Research Journal of Social Science & Management - RJSSM - The ...

Table of Contents 

Articles-HR 

A STUDY ON FACTORS FOR ATTRACTING AND RETAINING TALENTED WORKFORCE IN EDUCATIONAL 

INSTITUTIONS 

Indradevi Balasundaram 

“DRIVE ENGINEERING EDUCATION TOWARDS BETTER EMPLOYABILITY – NEED OF THE HOUR 

Venkatesh Rajagopala Setty Belagodu, Dr. Radha S 

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS IN HOTEL OF TWO DIFFERENT COUNTRIES- INDIA & 

JUFFAIR 

Gunjan Garg, Dr Daleep Parimoo 

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: RECENT TRENDS CHANGING THE WAY OF BUSINESS 

Madala Subba Rao, R. SRINIVASULU 

A STUDY ON EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT IN MANUFACTURING MICRO, SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES 

(MSMEs) IN INDIA 

Ravikumar Thangaraj 

Articles-Finance 

A STUDY OF HIGH LEVELS OF NON-PERFORMING –ASSETS, CONSTRAIN LOWER INTEREST RATE IN INDIA 

Tanmaya kumar pradhan 

Articles-Marketing 

INFLUENCE OF PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE, EASY AVAILABILITY AND LOW PRICE ON CONSUMERS’ ATTITUDES 

AND BUYING BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS NON-DECEPTIVE COUNTERFEIT PRODUCTS 

salih kheiralla hussein, Dr. Venkatram 

INTROSPECTING THE MOTIVATIONAL PROPELLERS IN CLASS ATTENDANCE IN THE UNDERGRADUATE AND 

POST GRADUATE COLLEGES OF WB 

Subrata Chattopadhyay, Prasanta Guha 

ANTECEDENTS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS AMONG RURAL WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS: A STUDY ON THE 

SHG LINKED MICRO-ENTERPRISES 

Ms.S. Sangeetha, Chitra K 

IMPACT OF DEMOGRAPHY ON CONSUMERS’ PREFERENCE TOWARDS STORE BRANDS IN BIG BAZAAR, 

BANGALORE 

Pritom Bordoloi 

BRAND AWARENESS: A SALIENT ELEMENT IN PURCHASE DECISIONS 

Prabhjot Kaur, Malvika Agarwal 

INDIAN RURAL TELECOM MARKET OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES 

Swati Arora Shrivastava 

Articles-Others 

ASSESSMENT OF SOME FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EMPOWERMENT AND DEVELOPMENT GAP OF WOMEN 

IN THREE EAST AFRICAN COUNTRIES 

Rocky Rajabu Juma Akarro, Diana Focus Kimario, Amina Suleiman Msengwa 

SELF-EXPLORATION & INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS IN INDIA 

Dr. Abhishek Gupta 

TACKLING HUMAN INFERTILITY: ZIMBABWE'S SHONA TRADITIONAL AND CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES. 

George Alex Muchinako

GRAFFITTI: DEVIANCE OR A SIGH OF AND FOR SUPPRESSED EXPRESSIONS? 

George Alex Muchinako, Abel Blessing Matsika, Mary Muchinako 

TEACHER PREPARATION TOWARDS THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NATIONAL SCHOOL HEALTH POLICY 

(NSHP) FOR NIGERIA PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

oyerinde Olufemi Oyesegun, Olaitan Lanre O., Dominic Leah O. 

PORTRAYALS OF ASIAN AMERICANS IN MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS, 1955-1975:THE IMPACT OF THE1965 

IMMIGRATION ACT IN THE USA 

Daechun An 

IMPACT OF ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE ON JOB SATISFACTION OF DOCTORS IN HOSPITALS OF ANDHRA 

PRADESH INDIA 

Rathna Lakshmi Koti Akula, Sreenivas Talluri 

E-PARTICIPATION IN URBAN INDIA- CASE OF STATE OF WEST BENGAL 

Mithun Barua 

AN OUTLINE OF TAXATION SCENARIO- IN REALM OF INDIAN PERCEPTIVE 

B. SUMATHISRI 

ADAPTATION INITIATIVE IN AGROSILVO ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIVATELY OWNED FOREST ON 

SERAYU UPSTREAM WATERSHED 

Muhammad Zainal Arifin, Prijono Tjiptoherijanto, San Afri Awang, Jatna Supriatna 

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN TEHMINA DURRANI'S MY FEUDAL LORD 

Vijay Kumar Mehta 

GLOBALIZATION AND THE RISING INFLUENCE OF CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS IN AFRICA 

Ukertor Gabriel Moti 

ROLE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF TEXTILE FINISHES. 

Mehreen Ijaz 

AN OVERVIEW OF FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTY TAX REVENUE GENERATION IN LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN 

MALAYSIA 

AKILU MUHAMMAD UMAR 

Case Studies 

AN INVESTIGATION INTO SOME PRAGMATIC AND CULTURAL PROBLEMS IN TRANSLATING ARABIC 

IMPLICATURE INTO ENGLISH : A CASE STUDY OF JARADAT’S “ HABILAT BISHRA” . 

Muntaha Samardali, Muntaha al-Momani, Amal kitishat

Assessment of Some Factors Associated With Empowerment and Development 

Gap of Women in Three East African Countries 

Rocky R.J. Akarro (Ph.D) 

Professor, Department of Statistics 

University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35047 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Email : akarror@gmail.com 

Diana Focus Kimario (M.A) 

Senior Statistician, Department of Policy and Planning 

Ministry of Water, United Republic of Tanzania, P.O. Box 9153 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Email: focus.diana@gmail.com 

Amina S Msengwa 

Department of Statistics, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35047 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Email : msengwaa@yahoo.com 

Abstract 

An assessment of factors that explain more about women empowerment and measure the 

development gap between them in three East African countries namely Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda 

is presented using IPUMS 2002/2003 database. The data on responses from these surveys provided a 

set of representative population based estimates of social indicators by 2002/2003. The value of 

Kaiser Meyer –Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s test of sampling adequacy for these countries indicated 

factor analysis to be of good fit. Using Principal Component method, communalities which had 

extractions values greater than 0.5 were obtained indicating that the components represented 

significant variables. Factors formed with their corresponding variables and the total cumulative 

percentage of the variance which explained development of women empowerment in Tanzania was 

72.299 percent followed by Uganda 68.735 percent and Rwanda 48.99 percent. The findings show 

there were no common variables to measure women's development gap in these countries. 

Key words: Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, development, factor analysis 

Introduction 

Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda being among the developing countries, are implementing several 

programs aimed at empowering women of which government and NGOs are implementing bodies. 

The past three decades have witnessed a steadily increasing awareness of the importance of women 

empowerment through different measures as economic, political participation, broader access to 

fundamental human rights, improvements in nutrition, basic health and education. The expectation of 

these programs is to give women new skills and extend their ability to make informed choices, and 

bring significant changes to the ways women perceive themselves and their responsibilities at large 

within home. However, on the other hand the empowerment will act like a catalyst on women's 

development. 

Woman empowerment is a multi-dimensional process which intersects the woman’s personal, family, 

social, cultural, economic and political space. Moreover, it is a latent variable that along with its 

components cannot be directly observed or measured. Furthermore, many projects and programmes 

which advocate the empowerment of women show little if any evidence of attempts even to define 

what this means in their own context let alone evaluate whether and to what extent they have 

succeeded. To be empowered one must have been disempowered, also empowerment cannot be 

presented by the third party. What government and different NGOs do is to facilitate empowerment. 

All they can do is to create the preferred conditions for empowerment but not make it happen. 

www.theinternationaljournal.org > RJSSM: Volume: 03, Number: 03, July-2013 Page 1

Therefore empowerment usually includes a sense of people (in this case women) making decision on 

matters which are important in their lives and being able to carry them so that women empowerment 

can be measured through women themselves. Hence empowerment is an ongoing process rather than a 

product. 

Development on the other hand refers to the adoption of new technologies, transition from agriculturebased 

to industry-based economy, and general improvement in living standards. The Human 

Development Report (HDR 1995) has consistently defined the basic objective of the Development as 

enlarging people's choices at the heart of the following essential components, the equality of 

opportunity for all people in society; sustainability of such opportunities from one generation to the 

next and empowerment of people so that they participate in-and benefit from-development processes. 

When posing women development we refer as being managed to empower themselves and break 

through customs and norms having an income to which it supports the family at large. If development 

is meant to widen opportunities for all people, then continuing exclusion of women from many 

opportunities of life totally twists the process of development 

The Human Development Index (HDI) measures three indicators, life expectancy signifying long and 

health life; education attainment representing knowledge and lastly GDP which represents standard of 

living. According to UNDP the HDI below 0.5 is said to be the minimum level of development and the 

three countries are falling under that level. From 2002 to 2010 the HDIs for Tanzania, Uganda and 

Rwanda is as shown in the Table 1 below. 

Table 1 Human Development Indices from 2002/2010 

Country 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

Rwanda 0.301 0.308 0.320 0.334 0.344 0.355 0.373 0.379 0.385 

Tanzania 0.347 0.354 0.361 0.370 0.375 0.379 0.386 0.392 0.398 

Uganda 0.365 0.373 0.375 0.380 0.388 0.398 0.408 0.416 0.422 

Source UNDP 2010 

Since empowerment cannot easily be measured then development can only be measured according 

to carefully selected variables. We cannot talk about development without poverty since these two 

go hand in hand. Poverty is a gendered related phenomenon, and that women are 

disproportionately more numbered among those in extreme poverty. The World Bank has 

identified empowerment as one of the key constituent elements of poverty reduction, and as a 

primary development assistance goal. The Bank has also made gender mainstreaming a priority in 

development assistance, and is in the process of implementing an ambitious strategy to this effect. 

Hence Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda being among developing countries will be on advantageous 

position since it will be directly touching household level. Based on the good initiative of the 

programs from these countries this study aims to investigate and assess factors or variables which 

have significant impact on women’s development. Also, it will assess to what extent does each of 

these significant factors contribute to or affect the women's development in the three East African 

countries. The factors to be assessed are shown in Table 2. 

Definitions of the Variables/Factors 

In this study the variables to be used are defined in Table 2 below. The choice and categorization of 

these variables were based on past studies done by other scholars such as (Sen and Grown, 1987); 

(Johan, 1995) and (Kumar, 1993) amongst many others. The variables were found to be significant in 

explaining empowerment and development of the women. 

Table 2 Variables Used 

Variables Indicators for Empowerment 

Education: 

1 Level of literacy age 15 + : ability to read and write. 

Educational attainment: women aged 15 + who completed different levels of education (primary, 

2 

secondary and university/college completed). 


Health: 

3 Number of children : number of own children in household 

4 Age : women above 15 age 

Living conditions: 

5 Urban : women who live in urban or rural areas 

6 Water supply: having access to piped water 

7 Electricity: women with household having electricity connections 

8 Toilet: household with improved sanitation (flush toilets or other type of toilet) 

9 Number of rooms: counting numbers of rooms in the household 

10 Employment status: women who are employed/unemployed with salary 

Empowerment Perception of Development 

1 Education: the country with higher rate of women who are educated then are more empowered 

2 Health : satisfaction with well being of women, having a small number of children in a family 

3 Living condition: satisfaction with living conditions. 

Materials and Methods 

Types of Data 

The study used secondary data from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, (IPUMS) International by 

employing ‘Tanzania Household Budget Survey’ 2002/03; ‘Rwanda Household Budget Survey’ 

2002/03 and ‘Uganda Household Budget Survey’ 2002/03. A same year data base was used for 

consistency in the assessments. Both surveys provided a set of representative, population-based 

estimates of social indicators by 2002/03 with an exception of Uganda’s survey which had comprised 

the agriculture module. 

Sampling Design and Sampling Unit 

The ultimate sampling unit for 2002/03 Surveys from Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda is the 

household/dwelling. However, the questionnaires were administered to one among the household 

members who was considered to be eligible in providing the required information. 

Study Population 

The study population of interest used in these surveys is the normal one used for all household based 

surveys which are the households. Therefore, the sampling frame of 2002/03 Tanzania Household 

Budget Survey contains a list of all households that were present in Tanzania mainland when the 

survey was done. With different population size where the sample size (person records) were 

3,732,735; IPUMS drew a systematic two-third subsample to reduce the original dataset from 15% to 

10% in Tanzania. Also the system provides data from the 2002 Uganda Population and Housing 

Census (with agricultural module). A 10% systematic sample of questionnaire records (households and 

institutions) was taken with sample size (person records) of 2,497,449. Rwanda census was IIIème 

Recensement Général de la Population et de l’Habitat, 16-30 août 2002. A systematic sample of every 

10th dwelling with a random start was drawn from the Minnesota Population Center with sample size 

(person records) of 843,392. 

Sampling Procedure 

The sampling procedure which was used to select the households was a stratified multi-stage cluster 

sampling with probability proportional to size. Stratification was done according to districts and ruralurban 

location and then two stages were employed for selecting units which were enumeration areas in 

the first stage and households in the second stage. Enumeration areas were selected with probability 

proportional to size while households were selected systematically within each selected enumeration 

area. For the details of the data collection procedures visit htpp://www.ipums.org. 

Data Analysis 

Data analysis has been done using SPSS whereby multivariate techniques were utilized to analyze data 

from IPUMS. Specifically a multivariate analysis in the form of Factor Analysis (FA) and Principal 

Component Analysis (PCA) were employed. During the analysis data reduction of the variables which 

contributed little (in terms of percentage) to affect the population was done. It involved a set of 


correlated variables transformed into a set of uncorrelated variables called Principal Component (PC) 

that were ordered by reducing variability. The main use of PCA was to reduce the dimensionality of 

the variables data set while retaining as much information as possible (Johnson and Wichern, 1992). 

Further the analysis performed reconstruction which is typically defined in terms of prediction of the 

correlation matrix of the original variables. 

Factor Analysis (FA) 

Factor Analysis can be considered as the extension of the PCA. It reduces the number of variables in 

an analysis by describing linear combinations of the variables that contain most of the information and 

that, we hope, admit meaningful interpretations. FA originated with the work of Spearman (1904). 

Since then its application has been in the social sciences and, interestingly, in chemo-metrics. There 

are two types of FA which are exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. The explanation here is 

based mostly on Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) since is the method which this paper uses for the 

analysis. 

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) 

This has been divided into two types namely Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) whereby it analyzes only 

the variance in the items that is shared with other items. That's why the communalities will be less 

than 1 (they represent the proportion of variance in an item explained by the other items). The other 

type of EFA is Principal Components (PC) whereby it analyzes all the variance in the items. That's 

why the communalities are all 1 representing 100% of the variance of each item being included in the 

analysis. PC is generally considered the best method for the practical purposes of data reduction. Data 

reduction means that the goal is to simplify, by summarizing the variance associated with many items 

down to a few factors (for example from say 30 items down to, say, 5 factors). The most common 

method used in this study for determining a first set of loadings is the Principal Component (PC) 

method. This method seeks values of the loadings that bring the estimate of the total communality as 

close as possible to the total of the observed variances. 

The Models Used in the Study 

Two models were used in this study, namely FA model and PCA model. They both work together to 

determine the factors which explained much about the development of women through empowerment 

and finally an assessment of the development gap among the women in the three countries enhanced. 

The Orthogonal Factor Model 

The observable random vector X with p components has mean µ and covariance matrix ∑. The factor 

model proposes that X is linearly dependent upon a few unobservable random variables F 1 , F 2 ,…..F m , 

called common factors, and p additional sources of variation 1 , 2 ,….. p , called errors or sometimes 

specific errors in particular the factor analysis model is: 

X 1 - µ 1 = l 11 F 1 + l 12 F 2 + ….. + l 1m F m + 1 

X 2 - µ 2 = l 21 F 1 + l 22 F 2 + …. + l 1m F m + 2 

. …………………………… (1) 

X p - µ p = l p1 F 1 + l p1 F 1 + l p2 F 2 + …. + l pm F m + p 

In matrix notation: 

X - µ = L (pxm) F (mx1) + (px1) ………………………………………….... (2) 

The coefficient l ij is called the loading of the i th variable on the j th factor, so the matrix L is the matrix 

of factor loadings. The i th specific source of error i is associated only with the ith response X i . The p 

deviations X 1 - µ 1 , X 2 - µ 2 , ..., X p - µ p are conveyed in terms of p + m random variables F 1 , F 2 ,…..,F m , 

1 , 2 ,……., p which are unobservable. 

With so many unobservable quantities from few observations X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,….,X p , there is need of some 

additional assumptions about the random vectors F and . It is noted that the model in (2) implies 

covariance relationships which can be checked. In particular we assume that: 

E(F) = 0 (mx1) , Cov(F) = E[FF′] = I (mxm) 

E( ) = 0 (px1) , Cov( ) = E[ ′] = Ψ (pxp) where Ψ is a diagonal matrix. 

Further it is assumed that F and are independent, so that 


Cov( ,F) = E( F′) = 0 (pxm) 

Orthogonal Factor Model with m Common Factors 

X (px1) = µ (px1) + L (pxm) F (mx1) + (px1) .................................................................. (3) 

µ i = mean of variable i 

i = ith specific factor 

F j = jth common factor 

l ij = loading of the ith variable on the jth factor 

The orthogonal factor model provides the covariance structure for X. By definition and using the 

model equation (3) we have 

∑ = Cov (X) = E (X - µ)(X - µ)′ 

= LE (FF′) L′ + E ( F′) L′ + LE (F ′) + ′ 

= LL′ + Ψ 

Also by independence, Cov ( F) =E ( F′) = 0 

Communalities 

The important assumption of linearity is inherent in the formulation of the factor model. Hence the 

portion of the variance of the i th variable contributed by the m common factors is called the i th 

communality denoted by Var (X i ) = δ ii. This introduces uniqueness in definition of t-he i th specific 

variance. Thus the δ ii is composed of two components as shown below. 

The i th communality denoted by h 2 i is given as 

δ ii = l 2 i1 + l 2 i2 + … + l 2 im + Ψ i 

and δ ii = h 2 i + Ψ i , where i = 1, 2, ….., p, h 2 i = l 2 i1 + l 2 i2 + ….. + l 2 im 

Principal Component Solution for the Factor Model 

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 

Principal component analysis (PCA) is commonly thought of as a statistical technique for data 

reduction. It helps to reduce the number of variables in an analysis by describing a series of 

uncorrelated linear combinations of the variables that contain most of the variance. PCA was 

introduced by Pearson (1901) and later developed by Hotelling (1933) who described the variation in a 

set of multivariate data in terms of a set of uncorrelated variables. 

The objective of PCA is to find unit-length linear combinations of the variables with the greatest 

variance. The first principal component has a maximal overall variance. The second principal 

component has maximal variance among all unit length linear combinations that are uncorrelated to the 

first principal component, etc. The last principal component has the smallest variance among all unit 

length linear combinations of the variables. All principal components combined contain the same 

information as the original variables, but the important information is partitioned over the components 

in a particular way such that the components are orthogonal, and earlier components contain more 

information than later components. PCA thus conceived is just a linear transformation of the data. 

The purpose of factor analysis is to describe the covariance relationship among many variables in 

terms of a few underlying on observable random quantity called factors. Now with the principal 

component factor analysis of the sample covariance matrix S is specified in terms of its eigenvalueeigenvector 

pairs (λ 1 , 1 ), (λ 2 , 2 ),.............. (λ p , p), where λ 1 ≥ λ 2 ≥ ....... ≥ λ p . Let m 

number of common factors. The principal component factor analysis of the sample correlation matrix 

is obtained by starting with R in the place of S, where R is the subset of S and of a full rank. For the 

principal component solution, the estimated loadings for a given factor do not change as the number of 

factors is increased. 

Rotating Factor Loadings 

The factor loadings are obtained from the initial loadings by an orthogonal transformation while 

retaining the same ability to reproduce the covariance (or correlation) matrix. An orthogonal 


transformation of the factor loadings, as well as the implied orthogonal transformation of the factors, is 

called Factor rotation. 

Suppose L is the p x m matrix of estimated factor loadings obtained by any method (principal 

component or maximum likelihood) but in this study we confine to principal component then: 

L* = LT where TT′ = T′T = I ................................................................. (4) 

where T is m x m the factor rotation matrix 

Hence equation (4) is a p x m matrix of rotated loadings. Moreover the estimated covariance (or 

correlation) matrix remains unchanged. Rotation modifies the results of the last factor to create a set of 

loadings that are more interpretable than those results produced by the factors. However, rotation will 

order the factors by the explained variance. The fact remains that the importance of any factor must 

guard against the number of variables that supposedly measure it. 

Results and Discussion 

KMO and Bartlett’s Test 

The study employed Kaiser Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s test to assess the strength of the 

relationship among variables. Large values of the KMO measure indicated that a factor analysis is a 

good fit. The measure of sampling adequacy is 0.705 for Tanzania, 0.695 for Uganda and 0.639 for 

Rwanda indicating the degree of common variance among the ten variables (see Table 3). Kaiser 

(1974) recommended accepting values greater than 0.5 as acceptable (value below this should lead you 

to either collect more data or rethink which variables to include). The value was large enough to carry 

out factor analysis of the data. 

Table 3 KMO and Bartlett’s Test 

Countries Tanzania Uganda Rwanda 

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.705 0.695 0.639 

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approximated Chi-Square 395400 170900 236900 

Degrees of freedom 45 45 45 

Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 

Bartlett’s test of Sphericity is another indicator of the strength of the relationship among variables that 

the population correlation matrix is uncorrelated. The observed significance level is 0.000. In this 

study there are 10 original variables, which are standardized to have a variance of a unit. The total 

variance will be 10 (summing up 10 variables) which is used as reference in calculating the percentage 

of the variance explained by each eigenvalue in factors. 

Correlation Matrix of the Variables 

The correlation matrix of n random variables X 1 ,................., X n is the n × n matrix whose i,j entry is 

corr (X i , X j ). If the measures of correlation used are product-moment coefficients, the correlation 

matrix is the same as the covariance matrix of the standardized random variables X i / σ (X i ) for i = 

1, ..., n. This applies to both the matrix of population correlations (in which case "σ" is the population 

standard deviation), and to the matrix of sample correlations (in which case "σ" denotes the sample 

standard deviation). Consequently, each is necessarily a matrix. The correlation matrix is symmetric 

because the correlation between X i and X j is the same as the correlation between X j and X i . The 

Pearson matrices are shown in Table 4 for Tanzania, Table 5 for Uganda and Table 6 for Rwanda. 

There are some variables which had the highest correlations compared to others for instance in 

Tanzania children number in a HH had .931 correlations with number of bedrooms/rooms. That is 

increasing the number of rooms resulted in the 93.1 percent of increasing a child in a family and vice 

versa. There are variables which had weak correlations with other parameters for instance children 

number in a HH had a 0.007 correlation with either a woman living in rural or urban area, as shown in 

Table 4. 


Table 4 Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Tanzania 

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

1.Urban-rural status 1 

2.Electricity - 1 

.328 ** 

3.Water supply - .418 ** 1 

.374 ** 

4.Toilet .108 ** .247 ** .110 ** 1 

5.Number of .060 ** - - - 1 

bedrooms 

.539 ** .332 ** .547 ** 

6.Age - .092 ** .055 ** .015 ** - 1 

.083 ** .037 ** 

7.Children own in .007 ** - - - .931 ** .157 ** 1 

HH 

.464 ** .282 ** .538 ** 

8.Literacy .170 ** - - - .800 ** - .706 ** 1 

.517 ** .359 ** .382 ** .262 ** 

9.Educational .234 ** - - .156 ** - - - .304 ** 1 

attainment 

.177 ** .156 ** .082 ** .406 ** .193 ** 

10.Employment .175 ** - - - .586 ** - .515 ** .524 ** - 1 

status 

.403 ** .271 ** .323 ** .047 ** .029 ** 

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 

Uganda had the highest positive relationship children number in a HH and age of the woman of 0.810 

that is to say as the age of the woman increases there is 81 percent for her to increase a child in a 

family and vice versa. However, there was weak relationship between age and toilet in a family of 

about -0.010 as shown in Table 5. 

- - 

Table 5 Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Uganda 

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 


2.Electricity - 

.439 ** 1 

3.Water supply - 

.533 ** .682 ** 1 

4.Toilet .111 ** .137 ** .100 ** 1 

5.Number of 

.056 ** - - - 

bedrooms 

.572 ** .512 ** .384 ** 1 

6.Age - 

.094 ** .094 ** .091 ** .010 ** .027 ** 1 

7.Children own in 

HH 

- 

.085 ** .079 ** .079 ** - 

.016 ** - 

.019 ** .812 ** 1 

8.Literacy 

- - 

- - 

.205 ** .200 ** .188 ** .223 ** .049 ** .368 ** .301 ** 1 

9.Educational 

attainment .309 ** - 

.344 ** - 

.300 ** .154 ** .086 ** - 

.256 ** - 

.222 ** .585 ** 1 

10.Employment 

status .065 ** - 

.047 ** - 

.050 ** - 

.052 ** .035 ** - 

.072 ** .019 ** .036 ** .015 ** 1 


Further, Rwanda had the relationship among the variables which are below the average that is all of the 

correlations are below 0.5. The weakest correlation was between toilet and urban-rural status which 

was 0.003 and the rest of the variables had correlations below average as shown in Table 6. 


Table 6 Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Rwanda 

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 


2.Electricity - 1 

.146 ** 

3.Water supply - .400 ** 1 

.075 ** 

4.Toilet 0.003 .361 ** .361 ** 1 

5.Number of .053 ** .181 ** .186 ** .191 ** 1 

bedrooms 

6.Age - .020 ** .007 ** - .007 ** 1 

.061 ** .007 ** 

7.Children own in .092 ** - - - .123 ** - 1 

HH 

.058 ** .037 ** .032 ** .019 ** 

8.Literacy .094 ** - - - .219 ** - - 1 

.069 ** .054 ** .054 ** .135 ** .050 ** 

9.Educational .118 ** - - 0.004 .039 ** - - .244 ** 1 

attainment 

.051 ** .026 ** .094 ** .192 ** 

10.Employment .143 ** - - - .196 ** - .043 ** .279 ** .127 ** 1 

status 

.069 ** .048 ** .048 ** .108 ** 


Initial Results Using the Principal Components Method and Communalities 

In this analysis, each variable was standardized to have a mean of 0.0 and the standard deviation of a 

unit. Thus the initial communalities were estimated and the variance in each variable accounted for by 

all components or factors done. For principal component extraction, this has been always equal to 1.0 

for correlation analyses. The extraction communalities were estimates of the variance in each variable 

which accounted for by the components. The communalities in Table 7 which have extractions values 

greater than 0.5 indicate that the extracted components represent significant variables. That is to say 

from Table 7, tracking down the extraction value less than 0.5 from Tanzania we had none, Uganda 

had one variable (number of own children in HH) and Rwanda had four variables (urban-rural status, 

number of rooms, employment status and education attainment). A useful component or factor must 

account for more than a unit of variance, which is having an eigenvalue λ > 1.0. 

Table 7 Initial Communalities and Extraction 

Tanzania Uganda Rwanda 

Initial Extraction Initial Extraction Initial Extraction 

Urban-rural status 1 0.701 1 0.711 1 0.182 

Water supply 1 0.588 1 0.788 1 0.563 

Electricity 1 0.609 1 0.776 1 0.583 

Toilet 1 0.613 1 0.688 1 0.516 

Number of rooms 1 0.867 1 0.768 1 0.480 

Employment status 1 0.587 1 0.640 1 0.439 

Educational attainment 1 0.756 1 0.659 1 0.292 

Literacy 1 0.824 1 0.734 1 0.534 

Number of own children in HH 1 0.945 1 0.493 1 0.686 

Age 1 0.739 1 0.615 1 0.62 

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. 

Total Variance Explained 

The eigenvalues extracted were the characteristic roots of the principal component solution. There was 

one eigenvalue for each variable which shows the amount of variance in a given factor as explained in 

the corresponding Table. The eigenvalues reflected the relative importance of the variable. The initial 


eigenvalues for Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda can be seen in Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10 

respectively. 

A. Tanzania 

There were 4 components which have eigenvalue greater than 1 and are shown in Table 8 and in 

Figure 1. The first one has eigenvalue of 3.355 with 33.55 percent of the total variance explained, 

second has 1.696 with 16.96 percent variance explained, the third has 1.173 with 11.735 explained and 

the last component has 1.006 with 10.057 percent variance explained. The 4 components accounted for 

total variance of 33.548 + 16.96 + 11.735 + 10.057 = 72.299 percent. 

Table 8 Initial Eigenvalues for Tanzania 

Component 

Initial Eigenvalues 

Total % of Variance Cumulative % 

1 3.355 33.548 33.548 

2 1.696 16.960 50.508 

3 1.173 11.735 62.242 

4 1.006 10.057 72.299 

5 0.632 6.315 78.614 

6 0.587 5.874 84.488 

7 0.552 5.515 90.003 

8 0.492 4.915 94.918 

9 0.405 4.046 98.965 

10 0.104 1.035 100 


B. Uganda 

The results show that there were 4 components which had eigenvalues greater than 1 and are 

summarized in Table 9 and Figure 2. The first component has eigenvalues of 2.888 with 28.879 

percent of total variance explained; the second has 1.776 with 17.764 percent explained, third 

component has 1.171 with 11.707 percent explained and the fourth component has 1.039 with 10.385 

percent explained. The overall percentage of the variance which the 4 components explained was 

28.879 + 17.764+11.707+ 10.385= 68.735 percent. 

Table 9 Initial Eigenvalues for Uganda 

Component 



1 2.888 28.879 28.879 

2 1.776 17.764 46.643 

3 1.171 11.707 58.350 

4 1.039 10.385 68.735 

5 0.846 8.464 77.199 

6 0.724 7.241 84.440 

7 0.589 5.890 90.330 

8 0.393 3.928 94.258 

9 0.300 3.001 97.259 

10 0.274 2.741 100 


C. Rwanda 

There were 3 components with eigenvalue greater than 1 as Table 10 and Figure 3 show. The first 

component has value 1.916 accounting for 19.162 percent of the variance, the second has value 1.762 

with 17.619 percentages and the third component has value 1.221 with 12.21 percentages. The 3 

components make the total percent of the variance accounted for about 48.99 percent . 


Table 10 Initial Eigenvalues for Rwanda 

Component 



1 1.916 19.162 19.162 

2 1.762 17.619 36.781 

3 1.221 12.210 48.990 

4 0.965 9.646 58.637 

5 0.946 9.456 68.093 

6 0.729 7.294 75.386 

7 0.655 6.554 81.940 

8 0.628 6.281 88.222 

9 0.591 5.911 94.133 

10 0.587 5.867 100 


In general the scree plots of figures 1, 2 and 3 and Tables 8, 9 and 10 for Tanzania, Uganda and 

Rwanda respectively gave the characteristic roots of PC solution. The results gave the 3 components 

for Rwanda while Tanzania and Uganda had 4 components. The highest first dimension overall is 

obtained from Tanzania 3.355 (33.548 percent) followed by Uganda 2.888 (28.879 percent) and 

Rwanda 1.916 (19.162 percent). The second dimension is that for Uganda of size 1.776 (17.764 

percent) followed by Rwanda 1.762 (17.619 percent) and Tanzania 1.696 (16.96 percent). The third 

highest component is that for Rwanda equal to 1.221 (12.21 percent) while Tanzania had 1.173 

(11.735 percent) and Uganda had 1.171 (11.707 percent). For the fourth component Uganda had 1.039 

(10.385 percent) and Tanzania had 1.006 (10.057 percent) although Rwanda had the fourth component 

but with eigenvalues less than a unit. However, the overall percentages of the variance of the 

components with eigenvalue greater than a unit, Tanzania lead by 72.299 percent, Uganda 68.735 

percent and Rwanda had 48.99 percent. 

Extraction and Rotation 

Extraction sums of squared in the second section of Table 11, Table 12 and Table 13 for Tanzania, 

Uganda and Rwanda respectively, gave the variance explained by the extracted factors before rotation. 

The cumulative variability explained by the factors in the extracted solution was about 72.299 percent 

for Tanzania (4 factors extracted), 68.735 percent for Uganda (4 factors extracted) and 48.99 percent 

for Rwanda (3 factors extracted). There was no difference of cumulative variability from the initial 

solution for all countries. 

Table 11 Extraction and Rotation Loadings for Tanzania 

Component Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings 

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % 

1 3.355 33.548 33.548 2.859 28.588 28.588 

2 1.696 16.960 50.508 1.788 17.879 46.468 

3 1.173 11.735 62.242 1.540 15.396 61.864 

4 1.006 10.057 72.299 1.043 10.435 72.299 

The rightmost column of these tables shows the variance explained by the extracted factors after 

rotation. Tanzania has the rotated factor model made some adjustments to factors 1, 2 and 3, but small 

adjustment to factor 4 (Table 11). However Uganda has the adjustment to all the factors that is from 

factor 1 to 4 as shown in Table 12. 


Table 12 Extraction and Rotation Loadings for Uganda 



1 2.888 28.879 28.879 2.357 23.571 23.571 

2 1.776 17.764 46.643 1.806 18.060 41.631 

3 1.171 11.707 58.350 1.549 15.491 57.123 

4 1.039 10.385 68.735 1.161 11.613 68.735 

Rwanda had an adjustment in its rotated factors 1, 2 and 3 as shown in Table 13. The adjustment 

between the extraction and rotated factor matrices lead to the effect of the percentage of variance 

among factors and hence the rotation affects the interpretation of the adjusted factors. However the 

rotation maintains the cumulative percentage of variation explained by the extracted components or 

factors, but that variation is now spread more evenly over the factors. 

Table 13 Extraction and Rotation Loadings for Rwanda 



1 1.916 19.162 19.162 1.880 18.803 18.803 

2 1.762 17.619 36.781 1.650 16.497 35.299 

3 1.221 12.210 48.990 1.369 13.691 48.990 

The Rotated Component Matrix 

The rotated component matrix contains component loadings which are the correlations between the 

variable and the component. Because these were correlations, possible values range from -1 to +1. 

Rotated component matrix for Tanzania shows the number of variables such as number of 

bedrooms/rooms, literacy, toilet and employment status forms the first component. The second 

component/factor is made up of urban-rural status, water supply and electricity. Further the third 

component has variables such as age and educational attainment, while the fourth component had 

number of own children in HH as shown in Table 14. 

Table 14 Rotated Component Matrix for Tanzania 

Component 

Variables 

1 2 3 4 

Number of rooms 0.916 0.163 -0.026 0.002 

Literacy 0.790 0.252 0.367 0.035 

Toilet -0.748 0.205 0.107 -0.024 

Employment status 0.673 0.258 -0.062 -0.255 

Urban-rural status -0.089 0.822 0.096 -0.091 

Water supply -0.264 -0.719 -0.024 -0.002 

Electricity -0.535 -0.558 -0.110 0.003 

Age -0.094 0.092 -0.834 0.163 

Educational attainment -0.092 0.270 0.817 0.090 

Number of own children in HH -0.052 -0.062 -0.070 0.966 

In Uganda the four components were retained and have the rotated component matrix as shown in 

Table 15. The first component had variables such as water supply, electricity and urban-rural status. 

Variables which formed the second component were literacy, age and educational attainment. The 

third component had the variables such as toilets and number of rooms while the fourth component had 

employment status and number of own children in HH. 


Table 15 Rotated Component Matrix for Uganda 

Component 

Variables 

1 2 3 4 

Water supply -0.849 -0.107 0.231 0.049 

Electricity -0.798 -0.166 0.335 0.021 

Urban-rural status 0.772 0.066 0.305 -0.134 

Literacy 0.176 0.823 0.159 0.010 

Age 0.117 -0.738 0.144 0.189 

Educational attainment 0.380 0.700 0.150 0.032 

Toilet 0.055 0.146 0.811 0.082 

Number of rooms 0.450 0.056 -0.749 0.027 

Employment status 0.029 -0.045 0.008 -0.798 

Number of own children in HH -0.086 -0.152 0.060 0.677 


Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. 

a. Rotation converged in 6 iterations. 

