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As the service-learning movement has evolved, many proponents are defining greater nuances between kinds of service experience, levels of student responsibility, scale of issues addressed, learning outcomes sought, and the impact of engagement on community partners. The differentiation was driven by a concern for both academic rigor and community empowerment. In 2003, Caryn McTighe Musil sought to capture the phases of the emerging servicelearning landscape as it began to differentiate among various program designs, to identify the knowledge needed, and to clarify the impact on the community (see fig. 7 below). Service learning has shown positive effects on learning outcomes associated with “complexity of understanding, problem analysis, critical thinking, and cognitive development” (Eyler et al. 2001, 4). It has also had significant impact on students’ intrapersonal and social development including “personal effcacy, personal identity, spiritual growth, and moral development” (1). Further studies show positive outcomes associated with “cultural awareness, tolerance for diversity, altruistic attitudes, moral development, sensitivity and reasoning, and self-esteem” (Finley 2012). The study by Figure 7: The Faces/Phases of Citizenship FACE/PHASE COMMUNITY IS… CIVIC SCOPE LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE BENEFITS… Exclusionary only your own civic disengagement • one vantage point (yours) one party • monocultural Oblivious a resource to mine civic detachment • observational skills one party • largely monocultural naive a resource to engage civic amnesia • no history random people • no vantage point • acultural Charitable a resource that needs civic altruism • awareness of deprivations the givers’ assistance • affective kindliness and respect feelings, the • multicultural, but yours is still the sufferers’ norm center immediate needs Reciprocal a resource to empower civic engagement • legacies of inequalities society as a whole and be empowered by • values of partnering in the present • intercultural competencies • arts of democracy • multiple vantage points • multicultural Generative an interdependent civic prosperity • struggles for democracy everyone now and resource filled with • interconnectedness in the future possibilities • analysis of interlocking systems • intercultural competencies • arts of democracy • multiple interactive vantage points • multicultural Source: Adapted from Musil 2003. 60
Engberg and Fox (2011) links involvement in service learning to global perspective taking with positive relationships across cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal domains. Other studies link service learning with civic learning outcomes that demonstrate effcacy: increasing students’ sense of social responsibility and citizenship skills such as religious and racial tolerance, prosocial decision making, and exploring the intersections between identity and privilege (Eyler et al. 2001; Lechuga et al. 2009); the ability to work well with others; leadership and communication skills; and, importantly, a sense of being able to effect change in their community (Gallini and Moely 2003; Rockquemore and Schaffer 2000). In the next generation’s development of service learning—in terms of achieving greater impact within higher education itself—center directors, faculty, students, and community leaders should correlate the different servicelearning courses with specific outcomes; create introductory, milestone, and cumulative levels for service-learning projects; and make differentiation transparent to students and faculty alike. Likewise, center directors, faculty, student affairs professionals, and students should coordinate regularly to mirror the newly clarified course distinctions with a similarly progressive and differentiated set of civic outcomes within student life programs. Finally, academic administrators and faculty should adopt promotion and tenure criteria that recognize the scholarly and pedagogical value of investments in service learning and other pedagogies that foster civic development. While service-learning research initially focused on its impact on students, there is a now an emerging body of literature on its impact on the community. Similarly, service-learning programs have amassed greater understandings about how to establish more democratic, participatory, and reciprocal partnerships. This aspect of community-based learning is influencing the scope and design of the frontier work expressed in transformative partnerships and alliances discussed later in this chapter. Other studies link service learning with civic learning outcomes that demonstrate effcacy: increasing students’ sense of social responsibility and citizenship skills such as religious and racial tolerance, prosocial decision making, and exploring the intersections between identity and privilege; the ability to work well with others; leadership and communication skills; and, importantly, a sense of being able to effect change in their community. 3. Collective Civic Problem Solving The third civic pedagogy we highlight is collective civic problem solving. Though a burgeoning arena of practice and scholarship, it has not had time to produce the rich body of evidence about its impact on students and communities that service learning has accumulated. Civic problem solving certainly builds on the foundations that dialogue and service learning have already laid; yet it seeks to delineate a new conceptual framework for civic work. Saltmarsh and Hartley describe the context in which civic problem solving is taking root. They themselves call for moving from a civicengagement framework to a democratic-engagement paradigm. They assert that a democratic-engagement paradigm leads to a focus on purpose and process rather than activity and place. They explain: Democratic engagement locates the university within an ecosystem of knowledge production, requiring interaction with other knowledge producers outside the university for the creation of new problem solving knowledge through a multidirectional flow of knowledge and A CRUCIBLE MOMENT: College Learning & Democracy’s Future 61
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Foreword W “A socially cohesive a
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the Catalysts for Producing A Cruci
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National Task Force on Civic Learni
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About AAC&U The Association of Amer
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