
Page 31 and 32: go for each value—with added comp
Page 33 and 34: 1.3.10 Positive devianceThis is a n
Page 35 and 36: Hall A and Nahdy S. 1999. New metho
Page 37 and 38: 2 The past, present and future of e
Page 39 and 40: they were geared to production and
Page 41 and 42: the basic premise of T&V was traini
Page 43 and 44: some reforms, especially in Latin A
Page 45 and 46: Complexity: Involves the diverse so
Page 47 and 48: is further aggravated by difficulti
Page 49 and 50: - Decentralization is the transfer
Page 51 and 52: • In situations where farming is
Page 53 and 54: • Coupons to agricultural bank lo
Page 55 and 56: Privatization has been attempted by
Page 57 and 58: Thus, inter-connectivity is closely
Page 59 and 60:
departments, foreign and local data
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information on agricultural practic
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among field professionals. Similar
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• Linkages and support—resource
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Outside interventions normally inte
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In many cases potential partners al
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towards sustainability, extension i
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• Taking some risks by including
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communities understand their person
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intensive organization, which is in
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In addition, the competitive intere
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• The extension service’s oppor
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Ameur C. 1994. Agricultural extensi
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Mulhall A and Garforth C. 2000. Equ
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Zijp W. 1998. Extension: Empowermen
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MethodsMethods refer to the techniq
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extension agent responsible for dif
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deprived and the excluded in terms
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the community’s own facilitators.
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underestimation of the great comple
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International development agenciesa
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• The performance of researchers'
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3.3.3 Commodity extension modelThis
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3.3.5 NGO (international and local)
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public demand for change, many indi
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Usually decisions have to be made c
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• The most important factor is th
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Bennet C. 1990. Cooperative extensi
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4 Group formation and management fo
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• Farmer or producer organization
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• Research induced FRGs potential
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• Other activities that are not d
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a group does not guarantee equal ac
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4.4.3 Groups as individual enhancem
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that FGs can be effective mechanism
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Experience in Tanzania revealed adv
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organizations are registered under
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of groups is a process that both gr
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• set SMART objectives to fulfill
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Table 4.1. Stages in the group deve
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Stage Purpose Behavioural patterns
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2. Formulation of group goals and o
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positions, members need to understa
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It is very important that all those
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Leadership style Characteristics of
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In discussing bad leadership with g
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iv. Withdrawing: acting bored and i
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• be a good listener and monitor
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A template for work plan is provide
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Logical Framework (Project Planning
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All groups want to succeed in their
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MotivationMotivation can simply be
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eflections on the life of the group
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At point A both conflict and perfor
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List all problem areas• Prioritiz
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2. Mapping of group structureOne vi
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Asgelil D and Tekalign M. 2001. Cli
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Rural Development Committee monogra
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Participatory Learning and Action (
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Box 5.1. Tools and techniques used
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5.2.3 Formal/verification surveyAlt
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3. Define and understand the local
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problems and opportunities. A trans
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5.2.11 Venn diagram/’chapati’ d
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This may also yield valuable inform
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Key questions on benefits• What b
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Table 5.5. Format for the Stakehold
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Co-operativeFarmerResearchExtension
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5.5.3 Actor determinant diagramThis
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NAR S to developc apac ity in P R A
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The tools discussed in this section
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• Specify what, when, who, how et
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eflection;• Action: the process a
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2. Ranking. A method of ranking can
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are out of the control of farmers m
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Figure 5.19. Example of participato
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Figure 5.21. Example of a resource
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5.9.2 Implementing PRCAPRCA uses PR
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• Idioms, and existing/new images
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• Systems thinkingSituations are
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5.11 Participatory Extension Approa
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During implementation, new question
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Purpose of community mobilizationCo
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Step 2: Identifying potential leade
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Step 9: Implementing selected proje
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• Aim for a comprehensive respons
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Bianchi RR and Kossoudji SA. 2001.
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4. Information storage, whether man
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Evaluation in general addresses fou
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6.1.4 ImpactThe term ‘impact’ m
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Box 6.2. Types of research outputTh
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quantitative methods. Retrospective
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Table 6.1. Impact types, techniques
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However, the ARR measure is not alw
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2. It can contribute to the develop
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evaluation. The evaluators collect
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In order to make this step particip
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• The third style is when the eva
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attributes, traits or characteristi
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• Experience suggests that it is
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This means that:- Inaccurate observ
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is appropriate, such as tables, gra
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• Looks at both internal and exte
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• It is useful for process monito
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• What information do we need and
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Who? Which provides the partners, s
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www.ilri.orgISBN 92-9146-234-9
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