Rwanda had three components retained and the correlation between the variables and the components 

is as shown in Table 16. The first component consists of the variables such as electricity, water supply 

and toilet. The second component consisted of the following variables literacy, employment status and 

education attainment. Further, the third component had the number of own children in HH and the age 

of the woman. The number of rooms and urban-rural status variables has not been represented in any 

of the components due to have a minor effect to any of the three components. 

Table 16 

Rotated Component Matrix for Rwanda 

Component 

Variables 

1 2 3 

Electricity 0.750 -0.141 0.010 

Water supply 0.746 -0.078 -0.010 

Toilet 0.717 -0.027 -0.018 

Literacy -0.020 0.730 -0.025 

Employment status -0.021 0.618 -0.238 

Educational attainment -0.039 0.538 0.037 

Number of rooms 0.473 0.499 0.085 

Urban-rural status -0.141 0.396 -0.071 

Number of own children in HH 0.000 -0.055 0.826 

Age -0.001 -0.095 0.784 


Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. 

a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations. 

Measuring Gap Between the Variables 

Tanzania had variables such as number of rooms, literacy, toilet and employment status defined 

component/factor 1 (high loadings on component/factor 1, small or negligible loadings on 

components/factors 2, 3 and 4). Also, variables urban-rural status, water supply and electricity defined 

component/factor 2 (high loadings on component/factor 2, but small or negligible loadings on 

components/factors 1, 3and 4). Variable electricity is closely aligned with component/factor 2, 

although it has aspects of traits represented by component/factor 1. Variables age and educational 

attainment defined component/factor 3 (high loadings on component/factor 3, small loadings on 

components/factors 1, 2 and 4). The last component/factor 4 had been defined by number of own 

children in HH (high loadings on component/factor 4, small loadings on components/factors 1, 2, and 

3) as shown in Table 14. 

Uganda had variables such as water supply, electricity and urban-rural status defined component/factor 

1 (high loadings on component/factor 1, small or negligible loadings on components/factors 2, 3 and 


4). The variables literacy, age and educational attainment defined component/factor 2 (high loadings 

on component/factor 2, small or negligible loadings on components/factors 1, 3 and 4). Variables such 

as toilet and number of rooms defined component/factor 3 (high loadings on component/factor 3, small 

or negligible loadings on components/factors 1, 2 and 4). However, variable number of bedrooms is 

mostly aligned with factor 3, yet it has aspects of trait represented in factor 1. The variables 

employment status and number of own children in HH defined component/factor 4 (high loadings on 

component/factor 4, small or negligible loadings on components/factors 1, 2 and 3) as shown in Table 

15. 

Rwanda had variables such as electricity, water supply and toilet defined component/factor 1 (high 

loadings on component/factor 1, small or negligible loadings on components/factors 2 and 3). 

Variables literacy, employment status and educational attainment defined components/factors 2 (high 

loadings on component/factor 2, small or negligible loadings on components/factors 1 and 3). The 

variables number of own children in HH and age defined component/factor 3 (high loadings on 

component/factor 3, small or negligible loadings on components/factors 1 and 2). There are two 

variables number of rooms and urban-rural status which did not belong to any of the 

components/factors due to their small or negligible loadings to all of the 3 factors. However, variable 

number of rooms has aspects of trait represented in factor 1 and 2 as shown in Table 16. 

The components/factors formed might be the same in terms of numbers (for instance Tanzania and 

Uganda had 4 components/factors each) but the variables which define the components/factors are not 

necessarily the same. The results explained above show that some of the variables were not included 

to any component/factor due to small or negligible loadings. 

Factors 

The three Tables for Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda (Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10) show the results 

of the eigenvalues which corresponding to the rotation of the factors. The eigenvalue greater than 1 is 

the one which is considered in component/factor formation. 

Tanzania had the 4 factors formed as follows 

Factor I 

The first factor had eigenvalue = 3.355, since this is greater than 1 it explained more variance than a 

single variable, in fact 3.355 times as much with the 33.548 percent a variance explained. Factor 1 

includes 4 out of 10 variables which explain more about women empowerment including number of 

bedrooms/rooms, literacy, toilet and employment status. 

Factor II 

The 2 nd factor had an eigenvalue = 1.696 which is also greater than 1 which explained more variance 

than a single variable with 16.96 percent a variance explained. This factor has 3 variables of women 

empowerment that is urban-rural status, water supply and electricity. 

Factor III 

The 3 rd factor had eigenvalue = 1.173 with 11.735 percent a variance explained. It has 2 variables of 

women empowerment explaining their development such as age and educational attainment. 

Factor IV 

The 4 th factor had eigenvalue = 1.006 with correspondent of 10.057 percent of variance explained. 

There is only a single variable in this factor which explained more about women empowerment that is 

number of own children in HH. 

Uganda had 4 factors formed as follows 

Factor I 

This factor had an eigenvalue = 2.288 which is greater than 1 explain more variance with the 28.879 

percent a variance explained. It has variables which explain more about women empowerment such as 

water supply, electricity and urban-rural status. 

Factor II 

The 2 nd factor is having an eigenvalue = 1.776 and 17.764 percent of the variance explained. This 

factor has the women empowerment variables such as literacy, age and educational attainment. 

Factor III 


Uganda 3 rd factor had eigenvalue = 1.171 corresponding with 11.707 percent variance explained. It 

had 2 variables on its formation as a factor toilet and number of rooms. 

Factor IV 

The 4 th factor had eigenvalue = 1.039 and the 10.385 percent variance explained, this last factor for 

Uganda had 2 variables employment status and number of own children in HH as the women 

empowerment on that factor. 

Rwanda had 3 factors formed as follows 

Factor I 

Rwanda had the 1 st factor with eigenvalue = 1.916 and 19.162 percent a variance explained. It has 3 

variables out of 10 such as electricity, water supply and toilet as the variables for empowerment. 

Factor II 

This factor has eigenvalue = 1.762 with 17.619 percent a variance explained. There are 3 variables out 

of 10 which form this factor such as literacy, employment status and educational attainment. 

Factor III 

The 3 rd factor has an eigenvalue = 1.221 and 12.21 percent as variance explained. This factor has the 

correlated 2 out of 10 variables which explained more about the women empowerment such as number 

of own children in HH and the age of the woman. 

Factor as a Measure of the Gap 

The results for the first factor in all countries show that Tanzania appeared to be dominated by the 

living condition and education of women explained more about their empowerment, while Uganda and 

Rwanda dominated by the living condition of their women dominated the first factor. The second 

factor Tanzania is dominated by living condition, while Uganda appeared to be education and Rwanda 

dominated by education and living condition of the women. Furthermore, the third factor Tanzania 

appeared to be dominated by education, Uganda is dominated by living condition and Rwanda 

appeared to be health. The last fourth factor for Tanzania appeared to be dominated by health and 

Uganda dominated by living condition and health. 

Moreover, the factors formulated appeared to have eigenvalues and their corresponding percentages of 

the variance explained by each factor. The eigenvalues happened to differ and so as the percentages of 

variance in their corresponding factor. The gap had been detected from eigenvalues which lead to 

formulation of factor since they are not equal and thus lead even to an unequal percentage of the 

variance explained by each component/factor. The variables used to formulate or explain each factor 

hadn’t appeared to be uniform in all the countries and that demonstrated the gap in the factors which 

explained more about women empowerment in these countries. Furthermore, Tanzania and Uganda 

used all the variables in the formulation of the factors while Rwanda did not use all of the variables in 

formulation of factors. Thus, Rwanda didn’t use variables such as number of rooms and urban-rural 

status in the factor formulation since they had small or negligible loading as appeared in Table 15. 

Taking into account the factor formulation in all these countries the results gave us the variables which 

explained women empowerment in a certain country. For instance in Factor 1 Tanzanian women 

empowerment explained by their living condition and education, while Ugandan and Rwandan women 

empowerment explained by their living condition. Since there is a gap of number and different type’s 

of the variables and their percentage contribution in a factor thus lead to the formation of the factors 

which formed to explain about women empowerment in these countries to be different. 

The Remaining Factors 

There were some factors which have been left in both countries. This is because they have eigenvalue 

less than 1, and therefore had small loading and contributed little information in explaining women 

empowerment. Therefore Tanzania had 6 components (starting from component 5 as Table 8 shown) 

left with eigenvalue less than 1, while Uganda had 6 components (starting from component 5 see Table 

9) and Rwanda had 7 components (starting from component 4 see Table 10). The sum of eigenvalues 

associated with each factor for each country sums up to 10. The cumulative percent of variance 

explained by the remaining factors for Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda can also be seen in Table 8, 

Table 9 and Table 10 respectively. 


Generalization of the Results of the Factor Model 

The summarized Table 17 provides the variables which formed a set of significant factors in each 

country. There were 10 variables out of which Tanzania and Uganda utilized all of them in factor 

formation while Rwanda left some of the variables during its factor formulation. Further, Tanzania and 

Uganda had formulated 4 factors out of 10 variables and Rwanda had 3 factors. In general the 

eigenvalues greater than 1 were the one used to formulate the factors and since they had explained 

much about the population in each country. Tanzania had cumulative of 72.299 percent variance 

explained women empowerment; Uganda had 68.8735 percent and Rwanda had 48.99 percent. 

Comparison of Factor Formulation and Measuring the Gap 

The factor formulation which explained women empowerment had no common variables across in 

these countries. That is to say the first factor is the one which had the highest percentage of the 

variance explained about the population of women in these countries. Based on that the first factor 

formulated for Tanzania had 33.548 percent of variance explaining women empowerment, Uganda had 

28.879 percent and Rwanda 19.162 percent. Second Factor Uganda had 17.764 percent variance 

explained women empowerment; Rwanda had 17.619 percent and Tanzania 16.96 percent. The third 

factor Rwanda lead by 12.21 percent of variance explained women empowerment, Tanzania had 

11.735 percent and Uganda had 11.707 percent. Uganda and Tanzania were the countries with the 

fourth factor with 10.385 percent and 10.057 percent of variance explained women empowerment 

respectively. 

The development of women empowerment in Tanzania can be explained by the first factor which 

consisted of the variables number of rooms, literacy, employment status and toilet. Also, women 

empowerment in Uganda is more explained by the following variables urban-rural status, water supply 

and electricity since they formed the first factor. Furthermore Rwanda had variables such as toilet, 

water supply and electricity formed the first factor that explained the development of women. 

The second factor, Uganda was the one with the highest percentage of variance explaining the 

development of women among the rest of the countries with variables such as literacy, age and 

educational attainment. Rwanda had variables such as literacy, employment status and educational 

attainment formed the second factor, while Tanzania had urban-rural status, water supply and 

electricity as variables in the second factor explained the development of women. 

Moreover, the third factor Rwanda had urban-rural status and number of own children in HH as 

variables which explained the development of women empowerment. Tanzania was the second with 

variables such as age and educational attainment while Uganda had number of rooms and toilet as the 

variables explained the third factor. 

The last fourth factor that explained development of women empowerment was from Uganda with the 

variables such as employment status and number of own children in HH and Tanzania had number of 

own children in HH as a single variable in this factor. 

The gap of development can be seen by the types of variables used to formulate the factors and the 

contribution of the percentages of variance from each eigenvalue. That is the higher the eigenvalue the 

higher contribution of the percentage of variance explained as it has been demonstrated by Tables 8, 9 

and 10. The Table 17 gives the summary of the variables used to formulate each factor and the factor 

which had not been used by any factor due to small or negligible loadings. 

Table 17 Summary of the Variables in Each Factor 


Factors 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 

Eigenvalues 

3.35 

5 

1.69 

6 

1.17 

3 

1.00 

6 

2.88 

8 

1.77 

6 

1.17 

1 

1.03 

9 

1.91 

6 

1.76 

2 

Variables 

Number of rooms √ √ 

Literacy √ √ √ 

Toilet √ √ √ 

1.22 

1 



Factors 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 

Eigenvalues 

3.35 

5 

1.69 

6 

1.17 

3 

1.00 

6 

2.88 

8 

1.77 

6 

1.17 

1 

1.03 

9 

1.91 

6 

1.76 

2 

Variables 

Employment status √ √ √ 

Urban-rural status √ √ √ 

Water supply √ √ √ 

Electricity √ √ √ 

Age √ √ 

Educational attainment √ √ √ 

Number of own children 

in HH √ √ √ 

References 

1.Hotelling, H. (1933), “Analysis of a Complex of Statistical Variables into 

Principal Components”, Journal of Educational Psychology, 24:417-441,498-520 

1.22 

1 

2.Jahan, R; (1995), The Exclusive Agenda: Mainstreaming Women in Development, Atlantic 

Highlands. NJ: ZedBooks Ltd 

3.Johnson, R.A. and Wichern, D.W (1992), Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis (3 rd Edn), New 

Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc and ISBN: 0130418072, pp 396 

4.Kumar, R. (1993), The History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s rights 

and Feminism in India, 1800-1990. New York: Verso 

5.Pearson K. (1901), “On the criterion that a given system of deviations from the probable in the case 

of correlated system of variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from random 

sampling”, Philosophical Magazine, Series 5 50: 157-175 

6.Sen, G. and C. Grown (1987), Development, Crises and Alternative Views: Third World Women 

Perspectives, New York: Monthly Review Press. 

7.UNDP (1995), “Human Development Report 1995”, Gender and Human Development, New York: 

Oxford University Press 

8.World Bank (1992), World Development Report 1992, Oxford University Press, New York, NY 

Acknowledgements 

We thank Almighty God for giving us strength, good health and keeping us alive to date. We would 

like to express our special gratitude and thanks to Minnesota Population Centre team through IPUMS 

for providing data for our study and for giving us such attention and time whenever we needed 

assistance regarding the data 


Self-Exploration & Industrial Relations in India 

Dr. Abhishek Gupta 

Administrative-cum-Accounts Officer & Head of Office 

Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of Renewable Energy 

(Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Govt. of India) 

Wadala Kalan, Kapurthala-144601 (Punjab) 

Email: iloveindia1909@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Self-exploration is the process of surveying, identifying and highlighting one’s own skills, 

values, experience, interests and education. It is more likely that the chosen occupations are aligned 

with one’s skills, interests and preferences hopefully preventing mismatches between the person and 

the career choice. Self exploration is a process of self-evolution through self-investigation. It is a 

dialogue between ‘what you are’ and ‘what you really want to be’. It is a process of knowing oneself 

and through that, knowing the entire existence. It is a process of knowing human conduct, human 

character and human living. As the name suggests, the process is to find out what is valuable to me by 

examine myself. Since it is me who feels happy or unhappy, successful or unsuccessful, therefore 

whatever is right for me, true for me, has to be visualized within myself. In the ease of human being, to 

understand what is valuable, we need to study over selves and the “larger order” around us, which is, 

everything around us. When we look around, we find other human beings; we find animals, plants, 

birds, insects etc. and then things like air, water, soil, stones, metals, etc. All these are things we live 

with and there is a need for us to understand our relationship with all of these things. We live with this 

entirety, we live with our family, our friends, air, soil, water, and trees, the nature around us and we 

want to understand our relationship with all these. Understanding of all these is to be done by me 

‘self’. To understand my relationship with all these, I need to start observing inside. Normally, we are 

used to exploring outside. For example, we keep looking around; we observe trees, animals and other 

human beings. Seldom do we observe “what is going on in me while I am observing outside”. Thus, it 

remains only external observation. When we say we want to self-explore, it means we have to now 

start discovering within ourselves too and not observing just outside. 

Keywords: Self-exploration & Assessment, Value Education, Freedom 

1. Introduction 

Self-exploration is a process of recognizing one’s relationship with every unit in existence and 

fulfilling it. It is a process of being in harmony in oneself and in harmony with entire existence. It is a 

process of identifying our innateness and moving towards Self-Organization and Self-expression. Let’s 

take the example that we are seeing a tree. When I see a tree, here is what is happening; the image of 

the tree is available on my eyes. From there, the information is passed on to me, and then I say; “I can 

see a big tree, and it is about 100 meters away and so on”. This is an example of observing outside. But 

when I start to observe what relation I have with the tree or, how the tree does relate to me, it is 

observing inside. The simple process is depicted below; 

Human Being ----------------> Natural/Existence (all that exists) 

RJSSM: Volume: 03, Number: 03, July-2013 Page 17

continuous cause for our unhappiness. What we are today is the result of our pre-conditionings, our 

predispositions, our impressions and our beliefs. What we really want to becomes from deep within us 

that is naturally acceptable to us. This is something intact in us. It needs to be explored and found out. 

What I am” < ---- > “What I really want to be”. 

This dialogue needs to be started between what you are and what you really want to be. On 

investigating into it, you will find that the contradictions are not outside of you. These contradictions 

are inside you. In fact, the contradictions that you see outside are mostly a reflection of the 

contradictions within. For example, we end up believing many things that are instilled in us since 

childhood like “living is basically a struggle for survival”. And based on this belief, we plan our whole 

life. But have we even asked ourselves the question of whether this is the way in which I really want to 

live? We find that most of the time, we don't even care to know whether the things we have assumed 

are really true. We are defining our entire lives, all our desires, based on such assumptions, without 

even knowing whether these assumptions are naturally acceptable to us! This is a serious matter 

worthy of our attention. On careful self-exploration, we will find that we are being driven by a number 

of assumptions / beliefs which are contrary to our natural acceptance and they cause contradiction 

within us. We have to start looking at these carefully. Many times, you will find, we want something, 

we think something else, we say something else, we do something else, and the results of our anions 

do not match with the expected outcomes! This kind of dichotomy continues to exist in us, resulting in 

a state of unhappiness and as of today we don’t seem to be doing anything at all in order to address 

these contradictions, whereas it is the basic issue that needs to be resolved. 

2. SELF-EVOLUTION THROUGH SELF INVESTIGATION 

By self-investigation, we shall work towards being what we really want to be. Hence, the selfexploration 

leads to our own improvement, our own self-evolution. We will become qualitatively 

better. We can be more in harmony within ourselves. We saw in the earlier point that it is necessary to 

find out the contradictions in ourselves, to see that we are in contradiction. Where would we do this? 

Since the contradictions are in ourselves, it becomes necessary that we investigate into ourselves to 

find this out! Hence, it is necessary that we do self-exploration. It is not about exploring outside us, but 

inside us, in us. We have to start exploring ourselves. Through this process of self-exploration we can 

achieve self-evolution. This process of self-investigation needs to be started. It needs to start in each 

one of us. Once this dialogue within ourselves has been established, and we start evolving - we 

become comfortable within ourselves. The very process of being in this dialogue starts facilitating this 

self-improvement. 

3. KNOWING ONE-SELF AND THROUGH, KNOWING THE ENTIRE EXISTENCE 

 

 

 

Ask yourself do I want to know myself? 

Do I want this self-investigation journey? 

Am I satisfied in living my life without having known myself? 

If I don’t know myself, am not sure of myself, how can I be sure of what I want and what I do? 

One finds that the need ‘know ourselves, to understand the self, is an innate need of every human 

being. This need to know does not have to be instilled from outside, once our attention has been drawn 

to this fact. Each individual would like to know himself / herself and can carry out this self-exploration 

and self-evolution. As we know ourselves correctly, we are also able to relate ourselves correctly to the 

things around us. We can then understand the people we live with, the family we are born in, the 

people in society we interact with, in fact all the entities in nature / existence. Ask yourself this 

question. Are you satisfied with just knowing the immediate things around you, or do you also get 

curious about the larger reality around you, each human being wants to know everything. Once we 

have known ourselves, we can also know the entire existence. This process starts with the self, and 

once we are sure of ourselves, we can, through that, also know the entire existence. If we look at the 

basic fallacy in our current approach of understanding things around us, it is that we try to understand 

things around us without first being sure of ourselves. Since we don’t know ourselves correctly, and it 


is we who understand the world, hence, all the pre-conditionings we have within, the contradictions we 

have within, reflect in our perception of the world, and we start interacting with the external world, 

with the things around us based on these assumptions, based on these pre-conditionings. Therefore, it 

is important to know myself first, and when I am sure about myself and that there is no ‘coloring’ there 

then, I can know about other things properly. Then, I can be sure about the things I know, since I am 

sure of myself. 

4. RECOGNIZING ONE’S RELATIONSHIP WITH EVERY UNIT IN EXISTENCE 

What are the things we live with today? We live in our families without parent’s grandparents, 

brothers, sisters, we live in society. We interact with our teachers, with various people engaged in 

making available goods and services in the society. We live with nature with animals, birds, plants, 

insects, materials, etc, and of course, the larger existence all that space, and all those planets, stars and 

other entities that are suspended in it. 

Do we know our relationship with each one of these entities? 

Do we know and understand our relationship with our parents? 

With our teachers? With the person next door? 

What happens when we do not understand this relationship? 

You would find that this lack of understanding leads to problems. For example, if you wrongly 

assume that animals may breathe away all the air, and hence all animals need to be killed so that there 

is enough oxygen left for human beings, it would be disastrous. We need to start seeing various 

interactions in which we face problems for example, the problem of misunderstanding in relationships, 

the problem of wars and crime in society, the problem of pollution in nature, etc. Are these not due to 

the lack of right understanding of our relationship at various levels? We find that our problems in our 

relationship with various entities around us are due to our assuming certain things about these 

relationships which are not really true. For example, if we assume that mistrust is basic to a human 

relationship, we shall have problems, since all the time we shall mistrust people we come across, and 

mistrust is not acceptable to us, not acceptable you to any human being. Thus, we start with 

understanding ourselves, and then through ourselves, we understand the rest of existence, and also our 

relationship with all entities in existence and then fulfill this relationship. 

5. KNOWING HUMAN CONDUCT, HUMAN CHARACTER & LIVING 

Now question is what is human conduct? None of us wants to live with uncertainty. If our state 

of mind, our own behavior keeps changing, we are not comfortable with ourselves. We all desire for 

certainty and stability. Once we know our own true nature, we will also understand, what is our 

participation with the other things, we live with this is the ethical human conduct or the humane 

conduct. This is what characterizes a human being. When we know this true human character, we start 

moving towards it in a natural manner. If you ask yourself, whether you want a definite character or 

indefinite character what is the answer? The answer is, we all want to have a definite character, a 

definite conduct. We are not satisfied with having an indefinite conduct, though we are living with 

indefiniteness. Example, we can’t be sure of how we are going to be this very evening. We are not sure 

what our mood will be tomorrow morning. Sometimes, we are not sure about what mindset we are 

going to have the next moment. Are we comfortable with this state of affairs? Or do we want 

definitiveness in our conduct? There is a need to understand the conduct in a human being and how it 

can be ensured. Once we know, through self-exploration, our own true nature and the things around us, 

we shall also know what our relationship and participation is with the other thing, we live with, all the 

things around us then we will be able to rightly understand ethical human conduct or the humane 

conduct. Thus, the process of Self-exploration will enable us to identify the definitiveness of human 

conduct and to live accordingly. 

6. HARMONY IN ONE-SELF & HARMONY WITH ENTIRE EXISTENCE 

Through the process of Self-exploration, I establish a dialogue with my natural acceptance. 

This enables me to be in harmony within myself. Through the same process, I am able to explore into 


the harmony in the entire existence. We slowly come to realize (and we will keep talking about this in 

the entire book) that there is an innate harmony in the existence. I only need to discover this. And once 

I do this, I can learn to live in harmony with the entire existence. Thus the process of Self exploration 

helps me live in harmony within myself and in all my interactions with the world around. Would you 

desire to be in such a state? Well, we need to work for it. 

7. IDENTIFYING OUR INNATENESS, SELF- ORGANIZATION & SELF-EXPRESSION 

When I identify my innateness, what I really want to be and establish a dialogue with it, it 

enables me to become Self-organized, i.e. I attain harmony in myself. This is self-organization 

(Swatantrata). When I start living with this harmony, it starts expressing itself through my harmonious 

behavior and work, and it naturally extends to my participation with the surroundings. This is working 

towards self-expression (Swarajya). 

Self-organization (Swatantrata) : Being self-organized: Being in harmony in oneself. 

Self-expression (Swarajya) : Self-expression, Self-extension: Living in harmony with 

others, and thus participation towards harmony in the whole 

existence. 

Ask yourself this question 

Are you self-organized right now? 

Are you able to be in harmony if different harmony with others? 

If you are living in contradiction, then it means you are not self-organized. If you are living 

with pre conditionings, wherein you have assumed certain things, have accumulated desires without 

having first evaluated them, then it means you are enslaved. If you ask this question; whether we are 

self-organization (swatantra) or enslaved, what is the answer? Till there is a difference between what 

we are and what we really want to be, we are not self-organization (swatantra), because we will always 

be in conflict. Hence, since we ourselves are not in self-organization, our expression in living, be it in 

behavior with other humans or in our interaction in the form of work the outcome is going to be one of 

conflict. So, through this process of Self exploration I begin by identifying my innateness, what I 

really want to be. Then, living accordingly enables me to being in harmony within myself 

(Swatantrata) and finally being in harmony with the whole existence (Swarajya). In the light of what 

we have discussed so far, the content of Self-exploration can be visualized in terms of finding answers 

to the following fundamental questions of all human beings: 

Desire : What is my basic aspiration? 

Program : What is the process to fulfill this basic aspiration? 

Do you find these two questions relevant? We will try to find answers to these questions by exploring 

within. These are very important questions since everything we do is related to some desire or the 

other we are trying to fulfill. This is what any human being would like to know and work towards its 

actualization in life. We are going to observe and explore ourselves, our lives, what we do, why we do 

and how we do. We will study what human beings want, we will study what we really want. We also 

want to know how to fulfill what we want. We want to explore into what is valuable for us. Each one 

of us can explore this within ourselves. Points to be kept in mind regarding process of Self- 

Exploration. “Whatever is stated is a proposal”. Whatever we state here, is a proposal. Don’t accept it 

as it is, or assume it to be true. We seem to have assumed many things to be true till now. If we assume 

what we are discussing here to be true as well, it would only add to our set of assumptions and belief 

and instead of being an aid for us, instead of helping us, it will only end being a burden for us. Alright! 

If we don’t assume it, how will we verify it? “Verify it on your own right” You need to rigorously 

verify all the statements and proposals being made here in your own right. No one else can do this for 

you; you have to do it yourself. It has to be self Investigated by you. Verifying in your own right 

implies; don’t just accept or reject it; On the basis of scripture, On the basis of instruments, On the 

basis of others. We are not flying to undermine the importance of scriptures, instruments or the 

guidance obtainable from wise persons. Not at all’ we are only suggesting that one should take all 


these as valuable proposals worthy of your own serious exploration and then acceptance. let’s not 

compare what is being proposed here with what is written in some book, something that you have read 

or are reading i.e. we think we know certain things, because we have read about it somewhere, and 

remember it now. However, we are not talking about a comparative study between what we have read 

and what is being proposed here, we are talking about verification of these proposals directly within 

yourself. 

“Not on the basis of instruments” don’t assume these proposals as being true or false based on the 

conclusions somebody might have given after conducting experiments with physical instruments. The 

instruments only give information about some physical phenomena, but the conclusions we make are 

perception about the phenomena. Such perception also needs to be subjected to self-verification. “Not 

on the basis of others” again, you may have heard something that some great person has said. You 

may believe what this person says to be true, and hence end up comparing what is being proposed here 

with what you remember as being stated by that personality, this would not mean verifying in your 

own right; it would mean accepting on those great personalities’ right. “Verify the proposal on the 

basis of your natural acceptance” For every proposal being put forth here, we shall pass it through our 

own natural acceptance. If it passes through our own natural acceptance, i.e. it is naturally acceptable 

to us, it is true for us. If it does not, then it is not true for us and we can drop the proposal let’s not 

assume what is being stated here to be true! You need to ensure that you pass every proposal through 

your own natural acceptance! Let’s ask ourselves another very basic question; Do I want to be happy? 

The answer is a very quick yes! How did you get this answer? Of course, through your natural 

acceptance. This may seem very simple to begin with, but we shall see that this becomes a very 

powerful way for us to know what is ultimately right. Natural acceptance is a faculty that is present in 

each one of us. It is intact and invariant. We only have to start paying attention to it, to start “seeing” 

it. Ask yourself another question; “Do I want to live in relationship with others or do I want to live in 

opposition with others?” The answer is live in relationship with others. We find that we get the 

answers from within ourselves and it is spontaneous. The answers are there in us, naturally. We only 

need to trace them. We call this faculty the natural acceptance. 

Once you start asking the question deep within yourself, you will be able to start accessing 

these answers yourself. This natural acceptance is there in each one of us, it is what we most 

spontaneously, most naturally desire. You don’t have to import this natural acceptance from outside; 

you don’t have to learn it from somewhere! For example, when you asked the question “whether trust 

is most acceptable to me in relationship”, did you ask anyone else for the answer? Did you read or 

learn the answer from somewhere? Did you have to refer to some instrument? The answer is NO. This 

answer came from within you. Similarly, about the answer to- “Is living in relationship with others is 

naturally acceptable to me”. Did you have to learn this from others? Again NO! Thus, as first part of 

the self-verification, every proposal being put forth here, is passed through our own natural 

acceptance. “Secondly, live according to the proposal to validate ‘it experientially.” To verify the 

proposals, I need to live accordingly in my interactions with the world around. This involves two 

things behavior and work. If the proposal is true, in behavior with other humans, it will lead to mutual 

Fulfillment. In work with the rest of nature, it will lead to mutual prosperity. I desire mutual fulfillment 

in my relations with other humans and mutual prosperity with the rest of nature. This way, I validate 

the truthfulness of the proposal. At this point, we can make the following observations about natural 

acceptance. 

Natural acceptance does not change with time. The natural acceptance does not change with 

time. It remains invariant with time. This can be easily verified. For example, our acceptance for trust 

or respect does not change with age. People hundred years ago also had the same natural acceptance. 

We can try to verify this within our span of observation. It does not depend on the place. Whether 

we are in New Delhi, New York or Abu Dhabi, if we address our natural acceptance, the answer would 

still be the same. It does not depend on our beliefs or past conditionings. We may be told frequently 

not to trust people of other religions or castes, but is it naturally acceptable to us? No matter how deep 

our belief or conditioning, as long as we ask ourselves the question sincerely, as long as we refer deep 

within ourselves, the answer will always be the same. This natural acceptance is ‘constantly there, 


something we can refer to try this yourself think of cheating or exploiting someone. The moment you 

think of this, you sense a contradiction within and feel unhappy that very instant! It happens very 

quickly, and we may not notice it, but it does happen! Similarly, the moment we think of disrespecting 

someone, we become unhappy. The very thought is enough to cause a conflict, a strain within us. 

Thus, this natural acceptance is always there, and if we start paying attention to it, if we ask ourselves 

every time, for every thought and every desire we have, “Is this naturally acceptable to me?” we will 

get an answer. Whatever we do, this natural acceptance is within us, it is telling us what is right. Every 

time we do something not readily acceptable to us, i.e. every time we think or do something not 

acceptable to us, there is a contradiction in us, because the thought deed conflicts with our own natural 

acceptance! The moment we think of cheating, we become unhappy. We don’t even have to carry out 

the action. It will become clear to us that while we want something else at the level of our natural 

acceptance, we think or do something else, based on our beliefs and preconditioning, which is 

contrary, it creates a disharmony in us; this is the cause for our unhappiness. Take for example, one 

may proceed with the act of cheating under the influence of say, an extraneous pressure but one keeps 

feeling unhappy about it and may even repent over this act in the course of time. If somebody asks, 

‘why do you cheat’? One starts offering explanations, inventing justifications. This is because it is 

naturally unacceptable. 

8. REALIZATION AND UNDERSTANDING 

We saw earlier that the process of Self-exploration involves two steps; verification of the proposals on 

the basis of our natural acceptance & experiential validation by living according to it. As we do this, as 

we continue with this process of verification of the proposals stated here on the basis of our natural 

acceptance and test it out in our living, it ultimately results in “realization" and “understanding” in us. 

This means, knowing something to be “true”, for sure, ourselves. The realization and understanding is 

denoted: Accordingly, the complete process of self-exploration can be depicted as; the answers we get 

on having realization & understanding are: 

(a) Assuring: “I am assured of the answer or understanding in myself”. 

(b) Satisfying: “I am satisfied that the answers are fulfilling for me. 

(c) Universal: “I know or realize that the answers I have got are the same for everyone. 

They are invariant with respect to: 

Time: These answers are the same at all times: past, present and future 

Space: These answers are the same at all places or locations 

Individual: The answers are the same for every human being 

If the answers we get do not fulfill any of the criteria of being assuring, satisfying and 

universal; it means the answer is most likely coming from your past beliefs/conditioning and not from 

your natural acceptance. Hence, you need to re-verify the answer! Let us not accept the proposals 

stated here because they are being repeated all the time! Far from it! Each one of us needs to start 

asking ourselves these questions and see what is acceptable to us! You have to start asking these 

questions yourself. This process of repeated self-verification of the proposal on the basis of my own 

natural acceptance and validating it experientially, and also testing the answers for assurance, 

satisfaction and universality ultimately results in what is called “Realization” and “Understanding”. 

Self-exploration is; 

A process of dialogue between “what you are” and “what you really want to be”. 

A process of Self-evolution through self- investigation. 

A process of knowing oneself and through that, knowing the entire existence. 

A process of recognizing one’s relationship with every unit in existence and fulfilling it. 

A process of knowing human conduct, human character and living accordingly. 


A process of being in harmony in oneself and in harmony with entire existence. 

A process of identifying our Innateness and moving towards Self organization (Swatantrata) 

and Self-expression (Swarajya). 

9. CONCLUSION 

We need to undergo Self-exploration because we want to find out what is valuable to us, and 

secondly we want to understand our relationship, our participation with the things around us. The 

content of self-exploration is exploring into two fundamental questions: what our basic aspiration is; 

and the program to fulfill this basic aspiration. Process of self-exploration involves two things, firstly, 

verifying on the basis of natural acceptance, and secondly, validating experientially by living 

accordingly. When the proposal is verified on both the bases, it leads to realization and understanding. 

Understanding is assuring, satisfying and universal with respect to time, space and individual. Natural 

Acceptance does not change with time, individual or place and is not tainted with our preconditionings. 

It is innately present in each one of us and we can always refer to it. 

References: 

Bhatia S. K.(2003), “Constructive Industrial relations and labor Laws” New Delhi, Deep & 

deep Publishers. 

Bronson, P. (2002). Random House, NY, What Should I do with My Life? The True Story of 

People Who Answered the Ultimate Question 

Carter, Carol, Bishop, Joyce, and Lyman, Sara. (2003). Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle, NJ. Keys 

to Success in College, Career, and Life: How to Achieve Your Goals 

Chand K. V. Kumar, “Industrial Relations” New Delhi, Ashish Publishers. 

Dr. Michael V. P. (1991), “Industrial Relations in India & Workers Involvement in 

Management”, Mumbai, Himalaya Publishers. 

H.L. Kumar, Dismissal, Discharge and Retrenchment (Delhi: Universal Law Publishing Co. 

Pvt. Ltd.) 2000 p. 257. 

H.L. Kumar, labour Law (Delhi: Universal Law Publishing Co.) 2006 p. 120. 

Hocker, Joyce and Willmot, William W. (2001). McGraw-Hill, NC, Interpersonal Conflict 

Kumar, H.L., Labour & Industrial Law (vol. II), 3rd edition, Universal Law Publishing Co., 

Delhi (2007) 

Mamoria & Gankar (2000), “Dynamics of Industrial Relations” Mumbai Himalaya 

Publishers. 


Tackling Human Infertility: 

Zimbabwe’s Shona Traditional and Contemporary Approaches 

Muchinako, George Alex. 

Lecturer, University of Zimbabwe School of Social Work, 

P.B. 66022, Kopje, Harare, Zimbabwe. E-mail: muchinakog@yahoo.com 

Abstract 

The cornerstone of the Shona society from the traditional to present times was the family which was 

‘grown’ through marriage and procreation. It was a great achievement for every couple to have 

children. Where this expectation was not realized the Shona had strategies for investigating the cause 

of the infertility and finding solutions to the problem. Following their cultural beliefs and practices 

they solved the problems of infertility using their traditionally prescribed solutions such as herbal 

treatment, ancestral rituals, spiritual cleansing, surrogate husbands or replacement wives. The women 

were always at the receiving end of ridicule or punishment for infertility, even where they were not to 

blame. The contemporary Shona society has undergone some transformation due to modernization and 

industrialization and now has options for dealing with infertility, such as the western medical 

approaches and faith healing. The paper concludes by noting that despite developments occurring in 

the contemporary society, women are still blamed for infertility and there is need to address this. 

Families and communities are encouraged to find and use medical and health knowledge. They are 

encouraged not to rely on traditional knowledge alone but to analyse all other available knowledge so 

as to use the best. 

Key words: infertility, Shona society, approaches, Zimbabwe, traditional, contemporary, 

ethnographic, 

Introduction 

The family in the Shona traditional society was (and still is) the cornerstone of that society. It was 

created through marriage and the procreation of children (Runganga, et al, 2001 and Gelfand, 1979). 

This position remains today. Marriage was (and still is) considered to be the sacred backbone of social 

life and is also considered as the foundation of the family (Atta-Alla, 2008:120-121). Problems 

arose/arise when, after marriage and living together as husband and wife, a couple could/cannot have 

children. A woman was expected to fall pregnant at least within four to six months of staying with the 

husband. Failure to conceive within this period was an indication that something was not well in the 

new household and this called for efforts by the couple’s family (on the husband’s side) and the inlaws 

(wife’s side) to find help for the family to deal with the problem of ‘ungomwa’ infertility. 

The importance of fertility 

Fertility enables a couple to bring forth children. Children in the Shona society give the women status 

and respect as the fruit of their womb helps to grow the family. Women give the children status when 

they are required to claim or ascend to a traditional social position like becoming a chief. Infertility 

deprives the affected couples of these benefits (Runganga, et al 2001, Mazarire, 2003 and Meekers, 

1993). In the traditional Shona society couples without children were regarded as children all their 

lives as they were regarded as needing care unto old age (Gelfand, 1979 and Runganga, et al, 2001). 

Folkvord et al (2005) note that in contemporary Zimbabwe male infertility is a significant medical and 

psychological problem requiring attention. 

Infertility 

The Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2009) defines infertility as ‘someone’s 

lack of the physical ability to have children’. The Shona traditional and modern definitions of 

infertility concur with this English definition. Infertility had and still has a big impact on the Shona 

family. It is viewed negatively as a threat to the family survival, a threat to the family name and 


community continuity (Runganga, et al, 2001). Faced with this threat, efforts were made to find the 

causes and to resolve them and possibly restore fertility in the couple. Various methods were applied 

to solve the problem. 

Methodology 

This was an ethnological study done with and on eight adult workers at the School of Social Work in 

Harare who came from different Shona dialect provinces in Zimbabwe (group interviews/focus group 

discussions done in the staff common room during tea and lunch breaks) and in-depth interviews in the 

community with five elderly key informants (four females and one male) from Nyandoro village in 

rural Marondera District in Mashonaland East with knowledge and information on the issues around 

human infertility in the traditional Shona society in Zimbabwe. In addition, in-depth interviews were 

also done with one traditional doctor and one faith healer. Relevant literature with information on 

infertility was reviewed and used in the study. The information reviewed included journal articles, 

books and articles from newspapers covering current issues on infertility. 

Ethnological research 

The ethnological approach was chosen/used in this study because it enables a researcher to collect, 

interpret and utilize knowledge and make generalizations about human behaviour considered to be 

universally true by people within that culture (Friedman et al, 2012; Benard, 2012 and Whitehead, 

2005). This approach also allows the use of emic and etic approaches of understanding behaviour. 

Friedman et al (2012) and Harris (1976) note that emic accounts refer to the behaviour or belief in 

terms of conscious or unconscious meaning to the person within a culture. An etic account is the 

description of behavior or belief by a social analyst or scientific observer noting what can be applied 

across cultures in a neutral non biased way (Whitehead, 2005; Benard, 2002 and Harris, 1976). 

Through doing field studies, ethnography promotes the achievement of emic validity by being with the 

people being studied and understanding their lives and views in depth and it allows use of an open 

minded or unbiased interpretation of the observed phenomenon (Benard, 2002). 

Information was collected on the following five main themes: causes of infertility, signs and symptoms 

of infertility, period of determining existence of infertility from the time of first sexual contact, 

reactions to infertility by males and females, and solutions to infertility. 

Study findings 

The in-depth interviews with the five elderly key informants in Nyandoro village informed the 

researcher that infertility in traditional Shona society had a variety of causes and solutions. The main 

causes included: 

Calling by ancestral spirits 

One cause was that if one was called by the ancestral spirits to become a medium they were in some 

cases not allowed to have children so as to enable them to devote their time to the service of the spirits. 

Witchcraft 

Witchcraft was another cause cited. Witches were believed to have powers to stop a person from 

having children or make unborn babies develop abnormally, so they were born with deformities in 

their reproductive systems. This rendered them infertile. 

Family misfortune called ‘jambwa’ 

If a family had a misfortune called ‘jambwa’ which was due to an avenging spirit called ngozi, 

members of that family could suffer from infertility even if there was nothing biologically wrong with 

the affected family members. 

Evil spirits 

Sometimes an evil witch spirit (usually that of a grandmother ‘ambuya’) wanted to be accepted to 

work through a person, usually a female relative, it would make that female infertile until the female 

accepted to be the host or homwe to carry out the evil deeds. 

Weak male sperm or weak female reproductive system 


Traditionally it was also recognized that at times the sperm of the male or the reproductive system of 

the female were weak and this also resulted in failure to have children. 

The elderly informants expressed disquiet over contemporary societal approaches to life including 

cultural value erosion, fast foods and drugs medicines which they believe contribute to contemporary 

infertility and /or the birth of weakling babies. 

Signs and symptoms of infertility 

The elderly informants noted that in traditional society infertility was recognized through several ways 

which included: 

Low sperm count - this was detected when boys were taken by uncles and grandfathers to bath at the 

river where they were asked to masturbate while the uncles assessed the sperm for density and quality. 

Lack of interest in the opposite sex – males and females who showed no interest in interacting with the 

opposite sex usually had problems of infertility. 

Delayed or lack of ovulation among women – this was a sign that fertility and child bearing would be a 

problem. 

Determining the existence of a fertility problem 

In traditional society it was expected that within three months of a woman having sex with a man she 

should become pregnant. If pregnancy did not happen within this period the couple began to worry and 

start searching for causes and solutions to the problem. 

Reactions to infertility 

Infertility elicited a number of reactions in the traditional Shona society. The main ones included 

seeking for the cause and solutions. Usually women were blamed for infertility and some men returned 

the ‘barren’ woman to her family and demanded the return of the ‘roora’ or bride price paid. At times 

the ‘barren’ women remarried and had children, showing that often women were blamed before 

adequate research was done to establish the truth about a problem. Some women were known to have 

committed suicide to avoid the prospect of enduring a lifelong experience of disrespect and ridicule for 

being childless. 

Solutions for infertility in traditional society 

The elderly informants explained that when one was called by the ancestors to serve them they had no 

choice but to accept the call. Rejection of the call was known to result in terminal illness and death. If 

one was bewitched a traditional doctor (n’anga) was approach to divine and treat the problem and they 

were known to do their healing very well. Cases of jambwa were referred to the n’anga for guidance. 

The solution was to pay reparation to the family of the wronged spirit (kuripa ngozi). Where infertility 

occurred due to blockage by a witch spirit seeking acceptance, two options were open, first, the 

affected person could accept the demands of the spirit and do the required rituals. The problem was 

known to just disappear. This acceptance was done privately as no one wanted to be known to be 

witch. The second option was to engage a n’anga specialized in cleansing rituals to rid the affected 

person of the spirit of witchcraft. 

Where the sperm count was found to be low or poor, herbal treatment was provided to strengthen the 

back ‘mushonga wekusimbisa musana’. A raw egg was also used to test if the person was fertile or not. 

One was asked to drink the contents of a raw egg, if one was fertile they would not vomit. Vomiting 

indicated that one had a serious infertility problem. 

Another solution involved social organization. If a woman was infertile, her family could provide her 

husband with another girl to bear children on behalf of the infertile sister or aunt. If the family did not 

have a girl to give it was compelled to take back their daughter and refund the son-in-law’s bride price, 

the roora. If the man was infertile, the man’s family, usually the man’s mother would secretly 

organize a surrogate husband (usually the man’s brother) to impregnate the wife. The children born 

belonged to the infertile man. 


Focus Group discussions with workers at the School of Social Work 

Findings from the focus group discussion with the workers at the School of Social Work were that 

causes of infertility ranged from traditional/cultural causes to modern day causes. The workers noted 

that traditionally people called to be spirit mediums did not usually have children. They also noted that 

continuing beliefs and practices in traditional cultural mores were retrogressive as they prevented men 

from understanding that it is not always that women are to blame for infertility. Witchcraft and 

sorcery, spirit possession, birth defects, taking traditional drugs like mbanje/marijuana, backyard 

abortions, engagement in some occupation like driving long distance haulage trucks, graders for 

mining, earth movement works alongside taking modern drugs that inhibit sexual desires among men. 

They also noted that the spread of sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS as contributing 

towards human infertility. 

They noted that in the contemporary modern industrialized society it was not easy to detect signs and 

symptoms of infertility as the delay in having children could be explained in a number of ways, like 

pursuing careers or technical training, trying to save resources to build houses or business to safeguard 

their income security. It was also noted that it was not easy to understand if not having children among 

some men and women these days was due to their sexual orientation, a case reported was that of gays 

and lesbians who do not have the societal space to openly make their sexual orientation known. 

The group concurred with the views of the elderly key informants on the three months maximum 

period of detecting if there was a fertility problem when a couple lives together as husband and wife. 

They however noted that nowadays it was tricky because if a woman wished to remain in a 

relationship knowing that her partner had a fertility problem, she might have an extramarital 

relationship to get pregnant. With regard to reaction to infertility the workers noted that nowadays 

people react in a number of ways including: having extramarital affairs to get children, divorcing the 

‘barren’ women, rape, child sexual abuse and engaging in rituals and herbal treatment to boost sexual 

prowess. 

On solutions to the problem of infertility the workers noted that while there were some situations 

which could be best served through traditional solutions, the contemporary society had and offered 

many options which could ease the problem of infertility. Traditional solutions for causes like the 

avenging spirits were noted as requiring to be used since no other effective solutions were known. 

Other solutions noted included avoiding risky sexual practices that might lead to contraction of 

sexually transmitted infections, avoiding taking drugs and illicit brews like ‘zed’ which might affect 

fertility, working in occupations where health and safety standards are adhered to (like agricultural and 

some industrial operations that use or work with toxic substances) and consulting contemporary 

medical specialists. 

In-depth Interview with the Traditional Doctor 

The traditional doctor’s views on the causes, signs and symptoms, period of determining the existence 

of a fertility problem on a married couple and reactions to infertility were similar to those presented by 

the elderly from the village in Marondera District. On the reactions to infertility the traditional doctor 

indicated that often they have to deal with clients who ask them at times for odd services like being 

asked by clients to link them with people who could make them conceive. On the solutions to 

infertility, the doctor was emphatic that on anything to do with spirits and traditional rituals, they alone 

could handle the issues. The traditional doctor also acknowledged the role of western medicines in 

dealing with fertility, such as where surgical procedures are required. 

The interview with the Faith Healer 

The Faith healer led a Christian religious congregation and indicated that they welcomed people of all 

faiths, creeds and backgrounds. They diagnosed people’s problems, including issues of infertility from 

a spiritual point of view. While their views concurred with those of the elderly villagers, the faith 

healer emphasized that they were able to deal with any human problem through prayers and the power 

of the holy spirit. According to their doctrine any one had the potential to overcome any problem if 

they had faith and are prepared to repent and follow the rules of the church. The faith healer noted that 


there were many cases of people who had infertility problems which they took to many healers without 

getting the solutions they wanted. Later when they went to the faith healer their infertility problems 

were solved. 

Review of literature on contemporary medical views on infertility 

The review of literature on the western medical view provided the contemporary medical opinion on 

the problem of infertility. On the causes of infertility, it was noted that infertility in humans was 

caused by a several factors (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). In males it was noted that the factors might 

include: 

Deficiencies in semen - (semen quality is often used a surrogate measure of male fecundity). Abnormal 

sperm production was explained to be caused by problems like undescended testicles and/or genetic 

defects. 

Repeated Sexually transmitted Infections – might affect sperm production functions. 

Sperm delivery problems – these could be due to sexual problems like premature ejaculation or 

dyspareunia (painful intercourse), health problems such as retrograde ejaculation, genetic diseases like 

cystic fibrosis and structural problems such as blockage of the part of the testicle that contains sperm 

(epididymis). 

General health and lifestyles – one’s general health has a bearing on fertility, for instance, if one’s 

nutrition is poor, they are obese, use alcohol, tobacco and drugs, their fertility might be compromised. 

Overexposure to certain environmental factors - such as pesticides and other chemicals, heat (like in 

saunas and hot tubs), radiation and chemotherapy. This could impair sperm production and affect 

fertility. 

Damage due to cancer and its treatment - where radiation or chemotherapy treatment is closer to the 

testicles, sperm production might be affected. Removal of one or both testicles due to cancer might 

affect fertility as well. 

In females infertility could be due to factors that include: 

Damage or blockage to the fallopian tube(s) - due to Sexually Transmitted Infections like Chlamydia. 

Endometriosis – this occurs when uterine tissue inplants and grows outside the uterus, this affects 

sperm functions, egg and ovaries, the uterus and fallopian tubes. 

Ovulation disorders – prevent ovaries from releasing eggs (anovulation) and this may be due to injury, 

tumors, excessive exercise and inadequate food (starvation). 

Medications – some medications may cause temporary infertility, this may be restored when the 

medication is stopped. 

Too much prolactin (hyperprolactinemia) - the hormone that stimulates production of breast milk, may 

affect ovulation in women who are not nursing or pregnant. 

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) – this was explained as the condition in which the female body 

produces too much of the hormone androgen which causes ovulation problems. 

Early menopause – this is characterized by absence of menstruation and early depletion of ovarian 

follicles before reaching the age of 40 years. 

Uterine fibroids – these are benign tumors in the wall of the uterus common in women in the ages of 

30s and 40s. These may cause infertility by blocking the fallopian tubes and interfering with proper 

implantation of the fertilized egg. 

Pelvic adhesions - these are bands of scar tissue that bind organs after surgery to remove pelvic 

infection, appendicitis or problems with the pelvis. Formation of scar tissue may impair fertility. 

Thyroid problems – disorders of the thyroid gland, where there is either too much thyroid hormone 

(hyperthyroidism) or too little (hypothyroidism) can interrupt the menstrual cycle and cause infertility. 

Cancer and its treatment – female reproductive cancers often severely affect female fertility. Both 

radiation and chemotherapy may affect a woman’s ability to reproduce. Chemotherapy is known to 

affect the reproductive function and fertility in both women and men. 


Other medical conditions – like those associated with delayed puberty or amenorrhea, such as 

Cushing’s disease, sickle cell disease, kidney disease and diabetes are also known to affect women’s 

fertility. 

Discussion 

It can be noted that this study showed that infertility has been and continues to be an issue of concern 

among the Shona people of Zimbabwe. The traditional ways of tackling infertility continue to be used 

though continually the technological developments happening are challenging the traditional cultural 

practices. Other actors, like faith healers and western medical practitioners are also continually gaining 

acceptance. Opportunities are now available for couples with fertility problems to opt for solutions like 

using fertility treatments, using sperm donors (for couples with male infertility) and child adoption to 

build the family. On adoption, the age old cultural myth that adopted children bring misfortunes should 

be abandoned because for decades now no report has been made of anyone having faced the feared 

metaphysical problems with an adopted child. 

It is also notable that in general, from the traditional times to the present, women face the blame for 

infertility but information in this study shows that infertility in a couple can be due to a problem with 

any one of them. So, when faced with this problem it is important for couples to have open minds as 

they seek solutions to their problem. 

The causes of infertility put forward by the different respondents in this study serve to inform the 

Shona people (and others) of what needs to be considered when faced with a fertility problem. Many 

options are provided but there is need to think hard, as the Shona say ‘garai pasi mufunge’, 

considering the socio-economic, cultural, health and humanitarian implications before making and 

acting on a decision. 

Conclusion and Recommendations 

Shona traditional views on causes of infertility persist to the present day. Women continue to carry the 

primary burden and blame for infertility (in some cases they are blamed for the sex of the child – 

especially if it is a girl) since men can remarry or have extra-marital affairs to have children. Medical 

information presented in this paper shows that infertility in a couple can only be ascertained after a 

medical assessment. This is an important point to note. Beliefs in the metaphysical causes and 

solutions to infertility persist as well. 

The following key issues deserve consideration when addressing the issue of infertility: 

1. Encourage and engage in discussion on seeking sexual reproductive health information and general 

health information at family and community levels. 

2. Encourage early investigation of any suspect health anomaly in the family. 

3. Discuss the importance of regular health checks for breast and cervical cancers and other health 

conditions for girls and women. Also encourage regular general and reproductive health ‘systems’ 

checks on boys and men. This could help in early detection and correction of any problems. 

4. While traditional and religious beliefs and practices are a reality in the Shona society, it is important 

to have them interface with modern scientific approaches to get the most beneficial outcome to those 

with infertility problems, and 

5. Use of professional bodies should be promoted so that the best available services are accessed. 

These professional bodies could include the traditional healers’ associations (to ensure people are not 

cheated by quack healers), professional social workers, psychological counselors and medical 

counselors. 

Acknowledgement 

The author gives gratitude to the elderly women and man of Nyandoro village, workers at the School 

of Social Work, the traditional doctor and the faith healer who provided information that was used in 

this study. 


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in Zimbabwe. Sexualities. Vol 4 (3): 315-332. 


A Study on Factors for Attracting and Retaining Talented Workforce in 

Educational Institutions 

Ms.Sathya 

Research Scholar, VIT Business School, VIT University, Vellore, Tamilnadu, India 

Sathya.s528@gmail.com 

Dr.R.Indradevi 

Associate Professor, VIT Business School, VIT University, Vellore, Tamilnadu, India 

rindradevi@vit.ac.in 

ABSTRACT 

Presently, the biggest challenge faced by educational institutions in India is the acute 

shortage of qualified and competent faculties. This has resulted in a scenario where educational 

institutions are varying with each other to attract and retain the best available faculty talent. This 

research work tries to identify the factors for attracting and retaining the talented workforce in 

education institutions. Primary data with reference to the factors for attracting and retention of talent 

faculty was collected using a structured questionnaire. Factor analysis was carried out to identify the 

factors for attraction and retention of talented workforce. This research identified the factors for 

attraction are learning opportunities, remuneration and working environment, management support 

system, Institution image and vision and teaching aids and the factors for retention are compensation 

and leave policy, corporate social responsibility, cordial relationship, rewards and motivation, support 

from department head, promotion policy and organization culture. 

KEYWORDS: talent management, workforce, engineering colleges, attraction, retention. 

INTRODUCTION 

At present India is striving to compete in a globalised economy. Presently the acute shortage 

of qualified and competent faculties is the biggest challenges faced by the educational institutions. 

This has resulted in a scenario where institutions are vying with each other to attract and retain the best 

available faculty talent. Like business and industry, the education field is discovering the need for 

talent to meet the new quality standard demands by the society and next generation. India’s biggest 

challenges are the potentially qualified engineering graduates in a global market. Number of 

engineering colleges providing numerous engineering graduates in the market but there is a shortage of 

supply. 

An educational institution with talented faculties increases the quality of education of the students and 

they can compete in the global market. The short supply and high demand of talented faculties, it is 

necessary for the engineering colleges to attract and retain the talented faculty to attain the goals of the 

institution. The three pillars of any higher education institution are quality of faculty, infrastructure 

facilities and learning environment. Most of the engineering colleges are talented to build up the 

needed skills in students to achieve in this competitive world. To provide highly potential engineering 

graduates, faculties play a major role in students learning. 

A survey of human resource professionals at multinational corporations in India revealed that the 

demand for the engineering graduates is high but only one quarter of engineering graduate with a 

suitable degree could be employed (Farrell et al.; 2005). 

LITERATURE REVIEW: 

The attraction and retention of talent is the challenging question in educational institution. The 

Herzberg theory (1959) suggested that motivation and job satisfaction enhanced by the jobs with 


opportunities for growth, achievement, recognition and advancement. Researcher indicates that the 

educational institutions should be included in the service industry. Consequently, this will have a 

significant impact on talent management, attraction and retention and on overall HRM process. A high 

potential faculty is the cornerstone of any successful educational system. Attracting and retaining 

talented faculties is very important for an educational institution. The factors for attracting the talented 

faculty in the educational institution are organization vision, management system, work environment, 

challenging opportunity and pay and benefits. The factors for retaining the talented faculty in the 

educational institution are culture and policies, leadership behavior, team relationships, respect, 

compensation package, result feedback and motivation, person organization fit and workload. 

Padilla-Velez (1993) and Bowen (1980) described that possibility of Growth and promotion 

opportunities are changes in career development and irrespective of the truth that the alteration 

probably will be upward or downward in condition 

Finkelstein (1984) postulated that when faculties think about changing their jobs they do not think 

extrinsic factors like salary and financial benefits but they consider professional growth and 

opportunities for promotion as important factors. Manger and Eikeland (1990) postulated that 

relationships with co-workers have direct impact on employee’s turnovers. The factors like pears 

relationship has the strongest impact on academics satisfaction and intent to leave. 

Corporate culture is described as the invisible forces that encourage employees to exist in a business 

organization (Sheridan 1992). A strong work culture, leadership development opportunities, 

competitive remuneration and a strong employer brand associated with values are the important factors 

that attract the top talent towards the organization (Houkes et al.; 2003, Iverson and Roy, 1994). 

Hagedorn (1994) examines the satisfaction of academic staff using variables such as salary, perceived 

support from colleagues’ satisfaction with the administration, enjoyment of student interaction and 

perceived level of stress. To attract and retain academic teaching staff, a university must offer 

environment in which faculty members are likely to find job satisfaction. If faculty members are 

dissatisfied with an institution management methods and employee benefits, faculty morale will be 

diminished resulting in a higher rate of staff turnover frequent complains and lower research 

productivity (Jennings & Machauglin 1997). Conversely, faculty satisfaction with the work 

environment promotes teaching quality and research. 

To attract and retain the talented faculty, an institution must offer work environment in which faculty 

members are likely to find job satisfaction which enhances the teaching quality and research (Jennings 

and Mclauglin 1997). In today’s world, quality in higher education is a significant area of research 

(Yorke, 1999). According to Lepak and Snell (1999), employee’s skills and knowledge are a source 

competitive value to the organization. One of the most important motivational factors for the 

employees of any organization is the compensation package. Institution often provides various pay 

packages for faculties to stay in their institution. 

In today competitive knowledge -base environment, employees are considered a key source and 

necessary to the survival of the businesses. Each and every organization continuously strives to get the 

best talented employees (porter, 2001). 

Employees work for a long time for an organization when they have strong relationship with their 

colleagues (Clarke, 2001). To retain employees, Hansen (2002) argued that employees in order to 

achieve the better financial position organization have to pay more to attain the business goals. 

Attracting and retaining talented faculties is thus primary requirement of an educational system. If 

higher education institutions are to adapt to increasing international competition, significant changes 

are urgently required to improve the quality of higher education and to raise academic standards in 

accordance with international standards (Tang 2002) to achieve this, a university must have 

outstanding faculty members who enhance the quality of academic performance (comm. And 

Mathaisel 2003) 

Employees are internal customer in any organization (Sallis, 2002) As a result, attracting and retaining 

talent has become a major concern and a pressing problem for many organizations (polyhart 2006; 

Rynes and cable 2003) Superior who has the ability to properly distribute the duties and 


esponsibilities and also can give right direction and who can create creative way for doing the job to 

the employees, want to work under such type of superior.(Risher and stopper, 2002). 

kochanski (2004), identified five elements to attract and retain the talented faculty namely; work 

environment and affiliation (which includes values , culture, quality of colleagues, managers and 

leaders), work content including challenging work, work life balance, benefits including development 

and career growth and remuneration. 

Continuous learning and challenging opportunities for career advancement are offered by the 

organization to attract the talent people (Ito and Brotheridge, 2005), In the era of global economics, 

higher education institutions must focus on customer satisfaction (chen et al. 2006). The organization 

believes that talented employees and individual talent are the most valuable asset in global competition 

(Cappelli, 2008.collings and Mellahi 2009; Green et al.;2006). 

The systematic attraction, identification, development, engagement/retention and deployment of those 

individuals with high potential who are of particular value to an organization’ (CIPD, 2006, p). The 

organization need to have a vision that whether we have the right talent within to attract and retain the 

best talent available within the organization Gentry et al., (2007) argued that the employees get support 

from theirs supervisor, they feel connected with the organization which leads to retention. Person 

organization fit was found correlated with work attitudes such as job satisfaction and organization 

commitment which leads to employee retention and satisfaction of employees can improve the quality 

of the organization (Ooi et al.;2007). 

This can be explained by the fact that talent can be any individual who is committed, motivated and 

perform effectively. The successful utilization of individual capabilities can contribute positively to 

performance and enhance organizational image (Bhatti et al 2011). 

From the review of literature, it is understood that limited research has been done in educational 

institutions in identifying the factors for attraction and retention of talented faculties. 

RESEARCH QUESTION: 

1. To find the factors which influence attraction of talented workforce? 

2. To find the factors which influence retention of talented workforce? 

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: 

1. To identify the factors that lead to attraction of talented faculties in educational institution. 

2. To identify the factors that lead to retention of talented faculties in educational institution. 

METHODOLOGY: 

A structured questionnaire was used in the survey separate dimensions for attraction and 

retention. The questionnaire used in the present study based on studies in the literature (comm. and 

mathaisel 2000, Fosam et al. 1998, kusku 2001, Lam et al. 2001, Locke 1969, Metle 2003, Naceur and 

chan 2001, Nabeker et al.2001, oshagbemi 1997b, Pollock et al.2000), and promotion arrangements 

(koustelios et al. 2004, oshagbemi 1996) and Mohsmmad Ashraf and Mohd H.R. Joarder (2009). 

The responses were collected from the faculties of three private engineering colleges in vellore district. 

Faculty members of the private engineering colleges were selected through convenient sampling. The 

study used 5 point likert scales with closed ended questions ranging from strongly agree to strongly 

disagree. A total of 57 items was used for this survey excluding demographic characteristics. 

The statistical package for social science (spss, version 14) was used to analyze the data. 

The reliability test has been conducted to verify the internal consistency of the variables obtained in 

the sample. The cronbach’s alpha is found to 0.943, which is much higher than the minimum 

acceptable level suggested by Nunally (1978). Factor analysis was used to analyze the data. 

DATA ANALYSIS: 

Factor analysis is used to analyze the data. The reliability test was conducted for all 57 items and the 

cronbach’s alpha is found to 0.943 which is presented see.Table 1 


Table 1 Reliability Statistics 

Cronbach's Alpha 

N of Items 

.943 57 

Being satisfied with the reliability of the instrument, the researcher carried out the item to total 

correlation to identify and remove any item that deviate in value. Finally for attraction from 22 items 

only 20 items were retained by the researcher and for retention from 35 items only 27 items were 

retained by the researcher after removing the deviated items which is summarized in see Table 2. An 

improved alpha value of 0.954 was obtained on the 47 items. 

Table 2 Reliability Statistics 

Cronbach's Alpha 

N of Items 

.954 47 

FACTORS FOR TALENT ATTRACTION: 

After deciding on the 20 items for attraction, factor analysis was carried out to identify the 

underlying factor attraction of talented faculty. But before proceeding on with factor analysis, few 

preliminary tests like Kaiser Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling Adequacy (.875) was done to justify 

that factor analysis is an appropriate tool for the present study. Kaiser (1974) recommends accepting 

values greater than 0.5 as acceptable. 

Table 3 KMO and Bartlett's Test 

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .875 

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 1368.023 

Df 231 

Sig. .000 

KMO and Barlett’s test of sampling adequacy is 0.875 for attraction 

There are two stages in factor analysis. Stage one being the factor extraction process, wherein the 

objective of the study is to identify how many factors are to be extracted from the data. The result of 

the factor analysis is provided see Table 4. We find 5 factors in attraction extracted together account 

for 69.234% of the cumulative variance (information contained in the original 5 variables). 

Table 4 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. 

Rotated Component Matrix(a) 

Variables 

Factor Factor Factor Mean 

Loading Alpha 

Factor 1: learning opportunity 0.838 2.68 

Encourages creative work 0.815 

Supports adequate research 0.733 

High career path 0.584 

Recognize innovative activities 0.582 

Factor2:Remuneration and working environment 0.832 2.385 

Provision of subsidies for further education 0.786 

Office of the individual faculty is excellent 0.679 

Independent and spacious research 0.678 

Provision of good salaries 0.620 

Factor 3: Management support systems 0.833 2.86 

Director with leadership and managerial capacity 0.793 

Provision of high quality service process 0.698 

Provision of smooth communication channel 0.623 


Provision of lodging travel welfare allowances 0.591 

Factor 4: Institution image and vision 0.826 2.61 

Institution reputation and image 0.754 

Institution helps faculty members develops self-vision 0.663 

Provision of fair promotion systems 0.618 

Clear systems of rewards and penalties 0.594 

Institutions principals operating perspective 0.566 

Factor 5: Teaching Aids 0.794 3.372 

Provision of complete teaching facilities 0.850 

Provision of abundant library resources 0.845 

Provision of advanced information 0.712 

FACTOR 1 

Four items like encourages creative work, supports adequate research, high career path, recognize 

innovative activities were loaded under Factor one with loading range from 0.8 to .58. The alpha value 

for the first factor is .838 and the mean value is 2.68 which indicate that there is a strong level of 

agreement among the respondents for factor one. The items loaded under factor one empathize the 

importance of learning. Hence the factor one is named as learning opportunities. This result is 

supported to a large extent by made by Swati Agarwal (2010). 

FACTOR 2 

Four items like provision of subsidies for further education, office of the individual faculty is 

excellent, independent and spacious research, provision of good salaries were loaded under factor two 

with loading range from .78 to .62. The alpha value is .832 and the mean value is 2.385 which indicate 

that there is a strong level of agreement among the respondents for factor two. The items loaded under 

factor two empathize the importance for remuneration and environment. Hence the factor two is named 

as remuneration and working environment. 

FACTOR 3 

Four items like director with leadership and managerial capacity, provision of high quality service 

process, provision of smooth communication channel and provision of lodging travel welfare 

allowances were loaded under factor three with loading ranging from .79 to .59. The alpha value is 

0.833 and the mean value is 2.86 which indicate that there is a strong level of agreement among the 

respondents for factor three. The items loaded under factor three empathize the importance for 

management. Hence the factor three is named as management support system. 

FACTOR 4 

Five items like institutions reputation and image ,institution helps faculty members develops selfvision, 

provision of fair promotion systems, clear system of rewards and penalties and institutions 

principals operating perspective were loaded under factor ranging .75to .57. The alpha value is .826 

and the mean value is 2.61 which indicate that there is a strong level of agreement among the 

respondents for factor four. The items loaded under factor four empathize the importance for 

institution vision. Hence the factor four is named as institution image and vision. 

FACTOR 5 

Three items like provision of complete teaching facilities, provision of abundant library resources and 

provision of advanced information were loaded under factor ranging from .85 to .71. The alpha value 

is .794 and the mean value is 3.372 which indicate that there is a strong level of agreement among the 

respondents for factor five. The items loaded under factor five empathize the importance for teaching. 

Hence the factor five is named as teaching aids. 

FACTORS FOR TALENT RETENTION 

After deciding on the 27 items for retention, factor analysis was carried out to identify the 

underlying factor retention of talented faculty. 


We find that the KMO and Barlett’s test of sampling adequacy is 0.825 for retention which is 

presented in table 5. 

Table 5 KMO and Bartlett's Test 

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .825 

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 1945.398 

Df 465 

Sig. .000 

We find that the 7 factors in retention extracted together account for 75.448% of cumulative variance. . 

The result of the factor analysis is provided see Table 6. 

Table 6: Rotated Component Matrix(a) 

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis 

Variables 

Factor 

loading 

Factor 

Alpha Factor Mean 

Factor 1: Compensation and leave facilities 0.819 2.62 

Good vacation and leave policy 0.822 

Satisfactory salary package 0.665 

Satisfactory incidental leave 0.664 

Good welfare facilities 0.602 

Institution respect for professional knowledge 0.522 

Paid study leave 0.816 

Factor 2: Corporate Social Responsibility 0.782 3.355 

Participates in various social works 0.793 

Values norms and culture of the institution 0.726 

Knowledge updates through various resources 0.713 

Mutual respect among faculty members 0.628 

Factor 3: Cordial relationship 0.848 3.379 

Communication among the faculty members is good 0.867 

Working relationships are good 0.744 

Differences of opinion are respected 0.674 

Factor 4: Rewards and Motivation 0.758 2.45 

Rewards and glorification for outstanding performances 0.830 

Provision of achievement rewards 0.743 

Supports for the results of teaching and research 0.559 

Competitive of festival bonus 0.502 

Factor 5: Support from department head 0.860 3.38 

Departmental head provides suggestion for work improvement 0.909 

Departmental heads are co-operative 0.700 

Duties and Responsibilities are assigned fairly 0.640 

Provides safe and supportive teamwork environment 0.569 

Factor 6: Promotion policy 0.778 2.789 

Equal chances to be promoted to the top position 0.823 

Transparent performance evaluation policy 0.715 

No one dominates over others 0.609 

Factor 7: organization culture 0.560 3.055 

Evaluates individual job efforts 0.813 

Provides just-in-time promotion 0.623 

Encourages ethical behavior 0.625 


FACTOR 1 

Six items like good vacation and leave policy , satisfactory salary package, satisfactory incidental 

leave, good welfare facilities, institution respect for professional knowledge and paid study leave were 

loaded under factor one for retention with loading ranging from .82 to .52. The alpha value for first 

factor is .819 and the mean value is 2.62 which indicate that there is a strong level of agreement among 

the respondents for factor one. The items loaded under factor one empathize the need for having the 

pay and leave facility for faculties in the institution. Hence the factor one is named as compensation 

and leave facilities. 

FACTOR 2 

Four items like participate in various social works, values norms and culture of the institution, 

knowledge updates through various resources and mutual respect among faculty members were 

loaded under factor two with loading ranging from .63 to .79. The alpha value for factor two is .782 


respondents for factor two. The items loaded under factor two empathize the need for having the 

institution responsibility. Hence factor two is named as corporate social responsibility. 

FACTOR 3 

Three items like communication among faculty members is good, working relationships are good and 

differences of opinion are respected were loaded under factor three with loading ranging from .86 to 

.67. The alpha value for factor three is .848 and the mean value is 3.379 which indicate that there is a 

strong level of agreement among the respondents for factor three. The items loaded under factor three 

empathize the need for having the good relationship with colleagues. Hence the factor five is named as 

cordial relationship. 

FACTOR 4 

Four items like rewards and glorification for outstanding performance, provision of achievement 

rewards, supports for the results of teaching and research and competitive of festival bonus were 

loaded under factor four with loading ranging from .83 to .50. The alpha value for factor four is .758 


respondents for factor four. The items loaded under factor five empathize the need for having the 

motivation for faculties. Hence the factor five is named as rewards and motivation. 

FACTOR 5 

Four items like departmental heads provides suggestions for work environment, departmental heads 

are co-operative, duties and responsibilities are assigned fairly and provides safe and supportive 

teamwork environment were loaded under factor Five with loading ranging from .909 to .569. The 

alpha value is .86 and the mean value is 3.38 which indicate that there is a strong level of agreement 

among the respondents for factor five. The items loaded under factor five empathize the importance for 

head of the department. Hence the factor five is named as support from department head. 

FACTOR 6 

Three items like equal chances to be promoted the top position, transparent performance evaluation 

policy and no one dominates over others were loaded under factor six with loading ranging from .823 

to .609. The alpha value is.778 and the mean value is 2.789 which indicate that there is a strong level 

of agreement among the respondents for factor six. The items loaded under factor six empathize the 

importance for promotion. Hence the factor five is named as promotion policy. 

FACTOR 7 

Three factors like evaluates individual job efforts, provides just-in-time promotion and encourages 

ethical behavior were loaded under factor seven with loading ranging from 0.81 to 0 .62. The alpha 

values is 0 .56 and the mean value is 3.055 which indicate that there is a strong level of agreement 


among the respondents for factor seven. The items loaded under factor seven empathize the importance 

for culture of the institution. Hence the factor five is named as organization culture. 

CONCLUSION: 

This study focused on the factors for attraction and retention of the talented faculty of private 

engineering colleges with special reference to Vellore district. It is essential for private engineering 

colleges to focus on their organization vision, the function of their management systems, working 

environment, providing challenging opportunity to their employees and provide pay and other benefits 

in par with the AICTE norms. This would enable them to recruit talented employees to their 

organization. In order to retain the talented workforce the engineering colleges should pay attention on 

factors such as culture and policies of the organization, leadership behavior, team relationships, respect 

to their employees, good compensation package, result feedback and motivation, person organization 

fit and workload. 

By concentrating on the above said attraction and retention factors, private engineering colleges can 

have talent pool which would enhance the student’s performance and would take to the top ranking list 

among private engineering colleges. 

REFERENCES: 

1. Bhatti et al. (2011), “The effect of commitment and motivation on human talent and its 

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Graffitti: Deviance or a sigh of and for suppressed expressions? 

Muchinako, George Alex, Matsika, Abel Blessing, 

School of Social Work, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe 

& 

Muchinako Mary 

Department of Political and Administrative Studies, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe. 

Communication: Muchinako, George Alex, School of Social Work, University of Zimbabwe, P.B. 

66022, Kopje, Harare, Zimbabwe. E-mail: muchinakog@yahoo.com 

Abstract 

This study sought to explore graffiti art and messages in Zimbabwe and to interrogate whether graffiti 

art and message writers were engaging in a form of deviance or whether it was a way of expressing 

suppressed feelings or ideas. The study was based on the sociological theory of deviance. Field 

observation, review of literature and key informant interviews were the main methods used to collect 

information for the study. The study found that though graffiti was common in Zimbabwe it was 

practiced clandestinely due to fear of societal sanctions. It was mainly in the form of messages written, 

scratched or spray painted on various surfaces accessible to the public. The messages communicated 

issues of concern on various socio-economic issues. Graffiti writers and artists remained anonymous 

yet they wanted their messages to reach the public. This in a way indicated that graffiti was being used 

as an avenue to vent out suppressed ideas. The study reached a conclusion that while graffiti was 

despised, it was important to create an open platform, as was the case in some societies, to allow any 

and all members of society unfettered opportunities to express themselves through writing or drawing 

graffiti at sites set up for this purpose. Those messages would then be analyzed and, where necessary, 

remedial action taken. 

Key words: graffitti, art, deviance, sigh, suppressed expression, Zimbabwe, 

Introduction 

Graffiti has been in existence in many societies from time immemorial but the reasons for its 

existence are largely unclear and unexplained. In the contemporary world graffiti continues to be 

found and is explained as ‘unorthodox’, unconventional and a deviation from established and 

acceptable social norms. The critical questions to ask are: “What is graffiti?” and “Why does graffiti 

continue to exist?” 

The Macmillan English Dictionary (2009:618) defines graffiti as “words or pictures drawn on 

walls in public places”. Wikipedia (2013) explains graffiti as “…writing or drawings that have been 

scribbled, scratched, or sprayed illicitly on a wall or other surface in a public place”. 

Wikipedia (2013) further explains that graffiti is known to range from simple written words to 

elaborate wall paintings, and that graffitti has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to 

Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Graffitti has over time and with social changes 

occurring, such as colonization and modernization, spread to developing countries like Zimbabwe. In 

the Zimbabwean context, it has been understood and regarded just as in the western societies, that it is 

a form of deviance. 

In Zimbabwe the most used graffitti materials depend on the surface upon which the message is 

placed. Most messages are seen to have been written using metal scratching materials like hard broken 

wires or other metal objects with sharp edges or points, felt marker pens and spray paint. Messages are 

often written discreetly and without the property owner’s permission. No-one usually owns up to 

having put the graffitti message or art since it is regarded as a form of vandalism punishable under 

Zimbabwean law. Messages are in most cases placed in places where there is public view and the 


messages are usually to communicate some issue of public concern or political messages. In the urban 

areas some of the messages communicated relate to issues among street gangs. In rural areas some 

messages are usually to communicate some issues of concern or issues that may be secret but which 

the graffiti artist or message communicator wishes the public to know, like issues of infidelity by 

married women and men or taboo issues like homosexuality, especially involving men. As pointed out 

earlier on, graffiti is illegal in Zimbabwe, this makes it a difficult area to study as people are not free to 

give information to researchers for fear that researchers could be law enforcement agents out to arrest 

the graffitti writers and artists especially in Zimbabwe where many law enforcement agents work in 

plain clothes so that they are not easily identified. In the Zimbabwean scenario studying issues such as 

graffiti requires researchers to collect information through observation in the field and attempting to 

interview or discuss with possible informants. 

Theoretical Framework 

People engaging in writing graffiti messages or drawings are seen as engaging in a form of 

deviance. This study was guided by the deviance, strain and social integration theories. According to 

Macionis and Geber (2010) and Douglas and Waksler (1982), Stark (2007) and Giddens (2006) 

deviance describes actions or behaviors that violate social norms, and formally enacted rules through 

engaging in behaviors defined as criminal as well as a violation of social norms, for example, rejecting 

folkways and mores. 

The deviance theory 

According to Goode (2004) and Stark (2007) there are several broad sociological classes which 

describe deviant behavior and these include structural functionalism, symbolic interaction and conflict 

theory. The structural functionalist theory put forward by Durkheim explains that societies are 

integrated because people are attached to societal groups and institutions that that are regulated by 

norms and values. Deviance might occur when a society’s members violate the norms and values due 

to personal selfishness or when the societal norms that control the individuals’ behavior no longer have 

power due to society’s corruption. 

According to Macionis et al (2011:200) and Giddens (2006) the symbolic interaction theory 

advanced by Durkheim explained that deviance was a normal and necessary part of social organization 

that had four important functions which were that: 

Deviance affirmed cultural values and norms and any definition of virtue rests on an opposing 

idea of vice, that there can be no good without evil and no justice without crime. 

Deviance defined moral boundaries and people learn right from wrong by defining people as 

deviant. 

A serious form of deviance forced people to come together and react in the same way against it. 

Deviance pushed society's moral boundaries which, in turn lead to social change. 

The conflict theory, according to Macionis et al., (2011) and Stark (2007), states that society or an 

organization functions in order that each individual participant and its groups work to maximize their 

benefits, this inevitably contributes to social change such as political changes and revolutions. Deviant 

behaviors are actions that do not go along with the social institutions as what cause deviance. Society’s 

right and ability to change norms, wealth or status comes into conflict with the individual because this 

usually involves ignoring legal rights of the poor. Those in the middle class usually accept society’s 

norms and regulations and they side with the elites rather than the poor, thinking they might rise to the 

top by supporting the status quo. The conflict theory is based on the view that the fundamental causes 

of crime are the social and economic forces operating within society. This theory also notes that the 

powerful in society define crime. This raises the question: for whom is this theory functional? In this 

theory, laws are instruments of oppression: tough on the powerless and less tough on the powerful 

(Giddens, 2006 and Billingham, 2007). This then supports the view that deviance is the sigh of and for 

suppressed expressions, as the poor and powerless in society try to have their views and concerns 

heard and addressed. 


Methodology 

This study was on an activity considered “illegal” and this placed limitations on finding willing 

respondents (graffiti artists and writers) to provide first hand information. The researchers did field 

observations, held discussions with key informants and reviewed literature on graffiti. The field 

observations focused on locations of graffiti, types of graffiti, physical aspects to do with placement of 

graffiti, materials used to place the messages, messages carried, and types of art displayed and how 

graffiti was dealt with. Discussions with key informants sought to elicit information on who was 

involved in graffiti art and messages, why they thought this was done and when it was done (time of 

day). 

Findings 

Field observations were done in three cities in Zimbabwe – Harare, Chitungwiza and 

Bulawayo, one rural location/settlement in Nyanga District, Manicaland Province and along the major 

highways between the cities. The researchers found out the following: 

Locations of graffiti 

Most of the graffiti messages and art were found in public toilets in both urban and rural 

settings covered by the study. Despite the observation that most of the toilets lacked adequate cleaning 

and maintenance and were often smelly, somebody took time to write graffiti messages on the walls in 

these places. Some graffiti was found on the walls of residential flats, on outside walls of some school 

buildings and colleges and in old dilapidated buildings. Along the highways some messages were 

found scribbled at the back of the distance indicator sign (milestones) or spray painted on the tarmac. 

In many places graffiti messages were found written on car glass windows. 

Types of graffiti 

Most of the graffiti messages found were written and very few were in art form. The written 

messages were not presented in correct grammatical expressions but were rather messages with words 

(sort of key words) about an issue being communicated. 

Physical aspects on placement 

It was observed that many of the messages were placed at positions where the public could 

easily see them. Toilets were used probably because they are used regularly by the public and anyone 

using them would not miss a message written on the walls where they would not normally expect to 

find anything written. The same view could be held for messages placed on outside walls of residential 

buildings like flats and deserted offices. 

Materials used to place messages/art 

Most of the messages presented in the graffiti were scratched on to the walls or surfaces 

indicating that some sharp and firm object like strong metal wire or object was used to write the 

message. Some messages and art were written with felt markers using black or bright colours. Spray 

paint was used to write some messages and it was noted that spray painted messages required more 

space than the messages presented through the other methods. It was also observed that the scratching 

method of writing graffiti messages was not used on outside walls of buildings probably because 

visibility would be difficult to achieve and also that the chances of being caught (arrested) were high if 

they were found in the act. Messages found on car windows appeared to have been written using 

fingers. 

Messages carried 

The messages found written on the toilet walls in all areas observed carried a variety of messages. 

The messages included: 


Complaints about services like cleaning of public toilets. Some messages found read 

“Hamusuki matoireti kutambira mari mahara!” Translated to mean ‘You don’t clean toilets, 

you are paid for nothing’. 

Messages on some social deviance issues. One message found written on the walls of an old 

rural building in Nyanga read ‘Johwani (not real name in this paper) kuba wanyanya’ meaning 

‘Johwani you are stealing too much’. 

Political messages were written mainly in paint and spray paint. Some messages were for 

campaigning and read ‘Vote for…’. These political messages were found in public toilets, on 

walls of public buildings, on durawalls (walls constructed as perimeter fencing), public roads 

and on rocks adjacent to public roads. 

Messages of ridicule and rebuke targeted at political personalities and their parties. 

Messages imploring people to be responsible, like on stationery cars with windscreens covered 

with dust researchers found messages like ‘wash me’ made by clearing part of the dust film 

through scribbling the message. 

There were also messages glorifying exploits of some personalities and cults or groups. Some 

messages found read ‘Bra donzi is chambiyon’ and ‘Jah spirit of Africa rastafari’. 

Types of art displayed 

The graffiti art displayed was varied. Some of it was of obscene nature like drawings of private 

parts of males and females. Some of the drawings were accompanied by obscene messages. Some of 

the messages were of ridicule while accompanied by words of warning and caution for example one 

message read ‘Mahure manyanya muchapera ne edzi’ translated to mean ‘you commercial sex workers 

your sexual activities are on the rise and you shall perish due to AIDS’. 

Discussions with key informants 

Seven key informants were identified, who included two municipal workers from Harare 

Municipality, one Municipal worker from Chitungwiza, two workers form Bulawayo Municipality, 

one private car park attendant and one security guard form a private security company guarding 

premises in Harare. All the key informants expressed their desire to give information anonymously as 

they felt that they could be at risk of reprisals by the graffiti writers or the authorities. Graffitti writers 

reportedly did not want their art or messages erased and threatened to deal harshly with anyone who 

crossed their path while Municipal authorities expected the workers to clean and clear any 

unsanctioned displays of messages in whatever form. 

The municipal workers from the three cities concurred on who was involved in graffiti art and 

messages in their areas. They thought that it was the work of men, both young and middle aged who 

had hooligan tendencies, and those who abused drugs (especially marijuana) and alcohol especially 

elicit brews like kachasu and ‘zed’. On why they thought these men engaged in graffiti art they thought 

that some of the actions were spontaneous acts done without reason as a result of drug influence, peer 

pressure and following encouragement from their cheer leaders. Regarding the time when the graffiti 

messages or art was written or drawn, the municipal workers indicated that they were not certain 

because they always found the messages or art already written and could not know who had done it. At 

times they could find someone or a group of people drawing or encouraging one of their members to 

draw but they were threatened with reprisals if they raised alarm or they removed the messages. This 

they indicated usually happened when it involved some political players. They gave the example of a 

message deriding one of the political leaders that was spray painted at the entrance to a ladies toilet in 

one of the cities. They indicated that they could not do anything about it. 

The car park attendant explained that their experience with graffiti at their workplace was that 

some cars brought for safe keeping at their premises gathered dust when they were parked for 

prolonged durations and some people, especially teenagers, often scribbled messages like ‘wash me’ 

on the dust collected on the car’s windscreen or windows. They explained that it was done out of 

mischief and the writer would usually do it when the park attendant’s attention was distracted by 

something else. The artists were usually known to mean no harm but regarded it to be an act of humour 


and a reminder that the car needed washing. The private security guard explained that some people 

who live on the street, mainly males were involved in graffiti art and that they targeted premises which 

were not guarded or those that were abandoned. The guard explained that sometimes when they are on 

night guard duty they would be approached by some of the people living on the street and they would 

ask for matches to light a fire to keep themselves warm in the cold season. In discussion with them 

they are known to explain their hopes in life and that at times they engage in graffiti art and messages 

as a way of expressing their views since they cannot afford to have their views expressed through the 

conventional news media. They are also said to have expressed their fear of arrest and punishment if 

they were caught doing graffiti art or messages. At other times especially during national general 

elections time, some graffiti artists travelling in unmarked top of the range cars, spray paint political 

messages and quickly drive away. This was reportedly done in the early hours of the day. 

Dealing with graffiti messages and art 

Municipal workers indicated the dilemma they had in dealing with graffiti in the course of 

their work. Their employer required them to remove any unsanctioned messages but they faced the 

threat from graffiti artists and writers who would like their messages to be seen and read. They 

indicated that some of the graffiti was of political messages which the writers claimed they were 

denied space in the print and electronic media by authorities so they resorted to graffiti messages. 

Municipalities and other public entities seem not to have the capacity to provide security to its 

employees to deal with graffiti in public places, hence the issue continues. Some private entities seem 

to be able to avoid or limit graffiti by employing private security guards to secure their properties. 

Sometimes as a solution messages written or painted on walls were painted over to obscure the 

messages or the art. At times attempts were made to ‘edit’ the graffiti message to mean the opposite 

for example, for political messages reading ‘Vote for X’, the X would be replaced by the name or 

symbol of a more powerful or influential political group. 

Discussion 

The findings from this study have shown that in Zimbabwe, as it is in other places, graffiti 

messages and art are regarded as a form of hooliganism and deviance. Those found engaging in graffiti 

risk arrest and punishment. This is in agreement with the structural functionalist theory of deviance 

which has it that deviance occurs when society’s members violate the norms and values due to 

selfishness or when societal norms can no longer control an individual’s behavior because of society’s 

corruption (Giddens, 2011; Macionis, 2012; MacNamara and Karmen, 1983 and Stark, 2007). The 

deviance theory however, also says that deviance is necessary for societal change and development. In 

this study it was shown that graffiti, a form of deviance, continues to exist in Zimbabwe. The question 

then is on why it continues to exist despite the laws in place to control it. The study established that 

due to lack of space to express themselves, some societal members in Zimbabwe engage in graffiti 

activities secretively and could probably openly discuss issues of concern if given the space. 

Conclusion and Recommendations 

This study sought to explore the issue of graffiti messages and art in Zimbabwe and whether 

those engaging in those activities were mere hooligan law breakers or were genuine people who felt 

denied the space to express their anger and frustrations about how issues of concern were handled in 

society. The study found that people providing information on these activities were not willing to be 

identified for fear of reprisals by both the authorities and the people generating the graffiti art and 

messages. The graffiti messages were generated and placed or written discreetly, in places accessible 

to the public and the messages communicated issues of concern to the writers or the community in 

general. Given the foregoing observations, it could be concluded that graffiti is indeed not a form of 

hooliganism but a sigh of and for suppressed expressions. 

It is recommended that graffiti art and messaging be given unfettered space, like in some 

countries there are places designated for everyone to write their graffiti message or art. It is important 


as well to have a clear public policy regarding issues of concern to the community and clear actions of 

dealing with them and implementation plans followed in word and deed. 

Acknowledgement 

The researchers of this paper would like to express their gratitude to the key informants who 

gave information for this study. 

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Influence of Product Knowledge, Easy Availability and Low Price on Consumers’ 

Attitudes and Buying Behaviour towards Non-Deceptive Counterfeit Products 

Salih Kheiralla Hussein 

PhD Scholar, 

Department of Agricultural and Rural Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, 

Coimbatore-03, India , Email: salihkh2004@yahoo.com 

Dr.Venkatram 

Professor , 

Department of Agricultural and Rural Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, 

Coimbatore-03, India 

ABSTRACT 

Counterfeiting activities in trade constitutes a serious threat to the genuine industry all over the 

world, as it is rapidly growing and expanding in scope. This threat becomes critical when consumers 

knowingly and intentionally buy the counterfeits products. This study examines the impact of product 

knowledge, easy availability and low price on consumer attitudes and buying behaviour of nondeceptive 

counterfeit products by collecting empirical evidence through a questionnaire survey among 

110 universities students in Coimbatore city in India. Multiple regression analysis was employed in 

this study and the result reveals that 56 percent of variance of consumers’ attitude and 65 percent of 

variance in purchase intention towards non-deceptive counterfeit products were explained by three 

independent variables namely product knowledge, low price and easy availability of non-deceptive 

counterfeit products. In addition, attitude towards non-deceptive counterfeit products accounts 52 

percent variation in consumer purchase intentions. Furthermore, the data shows that product 

knowledge and low price of non-deceptive counterfeit products influence consumer attitudes towards 

non-deceptive counterfeit products. Lower price and availability of the non-deceptive counterfeits 

affects purchase intentions. At the end, the study revealed that most of the respondents are willing to 

buy non-deceptive counterfeit products because of cost effective. Since, price play key role to convey 

individuals toward price sensitive, therefore it is important for the marketers and producers to be 

attentive of pricing. More importantly marketer can decrease the production cost and secondly, they 

shows intention to reduce their profit margin. To perform all those necessary steps need to set up the 

price by considering the all income groups that will help to reducing the consumers’ consumption of 

counterfeit goods. There is no doubt about the quality of original products but they should look at the 

price. Also the findings of this study are useful for both policy makers and industry practitioners as 

they clearly indicate reasons of rapid growth and expansion of counterfeiting activities in domestic and 

global markets. 

Keywords: Non-deceptive counterfeit, Product knowledge, Low Price, availability, Attitude, Purchase 

Intentions. 

I. Introduction 

The un-hindered growth of counterfeit and fake goods is one of the major challenges facing the 

industry today and has become a serious economic problem. Owners of authentic brand names invest 

huge amounts of money in designing, marketing and manufacturing their products, while counterfeit 

producers use the brand names without any design or marketing costs. 

The global market for counterfeits products and merchandise are not new to anyone. Philips 

(2005) reported that the counterfeit business as a whole would be the world’s largest business if it were 

recognized as a business. In 1985, about $60 billion was spent on counterfeit merchandise; in 1994, 


sales were about $200 billion and in 2002 about $376.2 billion (Ha & Lennon, 2006). The 

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) found that 7% to 10% of the total world 

trade ($450 billion) is from counterfeit goods (Dimet, 2006; Sforza, 2006; Thomas, 2006c). India is 

one of the countries with the harshest of counterfeit product problem. As one of Asia’s shopping 

heaven, with the growth of India's economy and recognition of Indian brands in the world, new 

challenges have emerged. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry report revealed 

that successful brands are being counterfeited and sold on an unprecedented scale in India due to the 

sheer size of the domestic market, high price sensitivity, improper coordination among enforcement 

agencies, and lack of knowledge among consumers. 

The most obvious reason for people to buy counterfeit products is that they are cheaper than the 

authentic ones. They also may be easily accessible and available while genuine products are not 

(Gentry et al., 2001). Based on the above statement the purpose of this study is to measure the 

determinants of consumers’ attitude and buying behaviour intentions towards non-deceptive 

counterfeit products and to identify the highest incidence of counterfeiting among the target product 

categories in Coimbatore city in India. 

II. Conceptual Framework 

This study focuses on the demand side of non-deceptive counterfeit products, examining 

consumers’ attitude and buying behavior towards non-deceptive counterfeit products. Hence, against 

this background, we propose a conceptual model presented in Figure 1, and explore about five 

variables as well as the interactions among these variables (product knowledge, low price, easy 

availability, attitudes and purchase intention). 

Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Consumer Attitude and Buying Behaviour towards Non-deceptive 

Counterfeits 

Low price of nondeceptive 

Counterfeit Product 

H3 

H7 

H4 

Easy availability of 

non-deceptive 

Counterfeit Product 

H5 

Consumers’ attitude 

of non-deceptive 

counterfeit product 

Non-deceptive 

counterfeits buying 

behaviour 

(intentions) 

Product Knowledge 

H1 

H6 

H2 

III. Research Hypotheses 

One function of knowledge is to help maintain strong attitudes. Attitudes are typically considered 

strong when they are resistant to change and persistent over time. Thus, knowledgeable people with 

strong attitudes are careful, expert processors of information. When considering the counterfeits, 

increased knowledge is assumed to change consumer attitudes of counterfeits, and both product 

knowledge and attitudes are assumed to influence consumer purchase behaviour of counterfeits. Blair 

and Innis 1996). Marks Olson (1981) propose that consumers with higher level of product knowledge 

have better developed and more complex schemata, with well-informed decision criteria. In the same 

vein, Kempf and Smith (1998) suggest that consumers with higher level of product knowledge are 

more diagnostic and better informed than those who have lower levels of product knowledge. Based on 

this finding, therefore; 


H1. Product knowledge and consumer attitude towards non-deceptive counterfeit products are 

negatively associated. 

H2. There is a negative relationship between product knowledge and consumers’ purchase intention 

towards non-deceptive counterfeit products. 

Previous researches on the causes of counterfeiting show that price advantage to be a dominant 

reason for buying counterfeits (Albers-Miller 1999; Bloch, Bush, and Campbell 1993; Dodge, 

Edwards, and Fullerton 1996; Harvey and Walls 2003; Prendergast, Chuen, and Phau 2002). Majority 

of consumers want to purchase authentic products but higher price of authentic products force them to 

buy the counterfeits or fakes (Chuchinprakarn, 2003; Chaudhry et al., 2009). Counterfeits provide 

price advantages because they are much more affordable than the genuine items. Low price of the 

counterfeits motivates consumers to buy them (Dodge, Edwards, and Fullerton, 1996; Albers-Miller, 

1999; Prendergast, Chuen, and Phau, 2002; Harvey and Walls, 2003). Consumers like to buy 

counterfeits especially when there is a significant difference in prices of the real and fake products 

(Gentry, Putrevu, and Shultz II, 2006; Ergın, 2010). This study hypothesizes that low prices of the 

counterfeit products have a positive impact on consumers’ attitude towards the counterfeits. Therefore, 

this study also proposes that low price of the counterfeits directly impacts the consumers’ purchase 

intentions. 

H3. Lower the price of non-deceptive counterfeit products, positive consumers’ attitude towards nondeceptive 

counterfeit products. 

H4. Lower the price of non-deceptive counterfeit products and consumers’ purchase intentions are 

positively associated 

H5. Easy availability and accessibility to non-deceptive counterfeit products, positive consumers’ 

attitude towards them. 

H6. Availability of non-deceptive counterfeit products and consumers’ purchase intentions are 

positively connected 

H7. Positive the attitudes towards non-deceptive counterfeit products, positive impact on purchase 

intentions. 

IV. Research Methodology 

1. Research Design 

This study examined six different electronic devices products such as mobile handset, camera, 

laptop & PC, MP3player, calculator and USB flash derive. These products were selected because first, 

the degree of counterfeiting is enormous in these product categories, second, consumers are familiar 

with these products and three, counterfeit outlets are available for these products. 

A structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data to answer the research objectives. Pilot 

study was carried out in this study to ensure the questionnaire is acceptable and easy to understand by 

the respondents. Data were collected from universities students in Coimbatore city in India. 110 

questionnaires were distributed; only 102 questionnaires were returned and valid for the study. 

Students were randomly chosen from Universities (TNAU, Bharathiar University, Cheraan College 

and SMS College for Art and Science). In the present study, students were highly involved in the 

selected product categories as buyers, consumers, and influencers. Furthermore, Students sample was 

chosen because of their extensive knowledge and exposure to electronic devices products. To facilitate 

the respondents all the terms were defined in the opening statement of the questionnaire. The 

questionnaire was divided into three section and contained straightforward questions. The questions 

were measured by five point Likert scale. The first section of the questionnaire asked about the 

respondents’ awareness and knowledge of electronic devices such as Mobile handsets, Camera, Laptop 

& PC, MP3players, Calculator and USB flash derive. Open-ended questions were used in the second 

section. Non-deceptive counterfeit purchase intention was measured by asking the statement like “I 

have intention to buy these non-deceptive counterfeit (electronic devices) products”. Finally, the last 

section was about the socio demographics information such as age, gender, education level and 

income. 


Table (1): Research Design 

Item 

Description 

Survey area 

Universities Students in Coimbatore City 

Data collection methodology Random Sampling 

Consumer survey 110 

Respondent criteria 

ever bought/not bought non-deceptive counterfeit electronic 

devices products 

Non-deceptive counterfeit electronic devices include; Mobile, cameras, Laptop & PC, 

products target 

MP3Players, Calculators and USB flash derives 

2. Review and Definition of Variables 

2.1. Attitude towards Counterfeit Products 

The term “attitude” is generally used to define as “a feeling, emotion, or mental position with regard 

to a fact or state”. These feeling positions are adopted in response to what person’s think or believe, 

and affect how people behave. Therefore, attitude is a person’s predisposition to think, feel or behave 

in certain ways towards certain defined targets. Attitude of an individual is his or her inner evaluations 

of objects, events, and world based on their beliefs (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Attitude affects 

individuals’ intentions that in reaction affect their behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Notably, 

attitude considered to be highly correlated with one’s intentions, which in turn is a reasonable predictor 

of behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Attitude is an important construct as it explains variations in 

intentions. Bearden, Woodside, and Clapper (1976) stated that an individual’s attitude towards choice 

objects and situational influence could explain substantial amount of his or her intentions and 

behaviour. Wu (1999) conceptualized attitudes as “A person’s relatively consistent evaluations, 

feelings and tendencies toward an object or idea” so that attitudes put people into a frame of mind for 

liking or disliking things, for moving toward or away from them. Attitudes serve as the bridge between 

a consumer’s background characteristics and the consumption that satisfies his/her needs (Wu, 2003). 

2.2. Purchase Intention towards Counterfeit Products 

Intention is the representation of a person’s readiness to perform a given behavior, which is formed 

by the attitudes and subjective norms. Purchase intentions of an individual are his or her possible plan 

to purchase the product (Dodds, Monroe, and Grewal, 1991). Purchase intentions are used to predict 

the purchase behavior of consumer. However, it is not completely a reliable predictor of purchase 

behaviour (Kotler and Keller, 2006).Some previous studies have found positive relationship between 

consumer attitude towards the counterfeits and their purchase intentions. For instance, Yoo and Lee 

(2009) found that consumers’ positive attitude towards the counterfeits positively affects their 

purchase intentions of counterfeits. Generally, consumers hold positive attitude towards the 

counterfeits (de Matos, Ituassu, and Rossi, 2007; Lee and Workman, 2011). Consumers’ positive 

attitude towards the counterfeits is the results of certain socio-economic, personal, demographic, 

situational, and psychographic factors. 

2.3. Product Knowledge 

The consumer’s knowledge has been the central issue of customer behaviour study. In recent years 

there has been a substantial amount of research has focused on the role of product knowledge in 

various stages of consumer behaviour. These studies concluding that the decision-making processes 

and strategies of consumers with significant product knowledge differ from those with less knowledge 

(Alba, J.W., 1983). Researchers have proposed that consumers with higher levels of product 

knowledge have better developed and more complex schemata, with well-formulated decision criteria. 

In the same vein, others (1998) have suggested that consumers with higher levels of product 

knowledge are more diagnostic and better informed than those who have lower levels of product 

knowledge. Therefore, the higher the level of product knowledge a consumer possesses, the less 

chance there is that he/she will generate evaluation bias. Given these findings, the current research 


argues that consumers with higher levels of product knowledge are more likely to be able to evaluate 

counterfeit products more accurately, due to their higher cognitive capacity. As a result, they should 

have less favourable attitudes of counterfeit products. 

2.4. Low Price 

Price is the first identified factor that has a significant impact on consumer’s attitudes of 

counterfeits. Grossman & Shapiro (1988) found that many consumers enjoyed the status of having 

products that look like famous brands without paying high prices. A study conducted by Bloch, Bush 

and Campbell (1993) found that consumers would select a counterfeit item over a genuine product 

when there is a price advantage. Past research has shown that direct economic consequences, such as 

paying a lower price influence the tolerance of questionable behaviour by consumers (Dodge, Edwards 

and Fullerton, 1996). Even though counterfeit products compromise the quality, consumers are willing 

to over look this due to the cost saving prices. This is not to say that all consumers buy counterfeit 

goods, and among those who do buy counterfeit goods, there are most likely differences in the 

frequency of purchases and differences in the importance and/or satisfaction of product attributes by 

product category (Gail, Garibaldi, Zeng and Pilcher, 1998). Consumers who purchase counterfeit 

goods are particularly concerned with price (Schlegelmilch & Stottinger,1999). Across all product 

categories, price remains one of the most recognized motivations for purchasing counterfeits (Rutter & 

Bryce, 2008; Cordell, Kieschnick, & Wongtada, 1996). To understand counterfeit consumption, it is 

important to understand how consumers conceptualize and evaluate price in regular purchasing 

decisions. 

2.5. Easy Availability and Accessibility to Counterfeit Products 

According to Research Report on Consumer Attitudes & Perceptions of Counterfeiting and Piracy, 

BASCAP, (November 2009), India is the country where consumers reported the most common and 

extensive use of counterfeit and pirated products. For consumers in India it is a “natural” way of life 

and as a result many found the concept of counterfeit/pirate irrelevant, or had trouble understanding it. 

As a result, counterfeits and pirated goods are said to form a huge part of the Indian economy. In many 

product areas they are more prevalent than their genuine counterparts. “Re-used”, “repaired” and “refilled” 

products are also prolific in the Indian market place. Indian consumers appear willing to buy 

many counterfeit and pirated items. Clothing seems to be the most popular, allowing consumers to 

keep up with ever-changing fashions and meet societal pressure to wear branded clothes. Counterfeit 

luxury goods are also very popular, but more surprising, so are small electronic goods and auto parts. 

Because counterfeits product have become so readily available, more and more consumers are exposed 

to opportunities to acquire non-genuine goods outside of traditional, legal marketplaces. The simple 

presence of counterfeit products establishes the first order of temptation, as conversely, a number of 

the report findings show that if the counterfeit item had not been available, the acquisition would not 

have taken place. Easy access, therefore, positions counterfeits as ‘low-hanging’ fruit, ready for the 

taking. There are many dedicated counterfeits shopping areas where consumers can go to purchase 

counterfeit luxury branded clothing, leather goods, accessories ... etc, and an enormous range of other 

counterfeit and pirated goods are sold by in the street, from small vendors as well as legitimate stores. 

The most commonly purchased counterfeit products are those that are the easiest to find. On the whole, 

availability seems to have a slightly greater impact on consumers’ buying behaviour and their purchase 

intentions towards counterfeit items. 


V. Results and Discussions 

1. Demographic Profile of the Respondents 

Most of the respondents in this study are males 66 (64.7 percent) as compared to female 36 (35.3 

percent). More than half of the respondents their age are 23 years and above (56.9 percent). The 

education level of the respondents is categorized into two categories. 36.3 percent of respondents are 

undergraduates and 63.7 percent of respondents are postgraduate students. In term of income 

distribution, this study found that at least 26.5 percent of the respondents have family annual income 

less than R.s 50,000 and a smaller percentage of respondents (6.9 percent) have parents’ annual 

incomes above Rs, 250,000. 

Table (2): Demographic Profile of the Respondents (n= 102) 

Demographic Categories Frequency % 

Gender 

Male 

Female 

66 

36 

64.7 

35.3 

Age 16 - 18 

19 - 20 

21 - 22 

23 - 24 

25 + 

9 

21 

14 

22 

36 

08.8 

20.6 

13.7 

21.6 

35.3 

Education level 

Undergraduate 

Postgraduate 

37 

65 

36.3 

63.7 

Class 

Juniors 

28 

27.5 

Senior 

Parents annual income Less than R.s 50,000 

R.s 50, 000 - R.s 100,000 

R.s 101,000 - R.s 150,000 

R.s 151,000 -R.s 200,000 

R.s 201,000 -R.s 250,000 

R.s 251,000 or more 

NOT SURE 

74 

27 

26 

14 

8 

9 

7 

11 

72.5 

26.5 

25.5 

13.7 

07.8 

08.8 

06.9 

10.8 

On the questionnaire, product category were listed and asked respondents to mention non-deceptive 

counterfeit (electronic devices) products they had ever purchased. Out of a total of 102 participants, 

70.5% had purchased one or more non-deceptive counterfeit products for the selected product 

categories and 29.5% of participants not purchased non-deceptive counterfeit products. Figure (2) 

shows this result. 

Figure (2) : Respondents who purchased/Not 

purchased non-deceptive counterfeit electronic 

devices 

29.5% 

70.5% 

Purchased counterfeits 

Not purchased counterfeits 

The respondents’ non-deceptive counterfeit item purchasing experience was 48(27.5%), 18(10.3 

%), 14(8%), 17(9.7%), 48(27.5%) and 29(17%) for the Mobile handsets, Camera, Laptop& PC, 

MP3player, Calculator and USB flash derive respectively, Table(3) and figure (3) shows this result. 


Table (3): Counterfeit items purchased: 

Item No % 

Mobile handsets 48 27.5 

Camera 18 10.3 

Laptop & PC 14 8 

MP3Player 17 9.7 

Calculator 48 27.5 

10% 

27.5% 

Figure(3) 

counterfeit elctronic devices purchased 

17% 

27.5% 

8% 10% 

Mobile handsets 

Camera 

Laptop & PC 

MP3Player 

Calculator 

USB flash derives 

2. Reliability Coefficient 

Cronbach’s alpha (α) analysis was done to test the Reliability coefficient. Since, Cronbach alpha is 

commonly used method to measure the reliability for a set of two or more constructs where alpha 

coefficient values range between 0 and 1. Higher values indicate higher reliability among the 

indicators (Hair, et al., 1992). According to the results of Cronbach alpha test showed in Table 4 

(appendix), total scale of reliability for this study varied from .934 to .938 and one can conclude that 

the model is fit to be conducted in this study. 

3. Factor Analysis 

In this study factor analysis has been used to explore the underlying factors associated with 23 

items by using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was applied to the 

constructs validity. Furthermore, the Kaiser–Mayer– Olkin measure of sampling adequacy employed 

to analyze the strength of association among variables. The Kaiser–Mayer–Olkin measure of sampling 

adequacy (KMO) was computed to determine the suitability of using factor analysis to predict whether 

data are suitable to perform factor analysis or not. Result for the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity and the 

KMO reveal that both were highly significant and concluded that these variables were suitable for the 

factor analysis (Table 4). With respect to the number of factors could retains , it is difficult to take 

decision regarding this number, but the results of initial runs based on eignenvalues showed 4 factors. 

According to Hair et al. (1992) minimum loading necessary to include an item in its respective 

constructs. They also suggested that variables with loading greater than 0.30 is considered significant, 

loading greater than 0.40 more important, and loading 0.50 or greater are very significant. In this 

study, the general criteria were accepted items with loading of 0.50 or greater table 5. Not a single 

factor had been dropped out under this circumstance. The result shows in Table 4. 

4. Hypothesis Testing 

Regression analysis was employed for testing the hypothesis of this research. Table 5 shows the 

overall details of regression results. 

First: The impact of Product knowledge, low price and easy availability on consumers’ attitude 

towards non-deceptive counterfeit products was examined. Results shows in Table 6 indicated that 

55.6 percent of variance of consumers’ attitude towards non-deceptive counterfeit products was 

explained by these three independent variables (product knowledge, low price and availability of 

counterfeit products) with a significant ‘F’ value of 40.825 being significant at p < .05(Table5). 


Testing H1: Product knowledge with level of significance p = .00, β = .578 and t = 6.894 don’t 

support (H1) that proposed a negative association between product knowledge and consumers’ attitude 

towards non-deceptive counterfeit products Table 5. 

Testing H3: Low price of non-deceptive counterfeits with p = .012, β = .171 and t = 2.562 supports 

the hypothesis (H3) that lower the price of non-deceptive counterfeits, positive consumer attitude of 

non-deceptive counterfeits Table 5. 

Testing H5: Availability of non-deceptive counterfeit products with p = .238, β = .101 and t = 1.188. 

The result reveals no significant for the (H5) that posited availability of non-deceptive counterfeit 

products, positive consumers’ attitude of non-deceptive counterfeit products. Table5. 

Table 5: Regression results of study variables 

Interaction between variables β t R R2 df F P 

attitude toward non-deceptive 

counterfeit 

.471 1.938 .745 .556 3 40.825 .000 

Product knowledge .578 6.894 .000 

Low price of non-deceptive C.P .171 2.562 .012 

Easy availability of non-deceptive 

C.P 

.101 1.188 .238 

purchase intention towards nondeceptive 

counterfeit 

-.477 -1.592 .808 .652 3 61.334 .000 

Product knowledge .581 6.273 .000 

Low price of non-deceptive C.P .347 4.716 .000 

Easy availability of non-deceptive 

C.P 

.272 2.886 .005 

purchase intention towards nondeceptive 

counterfeit 

.474 1.790 .722 .521 1 108.82 .000 

Attitude towards non-deceptive 

counterfeit products 

.902 10.43 .000 

Second: The direct impact of Product knowledge, low price and availability on consumers’ purchase 

intentions towards non-deceptive counterfeit products was examined. Results shows in table5 indicate 

that 65.2 percent of variance of consumers’ purchase intentions towards non-deceptive counterfeit 

products was explained by these three independent variables (product knowledge, low price and 

availability) with ‘F’ value of 61.334 being significant at p < .05(Table 5). 

Testing H2: This Hypothesis states that there is a negative relationship exists between product 

knowledge and consumers’ purchase intentions of non-deceptive counterfeit products. With result of p 

= .000, β = .581 and t = 6.273 between these two variables, it can be said that this hypothesis is not 

supported by data (Table5). 

Testing H4: Low price of non-deceptive counterfeits with p = .000, β = .347 and t = 4.716 supports 

(H4) that proposed lower the price of non-deceptive counterfeits and consumers’ purchase intentions 

are positively associated (Table5). 

Testing H6: Availability of non-deceptive counterfeit products with p = .005, β = .272 and t = 2.886 , 

this result support the (H6) that posited availability of non-deceptive counterfeit products and 

consumers’ purchase intentions are positively connected (Table5). 

Third: The relationship between consumers’ attitude toward non-deceptive counterfeit products and 

their purchase intentions were measured. Result in table5 shows that R Square = .521 indicates that 

attitude towards non-deceptive counterfeit products accounts 52.1 percent variations in consumers’ 

purchase intentions of non-deceptive counterfeits with ‘F’ value of 108.816 being significant at p < 

.05(Table 5). 


Testing H7: Consumers attitude towards non-deceptive counterfeit products with p = .000, β = .902 

and t = 10.431 supports (H7) that proposed positive consumers’ attitude towards non-deceptive 

counterfeit products, positive impact on purchase intentions. 

VI. Discussion and Conclusion 

The result of this study reveals that product knowledge associated positively with consumer 

attitudes and purchase intention of non-deceptive counterfeit products. These results can be interpreted 

in the light of the fact that the more knowledgeable and aware the person about electronic devices 

(mobile, camera, laptop ...etc), may also purchase non-deceptive counterfeits. In other words, 

participants who had more knowledge of the relevant product category were more likely to have 

positive attitude of the brand counterfeits. This implies that even if consumers are aware that the 

product performance of non-deceptive counterfeit may not be as good as an original brand, they may 

still be interested in the non-deceptive counterfeit product. This may indicate that consumers do not 

care if the non-deceptive counterfeit has slight difference in quality comparing to the original brand. 

The result reveals that the low price of non-deceptive counterfeits have positive affect on both 

consumers’ attitudes towards non-deceptive counterfeit products and their purchase intentions. Pricing 

being one of the most essential variable, most producers and creators of original products must come 

to understand this factor and strive to make originals goods more affordable. This would be a crucial 

step in driving away consumers from non-deceptive counterfeit goods. Since price plays an important 

role to every individual especially individuals who are price sensitive, it is recommended that original 

goods improve in terms of pricing. This could be done by either decreasing the cost of production or 

reducing the profit margin because it is the features that the consumers look for in a product. 

Regarding Easy accessibility and availability of non-deceptive counterfeit products, results reveal 

positive influence of it on consumers’ purchase intention. This finding can be interpreted in context of 

easy availability of the non-deceptive counterfeits encourages the consumers to buy and motivate them 

to purchase and consume counterfeit products without any fear. Furthermore, there is a positive 

association between the consumers’ attitude towards non-deceptive counterfeit products and their 

purchase intentions. This finding implies that legal bodies should remove all those reasons that shape 

positive consumers’ attitude purchase for non-deceptive counterfeit products, this can be done through 

strengthening and implementing of anti-counterfeit laws and legislations to bother and fight those who 

practice trade in counterfeit products. 

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Teacher Preparation towards the Implementation of The National School Health 

Policy (NSHP) for Nigeria Primary and Secondary Schools 

Dr Oyerinde Olufemi Oyesegun 

Olaitan Lanre O 

Dominic Leah O 

Senior Lecturer, Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education. 

lanreolives@yahoo.com 

Abstract 

This paper examined Teacher Preparation Towards the Implementation of the National School Health 

Policy (NSHP) for Nigerian Primary and Secondary Schools. A Multistage sampling Technique was 

used to select 244 teachers from both primary and secondary schools across the senatorial districts in 

Nigeria. The hypotheses formulated were tested using t-test statistics at x -- 0.05 leyel of significance. 

All the hypotheses tested t ~ 0.026, t = 1.887, t~l.274 and t = J.026 were accepted showing that no 

significant differences existed between the teachers of Primary and Secondary Schools based on level 

of preparedness, training, accessibility to health teaching facilities and resources, as well as beneficials 

of inter-sectorial and inter ministerial partnership towards implementation of N.S.H.P. respectively. 

Although, more Secondary Schools teachers go for training have more facilities, enjoy inter sectoral 

collaboration and better prepared than the Primary School teachers, the teaching of Health Education is 

more in the Primary Schools. They enjoy more multinational collaboration and have more access to the 

N.S.H.P. and Health Education manuals than the Secondary Schools. Based on the findings, it was 

recommended that government should place more emphasis on the teaching of Health Education at 

both Primary and Secondary Schools, Health campaigns that will promote health and fitness should be 

incorporated in the Primary and Secondary Schools curricula and teachers at all levels should be 

encouraged to update their knowledge on Health Education to be able to inculcate such into the 

students in tune with the stipulations of the National School Health Policy.. 

INTRODUCTION 

A nation's development is often rightly measured by the overall health of its citizens derived from the 

degree and extent of its socio-cultural, socio-economic, political and educational improvement. To 

ascertain the healthy growth of a people, the nation's educational policy must be all-embracing and 

take cognizance of a multi-disciplinary approach towards the achievement of its educational 

objectives. It is this factor that the contemporary National Policy on education took into 

consideration when it formulated its current policy. Adaralegbe in National Policy on Education 

(2003) highlighted this by stating that it is the government's way of achieving that part of the 

National objectives that can be achieved with assistance of education. 

As part of its seriousness, the policy insists that the quality of instruction at all levels must be 

oriented towards including the following values: 

* Respect for the worth and dignity of the individual; 

* Faith in men's ability to make rational decisions; 

* Moral and spiritual values in inter-personal and human relations; 

* Shared responsibility for the common good of society; 

* Respect for the dignity of labor and 

* Promotion of the emotional, physical and psychological health of all children. 

The above points are widening enrichment of the school curriculum in order to achieve the 

nation's objectives, and a revised structure of the educational ladder to make the widening of the 


curriculum effective and efficient. In context therefore, the policy introduces children to health 

activities in a general way especially when it is noticed that the national policy indicated that for health 

and physical wellbeing to be meaningful at the primary level of the ladder, government through 

the ministry of education, must strive to ensure that school authorities maintain a high degree of 

sanitation in the school environment. It is also recorded that emphasis is to be placed on great 

vigilance to fight the rising incidence of drug abuse in schools. The policy further expressed 

willingness to rigorously enforce laws against all forms of abuse and newly directed campaigns 

and education of the people on the dangers of drug abuse. 

The policy statements expressed above, coupled with the fact that there is practically no country 

in the world today which is not beset with one health problem or another, makes health education 

imperative in schools. Nigeria, as a developing country, has her own peculiar health problems. In 

this regard,Ajisafe (1980) summed up the peculiar health problems of the Nigerian child to be rooted 

in the following. 

1. Present health practices are poor; 

2. Technological advancement has produced new and complex additions to which children and 

their parents must learn to adjust their mode of living; 

3. Superstitious beliefs about many diseases have led to the 

development of unhygienic practices; 

4. The traditional attitude towards illness which prevents people from 

making adequate use of physicians and at times seeking advice from 

medical quacks has resulted in incalculable damage to many lives. 

Children need health education to caution them against the pitfalls of 

medicine received from untrained doctors; and 

5. The medical practitioners themselves have little direct opportunity to 

educate the general public and children in particular. 

With the afore highlighted issues, it is no wonder that the Federal Ministry of Health in 

collaboration with United Nations Education Fund (UNICEF) took the historic and most welcome 

step early in the 2000's to formulate an enduring national policy on a Skill-based health education 

for schools in Nigeria. To the delight of school health educators this policy was finally approved in 

November, 2006. 

Under the provision of the newly approved policy on a-skill- based health education, it 

was noted that the defunct Nigerian Education Research and Development Council (NERDC) and the 

defunct Comparative Education Study and Adaptation Centre pioneered roles in producing the 

Physical and Health education curricular for primary schools among other subjects in the 1980' s. 

Though the current policy also noted the fact that evidence abounds that health education as teaching 

subject is taught at different levels of the nation's educational system and the certain structure and 

services put in place to take care of the school community, there has been no defined policy on 

school health. Hence the National Policy on Health Education was developed to put in place a 

national frame work for the formulation, co-ordination, implementation and effective monitoring and 

evaluation of school health program and services, taking into consideration what roles to be played 

by the different stakeholders and agencies. 

The National School Health Policy (NSHP) presents the sum of total of government's 

commitments and efforts to the promotion of global health and development, internationally and 

nationally agreed programs and strategies such as Health for All (HFA) declaration, Millennium 

Development Goals (MDG's), National Economic Empowerment and development strategies 

(NEEDS), Focusing Resources on Effective School Health (FRESH), Education For All (EFA) and 


the Universal Basic Education act (2004) are all given life in the present school health Education 

Policy. 

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 

Teacher Education is central to the implementation of the National Education Policy and 

indeed the School Health Policy. Past efforts reveal that government's belief in the preparation of a 

sound teacher is incontrovertible. The teachers training programme policies, that is, Teachers grades 

two (TC I I ) certificate leading to the National Certificate in Education (NCE) and finally the B.Ed, 

degree are clear evidences of government's commitment to teacher education. In the days of the 

nation's economic boom, it was possible to pass through these stages on scholarship, bursary and inservice 

training with pay. 

In recent times, government has declared that all teachers must be certified by the Teachers 

registration Council as a follow up of its dreams for excellent teachers. These efforts not withstanding, 

it is not sure if teachers in Nigeria Primary and Secondary Schools are both aware and prepared 

towards the implementation of the National School health Policy. The National School Health Policy 

is the framework for the proper and effective teaching of Health Education. The policy was prepared 

and approved by the Federal Ministry of education in collaboration with the UNICEF in 2008. 

The study therefore evaluated teachers' preparedness and preparation towards the 

implementation of the National School Health Policy in the primary and secondary schools of Kwara 

State. 

Research Hypotheses 

1. There is no significant difference in the level of preparedness for the 

implementation of National School Health Policy between Kwara State 

primary and secondary school teachers. 

2. There is no significant difference in the training towards the 

implementation of National School Health Policy between Kwara 

primary and secondary school teachers. 

3. There is no significant difference in the accessibility to health teaching 

facilities and resources for the implementation of National School Health 

Policy among Kwara primary and secondary school teachers. 

4. There is significant difference in the beneficial of intersectorial and interministerial 

partnership towards the implementation of National School 

Health Policy among Kwara primary and secondary school teachers. 

Purpose of the Study 

The main purpose of the study is to asses the state of teachers' preparation and 

preparedness for the implementation of the National School Health Policy in Kwara State. 

Specifically, the study was to: 

i Evaluate teachers training and re-training towards the implementation of 

ii 

the National School Health Policy 

Assess Health teaching facilities towards resource materials for teachers towards the 

implementation of the National School Health Policy 

iii.Assess the level of intersectorial and inter-ministerial collaboration for teachers towards the 

implementation of the National School Health Policy 


Materials and Methods 

The study population comprised 244 Primary and Secondary School Teachers selected 

through a multistage sampling technique from all the states in South West Nigeria. From Oyo, Ogun, 

Osun, Ondo and Ekiti States 14 Primary and 26 secondary schools teachers were selected 

respectively, and from Lagos state 16 Primary and 28 Secondary School Teachers were selected. 

The majority were Secondary School Teachers (65%). A questionnaire with 44 items was designed 

by the researchers based on the NSHP and NPE in Nigeria to collect data from the teachers. It 

contained structured questions to provide teachers, bio-data, and level of preparedness, training, 

facilities and resource materials, as well as intersectorial and interministerial partnerships for the 

implementation of the NSHP. It was designed in English which is understood by the respondents 

and pre-tested before using it as a tool. The researchers employed six research assistants, who 

were trained, and they distributed and retrieved the questionnaire in October and November 

2009. Data processing was done using SPSS version 16,0 with t-test statistics at RJSSM: Volume: 03, Number: 03, July-2013 Page 62

Table 2: t-test analysis on teachers' preparedness, training, facilities and resources availability, 

and beneficial form intersectorial partnership. 

N = 244 

Variables School type No. Cal. T- 

value 

Df Crt. 

value 

Decision on 

Ho 

Preparedness 

Primary 86 0.026 242 1.96 Accepted 

Secondary 158 

Training 

Primary 86 1.887 242 1.96 Accepted 

Secondary 158 

Facilities and resources Primary 86 1.274 242 1.96 Accepted 

Secondary 158 

Intersectorial&interministerial Primary 86 1.026 242 1.96 Accepted 

Secondary 158 

P

implementation of NSHP in South West Nigeria. Health Education as a subject is not in the 

curriculum of Secondary School and so no teacher teaches it as a core subject at that level, whereas, 

in the Primary Schools the teachers claimed that they teach Health Education as a core subject and 

also in correlation with other subjects such as family living home economics and integrated science. 

However, the Secondary School Teachers said that they are more exposed to training than the 

Primary School Teachers in that a few of them have higher degrees and so, they are allowed to go 

for training through workshops and seminars, though, insignificantly. This may be the reason why no 

significant difference existed between the two groups. 

Based on the findings, it was recommended that the government should intensify the inclusion 

of Health Education as a core subject into the Secondary School curriculum, so as to be able to 

realize the objective of MDGs on Education and to properly implement NSHP in Nigeria. Also, 

teachers of both Primary and Secondary Schools should be exposed to training and retraining, on 

School Health Program so as to inculcate this in the students to achieve the objective of NSHP in 

Nigeria. Students should be encouraged to undertake this subject as a core, so as to be able to make 

them fit and healthy, physically, mentally, socially, and emotionally. 

References: 

Ajisafe, M.O. (1980). The quality and level of development of Physical 

Education in Nigeria Secondary Schools.International Journal ofPhysical Education 

XIV, 3,34-38. I 

Atoyebi, W. (2005) Public-private Partnership in the Provision of Health 

Services: Stewardship and Quality Assurance. Paper Presented at National Consultative 

Workshop Public-Private Partnership in Nigeria 30 March-1 April. 

Federal Ministry of Health, (FMOH) (2000).The National Primary Health Care Development Agency 

(NPHCDA) Degree. 54. 

National Policy on Education (NPE) (2003). Review National policy on Education. Available 

at: http://www.wes.org/ewenr/04sept. 

Revised NHP (2004). The New Revised National Health Policy FMOH/FME Publications. 

Universal Basic Education (DBA) (2004). Achieving Education-Related 

Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria.A Report of the Presidential Committee on 

Achieving MDGs in Nigeria. 

UNCEF (2008), National Policy on School health Program NPSH (2006).NICEF/FME 

publications. 


Portrayals of Asian Americans in Magazine Advertisements, 1955-1975: 

The Impact of the1965 Immigration Act in the USA 

Daechun An 

College of Business Administration 

Inha University, Incheon, Korea 

dan@inha.ac.kr 

Abstract 

From the cultural history perspective, this study examined the impact of the 1965 Immigration Act on 

the portrayals of Asian Americans in magazine advertisements during the 1970s. A content analysis of 

734 mainstream magazine ads revealed that the first reform of the U.S. immigration policy, which was 

initiated by the 1965 Immigration Act, appears to have influenced the portrayals of Asian Americans 

in the ads. Asian Americans appeared more frequently in the ads as playing a major role. They were 

depicted more in business settings and as having business relationships with other characters within the 

ads than ever before. Positive stereotyping in the ads was apparent for Asian Americans. All these 

were attributable to the increase in the number of Asian population and their elevated socioeconomic 

status after the Act. 

Key words: magazine advertising, content analysis, Asian Americans, minority portrayal 

Introduction 

Asian Americans were the group most significantly affected by the 1965 Immigration Act in terms of 

the changes in the size of population and socioeconomic status (Herschman & Wong, 1981). Among 

several revisions in American immigration policy toward Asians since the beginning of Chinese 

immigration in the mid-19 th century, the 1965 Immigration Act was the first that abolished the 

nationality-origin quota and employed the occupational preference system. It led to a tremendous 

influx of Asian immigrants to the United States during the 1960s and 1970s, moreover, the largest 

portion of new Asian immigrants possessed relatively higher socioeconomic status than ever before 

(Herschman & Wong, 1981). Asian Americans who moved to this country after the 1965 Act were 

very often described as more educated, more trained, better assimilated to existing culture, more 

technologically competent, and more economically affluent than the other two minority groups in part 

due to the restrictions of the 1965 Act, which preferred skilled workers such as engineers or 

professionals and those who could provide their labor in the areas where shortages of domestic 

laborers existed (Kitano & Daniels, 1988). Using the cultural history perspective, the impact of the 

1965 Immigration Act on the portrayals in magazine ads of the three largest minority groups in the 

United States was examined in this study, with particular emphasis given to Asian Americans. The 

analysis was based on the linkage between the 1965 Immigration Act and the changing characteristics 

of new Asian immigrants. Magazine ads with any minority models in 1955 and 1975 were content 

analyzed to detect changes during pre- and post-act period. 

Literature Review 

Cultural Approach to History of Mass Communication and Advertising 

The most productive historian from the cultural school, Sidney Kobre, argued that the development of 

American journalism could be explained best in terms of how the media had been influenced by 

economic, political, technological, sociological, geographic, and cultural forces working on them from 

outside (Kobre, 1945). While much of the early history written about advertising has supported one 

side or another in the dispute over the direct effects of advertising on consumers, cultural history has 

tended to say more about American culture than advertising per se (Avery, 1991). In this approach, 

advertising is viewed as mirrors of society, being influenced and shaped by the culture and society 

(Avery, 1991). Technological developments, social, economic, and political conditions influence the 


society and, as a consequence, impact what is contained in advertising (Avery, 1991). For example, 

population movements have been regarded as important historic forces that have influenced society, 

industry, the educational system, politics and religion. 

America has symbolized “economic abundance” during the last three centuries, and that force has 

helped shape the American society through an institution of modern advertising (Potter, 1954). Potter 

(1991) argues that advertising should be directed to the stimulation or even the exploitation of 

materialistic drives and then to the standardization of these drives as accepted criteria of social value. 

In other words, advertising is part of the social, cultural and business milieu, and its achievement 

depends on the ability of the advertiser to predict and react to a changing society. 

Ads contained in the media respond in similar ways to external circumstances, such as population 

growth and movements, and the content of advertising reflects how advertisers delivered their 

audiences to the world (Fox, 1975). As such, advertising can be an important window through which 

different aspects of American society can be explained. But also, the advertising itself can be 

explained to determine how it might have been shaped by American society. 

Asian Immigrants and Immigration Policy 

Like the other immigrants, Asians were, in the first place, attracted to America by the opportunities for 

employment (Archdeacon, 1985). Economic and political conditions in their homelands also played a 

role in persuading them to immigrate. In the middle of the 19th century, the Chinese came in large 

numbers to mine for gold in California. In a cycle of ethnic succession, Japanese, Filipinos, Asian 

Indians, and Koreans all arrived to work in the United States. All of them were similar to the Chinese 

in that they all encountered racial discrimination and exclusion in the job market as well as in the 

social environment. Some of the discrimination, like segregation of Blacks in the South, was required 

by law. 

The immigration statutes and the discriminatory laws brought about important consequences for 

the Asian immigrants. In 1965, Congress passed an immigration law that removed the national origin 

quota as the basis of American legislation. The Immigration Act of 1965 introduced a new preference 

system, set up a labor certification program, and imposed a ceiling on western hemisphere immigration. 

The law specified seven preferences for eastern hemisphere quota immigrants: (1) unmarried children 

over age 21 of U.S. citizens; (2) spouses and unmarried children of permanent residents; (3) 

professionals, scientists, and artists of exceptional ability; (4) married children over age 21 of U.S. 

citizens; (5) siblings of U.S. citizens; (6) workers, skilled and unskilled, in occupations for which labor 

was in short supply in the United States; and (7) refugees. A percentage ceiling was given to each 

preference. No one, however, could be admitted under the third and sixth preferences unless the U.S. 

secretary of labor certifies that there are not enough qualified workers in that occupation in the United 

States and that the entry of the immigrants would have not lowered wages and otherwise lead to a 

deterioration of working conditions. This provided the first real reform of immigration policy in the 

twentieth century (Wong, 1986). In fact, the passage of the 1965 Immigration Act accelerated an influx 

of Asian immigrants to the United States. 

The Growth of the Asian American Population after the 1965 Immigration Act 

Since the 1965 law went into effect, Asian immigration has increased so steadily that Asians composed 

more than half of the total influx through the 1990s. During the late 1960s and 1970s the growth rate 

of Asian population in the United States exceeded almost 600 percent while that of African Americans 

and Hispanic Americans remained almost the same (Ng, 1998). The 20-year period from 1961 to 1981 

was subdivided into five major periods: (1) 1961-65 (the five years preceding the passages of the Act); 

(2) 1966-68 (the transitional period in which the backlog of immigration under the old quota system 

was processed); (3) 1969-73 (the first five-year period after enactment of the Act); (4) 1974-77; and (5) 

1978-81. During the third period (1969-73), the initial impact of the 1965 Act on the shift in region of 

origin of the immigrants was evident. The last two periods revealed that the initial impacts of the 1965 

Act represented an abnormal fluctuation in the number of immigrants from Asian countries and 

European countries. The trend showed a significant increase in the number of Asian immigrants and a 


elatively small increase in the number of European immigrants during these two periods. From 1965 

to 1981, Asian immigration increased almost tenfold; there was a substantial increase from each Asian 

country except Japan, including China, Philippines, Korea, Vietnam, and other Southeast Asian 

countries. 

Socioeconomic Characteristics of the New Asian Immigrants 

The 1965 Immigration Act led to a dramatic change in the socioeconomic status of Asian immigrants. 

During the period of 1961-1965, nearly 40 percent of Asian immigrants with jobs were engaged in 

service or sales area. Approximately 25% of the Asian immigrants who had an occupation were 

professionals or managers while during the post-act period from 1969 to 1977, this percentage went up 

to 33%. Partly as a consequence of their higher educational achievements, Asian immigrants were 

more advantaged occupationally than the typical Americans were (Wong, 1986). The analysis revealed 

that 22 percent of the Asian immigrants, compared to 13 percent of the U.S. population, were involved 

in professional occupations. More than 65 percent of the Asian immigrants were involved in whitecollar 

occupations. Comparing earnings of Asian Americans with whites, those who arrived between 

1965 and 1969 earned more than the national average or more than recent immigrants. Asian 

Americans had an employment structure most similar to white men when compared to other minority 

groups in the nation (Reubens, 1978). All these factors revealed that there was a dramatic change in 

the characteristics of Asian immigrants following the 1965 Act. They can be characterized as more 

educated, more professional, more technically competent, and more affluent than the immigrants 

before the 1965 Act. The overall level of socioeconomic status of the new Asian immigrants even 

surpassed that of average white population. 

Minorities in Advertising 

From the early 1960s to the mid-1970s advertisers continued to focus on Middle America, populated 

by white people and guided by what they called traditional values. Advertisers typically avoided 

controversial and political issues and feared breaking the color line. Asians and Hispanics rarely 

appeared in the advertising, and African Americans disappeared from print ads and TV commercials in 

the 1950s and 1960s. Sivulka (1998) argue that advertisers in the United States just reflected the place 

of non-Whites in the social fabric of the nation either by ignoring them, or when they were included in 

ads for the mass audience, processing and presenting them in a way that would make them palatable 

salespersons for the products being advertised. 

Compared to the other minority groups that had rarely been the main focus of the studies that 

examined portrayals of minority groups in the mainstream media advertising, African Americans had 

been investigated in the ads from 1940s through1990s (Kern-Foxworth, 1994). For those Black models 

pictured in mainstream advertising, the roles were often limited or demeaning (Taylor et al., 1995). 

They conformed, for the most part, to the White “stereotype” of Black life which breaks along two 

major lines – those who entertain and those who serve. Advertising has historically perpetuated social 

stereotypes of African Americans as uneducated and low-status (Pettigrew, 1965). In those integrated 

ads where both minorities and Whites were featured, the setting and interactions were not social or 

intimate, but formal and professional. 

Controversy, however, surrounded the nature of portrayals of African Americans. Negative 

stereotyping was found for the first half of the century, but changes in a more positive direction have 

occurred since the 1960s (Taylor et al., 1995). Three studies (i.e., Pettigrew, 1965; Kassarjian, 1969; 

Cox, 1970) were compared to see the trend of portrayals of African Americans in mainstream 

advertising. As far back as the 1930s, African Americans were relegated to three roles: entertainers, 

athletes, and servants. In a content analysis of a large sample of magazine ads in 1965, it was found 

that African Americans were depicted in low-status positions and rarely shown as equals to Whites. 

However, this finding was rebutted in Cox’s 1970 study that found African Americans portrayed in 

more prominent roles. More recent studies tracking trend showed that African Americans’ roles in ads 

changed from minor roles to major roles, reflecting the change in their socioeconomic status (Zinkhan, 

1990). 


Advertising has tended to reinforce stereotypes of Hispanic Americans as uneducated blue-collar 

workers who are not well assimilated into mainstream American culture and who have large, closeknit 

families (Faber & O’Guinne, 1990). Hispanics had been portrayed only as part of large groups and 

only rarely as individuals in the ads during this period (Gutierrez, 1990). They were included only in 

background roles and received little individual importance to either the commercial or the product. Of 

the total number of ads in which Hispanics were clearly identified, they were found more often in ads 

for food products, entertainment (movies or shows), alcohol, and furniture. Hispanic characters were 

typically shown in minor unimportant roles. 

In recent years, increased attention has been devoted to the acculturation and assimilation of the 

Hispanic population in the United States (Auirre, 1981). Hispanics were given some central roles, and 

were moved from group scenes to scenes of everyday life and social affairs. In the past few decades, 

American businesses have begun actively taking the lead in insuring that Hispanics are portrayed 

positively within advertising and other forms of the media. Stereotypes are not as rampant as they were 

in the past years, and there is increasing attention to the marketing needs of the Hispanic market 

(Gutierrez, 1990). Overall, however, like African Americans, Hispanic Americans were quite 

underrepresented from 1960s through 1970s. The three biggest minority groups in the United States 

had been largely underrepresented in advertising until late 1970s when their collective purchasing 

power began to be identified and recognized by the big national marketers. Particularly, Asian 

Americans were extensively excluded from the mainstream advertising in the earlier periods. 

Research Agenda 

Based on the framework discussed above, this study will seek answers to the following research 

questions: 

(1) In terms of frequency of representation in the ads, were Asian Americans more frequently 

represented during the post-act period than the pre-act period? And, was there any difference in 

the frequency of representation among the three minority groups? 

(2) Did minority models appear most frequently in major roles, minor roles, or background roles? 

(3) Based on the (a) product types and (b) settings and relationships, was there any change in the 

stereotyping of minority groups between the two periods? 

The first research question addresses the frequency of representation in the ads. A comparison 

between pre- and post-act will provide a reliable barometer of the trend. The year 1955 will represent 

“pre-act” period and the year 1975 will represent “post-act” period. The second question will examine 

whether minority models appear most frequently in major roles, minor roles, or background roles. The 

third research question addresses the changes in the stereotyping of minority groups between the two 

periods and among the three minority groups. Specifically, the settings and personal relationships will 

be compared among minority groups and between the two periods. 

Method 

This study applied content analysis to chart portrayals of minority groups in magazine ads of the 1955- 

1975 periods. These years were chosen so that research could identify periodical difference between 

pre- and post-act periods. The goal of developing sampling frames for each of the four categories was 

to select magazines that would represent a wide range of readership and demographic categories. Care 

was taken to ensure that the selected magazines would reflect what might be called “mainstream” 

America. Magazines were selected based on the categories representing a cross-section of mainstream 

magazines, including business (Business Week and Fortune), women’s (Good Housekeeping and 

Vogue), general interest (Time and Newsweek), and technical (Scientific America and Popular Science) 

magazines. 

The category scheme and operational definitions of the variables were modified from those used 

by Bowen & Schmid (1997) and Taylor et al. (1995). The presence of minority models was recorded 

as a simple number. Minor roles and background roles were separated because the degree of the 


importance of the character or characters to the ads should be recognized as precisely as possible. As 

the settings and relationships are very closely related to the stereotyping issue, the categories were 

divided as much as possible to precisely distinguish the ads from one another. 

The author performed initial coding of 35 ads from the sample and recoded the same 35 ads to 

check coding reliability. Disagreements were checked and resolved in review with the operational 

definitions of all variables. The coding reliability of each coding category ranged from 88% to 97% 

(i.e., 97% for the presence of minority groups, 95% for settings, 88% for relationships). Operational 

definitions are provided in Table 1. 

Table 1. Operational Definitions of Study Variables 

1. Perceived Importance of Minority Characters 

Major role: Very important to advertising theme, shown in the foreground or shown 

holding the product. 

Minor role: Of average importance to the advertising theme or layout 

Background role: Difficult to find in an advertisement and not important to its theme and 

layout. 

2. Setting 

Business setting: factories, sales or office rooms, and retail settings in which consumers are 

depicted inside. 

Home, indoor or outdoor: residence, room, garage, yard, home, or apartment, or driveway 

or parking space 

National scenery: forests, rivers, ocean, fields, or sky as well as streets, public roads, 

sidewalks, or pathways. 

Social setting: public places, auditoriums, restaurants, theaters, places where people meet 

for social purposes. 

Other: artificial setting and any other settings not listed above 

3. Relationships to others 

Family context: any relationship between families and relatives, including children and 

extended family such as uncles, aunts, grandparents, grandchildren and etc. 

Social context: friends or any other two people depicted in a social setting 

Business context: members or workers in a company, colleagues in the same profession or 

occupation, and any relationship between employers and employees 

Impersonal context: no apparent relationships between more than one character. 

Other relationship: any other than those listed above. 

Results 

Research Question 1: Frequency of Representation 

Table 2 summarizes the frequency of incidence of minority portrayals. Of a total of 734 ads with 

human models, 101 (13.8%) contained at least one minority model. For the year 1955, only 9.8% of 

sampled ads had minority models; this percentage nearly doubled in the year 1975 to 17.2%. The 

difference in relative frequency of minority portrayals between 1955 and 1975 was statistically 

significant (chi-square = 13.53, p RJSSM: Volume: 03, Number: 03, July-2013 Page 69 

52 

45 

5 

5 

11 

14 

11.6 

14.3 

21.2 

31.1

Technical 

Scientific America 

Popular Science 

Women’s 

Good Housekeeping 

Vogue 

General Interest 

Time 

Newsweek 

42 

37 

42 

45 

48 

49 

48 

51 

6 

4 

0 

3 

13 

5 

6 

4 

14.3 

10.8 

0 

6.7 

27.1 

10.2 

12.5 

7.8 

49 50 5 8 10.2 16.0 

45 53 5 7 11.1 13.2 

Total 338 396 33 68 9.8 17.2 

As discussed earlier, the proportionality criterion states that minority representation should 

approximately equal its proportion in the American population. Table 3 depicts the changes in the 

proportion of the three minority groups included in the study on the basis of appearance in the ads and 

total U.S. population. For example, in 1955 Asians accounted for 0.43 % of the total U.S. population 

but 2.1 % of the sample contained the Asian models. Both in 1955 and 1975, Asian Americans were 

overrepresented compared to African Americans. The 1955 ratio, however, might be higher than the 

actual rate due to multiple appearances of the same ads from Japanese Air Line and Northwest Airline, 

which seemed to exclusively target toward Asian Americans. Asian Americans in 1975 were almost 

three times more likely to appear in the ads than in the general population. This trend slowed down in 

the 1980s to the ratio of 0.7%. On the other hand, even though the trend had slightly slowed down in 

1975, African Americans were largely underrepresented in both 1955 and 1975: representation 

difference for African Americans was -5.6% in 1955 and –3.4% in 1975 (Table 3). 

Table 3. Incidence of Minority Models between 1955 and 1975 in Sampled Magazines 

Asian 

Americans 

African 

Americans 

Hispanic 

Americans 

1955 1975 1955 1975 1955 1975 

U.S. Population 

In Thousands 

Percentage of Population 

Representation in Ads 

Actual Number of Ads 

Percentage of Sample 

Difference 

713 

0.43 

7 

2.1 

1.7 

2,114 

0.99 

19 

4.8 

3.8 

17,097 

10.3 

18 

4.7 

-5.6 

24,456 

11.5 

32 

8.1 

-3.4 

N/A 

N/A 

8 

2.4 

N/A 

N/A 

N/A 

17 

4.3 

N/A 

Research Question 2: Changes in the Role Description in the Advertisements 

The second research question examined whether minority models appeared most frequently in major 

roles, minor roles, or background roles. Table 4 indicates that Asian American models were depicted 

in major roles in more than half (57.6%) of the ads in which they appeared in 1955 and 1975. African 

American models were in major roles in less than a third (29.2%) of the ads in which they appeared, 

and Hispanic Americans in less than one fifth (16.0%). Importantly, for Asian Americans, their 

percentage in major roles increased from 25.0% in 1955 to 68.0% in 1975. This might be in response 

to the larger Asian American population as a target market, and to stereotyping of the groups as 

technologically competent, hardworking, serious, and well assimilated. 

The role in which Asian Americans were described in the ads was significantly different between 

pre- and post-act periods (chi-square = 9.21: p = 0.003); also the difference was significant among the 

three minority groups (chi-square = 15.34: p = 0.0001). This implies that the role-playing of the Asian 

groups became more important to advertising themes and they were the only group that was positively 

stereotyped among the minority groups during this period. 


Characteristic 

s 

Major Role 

Minor Role 

Background 

Table 4. Role of Minorities in Advertisements (%) 

Asian 

African 

Hispanic 

Americans Americans Americans 

195 197 Avg. 195 197 Avg 195 197 Avg 

5 5 

5 5 . 5 5 . 

25.0 68.0 57.6 12.4 37.5 29.2 12.5 17.6 16.0 

62.5 8.0 21.2 68.8 53.1 58.3 62.5 64.8 64.0 

12.5 24.0 21.2 18.8 9.4 12.5 25.0 17.6 20.0 

Research Question 3-a: Changes in Magazine and Product Types 

The third research question assessed the changes in the product types, settings, and relationships with 

which minority models appeared in the ads. Table 5 illustrates the changes in magazine types between 

the two periods. Asian Americans were skewed toward business press and technical publications as 

opposed to women’s and general interest magazines. In 1955, Asian American models appeared across 

all four categories of magazines at least once. Approximately two-thirds of ads in which Asian 

Americans appeared, however, were from business and technical publications in 1975. The difference 

between the two periods was statistically significant (Fisher’s Exact Test Probability = 0.0002). 

The findings for both African Americans and Hispanic Americans showed a more even split. No 

big difference in the magazine types was found between 1955 and 1975. The two minority groups 

were almost evenly depicted across all four types of magazines in both 1955 and 1975. The difference 

in the representation of the three groups by magazine type was statistically significant (Fisher’s Exact 

Test Probability = 0.0051). Magazine type is directly related to types of product: technological vs. 

nontechnological. Also, the changes in role description, settings and relationships are related to both 

issues because types of magazines and products are highly correlated with how they are depicted. 

The difference in the product category across all minority models and between the two periods is 

shown in Table 6. Asian models were highly overrepresented in ads for technology-based products, on 

average, appearing in 65.3% of the ads that featured Asian Americans. African and Hispanic models 

were underrepresented in the ads for technical products; both groups appeared in only 20% of the ads 

in total. Differences in minority group representation were statistically significant (chi-square = 54.32; 

p

Popular Business Press 

Business Week(%) 

Fortune(%) 

Technical Publications 

Scientific 

Americans(%) 

Popular Science(%) 

Women’ Magazines 

Good Housekeeping(%) 

Vogue(%) 

General Interest 

Magazines 

Time(%) 

Newsweek(%) 

Total(%) 

1(14.3 

) 

0(0.0) 

1(14.3 

) 

1(14.3 

) 

1(14.3 

) 

0(0.0) 

2(28.7 

) 

1(14.3 

) 

7(100 

) 

3(15.8 

) 

6(31.6 

) 

4(21.1 

) 

0(0.0) 

2(10.5 

) 

2(10.5 

) 

2(10.5 

) 

0(0.0) 

19(10 

0) 

3(16.7) 

3(16.7) 

4(22.2) 

2(11.1) 

0(0.0) 

1(5.6) 

2(11.1) 

3(16.7) 

18(100) 

4(12.5 

) 

5(15.6 

) 

6(18.8 

) 

3(9.4) 

4(12.5 

) 

1(3.1) 

4(12.5 

) 

5(15.6 

) 

32(10 

0) 

1(12.5) 

2(25.0) 

1(12.5) 

1(12.5) 

0(0.0) 

0(0.0) 

2(25.0) 

1(12.5) 

8(100) 

4(23.5 

) 

3(17.6 

) 

3(17.6 

) 

2(11.8 

) 

0(0.0) 

1(5.9) 

2(11.8 

) 

2(11.8 

) 

17(10 

0) 

5(15.6 

) 

5(15.6 

) 

6(18.8 

) 

4(12.5 

) 

1(3.3) 

1(3.3) 

6(18.8 

) 

5(15.6 

) 

33(10 

0) 

11(16.2 

) 

14(20.6 

) 

13(19.1 

) 

5(7.4) 

6(8.8) 

4(5.9) 

8(11.8) 

7(10.3) 

68(100) 

Table 6. Minority Groups in Technical Versus Nontechnical Categories 

Product Category Asian African Hispanic Total 

Americans Americans Americans 

’55 ‘75 ‘55 ‘75 ‘55 ‘75 ‘55 ‘75 

Technical 

Nontechnical 

Total 

2 

28.6 

5 

71.4 

7 

100. 

0 

13 

68.4 

6 

31.6 

19 

100. 

0 

3 

16.7 

15 

83.3 

18 

100. 

0 

7 

21.9 

25 

78.1 

32 

100. 

0 

2 

25.0 

6 

75.0 

8 

100. 

0 

3 

17.6 

14 

82.4 

17 

100. 

0 

7 

21.2 

26 

78.8 

33 

100. 

0 

23 

33.8 

45 

66.2 

68 

100. 

0 

Research Question 3-b: Asian Americans in Different Settings and Relationships 

As shown in Table 7, Asian Americans were shown most frequently in social settings in 1955 (53.2%), 

but in 1975 they appeared most frequently in business setting in 1975 (52.5%). Compared to the other 

two groups, Asian Americans were the highest in representation in business settings, which indicates 

that they were overrepresented in business settings. On the other hand, African Americans were 

slightly overrepresented in home, outdoor and indoor settings and social settings and underrepresented 

in business settings. Hispanic Americans were most frequently depicted in business and home settings, 

but compared to the other two groups they were shown less frequently as professionals in business 

settings. And, in all cases, differences in the settings by minority groups were also statistically 

significant (chi-square = 12.35; p RJSSM: Volume: 03, Number: 03, July-2013 Page 72

in 1955 and 58.0% in 1975 (chi-square = 22.54; p RJSSM: Volume: 03, Number: 03, July-2013 Page 73

Overall, the Act appeared to have influenced the frequency of representation for Asian Americans, but 

not necessarily that of African Americans and Hispanic Americans. 

Second, the impact of the Act was apparent in the changes in the role description of Asian 

Americans between pre- and post-act period. Defined as a character that is very important to the 

advertising theme or layout, shown in the foreground or shown holding the product, “major roles” 

were very often assigned to the majority of Asian Americans who appeared in the ads in 1975. In the 

ads in which Asian Americans were described in major roles, a consistent stereotypical portrayal of 

Asian Americans as an “all work, no play” group was prominent. Due to the 1965 Act, the post-act 

socioeconomic status of Asian Americans exceeded even that of average white Americans. Particularly 

in the ads that were targeting the Asian market, most Asian models were characterized in a major role. 

Thus, one of the key strategies of advertising -- to persuade consumers by making them behave like a 

model – was evident in the ads (Czerniawski & Maloney, 1999) and the new behaviors advocated by 

the Asian models reflected the advertisers’ reactions to the changing society. On the other hand, the 

role description of African Americans and Hispanic Americans did not change significantly during 

these periods: they continued to be depicted in a minor or background role. 

Third, the changes in stereotyping of Asian Americans were conspicuous during this period. The 

1965 Act apparently influenced how and where Asian Americans were described. Stereotyping of 

Asian Americans was very straightforward: they were socially stereotyped as technically competent, 

hardworking, and business-oriented in the ads (Lott, 1997). Often appeared in the ads of technology 

products, Asian Americans appeared most frequently in the technological and professional magazines 

such as Scientific Americans and Fortune, especially more frequently in 1975. 

Fourth, most of the Asian models appeared in business settings and work relationships. This 

would suggest that the Act might have contributed to this portrayal. Compared to the relationships with 

the other models in the ads, Asian Americans were more frequently depicted in business contexts 

during the post-act period, and were represented as members or workers in a company, colleagues in 

the same profession or occupation, and in relationships between employers and employees. On the 

other hand, African Americans and Hispanic Americans more frequently appeared in social or family 

relationships during both pre- and post-act periods. This would suggest that there was a change in the 

way Asian models, in accordance with stereotyping and settings variable, were depicted in the ads in 

terms of their relationship with the other characters. In summary, there were significant differences in 

the presentation of Asian Americans before and after the Act in frequency of representation, role 

description, and stereotype-related factors that appear related to the reform of the immigration policy 

in 1965. The Act resulted in a tremendous influx of Asian Americans to the United States and an 

improvement of their socioeconomic status, and as a result, the way Asian Americans were described 

in magazine advertising changed considerably during pre- and post-act period. 

In line with the arguments from the cultural history viewpoint, this study supports the thesis that 

the impact of the 1965 Immigration Act on Asian Americans was reflected in mainstream advertising. 

The increase of Asian Americans in the ads during the post-act period suggests that advertising 

reflected the increase in the Asian population during the 1970s that was directly attributable to the Act. 

And, the positive changes in the context of the portrayals of Asian Americans in the ads also show that 

advertising reflected their elevated socioeconomic status that was also attributable to the Act. The 

status of the other two minority groups in the study - African Americans and Hispanic Americans – did 

not change significantly during the periods. Neither did their presentation in the ads. Since social 

effects of advertising are upon the values of our society (Potter, 1954), which used to emphasize 

materialistic values, Asian Americans’ achievements on their economic status were well reflected in 

advertising. 

Admitting that this study could not completely attribute the changes in the portrayals of Asian 

Americans exclusively to the reform of the immigration policy in 1965, nevertheless it appears 

reasonable to conclude that at least part of the changes were attributable to the 1965 Immigration Act. 

The function of advertising can be explained in two ways: economic effect and social effect (Potter, 

1954). As far as the latter is concerned, the changes in population and their movement in one country 


are worth considering as historical forces that would have affected the society and, as a result, altered 

what had been contained in advertising. 

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Impact of Organisational Climate on Job Satisfaction of Doctors in Hospitals of 

Andhra Pradesh, India 

Rathna Lakshmi Koti Akula 

Professor , Management Department 

Krupanidhi School of Management,Bangalore 

Sreenivas Talluri, 

Head,Department of Business Management, 

Yogi Vemana University,Kadapa,India 

An organization can be viewed as a social system of co-operation that is designed to enhance 

individual effort at goal accomplishment. Organizations differ in many respects - their goals, ethnic 

composition of their population, etc. Yet one can sense or 'feel' the individuality of an organization. 

Sometimes, this individuality is labelled as the atmosphere of the organization. Other similar 

commonly used terms are tone of the organization, environment, and personality of the organization or 

organization's climate. This 'feeling' which enables us to know that one organization is different from 

another is relatively intangible, yet we have some proof of the atmosphere of one organization 

differing from that of another. If we observe the behaviour of people in an organization we get proof of 

this. For example, in one organization members may seem relaxed and at ease with each other while in 

another we may find greater tension which is seen on members' faces, their speech, how they work, 

etc. 

Job satisfaction is the function of complex interactions of economic, social and psychological 

factors that are subject to three major areas for measurements: professional job characteristics, 

organizational attributes and effects on patient outcomes and quality of care(Tyler,D.A. et al.,2006). 

Job satisfaction depends on Job design .It is as an important facet. Job design refers to the 

characteristics of jobs, such as the variety of skills demanded, that affect the satisfaction of employees. 

Job design theory suggests that job design influences employee performance through five key 

characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and intrinsic 

feedback(Tyler,D.A.etal.,2006). Job characteristics are the characteristics of jobs, particularly the 

degree to which jobs are designed so that they enhance the internal work motivation and the job 

satisfaction of job incumbents(Kwak, C. et al.,2010). 

The need of the hour is creating teams and fostering high level of competencies among them 

while maintaining high spirit of achievement. Sound Organizational Climate leads to Job Satisfaction 

of the employees in an Organization .Satisfaction of a person from the job is regarded as one's feelings 

or state-of-mind regarding the nature of the work. According to Locke , Job satisfaction is a state of 

feeling while performing the duty. Job satisfaction is influenced by a variety of factors, e.g., the nature 

of one's relationship with their supervisor, the quality of physical environment in which they work, the 

degree of fulfillment of their work etc(Locke, E.A., 1976). 

It is important to note that job satisfaction has a tenuous correlation to the performance of a 

person(Judge T.A et al.,2001). The Job satisfaction and productivity may be influenced by a number of 

factors. That is why it is narrated that a happy worker is more productive. The personality of the head 

of the institution may have some influence on the performance of subordinates(Bowling, N.A., 2007). 

The relationship between job satisfaction and performance is the result of interaction of the personality 

of heads and subordinates. So the level indicates how much an individual is satisfied with the job. 

Other influencing factors on satisfaction are the style, culture, involvement and empowerment of 

employees and autonomy in work. When one looks at the work-life level of a medical professional, it 


ecomes very obvious that the duty performance of such persons have enormous effects on their 

private life(Scholarios, D., and Marks, A., 2004). 

The development of strong organizational Climate leads to Job Satisfaction among the 

employees. Health services are affected by many factors such as human resources, delivery system and 

health infra structures. Among these, human resources is a vital component in delivering health 

services. Job satisfaction of the health workers is highly important in building up employee motivation 

and efficiency as higher job satisfaction determine better employee performance and higher level of 

patients’ satisfaction(Mowday RT ,1984). Job satisfaction is the degree of favorableness with which 

the employees view their work. It is an issue that affects the lives of all workers including health 

professionals and is also a factor that determines whether an employee will remain in a position or 

seek work elsewhere. In order to minimize costs and improve performance, healthcare organizations 

should focus on creating an environment that improves job satisfaction and retains productive and 

experienced employees. Job satisfaction is viewed as an outcome of the interaction between the 

worker his work environment and his job. Organizational research shows that employees who are 

experiencing job satisfaction are more likely to be productive and to stay in the job. 

Objective of the Study 

The study mainly focuses on to study the impact of Organisational Climate on Job Satisfaction 

of doctors in the select Hospitals 

Sample of the Study 

Out of 160 doctors that are in Government General Hospital, 90 respondents were selected as 

sample by using stratified random sampling method. But 10 responses were found faulty and deleted 

and only 80 respondents were taken for final analysis. Out of 180 doctors in NRI, 97 doctors were 

selected for sample survey and finally 90 were taken for analysis as 7 were found faulty. 

Questionnaires 

For measuring the organizational climate and job satisfaction data is collected through a 

questionnaire . Part- I of the questionnaire contained 166 statements grouped under 18 dimensions on 

organizational climate. They are:- 

Environment and Organizational Culture 

Job Characterstics 

Managerial Policies, Procedures and Autonomy 

Inter- Personal Relationships 

Team Work 

Participative Management 

Leadership 

Communication 

Management of Rewards, Recognition and Benefits 

Welfare, Security and Grievance Handling 

Training and Development 

Standardization 

Innovation and Knowledge 

Social Values 

Management of Mistakes 

Conflict Management 

Challenge and Risk Taking 

Gender Issues 


The second part of the questionnaire contains statements on Job Satisfaction grouped under five 

dimensions.They are :- 

Work Environment, Pay, Promotional Opportunities, Supervision, Co-workers 

Table No:-1 

Regression Analysis for Organizational Climate and Job satisfaction: 

Doctors Perspective in GGH, Guntur,India 

Variable Coefficient t-ratio Sig 

Oc1 0.818 2.461 0.091 

Oc2 0.126 0.22 0.84 

Oc3 -0.522 -1.061 0.367 

Oc4 -0.623 -1.380 0.261 

Oc5 -0.519 -1.052 0.370 

Oc6 -0.171 -0.300 0.784 

Oc7 0.160 0.281 0.797 

Oc8 -0.822 -2.500 0.088 

Oc9 -0.958 -5.756 0.010 

Oc10 -0.751 -1.967 0.144 

Oc11 -0.279 -0.503 0.649 

Oc12 0.014 0.025 0.982 

Oc13 0.442 0.854 0.456 

Oc14 0.925 4.224 0.024 

Oc15 0.669 1.558 0.217 

Oc16 0.282 0.510 0.645 

Oc17 -0.420 -0.803 0.481 

Oc18 0.477 0.940 0.417 

Overall -0.105 -0.692 0.492 

Out of 18 factors of organisational climate, Oc14 affects job satisfaction maximum with coefficient 

value 0.925.It proves that Oc14 (Social Values), fulfilling the social needs of the employees, 

encouraging the employees to encouraging employees to take part in professional clubs and social 

activities, employees feeling of social responsibility towards society by conducting free medical 

camps, Ethical values of the organisation etc., It is found that importance to social values in GGH 

gives feeling of Job satisfaction among the Doctors. The more importance to the social values, the 

more the employees feel satisfied with the job. 

The next dimension Oc1(Environment and Organisational Culture) with coefficient value 0.818 is an 

important factor influencing the job satisfaction among the doctors of GGH. The next dimensions that 

come in row which affect job satisfaction are Oc15( Management of mistakes) with coefficient value 

0.669 and Oc18(Gender Issues) with the coefficient value of 0.477.Which means if the managing the 

gender issues properly with have positive impact on job satisfaction of the doctors in GGH. The other 

dimensions that positively affect the job satisfaction of the doctors in GGH are Oc13 (Innovation and 

Knowledge), Oc16 (Conflict Management), Oc2 (Job Characteristics), Oc7 (Leadership), Oc12 

(Standardisation). The remaining factors, Oc3,Oc4,Oc5,Oc6,Oc8,Oc9,Oc10,Oc11 and Oc17 have 

negative relationship with job satisfaction. Which means, that these factors affect job satisfaction 

negatively. The factors being, Managerial policies, procedures and autonomy ,Inter-Personal 

Relationships, Team Work, Participative Management, Communication, Management of rewards, 

recognition and benefits, Welfare, Security and grievance handling, Training and Development and 


challenge and risk taking may not be liked by the doctors and will also negatively as far as job 

satisfaction is concerned. 

If we see t-ratio, and next column significance, at 5% significance level four factors have significance 

Oc1,Oc8,Oc9 and Oc14, where Oc8 (communication) and Oc9(Management of Rewards, Recognition 

and Benefits) are negatively related with job satisfaction. It spotlights that statistically two factors are 

significant .According to the analysis Oc1(Environment and Organisational Culture) and Oc14(Social 

Issues) are also statistically significant at 5 % level, which establishes that these two dimensions 

should be given importance if GGH wants its doctors to experience higher job satisfaction . 

Table No:- 2 

Regression Analysis for Organizational Climate and Job satisfaction: 

Doctors Perspective in NRI, Guntur 

Variable Coefficient t-ratio Sig 

Oc1 -0.435 -0.836 0.464 

Oc2 0.14 0.244 0.823 

Oc3 0.109 0.189 0.862 

Oc4 0.257 0.461 0.676 

Oc5 -0.515 -1.04 0.375 

Oc6 0.278 0.501 0.651 

Oc7 0.841 2.694 0.074 

Oc8 -0.059 -0.102 0.926 

Oc9 -0.775 -2.127 0.123 

Oc10 -0.842 -2.703 0.074 

Oc11 -0.857 -2.881 0.063 

Oc12 0.179 0.315 0.773 

Oc13 -0.203 -0.359 0.743 

Oc14 0.246 0.439 0.690 

Oc15 0.762 2.041 0.134 

Oc16 0.147 0.257 0.813 

Oc17 0.096 0.168 0.878 

Oc18 -0.075 -0.130 0.905 

Overall 0.206 1.382 0.174 

Out of 18 factors of organisational climate, Oc7( Leadership) with coefficient value of 0.841 positively 

affect the job satisfaction.That means if the supervisor is easily approachable , offers new ideas for job 

related problems, brings team spirit ,maintaining the standards of performance are main aspects of 

leadership that has profound impact on the job satisfaction of doctors at NRI general hospital. Oc15 

affects job satisfaction maximum with coefficient value 0.762.It proves that Oc15 (Management of 

Mistakes) , not rejecting people when they commit mistakes, acknowledging mistakes to receive 

support and help, considering mistakes as learning experience etc are given importance by the doctors 

in NRI and it is found that importance to Management of Mistakes in NRI gives feeling of Job 

satisfaction among the Doctors. The more importance to the management of mistakes ,the more the 

employees feel satisfied with the job. The next dimension Oc6 (Participative Management) with 

coefficient value 0.278 is an important factor of job satisfaction among the doctors of NRI. The other 

dimensions that come in row which affect job satisfaction are Oc4(Inter-Personal Relationships) with 

coefficient value 0.257 and Oc14(Social Values) with the coefficient value of 0.246.Which means that 

participative management and importance to the social values are considered high by the NRI doctors 

with regard to patient satisfaction. 


The other dimensions that positively affect the job satisfaction of the doctors in NRI are Oc12 

(Standardisation), Oc16 (Conflict Management), Oc2 (Job Characteristics), Oc3 (Managerial Policies, 

procedures and Autonomy).If we see t-ratio, and next column significance, at 5% significance level 

five factors have significance Oc7,Oc9,Oc10,Oc11 and Oc15,where Oc9 (Management of rewards, 

recognition and benefits), Oc10 (Welfare, security and grievance handling) and Oc11 (Training and 

Development) are negatively related with job satisfaction. According to the analysis Oc7 (Leadership) 

and Oc15 (Management of Mistakes) are also statistically significant at 5% level, which establishes 

that these two dimensions should be given importance if NRI wants its doctors to experience job 

satisfaction . 

Results 

This study is confined to two hospitals in Guntur district in Andhra Pradesh ie., Government general 

Hospital (GGH)and NRI General hospital (NRI). For this research work, organizational climate has 

been taken as an independent variable which has further 18 dimensions: Environment and 

Organizational Culture, Job Characteristics, Managerial Policies, Procedures and Autonomy, Interpersonal 

Relationship, Team Work, Participative Management, Leadership, Communication, 

Management of Rewards, Recognition and Benefits, Welfare Security and Grievance Handling, 

Training and Development, Standardization, Innovation and Knowledge, Social Values, Management 

of Mistakes, Conflict Management, Challenge and Risk Taking and Gender Issues. The research has 

given them the names Oc1, Oc2, - Oc18 respectively. An effort has been made to find out the 

dimensions which have marked influence on job satisfaction . The analysis was done for the 

perspectives of doctors in the selected hospitals. The analysis was done based on the responses of 

perceptions of the sample mentioned. 

From the regression analysis it can understood that giving importance to the social values of the 

employees such as doctors will enhance their satisfaction of their job at Government general hospital 

whereas in the private general hospital NRI, the doctors felt that the management of mistakes is 

influencing their job satisfaction levels. Proper leadership is an important factor that is affecting the 

job satisfaction of the doctors at both the hospitals. 

Management of rewards, benefits and recognition is common element among the doctors of both 

hospitals that is not effecting the job satisfaction of the doctors. 

Suggestions 

We have read and experienced in organisations that there are two kinds of factors responsible for the 

employees to experience job satisfaction .They monetary and non monetary factors. If the analysis is 

observed in case of doctors it is non monetary aspects that are influencing their satisfaction in the 

job.Therefore the management of the respective hospitals can take necessary measure to see that the 

environment and organisational culture of the hospitals,leadership, management of mistakes, social 

values are given importance for seeing that they create congenial climate and working conditions for 

the doctors. 

Conclusion. 

In this study, overall regression analysis gave positive results. So, organization must consider two 

variables ie., Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction together in order to have better results and 

improve their effectiveness in the organization. 


E-Participation in Urban India- Case of State of West Bengal 

Mithun Barua, 

PhD Scholar, L.M Thapar School of Management, Thapar University 

Patiala 147004, Punjab, INDIA 

mbdels@gmail.com 

Abstract 

E-Participation refers to ICT-supported participation in processes involved in government and 

governance. Processes may concern administrative, servicedelivery, decision-making and policy. The 

current study is focused on the analysis of the rate, current challenges, prospects and future scope of 

electronic participation (e-participation) in the urban local bodies of the State of West Bengal, India. 

The website of the five municipal corporations of West Bengal, India have been analyzed and the rate 

of e-participation with its sub-factors i.e. e-information, e-consultation and e-decision-making has been 

determined. The various shortcomings are highlighted and the prospects of its future growth and 

development are also emphasized. It is found that there are good prospects of development of e- 

participation in India but for that there are need of growth of offline participation and ICT 

infrastructure. 

Keywords: 

E-Participation, West Bengal, Urban Local Bodies, Community Participation Law, JNNURM 

1. INTRODUCTION 

As per 2011 Census, 377.1 million people live in urban areas (out of total population of 1210.19 

million) accounting for 31.15 per cent of the total population of India. The proportion of people living 

in the urban areas of the country had increased from 27.80 per cent in 2001 (Census 2001) to 31.5 per 

cent in 2011. Cities and mega cities has become the symbol of dynamic economic growth of India. 

Urban economy constitutes 60 per cent of the national GDP and more than 80 per cent of the 

incremental job creation (GOI, 2011). The governance of these cities and mega cities has become the 

greatest challenge. Representative and participatory governance is of the growing issue. The essence of 

the Constitution of India is based on the representative governments at all levels. The Government of 

India, pledging to maintain the essence of the Constitution of India, enacted the 74 th Constitutional 

(Amendment) Act, 1994. The Act gave constitutional status to the urban local bodies. India also 

embraced e-government and launched the National e- Governance Plan (NeGP) (2003-07). e- 

Government in municipalities became one of the Mission Mode Project (MMPs) under the national 

urban development program, i.e. Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Program (JNNURM). 

JNNURM was launched in 2005. The basic objective of granting the constitutional status to urban 

local bodies and e-governance program is to enhance the participation of the people in the governance 

process. 

The 74 th Constitutional (Amendment) Act, 1993 in Article 243Q laid down Nagar Panchayat for the 

transitional areas, Municipal Council for the smaller urban area and Municipal Corporation for the 

large urban area. Article 243S specifies constitution of the ‘Ward Committees’ consisting one or more 

wards, within the territorial area of municipality having a population of 0.3 million or above. 

Representation of the Schedule Caste (SC), Schedule Tribe (ST) and Women are laid down in Article 

243T. The Constitution of India also specifies regular election of the municipal bodies and council as 

the highest decision-making body. The e-government in the municipalities also emphasizes upon 

peoples participation in the urban local governance. The basic step in this direction is taken with the 


establishment of the online presence and disclosure of information to the citizens, application of Web 

2.0 technologies and engagement of social media. 

The positive environment for the enhanced citizen engagement and participation is well reflected in 

India in the urban government level. Around the world also, the participation of the citizens in the 

urban local governance is gaining momentum. Active participation is the relationship based on 

partnership with government in which citizens actively engage in defining the process and content of 

policy-making. It acknowledges equal standing for citizens in setting the agenda, proposing policy 

options and shaping the policy dialogue – although the responsibility for the final decision or policy 

formulation rests with government (OECD, 2001). The benefits of participatory governance are 

numerous and range from ensuring better employment of public resources and through joint 

identification of municipal priorities to decreasing the likelihood of mismanagement through increased 

scrutiny by the public. Participatory governance also facilitates governing and leads to marked 

improvements in the quality of services provided (OSCE, 2007). The revolutionary developments in 

ICT and World Wide Web (WWW) opened a new horizon of participatory opportunities at all levels of 

government. The growing issue of participatory urban governance and its other complexities could be 

easily addressed with innovative application of ICTs. This citizen-centered transformation is achieved 

through e-information, e-consultation and e-decision-making which ultimately establish the e- 

participation or electronic form of participatory governance. 

The current study is focused on the analysis of the rate, challenges, prospects and future scope of e- 

participation in the urban local bodies of the State of West Bengal, India. The website of five 

municipal corporations have been analyzed and the rate of e-participation with its sub-factors i.e. e- 

information, e-consultation and e-decision-making has been determined. The various short-comings 

are highlighted and prospects emphasized. 

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 

The review of literature shows that considerable research has been done in the sphere of e- 

participation. The most of the research and studies are confined to research in the area of political 

participation and e-democracy. But there also studies conducted to examine, develop and enhance e- 

participation at the level of municipal governance. Conroy and Evans- Cowley (2004) examined the 

use of information and communication technology e-government tools to promote citizen participation 

in the planning process on the basis of analysis of the planning department websites of the 582 US 

cities and found that the reviewed websites provide only basic planning information. Roeder et al. 

(2005) studied e-participation processes in Esslingen, Germany, the first project to use web-based 

discussion forums as an instrument to inform and consult the public about the municipal budget. The 

authors emphasized the need of internal and external relevance affecting the consultation mechanism. 

Scott (2006) made an empirical analysis of government websites of 100 largest US metropolitan areas 

in order to find out that to what extent local government websites support practical, meaningful public 

involvement. The study found mixed results depending on how the concept of public involvement is 

defined and measured. Aichholzer (2006) explored the practical role and applications of various forms 

of e-participation in Austria and found a somewhat mixed picture. Medaglia (2007) tried to address 

that to what extent e-participation is actually occurring in Italian local government, how can it be 

measured and what variables affect the e-participation adoption at local level. With a survey of official 

websites of 113 Italian local authorities, the authors found that factors such as scale, socio- economic 

status and center-left political orientation are positively associated with greater information and 

consultation features. Mercatali et al. (2007) described the TeleP@B (Electronic Technologies for the 

Participation to the Budget) for creation of participatory budgeting at municipal levels in the 

mountainous areas of Tuscany, Italy. The authors found that digital divide of mountain territories is a 

main obstacle in reaching important goal. Borge et al. (2009) carried out an explanatory analysis of 

local initiatives in e-participation and offline participation taking into account political variables as 


well as socio-economic variables that characterize municipalities at Catalonia region in Spain. The 

authors found that the number of participatory activities developed by municipalities in Catalonia 

region is very low. Spacek (2009) studied e-participation with the help of analysis of the websites of 

the Czech statutory cities. The analysis of the websites of Czech statutory cities clearly showed a 

prevailing of the surveyed e-information aspects over aspects of transparent e-participation. Tait 

(2009) presented some of the findings of the research project examining e-participation initiatives in 

Scottish Local Authorities. The focus was to identify the extent to which e-participation is being used 

and the benefits and drawbacks of these methods. It was found that the Scottish local authorities were 

using e-participation tools, their use was rather limited and the methods used were fairly basic. Sagile 

and Vabo (2009) analyzed the municipal e-participation in Norway, comprising local politicians as 

well as citizens, explores the impact of municipal size on online participation. The findings indicate 

that the relatively high level of traditional participation in small municipalities also promote e- 

participation. Alonso (2009) analyzed the use of internet by local people on their participation and 

local democracy in a town in Spain. Akdogan (2009) analyzed the e-participation by the Metropolitan 

Municipality of Istambul, Turkey. The increasing demand of citizens for participatory planning in 

three Dutch municipalities is analyzed by Koekoek et al. (2009). With e-participation, the planning 

support systems (PSS) in the municipalities could be enhanced. The authors showed the initiatives 

taken by three Dutch municipalities. Panopoulou et al. (2009) evaluated e-participation sophistication 

of the websites of all regional public authorities in Greece and Spain based on three factors 

(information, consultation and active participation). The results indicated that although a political 

priority, e-participation is not yet a common practice in both the countries. Matheus et al. (2010) 

describes the case studies of Digital Participatory Budget (DPB) in four municipalities of Brazil, one in 

Peru and one from Argentina. The authors try to establish that the use of ICTs, especially the internet, 

can be a promoter of citizenship and citizen participation. But the authors found that this promotion is 

limited by the condition of access to these technologies and the depth and quality of information 

available to citizens. Bebic and Vuckovic (2011) examined the relationship between specific content 

categories on city web sites and civic engagement in Croatia. The role of the city web sites in e- 

participation was studied by the surveying citizen’s views. A web based volunteer survey was 

conducted in 33 Croatian cities, with more than 600 citizens participating. Results showed that there is 

democratic divide in Croatian local government. The study overall finds that the citizens are willing to 

engage online if the government provides them with an adequate platform. Rojas et al. (2011) studied 

the actual use that local governments give to social media tools to promote e-participation and e- 

governance. Hochtl et al. (2011) studied the present situation of e-participation initiatives of Austrian 

municipalities and derives recommendations to further enhance the e-participation sophistication level. 

The authors found that the technical basis for e-participation in Austria is well-developed, yet 

accessibility of municipal websites and the phrasing of information leave space for improvement. E- 

Participation in Austria is still in a nascent state and requires the convergence of technical, political, 

legal and socio-economic factors, which has not yet fully arrived at the municipal level. Johannessen et 

al. (2012) examined the expectations and communication needs of relevant stakeholder groups for 

municipal e-participation in a small Norwegian municipality. The findings show that information 

about local issues, information about issues relevant for the individual stakeholders, and dialogue on 

business’ needs and employment are three most important communication needs. E-mail and 

municipal websites are two most preferred mode of communication. Effective municipal 

communication requires a number of different media, depending on what is being communicated. 

Sandoval- Almazan and Gil- Garcia (2012) said that the most important interactions between citizens 

and government happen at local level. These relationships could become closer and more frequent with 

the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). The authors analyzed the local 

government portals in Mexico. The authors found that progress toward citizen engagement is slow in 

local governments and there are very few efforts to increase interaction, participation and 

collaboration. For the authors, it seems that e-government in municipalities is still more rhetoric and 

less reality, at least in some countries. Damurski (2012) did the comparative analysis of online 

participation offered in Poland and Germany. In India, there are only two studies on e-participation but 


oth the studies are confined to political participation, and citizen empowerment in e-democracy. 

Cegarra- Navarro et al. (2012) examine the relative importance and significance of three types of 

information communication technologies (ICTs) towards the use of e-government and development of 

civic engagement. Empirical investigation was made of 179 Spanish official town websites (websites 

in the municipalities). The research findings suggest that the implementing ICT not only involves a 

step towards an increase in the use of e-government services by people, but also provides numerous 

opportunities for their civic engagement. Fedotova et al. (2012) studied the level of electronic 

participation (e-participation) initiatives that are promoted by government authorities in Portugal at 

local and national levels. The study reveals that local e-participation initiatives are predominantly 

informing in character and there is lack of high level of e-participation initiatives. There are no studies 

on e-participation in the urban local bodies in India. In the first study, Gowda and Gupta (2010) 

studied the various initiatives that harness information and communication technologies (ICTs) to 

promote electoral reform and political mobilizations. Alathur et al. (2011) signified whether citizen’s 

empowered status influences their online democratic participation. 

3. E- PARTICIPATION IN WEST BENGAL 

The present status (as on 31 st March 2013) of e-participation in the five municipal corporations of 

WestBengal (Asansol, Chandannagore, Durgapur,Kolkata and Siliguri) have been analyzed by 

incorporating the studies of Demirhan and Oktem (2011) and the criteria and indicators of e- 

participation is shown in Table 1. The score arrived was using the formula [X/21 x 100], where X is 

the number of municipal corporations with own determined indicators and 21 shows the number of 

indicators. The results are shown in Table 2. 

Table 1: Criteria and Indicators of e-participation (adapted from Demirhan and Oktem, 2011) 

Variables of 

e- 

participation 

e-information 

(e-I) 

e- 

consultation 

(e-C) 

e-decisionmaking 

(e-D) 

Number of 

indicators 

Indicators 

8 1. e-participation policy, program and progress e-I 1 

2. Structure of municipalities, authorities, services and e-I 2 

institutions 

3. Laws and regulations e-I 3 

4. Financial information e-I 4 

5. Agenda, annual reports and outcomes e-I 5 

6. Announcements e-I 6 

7. RSS e-I 7 

8. Statistics e-I 8 

7 9. Polls e-C 1 

10. Surveys e-C 2 

11. Claims, complaints and feedbacks e-C 3 

12. Chat rooms or instant messaging e-C 4 

13. Available e-mails of authorities e-C 5 

14. Web logs or blogs or links to blogs e-C 6 

15. e- Services e- C 7 

6 16. Discussion on forums e-D 1 

17. Archive of past discussions on forums e-D 2 

18. Notice and/or publish citizen inputs e-D 3 

19. Petitions e-D 4 

20. Voting e-D 5 

21. Notice results of inputs or citizen’s opinion e-D 6 


Table 2: E- Participation Score 

Municipal 

Corporation 

Score (%) 

e- I e-C e-D 

E- Participation 

Score 

Asansol 37.50 28.57 0 22.02 

Chandannagore 25.00 14.29 0 13.09 

Durgapur 50.00 28.57 0 26.19 

Kolkata 75.00 42.86 0 39.29 

Siliguri 37.50 14.29 0 17.26 

Table 2 clearly reflects the state of e-participation in the State of West Bengal, India. There is only 

certain growth in the e-information indicators. Municipal Corporation of Kolkata is scored the highest 

and the Chandannagore Municipal Corporation is the lowest. The growth in e-consultation is poor and 

well below 50 per cent. There is no initiation of e-decision-making process in the municipal 

corporations. 

4. CHALLENGES AND GAPS 

The extent of e-participation in India (UN E- Government Survey, 2012) is very low (15 per cent). ICT 

infrastructure, which is the backbone of modern society, is low and only significant growth in mobile 

cellular telephone subscriptions have been witnessed (ITU, 2011). Internet penetration is also very low 

in India (4.2 per cent) as compared to 24.5 per cent in Asia-Pacific (ITU. 2011). There are also 

significant deficit in the demand and supply of electricity. Electricity is the most basic condition for 

using ICTs. The Strategic Plan Document of the Department of Information Technology, Government 

of India for the next 5 years (2012-17) found lack of focus on e-inclusion in IT policies of the State 

Governments including West Bengal. Lack of standards for information systems, data management, 

scrutiny, software localizations and interoperability, poor availability of e-content and e-services are 

also mentioned. Apart from ICT and infrastructural challenges, there are administrative and 

institutional challenges also. The offline participation mechanism established by the 74 th Constitutional 

(Amendment) Act, 1993 has not been fully established. The ‘Ward Committees’ are not properly 

instituted and given adequate functional and powers (PRIA, 2010). Ramanathan (2005) analyzed that 

beyond voting, there is no opportunity to participate in decisions on local development and engage in 

the affairs of the governance. The TERI Report (2010) found that barring few States, the setting of 

Ward Committees could not take off in the urban areas. Sharma (2011) studied the impact of 74 th 

Constitutional (Amendment) Act, 1993 on the Chandigarh Municipal Corporation, India and found 

poor empowerment, lack of unity among the Ward Committees and Councilors, poor authority for 

levying taxes, poor devolution of funds and overall ineffective decentralization. 

5. PROSPECTS AND SUGGESTIONS 

There are great potential of growth of e-participation in urban local bodies of India including West 

Bengal. Use of ICT tools and establishment of online presence has started from 2006 onwards as part 

of the national e-governance program. According to the Internet World Stats (2012), India has 

achieved 10.2 per cent internet penetration at 0.12 billion users as on December, 2011 and out of this, 

37 per cent of the users access Facebook. India has the largest number of Facebook users in Asia. In 

2012, the internet subscriber base is expected to rise to approximately 45 billion. The wireless internet 

base is estimated to rise to approximately 196 million from the current 76 million. There is also a 

strong favorable public policy environment and assertiveness from the Government of India. The 

various legislations and acts such as Right to Information Act, 2005; Framework for Citizen 

Engagement in e-Governance (2012); Framework and Guidelines for Use of Social Media for 


Government Organizations (2012); The Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Services Bill 

(2011) etc. 

Under JNNURAM mandate, states will have to enact or modify legislations and municipalities will 

have to undergo structural and institutional reforms. One of the major structural and institutional 

reforms is the Community Participation Law (CPL), which was originally called Nagara Raj Bill, 

2004. JNNURM contemplates the creation of third-tier of decision-making in the municipality which 

is below the word level, called the ‘Area Sabha’. For growth and development of e-participation in 

West Bengal, the foremost requirement is the development of the offline participation in the urban 

local bodies. West Bengal is the second state in India (after Kerala) which has constituted ‘Area 

Sabha’. According to the recommendations of the TERI (2010), for the development of the offline 

participation, 18 functions delegated to the municipal bodies under the 74 th Constitutional 

(Amendment) Act, 1993 should be given to ward committees and area sabhas. The Report of the 

Working Group on Urban Governance of 12 th Five Year Plan (2012-17) of Planning Commission, 

Government of India advocated for two-pronged strategy including adoption of e-governance tools & 

IT and monthly twon hall meetingsfor strengthening online and offline participation. There is also 

need to launch ‘JNNURM e-Governance 2.0’. JNNURM e-Governance 2.0 would lay down detailed 

guidelines for the establishment of the components of e-participation and social media development. 

There is need of harnessing the Web 2.0 technologies and social media. The engagement of social 

media by the urban local bodies may be implemented through public private partnerships (PPP). PPP is 

encouraged under JNNURM especially in the sectors of service delivery and management. Apart from 

the above initiatives, there is also need of development and spread of ICT infrastructure, internet and 

broadband penetration and social capital development. The Government of West Bengal need to 

sincerely implement all the above recommendations and develop proper ICT infrastructure. This will 

enhance the offline participation in the urban local bodies and growth of offline participation will 

stimulate online participation or e-participation. 

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An outline of Taxation Scenario- in realm of Indian Perceptive 

Dr. B. Sumathisri 

Department of Commerce and Management Studies, Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, 

SASTRA UNIVERSITY, Kumbakonam-612 001, INDIA 

Email:bsumathisri@gmail.com 

Abstract 

Perceptions and policies with regard to the role of foreign (international) capital (savings) in the 

process of industrial and overall growth have changed in India since the beginning of economic 

planning. Income –Tax Act, 1961 is a comprehensive Act and consists of 298 sections and 

subsections which are supported by Acts and rules. This Act has been amended by several amending 

Acts since 1961. The annual Financial Bills presented to Parliament along with budget make farreaching 

amendments in this Act every year. The Indian taxes are both direct and indirect. Double 

taxation occurs when the income of a foreign subsidiary is taxed both by host-country government and 

by the parent company’s home government. The central Government has so far entered into 

agreements for relief against or avoidance of double taxation with 72 countries and these agreements 

are in operation. The Indian tax system provides incentives to attract Foreign Direct Investment and 

to encourage exports. So, the taxation structure of the country plays a very important role in the 

working of the economy. It is a source of revenue and a measure of removal of economic disparity. 

While designing the taxation structure it has to be conformity with economic and social objectives. 

Key words: Private Capital Flow, Primary Income, Foreign Direct Investment, Residential Status, 

Double Taxation, Tax Foregone, Expatriates 

Perceptions and policies with regard to the role of foreign (international) capital (savings) in 

the process of industrial and overall growth have changed in India since the beginning of economic 

planning. The first 15-20 years were marked by caution in welcoming the foreign capital. A 

restrictive and selective approach characterized the next 10-15years, while increasing relaxation, 

liberalization and receptivity was experienced during the 1980s. The period after 1991 can be called 

the halcyon days of eager welcome, open-door or open-arm policy, and an increasing thrust towards 

international integration and globalization. According to L M Bhole and Jitendra Mahakud, (2009) [1], 

the “beneficial” role of the foreign capital has increased in the economy. India is a three-tier economy, 

comprising a globally competitive services sector, a manufacturing sector and an agricultural sector. 

The service sector like trade, hotels, transport, telecommunications and information technology, 

business services and finance shows an increasing trend. Many foreign companies use a combination 

of exporting, licensing and direct investment in India. India permits 100 per cent foreign equity in 

most industries. Units setting up in special economic zones (SEZs), operating in electronic hardware or 

software, technology parks or operating as 100per cent export-oriented units are fully foreign-owned. 

Nevertheless, the government has set sector-specific caps on foreign equity in certain industries, such 

as basic and cellular telecommunications services, banking, civil aviation and retail trading, Delotti, 

(2012),[2]. 

Significance of Foreign Investment 

Foreign Investment is playing an increasing role in economic development. Economic 

reforms and the far-reaching political changes have resulted in very substantial changes in the 

international capital flows. FDI now contributes to a significant share of the domestic investment, 

employment generation, exports, etc.. in a number of economics. Addressing a session on ‘moving 

to the market: sustaining reforms in India and Asia’, M. Gordon Wu, (1997) [3] has observed that 


foreign investment brings four ‘E’s – efficiency, equity, experience and expertise. In return, there is a 

fifth ‘E”-expatriation of profits. 

The changes in the composition of the capital flows and the substantial increase in the 

magnitude of some of the flows, like FDI, have remarkably changed the balance of payments and 

foreign exchange reserves position of several countries. The debt creating flows as a percentage of 

total flows in the Balance of Payment (BOP) of India averaged as much as 97 per cent during the 

Seventh Plan (1985-90) but declined to less than 20per cents by the mid-1990s. Eventually, India 

began to experience a surplus on the BOP and a very remarkable improvement in the reserves position. 

Foreign investment has assisted and is assisting the economic growth of many countries. As a World 

Bank report, ( 1991) [4] points out, for the developing countries FDI have the following advantages 

over the Official Development Assistance (ODA): 

 

 

 

FDI shifts the burden of risk of an investment from domestic to foreign investors. 

Repayments are linked to the profitability of the underlying investment, whereas under debt 

financing the borrowed funds must be serviced regardless of the project costs. 

Further, it has also been observed that FDI is the only capital inflow that has been strongly 

associated with higher GDP growth since 1970. 

The contribution of FDI to economic growth is high lightened by the fact that the ratio of 

FDI flow to domestic investment [gross capital formation] rose for most developed and developing 

countries in the past. Although the bulk of the FDI goes to developed countries, its share in their 

Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) is only about half of that in developing countries because of 

the massiveness of their GFCF, mentioned by Francis Cherunilam, (2010). [5] 

Given the limitations of domestic savings, many developing countries will have to rely 

on foreign investment to accelerate economic growth. It may be noted that China has been able to 

maintain a high GDP growth –rate for a long time because of a high savings rate and huge inflow of 

FDI. The details of Net inflow and Primary Income of India from 2008 to 2011 have been shown in 

Table No: 1, the World Bank report, (2012). [6] Appendix A 

Private capital flows consist of net foreign direct investment and portfolio investment. It 

is the sum of equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, other long-term capital, and short-term capital as 

shown in the balance of payments. Portfolio investment excludes liabilities constituting foreign 

authorities' reserves and covers transactions in equity securities and debt securities. Primary income 

on foreign direct investment (in US$) covers payments of direct investment income, which consist 

of income on equity (dividends, branch profits, and reinvested earnings) and income on the inter 

company debt (interest). The flow of direct foreign investment in India has been comparatively 

limited because of the type of industrial development strategy and the very cautious foreign policy 

followed by the nation. 

Taxation of Foreign-Source Income 

Tax planning is a crucial responsibility of the CFO because taxes can profoundly affect 

profitability and cash flow. This is especially true in international business. As complex as domestic 

taxation seems, it is simple compared to the intricacies of international taxation. The international tax 

specialist must be familiar with both home country’s tax policies on foreign operations and the tax 

laws of each country in which the international company operates. Taxation has a strong impact on 

several choices: 

Location of operations 

Choice of operating form, such as export or import, licensing agreement, overseas investment 

Legal form of the new enterprises, such as branch or subsidiary. 


Possible facilities in tax-haven countries to raise capital and manage cash. 

Method of financing, such as internal or external sourcing and debt or equity. 

Capital budgeting decisions 

Method of setting Transfer prices 

Taxation of foreign-source income depends on the country where the parent company is 

domiciled. It is common for most developed countries to tax companies on their world-wide income 

and give them a credit for foreign corporate income taxes paid. But in certain countries like Hong 

Kong companies, for example, pay tax only on Hong Kong-source income, and their tax rate are only 

17.5 percent. Likewise, U.S. companies are taxed on foreign-source income if dividends are remitted 

to the United States. However, Hong Kong companies do not have to pay tax on foreign-source 

income, even if remitted to Hong Kong. That is a characteristic of “tax-haven” countries, John D. 

Daniels et al, (2009). [7] 

Perceptive on Indian taxation 

Income –Tax Act, 1961 is a comprehensive Act and consists of 298 sections and 

subsections which are supported by Acts and rules. This Act has been amended by several amending 

Acts since 1961. The annual Financial Bills presented to Parliament along with budget make farreaching 

amendments in this Act every year. The Indian taxes are both direct and indirect. Some of 

the major provisions relating to taxes which are mentioned by Jeevarathinam et al, (2012) [8] are 

discussed here. 

Residential Status 

Tax is levied on total income of the assessee. Under section of Income Tax Act, 1961 the 

total income of each person is based upon his residential status. The Act [Sec 6] divides the assessable 

persons into three categories: 

i) Ordinary resident ii) Resident but Not Ordinarily Resident, and iii) Non-Resident 

Residential status is a term coined under Income tax Act, i.e., An Indian, who is a citizen of 

India can be non-resident for Income-tax purposes, whereas an American who is a citizen of America 

can be a resident of India for Income-tax purposes. The residential status of a person depends upon the 

territorial connections of the persons in this country, i.e., for how many days he has physically stayed 

in India. 

‣ Residential Status of an Individual and others 

A person is a resident in India for a given financial year if he/she fulfills the following 

conditions for that financial year: 

Basic Conditions: 

(a) If the Individual stayed in India for a period of 182 days or more during the Relevant 

Previous Year he is Resident of India (OR) 

(b) If he stayed in India for a period of 60 days or more during Relevant Previous Year and 365 

days or more during the four preceding previous years he is Resident of India. 

If the above two conditions are not satisfied, he is Nonresident. 

Exceptional Situations: 

For the following persons, condition mentioned in (a) above only shall apply to determine their 

Residential Status: 


(a) Individual, an Indian citizen, leaving India for employment outside India, or 

(b) Indian Citizen being a crew member of an Indian ship leaving India, or 

(c) Individual, Indian citizen or a person of Indian origin, visiting India. 

 

Additional Conditions: 

a. Resident in India for at least 2 years out of the preceding 10 previous years. 

b. Physically present in India for at least 730 days during the 7 preceding previous years. 

The status of an Individual and others , and their conditions has been shown in Box No: 1a, 

1b & 1c (Appendix B) 

If a person is a resident for one source of income in a previous year, he shall be deemed to be a 

resident for all other sources of income also i.e Income from salary, Income from House property, 

Income from Business or Profession and Income from Other sources like, Interest, Winning games and 

so on. 

‣ Status and Incidence of Income Tax as per the Income tax Act of 1961. 

The incidence of tax on a taxpayer depends on his residential status as well as on the place and 

time of accrual or receipt of income, Box No.2 (Appendix B). The income is compartmentalized into 

(1) Indian income and (2) Foreign income. 

Indian income is an: 

a. Income that accrues/arises in India and is received /deemed to be received in India. 

b. Income that accrues/arises outside India but is received/deemed to be received in India. 

c. Income that accrues/ arises in India but is received/deemed to be received outside India. 

On the contrary, foreign income is an income that accrues/arise outside India and is received 

/ deemed to be received outside India. 

A resident assessee is taxed on both its Indian income and foreign income. But a nonresident 

/foreign company is not fixed on its foreign income. There are, of course, some foreign 

incomes which are treated as Indian income. The income of a business process out-sourcing (BPO) 

units in India, even if they are a permanent establishment of a non-resident foreign company, specific 

cases of interest, dividend , technical fees, royalty, etc., are opposite examples. However, many of 

them are exempted from tax. 

Taxes on the income of the Expatriates 

The income of expatriates is taxable similarly as the income of an individual. However, the 

expatriates are grouped as: resident, ordinarily resident and non-resident. A resident one has to be 

physically present in the country for 60days or more during the tax year or 365 days or more during 

the preceding four tax years. An ordinarily resident expatriate should be resident in India for at least 

two out of 10years preceding the relevant tax year or he/she should have been in India for 730 days or 

more during seven years preceding the relevant tax year. If the expatiate does not fulfill the abovementioned 

conditions, he/she is treated as non-resident. 

The expatriates of the first two categories pay taxes on the income earned in India as well as 

outside. But the non-resident expatriate taxes on his/her income earned and received only in India. 


‣ Indirect Taxes 

Customs duty is the most important among the indirect taxes. It is imposed on the imports. It 

is either ad valorem or specific. The rate is amended from time to time. In the past one and a half 

decades, the rate has been slashed significantly. Besides the basic customs duty, there is countervailing 

duty. The purpose is to ensure that the protection provided by the basic customs duty to the domestic 

manufactures is not eroded. Again, additional duty is levied at 4.0 per cent in order to counter the local 

sales tax/Vat etc. The manufacturers of goods in India have also to pay excise duty normally at 16.0 

per cent. However, the foreign investors operating in India get some credit in specific cases. 

Assuming the basic customs duty at 10.0, countervailing duty at 16.48 per cent , education cess at 3.0 

per cent , additional duty at 4.0 per cent and allowing for credit at 10.84 percent , the impact of these 

indirect taxes comes to around 23.29per cent. 

‣ Tax incentives 

The Indian tax system provides incentives to attract Foreign Direct Investment and to 

encourage exports, Vyuptakesh, 2011 [9]. Some important incentives are : 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A unit in Special Economic Zone set up after March 2002 is allowed 100percent tax 

deduction of export profit for a period of 5 years and 50 per cent for the next two years 

followed by 50per cent deduction of export profit credited to a special reserve account for 

the next three years. 

The initial depreciation rate has been increased from 15per cent to 20 percent that will in 

effect lower the amount of tax. Moreover, the requirements of a 10per cent increase in the 

installed capacity for availing the benefit of the initial depreciation have been removed so 

as to make easier the application of the scheme. 

Credit in respect of MAT will be available for the next five years. 

With a view to promote scientific research, capital and revenue expenditure in this respect 

is allowed as deduction while computing taxable income. This would enhance the 

capability of Indian firms to modify the imported technology. 

Specific deductions are allowed if FDI moves to backward regions of the economy. 

Similarly, deductions are allowed in specific conditions if FDI moves to infrastructure 

sector. 

Profits of a resident company are exempted from taxes if they are related to the 

development of computer software. 

Profit from export, if the export proceeds are received in convertible currencies within a 

specified period, is exempted from tax to a maximum of 30 percent. 

‣ Indian Tax Rates 

 

The Indian Tax [10] rates for the current year as per the Income Tax Act of 1961: 

The tax in India on an individual's income is progressive from 10percent to 30percent for the 

financial year 2013- 2014. An education tax cess of 3percent is imposed too. 


A limited company in India is liable for tax in the financial year 2013- 2014 at the rate of 

30percent for a local company and 40percent for a foreign company with the addition of 

surcharge (for income above INR 10 millions, 5percent for domestic companies, 2percent for 

foreign companies) as well as an education tax cess of 3percent. The top effective tax rate in 

India is 32.45percent for a local company and 42.02percent for a foreign company. 

Companies in India whose tax liability is less than 18.5percent of the "book profits" pay an 

18.5percent minimum alternative tax, Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) on the "book profits" 

with a surcharge and cess, bringing the effective tax rate of 20.01percent for domestic 

companies and 19.44percent for foreign companies. 

The income is computed after adding certain disallowance, depreciation, loss on sale of 

assets, etc. to the declared profit and after deducting certain allowances and the fringe benefit accorded 

to the employees. 

‣ Double Taxation 

Many nations follow the worldwide principle that they have the right to tax income earned 

outside their boundaries by entities based in their country. That is, the U.S. government can tax the 

earnings of the German subsidiary of an enterprise incorporated in the United States. Double taxation 

occurs when the income of a foreign subsidiary is taxed both by host-country government and by the 

parent company’s home government. However, according to Charles W. L. Hill, et al, 2010 [11] 

double taxation can be mitigated to some extent by tax credits, tax treaties, and the deferral principle. 

Double taxation relief 

Agreement with Foreign countries for Avoidance or Relief against Double taxation [Sec 90] 

The income tax Act empowers the Central Government to enter into agreements with the 

Government of any country for the grant of relief against double taxation or for the avoidance of 

double taxation, V. P. Gaur, et al, 2012 [12] . It also empowers the Central Government to make such 

provisions as may be necessary for the implementation of such agreement and such provisions may be 

published in the Official Gazette. The Central Government entered into agreements with foreign 

countries like, 

a. For the granting of relief in respect of income on which have been paid both income-tax 

under this Act and income-tax in that country, or 

b. For the avoidance of double taxation of income under this Act and under the corresponding 

law in force in that country, or 

c. For exchange of information for the prevention of evasion or avoidance of income-tax 

chargeable under this Act or under the corresponding law in force in that country, or investigation of 

cases of such evasion or avoidance, or 

d. For recovery of income-tax under this Act and under the corresponding law in force in that 

country. 

The central Government has so far entered into agreements for relief against or avoidance 

of double taxation with 72 countries and these agreements are in operation. These agreements may 

be classified into two parts: 

i) Agreement for relief from Double taxation 

Under this category assessments provide for the payment of tax in both the countries 

under the respective laws of those countries but later on rebate of tax is given in both the countries on 


doubly assessed income. In such case assessee must show that the identical income has been doubly 

taxed and that he has paid tax both in India and in the foreign country on the same income. 

ii) Agreement for the avoidance of Double taxation (i.e., Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement 

(DTAA). 

Under these agreements the assessee has first to pay the tax and then apply for relief in the 

form of a refund. Each country recovers tax only on that portion of income which accrued within that 

country and takes into account the income accruing in other country only for rate purposes. In such 

cases no refund arises. With effect from 1.10.2009, the Central Government has also been empowered 

to enter into an agreement with specified non-sovereign territories. 

Unilateral Relief in Respect Foreign Income Taxed Abroad [Sec 91 (1)] 

Subject to following conditions unilateral relief is granted in cases where Section 90 is not 

applicable: 

i) Assessee should be resident of India in the previous year; 

ii) The income, in fact, should have accrued outside India and should not be deemed under 

any provision of this Act to accrue in India; 

iii) The income should be taxed both in India and a foreign country with which India has no 

agreement for relief against or avoidance of double taxation; and 

iv) The assessee should have, in fact, paid the tax in such foreign country by deduction or 

otherwise. 

Relief in case of Agricultural income from Pakistan [sec91 (2)] 

In case a resident of India has paid any tax on agricultural income which accrued or arose 

to him during that previous year in Pakistan, he shall be entitled to a deduction from the Indian income 

tax payable by him of the amount of tax paid in Pakistan or sum calculated at the Indian rate of tax, 

whichever is less. 

 

Relief in case of Share in the Foreign Income of a Registered Firm 

An assessee receiving shares in foreign income of a registered firm shall be entitled to the 

relief of tax on such share provided the firm receives income from a foreign country with which no 

agreement exists u/s 90 and assessee has paid in that foreign country. 

‣ Tax Revenues and Tax Expenditure 

The table No .2 (Appendix A) shows the projected tax revenues of the 28 states except 

union territories. This is a list of States of India by projected own tax revenues of their governments 

(excluding the shares from Union tax pool) assessed for the year 2010–15 by the Thirteenth Finance 

Commission [13]with figures in crore of Indian Rupees. 

Tax expenditure or revenue foregone statement was laid before Parliament for the first time 

during Budget 2006-07 by way of Annex-12 of the Receipts Budget 2006-07. The tax policy gives rise 

to tax preferences and this preference can be viewed as an indirect subsidy to preferred tax payers, by 

P. Sainath, 2013 [14]. Such implicit subsidy payments are also referred to as ‘tax expenditures’. The 

revenue foregone on account of such tax incentives has been estimated in respect of most of the “tax 

preferences”. Table No: 3 (Appendix A) shows the revenue foregone under Corporate income tax , 

excise duty and custom duty, from 2005-2006 


‣ Tax-GDP ratio 

In view of large unmet development needs, it is better to achieve fiscal consolidation 

partly through a higher tax-GDP ratio than merely through a reduction in the expenditure to GDP ratio. 

After reaching a peak of 11.9 per cent in 2007-08, the tax-GDP ratio had declined to 9.6 per cent in 

2009-10 and was placed at 9.9 per cent in 2011-12. Therefore, raising the tax-GDP ratio to above the 

11 per cent level is critical for sustaining the process of fiscal consolidation in the long run. Of course, 

it is much better to achieve a higher tax-GDP ratio by broadening the base which is taxed rather than 

increasing marginal tax rates significantly--higher and higher tax rates impinge more and more on 

incentives to undertake taxable activities, while encouraging tax evasion., E. Augur (2012) [15] 

‣ Incidence Vs Effects 

When a tax is imposed on a commodity, it produces certain effects on the producer, the 

consumer, and the economy, mentioned by Dr.H. Dalton (1954). [16] Suppose the government levy 

excise duty on tea, it will raise the price of tea, which will reduce its consumption. If the tea 

companies are not able to shift the full amount of the excise duty to the consumers (for fear of 

reduction in sales), their cost of production rises and the profit- margins are reduced. This will 

adversely affect investment and production. If they are not able to shift the incidence of the tax 

backward on the suppliers of factors of production, investment will again be adversely affected. These 

are the effects of a tax which may, in the long run, adversely affect production, employment, income, 

saving and investment in the economy. So every tax system produces various types of consequences 

on production, distribution, consumption and the level of economic activity. The effects may be good 

or bad, but the best system of taxation from the economic point is that which has the best, or the least 

bad, economic effects, as referred by M. L. Jhingan, (2006) [17] 

This paper studies the major provision of the Income tax policy of the Indian economy. The 

taxation structure of the country plays a very important role in the working of the economy. It is a 

source of revenue and measure of removal of economic disparity. While designing the taxation 

structure it has to be conformity with economic and social objectives. The Tax policy and Tax costs 

vary widely by countries and industries respectively. A significant part of the tax revenue in a country 

is represented by a tax on personal income as well as corporate income tax. However, the rate of the 

tax varies widely among different countries or different tax jurisdictions with the result that the 

concept of neutrality or equity is hard to be adhered. 

References: 

1. L M Bhole and Jitendra Mahakud,(2009) ‘Financial Institutions and Markets- Structure, Growth 

and Innovations’, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Ltd, New Delhi, pg870. 

2. Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited and its member firms, “Taxation and Investment in India 2012- 

Reach, relevance and reliability”, http://www.deloitte.com/tax. Pg 3. 

3. M.Gordon Wu, Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) and Asia Society, in New Delhi on March 

9,1997. 

4. The World Bank ,World Development Report 1991, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1991,p.36. 

5. Francis Cherunilam(2010), “International Business Text and Cases”, PHI Learning Private Limited, 

New Delhi- Pg.326. 

6.TheWorld bank Report,http://data.worldbank.org/.htm, http://data.worldbank.org/.htm 

7. John D.Daniels, Lee H. Radebaugh, Daniel P. Sullivan and Prashant Salwan(2009), “International 

Business- Environments and Operations”, Pearson Prentice Hall, New Delhi, pg771-774. 

8. M.Jeevarathinam and C. Vijay Vishnu Kumar (2012-13), “Income Tax Law and Practice” , 

Scitech Publications, Chennai, pg 3.2-3.6 

9. Vyuptakesh Sharan(2011), “International Financial Management”, PHI Learning Private Limited, 

New Delhi- 110001, pg 524-526. 


10. www.indiantaxations.com 

11.Charles W.L.Hill, Arun .K.Jain(Sixth edition,2010 ), “International Business-Competing in the 

Global market place”, Tata McGraw Hill, pg 845. 

12. V.P.Gaur, D.B. Narang, Puja Gaur and Rajeev Puri ( edn 10 th , 2012), “Income Tax law and 

Practice- Assessment Year 2012-2013”, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Pg 3/23 to 3/25, Pg1/31 & Pg 

1/49. 

13. http://fincomindia.nic.in/writereaddata/html 

14. P.Sainath, ‘The feeding frenzy of kleptocracy’-The Hindu, Saturday, 

March 16, 2013.pg.9 

15. E.Aujur,http://indiabudget.nic.in, E-chapter,-01,pg13. 

16. Dr.H. Dalton , “Principle of Public Finance”, 4 th ed ., 1954.pg23 

17. M.L.Jhingan,(2006), “Money, Banking, International Trade and Public Finance”, Vrinda 

Publications(P) Ltd., New Delhi, pg 775 

Appendix A 

Table No: 1 

India’s Private capital flows and Primary Income (U.S. dollars) 

S.No Year Private capital flows Primary income 

1 2008 9,074,959,515 11,988,871,923 

2 2009 40,606,179,024 12,278,774,182 

3 2010 49,869,991,944 15,344,000,000 

4 2011 NA 16,787,000,000 

Source: The World Bank report, 2012 

Table No. 2-Projected Tax Revenues of Indian economy, 2010-2015 

Rank State Tax Revenues 

— India 3033087 crore(s) (US$560 billion) 

01 Maharashtra 451777 crore(s) (US$83 billion) 

02 Tamil Nadu 323369 crore(s) (US$59 billion) 

03 Uttar Pradesh 296417 crore(s) (US$54 billion) 

04 Andhra Pradesh 273424 crore(s) (US$50 billion) 

05 Karnataka 252620 crore(s) (US$46 billion) 

06 Gujarat 179578 crore(s) (US$33 billion) 

07 West Bengal 169910 crore(s) (US$31 billion) 

08 Rajasthan 150741 crore(s) (US$28 billion) 

09 Kerala 138221 crore(s) (US$25 billion) 

10 Haryana 136291 crore(s) (US$25 billion) 

11 Madhya Pradesh 127222 crore(s) (US$23 billion) 

12 Punjab 118022 crore(s) (US$22 billion) 

13 Chattisgarh 72382 crore(s) (US$13 billion) 

14 Jharkhand 70748 crore(s) (US$13 billion) 

15 Odisha 66181 crore(s) (US$12 billion) 

16 Bihar 37036 crore(s) (US$6.8 billion) 

17 Jammu and Kashmir 34644 crore(s) (US$6.3 billion) 

18 Assam 32238 crore(s) (US$5.9 billion) 

19 Uttarakhand 32202 crore(s) (US$5.9 billion) 

20 Himachal Pradesh 27409 crore(s) (US$5.0 billion) 

21 Goa 23251 crore(s) (US$4.3 billion) 

22 Tripura 4725 crore(s) (US$860 million) 

23 Meghalaya 4592 crore(s) (US$840 million) 

24 Arunachal Pradesh 2711 crore(s) (US$500 million) 


25 Manipur 2685 crore(s) (US$490 million) 

26 Nagaland 1776 crore(s) (US$330 million) 

27 Mizoram 1547 crore(s) (US$280 million) 

28 Sikkim 1368 crore(s) (US$250 million) 

Source: Thirteenth Financial Commission report. 

Table No : 3 

Revenue foregone under Corporate Income tax, Excise and Customs 

(Figures are in rupees crores, one lakh crore= 1trillion) 

Year 

Corporate Income Excise Customs Total 

Tax 

Duty duty 

2005-06 34618 66760 127730 229108 

2006-07 50075 75475 137105 262655 

2007-08 62199 87468 153593 303260 

2008-09 66901 128293 225752 420946 

2009-10 72881 169121 207949 449951 

2010-11 57912 192227 172740 422879 

2011-12 61765 195590 236852 494207 

2012-13 68008 206188 253967 528163 

Total Revenue Foregone 474359 1121122 1515688 3111169 

% increase in 2012-13 over 2005- 

96.45 208.85 98.83 130.53 

06 

Source: P.Sainath, ‘The feeding frenzy of kleptocracy’-The Hindu,Saturday,March 16,2013 

Appendix B 

Box No: 1(a) 

Residential status of Individual and condition 

Status of an Individual Basic condition Additional condition/(s) 

Resident and ordinarily Resident Satisfies Satisfies both the conditions 

Resident but not ordinarily Resident Satisfies May or may not satisfy any of 

the additional condition 

Non Resident Not Satisfy Not applicable 

Box No. 1(b ) 

Residential Status of Hindu Undivided Family/Firm/Association of Person/Every Other Person 

Control and Management 

Residential Status 

1. Wholly or partly in India Resident 

2. Wholly outside India Non-resident 

Box No.1(c) 

Residential status of a Company 

1. Indian Company Resident 

2. Other Companies - Control and management is 

Resident 

(a) Wholly in India 

Non-resident 

(b) Wholly or partly outside India 

3. Wholly outside India Non-resident 


Box No.2 

Different kinds of Income and its status 

S.No Different Kinds of Income Resident Not 

Ordinarily 

Resident 

1. Income received or deemed to be received in India. 

It is immaterial whether it is earned in India or in a 

foreign country. 

2. Income earned in India whether received , paid in 

India or outside India 

3. Income earned and received outside India from a 

business controlled or profession set up in India. 

Income may or may not be remitted to India. 

4. Income earned and received outside India from a 

business controlled or profession set-up outside 

India. 

5. Income earned and received outside India from any 

other source(Except income under point 3) 

6. Income earned and received outside India in the 

years preceding the previous year in question and if 

the same is remitted to India during the current 

previous year. 

**** 

Non- 

Resident 

Taxable Taxable Taxable 

Taxable Taxable Taxable 

Taxable Taxable Not- 

Taxable 

Taxable Not-Taxable Nottaxable 

Taxable Not-Taxable Not- 

Taxable 

Not- Not-Taxable Not- 

Taxable 

Taxable 


INTROSPECTING THE MOTIVATIONAL PROPELLERS IN CLASS ATTENDANCE IN 

THE UNDERGRADUATE AND POST GRADUATE COLLEGES OF WB 

Introduction: 

Subrata Chattopadhyay 

Assistant Professor and Head-Corporate Relations 

Future Institute of Engineering and Management 

Sonarpur Station Road, Kolkata-700150 

13A/9A Picnic Garden 3 rd .Lane Kolkata-700150 

address-subrata1chattopadhyay@gmail.com 

Prasanta Guha 

Assistant Professor 

Future Business School 

guhapra@gmail.com 

Student success has an immediate impact on a student’s academic self-esteem, persistence and 

perseverance in higher education. Success in early semesters at college also ultimately affects students’ 

post-college experiences, such as career choice, personal income and level of success, and degree and 

nature of participation in community life. Thus, the experience a student has in the introductory 

college classes she or he attends can have a significant influence on the course of that student’s adult 

life. 

Student factors such as aptitude, motivation, and study habits obviously affect student 

attendance in classes. But non-student factors such as the academic environment, course curricula, and 

pedagogical techniques used by the course instructor can also dramatically affect the same. It is 

therefore appropriate to consider student, teacher, curricular, and environmental influences. The paper 

studies the association with the cognitive and non-cognitive factors which have a deep association in 

propelling the students towards elation in class attendance to arrive at perceptual map identifying the 

preference clusters. 

Keywords: Perceptual cluster, motivational propellers, teaching pedagogy 

Literature Review: 

A growing literature has attempted to understand the causes and consequences of skipping 

class. Past studies have found a uniformly robust positive relationship between class attendance and 

performance. A commonly encountered problem in the literature is the difficulty in disentangling the 

causal effect of class attendance from unobserved factors such as a student’s intrinsic motivation or 

interest that are almost surely correlated with both attendance and class performance. Some studies 

have shown that non-cognitive variables are more useful than cognitive variables in predicting the 

academic success of nontraditional students (e.g. Sedlacek 2002). McAllister (1996) reports that both 

teachers and students make “self-serving attributions taking credit for success, but not for failure.” 

Such biases could result in poorly informed analyses. Sachdeva and Sterk (1982), Eskew and Faley 

(1988), Liesz and Reyes (1989), and Doran, Boullion, and Smith (1991) report that locally written and 

administered placement exams that measure student content knowledge and reasoning skills predict 

student performance in introductory finance courses. Eckel and Johnson (1983) report that the ACT 

score in math predicts success in introductory accounting courses. females are less likely to enroll in 

and more likely to resign from these courses than are males (Brower and Ketterhagen 2004, National 

Center for Educational Statistics 2002, Herndon and Moore 2002, Brush 1991, Hilton and Lee 1988). 


The greatest period of attrition for female students in science-related educational tracks is between the 

end of high school and the beginning of college (Oakes 1990). Male students seem more likely than 

female students to persist in economics courses (Hovrath et al. 1992). Meece et al. (1982) found a 

relationship between student motivation, academic self-concept (a student’s personal opinion toward 

her or his academic skills), and achievement in introductory math courses, and an associated 

relationship between initial achievement and downstream persistence in more advanced math courses. 

Academic self-concept was shown to be a strong predictor of persistence in undergraduate math 

programs (House 1992) and final grades in math courses (Wilhite 1990, Gerardi 1990, Astin 1993, and 

House 1995). Violet (1997) reports that student effort predicts achievement. McGill et al. (1997) 

report a significant relationship between success and the number of hours per week students engage in 

practical work (i.e. programming, homework assignments), but no relationship between success and 

the time invested in studying theory. McGill et al. (1997) report that students’ level of confidence in 

their ability to pass the course, and perception of the importance of the need to seek tutorial assistance, 

predict student success. Improved understandings might promote the success of students who are 

members of non-White/Caucasian ethnic groups (Kordalewski 1999, Sheets 1995). Work/finances and 

motivation are the two non-academic factors that seem to most affect academic success. This finding is 

particularly meaningful, because many students work part or full time in addition to pursuing their 

undergraduate degrees (Horn et al. 2002). 

Research Methodology: 

The attributes like parental pressure, financial condition, self motivation, class teaching 

techniques, subject taught, faculty cooperation, innovative programs, need based sessions, participative 

sessions, penalty for absence, reward and recognition for attending classes were studied using a five 

point Likert scale wherein a sample size of hundred respondents were queried randomly to arrive at the 

responses. The responses were then studied for the clusters wherein the likelihood of the preference 

basket was and to identify whether it varied in the nature of the institution, program offered, gender 

differences. The objective was to understand the perceptual difference between male and female, 

between Govt-Govt aided and non Govt institution and finally between public and private institution 

through perceptual mapping technique. 

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) offers a powerful 'pattern recognition' tool for the 

exploration and visualisation of structured patterns within complex numeric and textual observations, 

particularly those relating to human cognition, perception and contextualised 'meaning'. 

Indirect/derived/inverted data computed from Likert scales. The attributes from this study were 

analyzed further with the use of multidimensional scaling. This was done in order to create a map of 

the locations of the factors in reference to each other, based on their similarities and dissimilarities. We 

use the symbol p ij to refer to the proximity measure between entities i and j. If a subject has to indicate 

the perceived dissimilarity between two colour patches on a rating scale (0 for "no difference" and 10 

for "maximal difference"), then this rating can be considered to be a reversed measure of the proximity 

between the two colour stimuli. A correlation coefficient between variables i and j can be considered to 

be a proximity measure for these two variables. The proximities are then represented in a geometrical 

space, e.g. in a Euclidean space. The distance between two points i and j in an m-dimensional 

Euclidean space is given by the formula: 

. 

The Euclidean distances are related to the observed proximities by a suitable transformation depending 

on the measurement characteristics considered to be appropriate for these proximities: d ij = f(p ij ) (under 


the assumption that the geometrical model fits the data perfectly). If the proximities are unique up to 

e.g. a linear transformation, then f(p ij ) = a+b(p ij ), where the multiplicative constant b is negative when 

the proximities have been observed as similarities between stimuli, and positive when they have been 

observed directly as dissimilarities 

Research findings and its discussions: Multidimensional scaling technique was applied to identify 

the perceptual mapping clusters, its similarity and differences among the males and females, 

undergraduate and postgraduate programs, type of Institution- Government/ private wherein the 

program is being pursued. The random survey conducted on a sample of 100 students was subjected to 

Cronbach Alpha and a value of .9 ensured the validity of the same. The questionnaire was expert 

opinionated and reliability tested. The Euclidean distance model axes were named as motivational 

attributes( vertical) and class attendance (horizontal). 

Parental pressure was higher in the private institutions as compared to the Government/ 

Govertment aided ones which was obvious considering the higher course fees. However the motivation 

of the students were higher in Government institutions as is exemplified by the Fisher’s linear 

discriminant function (Table 4). Reward and recognition plays a pivotal role in the private institutions. 

The objective was to understand the perceptual difference between male and female, between 

Govt-Govt aided and non Govt institution and finally Between public and private institution through 

perceptual mapping technique. 

Among the male candidates the factors which propel for class attendance are the cooperation 

and empathy of the faculty, self-motivation, class teaching techniques adopted and self-motivation. 

The other attributes being distant were not considered too important. However for the female 

candidates the tougher the subject the more the sincerity and propensity of attending classes. In the 

Government Institutions the motivating propellers were reward and recognition in addition to the 

faculty cooperation, class teaching techniques and self-motivation. Poor financial condition and 

stringent norms were also responsible for higher turnout. The demand was higher in the private 

institutions wherein innovative programs, participative sessions were emphasized in addition to faculty 

cooperation, class teaching technique, reward and recognition etc. 

In the undergraduate studies the students’ desire faculty cooperation, effective and interesting 

sessions which motivate them to attend classes except a few whose financial stress drives them to 

attend the same. 

In the masters level however the prime attributes were empathy of faculty, teaching pedagogy, 

self-motivation driving them to attend the college in preference to the others. 

Conclusions: Considering the gender, nature of programs, institution type, the must attributes for class 

attendance were cooperation from the faculty, teaching pedagogy. Self-motivation results in these and 

the institutions should prioritise them so as to render desired delight perception encouraging more 

concern paving for holistic development. 


Table:1 Classification of Results 

GENDER Predicted Group Membership Total 

MALE FEMALE 

MALE 70 3 73 

Count 

FEMALE 0 27 27 

Original 

MALE 95.9 4.1 100.0 

% 

FEMALE .0 100.0 100.0 

MALE 70 3 73 

Count 

FEMALE 0 27 27 

Cross-validated 

MALE 95.9 4.1 100.0 

% 

FEMALE .0 100.0 100.0 

a. 97.0% of original grouped cases correctly classified. 

b. Cross validation is done only for those cases in the analysis. In cross validation, each case is 

classified by the functions derived from all cases other than that case. 

c. 97.0% of cross-validated grouped cases correctly classified. 

Table 3: Prior Probabilities for Groups 

INSTITUTION Prior Cases Used in Analysis 

Unweighted Weighted 

GOVT OR GOVT AIDED .500 35 35.000 

PRIVATE .500 65 65.000 

Total 1.000 100 100.000 

Table 4: Classification Function Coefficients 

INSTITUTION 

GOVT OR GOVT AIDED PRIVATE 

parentalpressure 4.542 12.369 

Fincond 3.630 6.505 

selfmotivation 1.301 -3.251 

classteachingtechq -15.060 -.438 

subjetcttough 9.398 6.078 

facultycooperation -6.958 -5.357 

innovationprogram 23.089 11.025 

needbasesession -.547 -1.732 

penaltyforabsence -8.363 -16.810 

participativesession -5.522 -2.817 

rewardandrecognition 9.246 17.950 

(Constant) -36.620 -58.505 

Fisher's linear discriminant functions 

Table 5: Classification Results 

INSTITUTION Predicted Group Membership Total 

GOVT OR GOVT PRIVATE 

AIDED 

GOVT OR GOVT 

33 

Count AIDED 

2 35 

Original 

PRIVATE 0 65 65 

% 

GOVT OR GOVT 

94.3 

AIDED 

5.7 100.0 


Cross-validated b 

Count 

% 

PRIVATE .0 100.0 100.0 

GOVT OR GOVT 

33 2 35 

AIDED 

PRIVATE 0 65 65 

GOVT OR GOVT 

94.3 5.7 100.0 

AIDED 

PRIVATE .0 100.0 100.0 

a. 98.0% of original grouped cases correctly classified. 

b. Cross validation is done only for those cases in the analysis. In cross validation, each 

case is classified by the functions derived from all cases other than that case. 

c. 98.0% of cross-validated grouped cases correctly classified. 

Table 6: Prior Probabilities for Groups in types of courses 

LEVEL Prior Cases Used in Analysis 

Unweighted Weighted 

BACHELOR .333 76 76.000 

MASTERS .333 23 23.000 

OTHER PROFESSIONAL .333 1 1.000 

Total 1.000 100 100.000 

Table 7: Classification of Results based on the courses 

LEVEL 

Original 

Cross-validated b 

Count 

% 

Count 

% 

Predicted Group Membership 

BACHELOR MASTERS OTHER 

PROFESSION 

AL 

BACHELOR 75 1 0 

MASTERS 0 21 2 

OTHER 

PROFESSIONAL 

0 0 1 

BACHELOR 98.7 1.3 .0 

MASTERS .0 91.3 8.7 

OTHER 

PROFESSIONAL 

.0 .0 100.0 

BACHELOR 75 1 0 

MASTERS 0 20 3 

OTHER 

PROFESSIONAL 

0 1 0 

BACHELOR 98.7 1.3 .0 

MASTERS .0 87.0 13.0 

OTHER 

PROFESSIONAL 

.0 100.0 .0 





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Adaptation Initiative in Agrosilvo Ecosystem Characteristics of Private Forest on 

Serayu Upstream Watershed 

Abstract 

Muhammad Zainal Arifin 

Graduate Program of Environmental Studies, University of Indonesia, 

Jl. Salemba Raya 4 Jakarta 10430, Indonesia 

Prijono Tjiptoherianto 

Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia, Depok, 16424, Indonesia 

San Afri Awang 

Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University, 

Jl.Agro, Bulaksumur, D.I. Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia 

Jatna Supriatna 

Department of Biology, Faculty of The Faculty of Mathematics and Sciences, 

University of Indonesia, Depok, 16424, Indonesia 

The availability and sustainability of natural resources to support the human life, directly or 

indirectly are threaten by climate change. Therefore adaptation to climate change is a certainty. 

Formulation of adaptation strategies policy based on forest ecosystems in Indonesia are very likely to 

explore the knowledge of local communities, especially adaptive forest management at local level that 

sustain socio-economic and environmental sustainability. Adaptation initiatives that grow in the 

agrosilvo ecosystem of private forest (HR) arise from adaptive behavior to climate regime. 

This study describes the characteristics of HR agrosilvo ecosystems and the forms of adaptive 

initiatives in HR management that can support the hydrological function and socio-economic 

protection of the agrosilvo ecosystem. 

HR agrosilvo ecosystem are composed by multilayer and multi-species stratification planting 

concept in landscapes that are managed to meet everyday needs and economic investment of farm 

households. There is a adaptive harvesting pattern which use a concept of Reduce Impact Logging 

(RIL) in the process of Sengon harvesting without damaging the lower layer plant. Besides, there are 

modifications in sengon nursery, with a 3 meter high seeding models to anticipate embroidery or 

planting under zalacca. 

Keyword: adaptive initiatives, HR agrosilvo ecosystem, adaptation to climate change. 

Introduction 

Natural resources management required to meet the needs of human life while maintaining a 

sustainable environmental quality in global climate change. From the beginning, the concept of natural 

resource management has maintained the condition of the supporting ecosystem protection and socioeconomic 

functions. Climatic regimes at this time makes the sustainability management of ecosystems 

protection and socio-economic functions increasingly threatened the ecosystem resilience. 

Mainstreaming policy and institutional schemes that focus on adaptability of forest ecosystems, 

as well as the community adaptation to further climate change effects, is not much done. The fact 

shows that exposure of the changing rainfall and temperature patterns have affected plant growth. Of 

course, it requires the durability and adaptability of the community in forest resource management. 

Climatology data shows, parts of Indonesia in the south of the equator, is having a longer dry 

season and shorter rainy season with high rainfall (UNDP, 2007). High density population causes the 


derivative effects of extremes climate result in significant reduction of well-being level, especially in 

the communities who depend directly on natural resources. Current climate patterns have shifted, 

causing a change in cropping patterns, increased intensity of pests and diseases, reduced productivity, 

and interfering the other management resources. 

Adaptation policy in forestry sector is expected to gain the attention of researchers, especially 

those focused on improving the resilience of forest ecosystems and forest communities (ICCSR, 2010). 

According to ICCSR, the three main areas that will be greatly influenced by climate change is the 

forest resource, the subsistent on forest ecosystems and forestry industries. One of the 

recommendations detail ICCSR made is, the research to build adaptive management of forest 

management at the local level (adaptive forest management at local level) (ICCSR, 2010). 

Forest ecosystem-based adaptation strategies are not a new perspective for forest peoples and 

forest communities. Local community knowledge and strategies have the ability to sustain land 

protection and socio-economic function. In fact, Indonesia is endowed with natural knowledge and 

coping strategies of local communities, especially the local people who live and depend on the forest 

ecosystem. 

Serayu upstream watershed that covers areas of Temanggung, Wonosobo and Banjarnegara is 

covered by HR on landscape with steep slopes and disaster prone. In this region occur repeatedly 

ecosystem disasters. This area qualifies as a very high potential for landslides (BBWSO, 2011). 

Nevertheless, the presence of HR in the Serayu upstream watershed, especially HR in Wonosobo 

shows a carrying capacity of ecological, hidrologycal, and socio-economic functions. The Serayu 

upper watershed is a potential area to formulate a agrosilvo ecosystem-based adaptation model 

strategies to climate change. The Wonosobian understand the concept of "Wono" or the forest 

ecosystem as land for agriculture, livestock, fisheries and other subsistence that should be kept in 

sustainability and high productivity (ARuPA, 2002). 

Adaptive and sustainable ecosystems that support the socio-economic functions and 

environmental protection form an ecosystem that can meet the challenges of natural resource 

management in the future. Agrosilvo ecosystem is a form of ecosystem that can address these 

challenges. Agrosilvo ecosystem is defined as a complex agroforestry system (Michon et al. 1996), 

which has the structure and function of ecosystems such as forests, but integrated into the management 

system of agriculture. Terminology of agrosilvo ecosystem is based on the terminology of 

agrosilviculture. Agrosilviculture in The Dictionary of Forestry is defined as a form of agroforestry 

consisting of trees (woody-perennial) and crop components - (Helms, 1998). 

Agrosilvo is defined as a complex agroforestry systems, which have the structure and function 

of forest ecosystems, but are integrated into the agriculture system. The concept, management, 

economics of quality, and environmental quality, are significantly different from the agroforestry 

systems in general, such as alley cropping, intercropping, hedgerow, and others. Characteristics of the 

agrosilvo ecosystem ecology is very strong on socio-economic transaction, use of technology and 

simple conservation techniques, high compatibility between local knowledge and systems represented, 

and high productivity. 

HR agrosilvo ecosystem that has continuity and resilience management is basically a form of 

adaptation initiatives of the environmental and socio-economic conditions (Ritohardoyo, 2009). HR 

agrosilvo ecosystem which grows from the adaptive behavior, is important to be reviewed through 

ecosystem management with specific characteristics perspective. HR Agrosilvo ecosystem is filled 

with adaptation initiatives form, based on forest ecosystems. Adaptive behavior of people who formed 

a formidable agrosilvo ecosystem characteristics continue enhancing adaptive capacity of ecosystems 

and populations. 

Methods 

The method of research used descriptive analysis to describe the exposure of climate patterns 

that occur and the characteristics of the existing HR agrosilvo ecosystems. The depiction of Serayu 

upstream watershed climate patterns is conducted by describing the rainfall pattern from climatology 

station on district Leksono (Climatology Station No. 27a) and scientific data from ICCSR (2010). 


While the portrayal of the HR agrosilvo ecosystems characteristics is conducted by describing 

ecosystem characteristics, patterns of HR management, and management initiatives as climate change 

adaptation initiatives. The unit of analysis are three villages in the district Leksono which are Village 

Manggis, Kalimendong and Jonggolsari. 

This descriptive analysis was conducted using questionnaire and depth interview. This 

descriptive analysis was a part of a study which formulate an adaptation model based on HR agrosilvo 

ecosystem. The study was conducted using Rapid Appraisal called RAP-HR to perform a 

multidimensional scaling analysis of agrosilvo ecosystem sustainability and agility. Also the study 

analyzed the model future scenario using perspective analysis. 

This descriptive analysis was conducted at village Jonggolsari, Kalimendong, and Manggis 

District Leksono, Region Wonosobo. 

Result and Discussion 

1. Climate Pattern on Serayu Upstream Watershed 

The average of maximum rainfall patterns that occurred in 1980-2010 ranged from 82 to 175 

mm. This rainfall patterns caused aberration climate patterns. This aberration, often force farmers to 

delay planting crops, because of the dry season is longer than in previous years. In general, the 

maximum rainfall in the last 10 years increased 55%. 

The amount of rainfall recorded increases above average after the period of 2000-2010. The 

Increasing amount of rainfall per month significantly shows how climate exposures in Serayu 

upstream watershed. This must be able to withstand the rate of landslides. The average amount of 

rainfall that occurred in the period 2002 to 2010 increased 29%, compared to the average amount of 

rainfall during the period 1980-1998. This is showing a increase trend in the amount of precipitation in 

Serayu upper watershed. Rainfall amounts occurred significantly above average, especially in January, 

February and December. 

Serayu upstream watershed climate patterns show the increased rainfall in wet months 

(Nopember-Maret) and show a pattern of rainfall reduction in the dry months (Juni-Oktober). 

2. The Characteristic of HR Agrosilvo Ecosystem on Serayu Upstream Watershed 

The multilayer concept of planting on three village does not start from planting crops. The 

culture of planting crops for generations in villages in Wonosobo, had been oriented to overcome the 

day-to-day needs. Orientation of forest management as mixed land was later known as “Wono” or 

forest. The word "Wono" itself, has a broader meaning than just the forest. Wono is a form of 

understanding the management of natural resources to meet the needs of life. Wono is basically a 

realization of agrosilvo concept. Culture of the community is more appropriately considered in the 

concept of "wooded" agriculture. The concept of land management with the utilization of forest 

ecosystems to meet the necessities of life, by planting different kinds of plants (multispecies) in layers 

(multilayers). 

Observation on the three village HR sample, show that the stratification patterns of plants are 

almost uniform. Hardwood plants as an annual commodity is sengon. Sengon is a favorite commodity 

in the district of Wonosobo. This is related to the short harvest and relatively stable prices. In HR 

sample also contained suren, teak, waru, and mahogany. Although not much of the four types of wood 

commodities was also a part of the annual commodity crops society. 

The community also plant durian, pete, nangka, manggis, coconut, and banana plants as nontimber 

commodities. The potential of brown sugar in three villages reached 1 ton per day. Salak 

planting start since late 2005, it happened because of the high market demand of Salak. Many farmers 

change their coffee and cacao plants with Salak, although there are also some farmers who still persist 

with coffee and cacao, such as those encountered in the village Jonggolsari. Salak is indeed a mainstay 

commodity in three villages. Potential salak Harvestment in three villages reached 4,636,645 kg 

annual. Besides, farmers also grow cardamom and chilli that can be sold directly to the market as an 

additional daily revenue. 


Stratification patterns of HR make the ecosystem characteristic in the three villages very 

typical. On average, HR farmers had two layers to five layers of plants. Two layers of plants are 

sengon and salak, sengon and coffee, or sengon and cacao. The third layer is fruity trees, like nangka, 

durian, banana, coconut and manggis. Other layers containing longer cycle timber plants are 

mahogany, teak, and waru. At the lowest layer, farmers plant banana, cassava, chilli and cardamom. 

The choice of plants are based on the orientation of the market demand. That were indicated by 

the change of coffee and cacao to salak due to higher sales opportunities. Sengon is a favorite choice of 

plants at Wonosobo. Although, farmers is still very difficult to control pests and diseases that often 

attack sengon. Orientation sengon is influenced by timber traders who do not want to lose their supply. 

Although there are a few short cycle alternatives, such as red jabon or white jabon, that could resist 

pest and diseases. 

Stratification of respondents farmers in the village Jonggolsari (Figure 1) has the most amount 

of sengon as the upper layer composition. With 40 farmers HR respondents, there are as many as 

21,135 Sengon population. The other composition of plants at the upper layer are mahogany, suren, 

waru, durian, and nangka. At the second layer consists salak, coffee and cacao. Based on the 

interviews with farmers, at the beginning the second layer plants are dominated by coffee and cacao. 

However, after the high market demand of salak, many farmers change their plant into salak. Of the 

three villages, only in the village Jonggolsari that still have coffee and chocolate on their land. 

Figure 1. Plant Stratification Illustration of Village Jonggolsari 

Figure 2. Plant Stratification Illustration of Village Manggis 


Figure 3. Plant Stratification Illustration of Village Kalimendong 

The composition of plants in the village Jonggolsari seem to be the most complete than two 

other village. Farmers also plant long cycle hardwoods like teak and mahogany at higher locations. 

While durian, nangka and pete planted close to salak, for reasons of time efficiency in the harvesting. 

Coconut plants close to the settlement, for reasons of time efficiency in collecting coconuts nira, 

processing into palm sugar. cardamom and chillies also plant near settlement so it’s easy for farmers to 

havest them for daily needs. However, cassava often plant near salak, because the needs of the same 

fertilization with Salak. 

The stratification pattern in the village Manggis (Figure 2) is similar to Village Jonggolsari. 

However, the village Manggis has the most amount of salak stem, as many as 31,600 stems of 34 

respondent farmers. Mangosteen is one of the village identifier, village Manggis is identified by some 

mangosteen plant species grown in the garden of farmers. 

In the village Kalimendong (Figure 3), the lower layer were not found from 26 respondents 

farmers. Based on these data the three villages productivity for timber and non-timber products is 

considered very high. With estimates of one salak stem can produce 5 kg per year, within one year in 

three villages could products 4,636,645 kg of salak or equivalent to Rp16.228.257.500 (Rp3500 per 

kg). 

3. Adaptation initiatives in HR Ecosystem Agrosilvo 

Adaptation initiatives that have been 

undertaken by the community is the 

implementation of low-impact harvesting (Figure 

4.) or known as Reduce Impact Logging (RIL). As 

we know that the degradation of land not only the 

result of erosion, but also because of intensive 

timber harvesting. However, people in the three 

villages, has the method of reduction the damaging 

effects of logging. RIL method is actually a part of 

the subsystems in HR agrosilvo ecosystem 

sustainability. The used of RIL method is an effort 

to reduce the harvesting impact, especially the 

damage to the plants at the second and third layer. Figure 4. RIL Method in Harvesting Sengon 

Besides, RIL methods also can maintain the 

quality of the land resource from the lost of nutrient, clay, and organic. Further research on RIL could 

build the basis for the formulating and applying sustainable forest management. 


To sustain the productivity, especially sengon farmers also 

develop an initiatives of sengon nursery modifications (Figure 5.). 

Farmers make sengon seedlings with a minimum height of 3 

meters, so it could survive under the stands of the Salak with height 

of 2 meters. The adaptation initiative grows to anticipate any 

changes in the HR management process. 

Adaptation initiatives that have been undertaken by the 

farmers is a form of social subsystem intervention in the HR 

agrosilvo ecosystem. HR agrosilvo ecosystems indirectly is the 

result of social transactions to support socio-economic functions, 

without damaging the carrying capacity of ecosystems to support 

hydrological protection function. Social transactions that occur to 

fulfill socio-economic functions, in fact could also maintain HR 

land productivity, both for timber and non-timber. 

Figure 5.Sengon Nursery Modification 

Conclusion 

1. Climate patterns on Serayu upstream watershed is indicated by the increasement of the rainfall in 

wet month (November-March) and the decreasement of rainfall in dry months (June-October) for 

the last 10 years. This conclusion supports the ICCSR’s climate prediction for Java-Bali that 

concluded the relative condition of 2010 to 2020 which showed a significant increase in rainfall in 

December-January-February-March. 

2. HR agrosilvo ecosystem characteristic is able to maintain hydrological and socio-economic 

functions in a changing climate patterns through the initiative and adaptive behavior of farmers in 

managing HR at Serayu upstream watershed. This conclusion can be used as the basis of 

formulating watershed critical land management strategies by developing HR agrosilvo ecosystem 

characteristic. 

3. Adaptive initiative of the population in the form of "social transaction" creates a social subsystem 

intervention in HR agrosilvo ecosystem. Social transactions construct HR agrosilvo ecosystem 

which has timber and non-timber productivity as well as the carrying capacity to maintain a 

sustainable hydrological function and land protection. Social transactions could shift the 

orientation of the climate change strategy into adaptation mainstreaming using forest ecosystembased 

adaptation. 

References 

1. United Nation Development Program (UNDP). (2007). Sisi Lain Perubahan Iklim Mengapa 

Indonesia Harus Beradaptasi Untuk Melindungi Rakyat Miskinnya. UNDP Indonesia Country 

Office, Jakarta. Keen Media Thailand Co. Ltd. 

2. Bappenas. (2010). Indonesia Climate Change Sectoral Roadmap (ICCSR). Summary Report: 

Forestry Sector. Jakarta 

3. Balai Besar Wilayah Sungai Serayu Opak (BBWSSO). (2011). Publikasi Data Hidrologi dan 

Kualitas Air Wilayah Sungai Serayu Opak. Yogyakarta 

4. Lembaga ARuPA. (2002). Hutan Rakyat Wonosobo, Kearifan Rakyat Yang Menjadi Sumber 

Inspirasi Perda No. 22/2001. Yogyakarta. BP Arupa. 

5. Ritohardoyo, S. (2009). Pemanfaatan Lahan Hutan Rakyat dan Kehidupan Sosial Ekonomi 

Penduduk Kasus di Daerah Kabupaten Gunung Kidul. Yogyakarta. Disertasi. Fakultas 

Geografi UGM. 


Antecedents of Entrepreneurial skills among rural women entrepreneurs: 

A Study on the SHG linked Micro-enterprises 

Ms. S. Sangeetha, 

Assistant Professor- Senior Grade (Management), 

KCT Business School, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Saravanampatti, Coimbatore, India 

Dr. K. Chitra, 

Director- Department of Management Studies, Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, N.G.G.O 

Colony Post, Coimbatore, Tamil nadu, India. 

Email: profkchitra@gmail.com 


India with the total population of 1.1 billion and below the poverty line of 25% holds 117 th position in 

the unemployment list with a rate of 10.7% (2010). The total labour force in India is about 467 million. 

Entrepreneurship is the only panacea to deal with the unemployment issues. In the recent days women 

have deployed their contribution and become the backbone of the Indian economy's current growth 

path too beyond their family. They constitute nearly 40% in the agricultural workforce. The 

unorganised sector's contributes to an overall GDP of 56.7% in which women participate in a huge 

sum. The Women Youth unemployment (aged 15-24) ratio is of 10.8 and their share in the total 

unemployed is 41.4 (2004). One mainstream of earnings for women are formation of SHGs which lays 

strong platform to exhibit their entrepreneurial flair. 

2. Theoretical background: 

Women entrepreneurship 

Women entrepreneurship is a growing phenomenon in the recent years. This dream has been 

made possible only because of the education which enhances dexterity, knowledge and malleability in 

business. It provides a platform to exhibit her talents as well gain economic independence. The women 

entrepreneurship lays confidence to face challenges to meet her personal needs. It has twirled women 

job seekers into job generator. Unlike in western countries Indian women entrepreneurs, though they 

form the major segment, still it is men dominated society. They face constraints like lack of 

confidence, socio-cultural barriers, market-oriented risks, motivational, knowledge in business 

administration, awareness about the financial assistance, exposed to the training programs, identifying 

the available resources. The basic qualities of an effective entrepreneur are Creative thinking, Decision 

making skill, Mobilise resources, Self confidence, Risk bearing, Proactive, Technological knowledge. 

The women entrepreneurship is generally found be good and growing state not only in corporate level 

but also in small and micro enterprises. The introduction of Self help groups have paved for the 

dynamic changes in Indian society. Entrepreneurship is being strengthened with the access to 

education. Programmes constituting technical skill and entrepreneurship skill, to self help groups, will 

make the Indian women more self reliant and confident. 

Micro enterprises: 

Depending on number of factors ranging from personal holdings, funds and capabilities of rural 

women and her family member the choice the areas of micro-enterprises also differ. The micro 

enterprises are generally classified as Micro Enterprise development related to agriculture and allied 

agricultural activities, Micro-Enterprise development related to livestock management activities, Micro 

– Enterprise development related to household based operations. In Coimbatore, women SHGs heavily 

concentrate on fashion designing, jewellery making, beauty parlours, livestock, cattle rearing, 

tailoring, food preparations, stationary shops. Empowering women particularly rural women is a 

challenge. Micro enterprises in rural area can help to meet these challenges. Micro – enterprises not 


only enhance national productivity, generate employment but also help to develop economic 

independence, personal and social capabilities among rural women. 

In general Entrepreneurship is relative word pertaining to the small and large scale enterprises. But this 

study explores the extent of entrepreneurship skills among the rural SHGs who run micro enterprises. 

3. Review of literature: 

To have deep understanding about this topics review of literature has been conducted. The following 

reviews helped the researcher to draw the variable to be included in the study. 

Patricia Lewis (2006) 1 in the paper have emphasised in the research on female entrepreneurship 

remains focused on the impact of gender on women’s experience of business ownership, often 

demonstrated through comparisons of male and female entrepreneurs. By contrast, this article explores 

the differences and divisions between women business owners who are silent about gender issues and 

those who are not. The main data drawn on in the article are e-mails conducted through a web-based 

entrepreneurial network set up to promote and support women in business, supplemented with 

interview material derived from an interview study of 19 women business owners. By considering the 

way in which some women business owners not only treat entrepreneurship as gender-neutral, but also 

seek to conceal its gendered nature, we can see how some female entrepreneurs are trying to avoid 

being identified as different from the masculine norm of entrepreneurship. 

Elizabeth Walker, Alan Brown(2004) 2 in their paper “What Success Factors are Important to Small 

Business Owners?” have stated that the Financial criteria are usually considered to be the most 

appropriate measure of business success, yet many small business owners are motivated to start a 

business on the basis of lifestyle or personal factors. Non-financial goals could lead to alternative 

measures of success, particularly in the small business sector. To explore the significance of these two 

dimensions of success, 290 small business owner-managers in Western Australia were surveyed. 

Respondents rated the importance of items relating to lifestyle and financial measures, which they used 

to judge their business success. Findings suggest that both financial and non-financial lifestyle criteria 

are used to judge business success, with the latter being more important. Personal satisfaction and 

achievement, pride in the job and a flexible lifestyle are generally valued higher than wealth creation. 

Personal factors such as age and also business characteristics influenced perceptions on the importance 

of these factors. 

Robert Hisrich & Candida Brush(1984) 3 in their paper The Woman Entrepreneur: Management Skills 

and Business Problems have studied about female entrepreneurs in order to identify obstacles that 

women face in business and to explore means of improvement. Though the number of self-employed 

women has been increasing dramatically - from 1.7 million in 1977 to 2.3 million in 1982 - the vast 

majority of studies of entrepreneurs are still narrowly focused on non-minority men. In an effort to 

expand the research on entrepreneurial women, this study questions 468 self-employed women in 18 

states, assessing demographics, the nature of their business ventures, and the problems they encounter. 

According to this research, the "typical" female entrepreneur is married with children, herself the firstborn 

child of middle class parents. Her business is most likely to be service-oriented, and she tends to 

start it around the age of 40. Obstacles include problems with finance and credit, as well as lack of 

1 Patricia Lewis- The Quest for Invisibility: Female Entrepreneurs and the Masculine Norm of Entrepreneurship- Gender, Work & Organization-Volume 

13, Issue 5, pages 453–469, September 2006 

2 Elizabeth Walker, Alan Brown (2004) in their paper “What Success Factors are Important to Small Business Owners?” -International Small Business 

Journal December 2004 vol. 22 no. 6 577-594 

3 Hisrich, Robert and Brush, Candida, The Woman Entrepreneur: Management Skills and Business Problems (1984). Journal of Small Business 

Management, Vol. 22, Issue 1, p. 30-37 1984. 


usiness and financial planning training. Consequently, most of the businesses are small with low 

growth rates and revenues. According to the business owners themselves, in order to further develop 

women's role in business, stereotypes need to be eliminated concerning women as entrepreneurs, and 

more visible role models and mentors for younger women are needed. The analysis concludes with 

specific recommendations for improvement: (1) Women should be encouraged to study in fields other 

than liberal arts. (2) Women should have access to seminars on finance, management, marketing, etc. 

(3) Women should seek assistance from experts, colleagues, and friends to establish formal and 

informal networks. 

Fischer, Eileen; Reuber, R.; Dyke, L. (2003) 4 in their paper A Theoretical Overview And Extension Of 

Research On Sex, Gender And Entrepreneurship have stated that the rising number of women-owned 

businesses has come a considerable amount of research, and even more speculation, on differences 

between male and female entrepreneurs and their businesses. While women's businesses do not 

perform as well as men's on measures of size, they show fewer differences on other, arguably more 

critical business effectiveness measures-growth and productivity—and no differences on returns. 

Discrimination against women-owned businesses based on these findings would clearly be both 

unethical and unwarranted. The fact that women appear to obtain similar growth, productivity, and 

returns, in fact, suggests that they may be compensating for experience deficits in ways that current 

research does not illuminate. While more systematic inquiry is required to assist in understanding why 

men's and women's firms may differ in some predictable ways, this study would suggest that lenders 

and investors wishing to assist small businesses should focus on evaluating the amount and quality of 

the business and non-business experience of entrepreneurs, and consider sex an irrelevant variable. For 

entrepreneurs, this research reinforces the notion that acquiring relevant industry and entrepreneurial 

experience is of considerable importance if they seek to establish large firms and/or to achieve 

substantial firm productivity and returns. In particular, helping in the start-up of firms and spending 

extended periods of time in the industry of choice appear to yield subsequent rewards in the 

performance of any individual's firm. Future research is needed to investigate whether or not other 

types of business experience or non-business experience might bring additional benefits in terms of 

positive impact on future business performance, but the indication of the current work is that one's sex 

per se is neither a liability nor an asset. 

4. The study is conducted based on following Objectives: 

 

 

 

 

To study the presence of entrepreneurial skills set. 

To analyse the factors motivating the SHGs to venture and succeed. 

To understand the problems faced by the SHGs to venture entrepreneurship 

To identify relationship between the presence of entrepreneurial skills set and success factor. 

5. Research Methodology: 

Research Design: 

The study is of descriptive research design as it explored present stature of entrepreneurial skills set of 

women SHGs. It is mainly based on primary data, collected through specially designed questionnaire 

which had 15 variables constituting 63 statements pertaining to the presence of entrepreneurship skills 

sets, motivational factors, impeding factors and association of factors leading to success. The Sampling 

method is restricted to Coimbatore district in Tamilnadu. A sample of 66 respondents (only group 

leaders) has been used for the study. Sampling technique used is convenience sampling method. 

4 Fischer, Eileen; Reuber, R.; Dyke, L. (2003)- A Theoretical Overview And Extension Of Research On Sex, Gender And Entrepreneurship-Journal of 

Business Venturing- Vol./Pages: 8(2) –Pg:151-168 ;Date:2003-03 


6. Discussions 

The findings of the study are discussed below 

Table no.1 

The following is the profile of the respondents classified under demographic and business related 

variables. 

The demographic variables of the respondents are: 

Demographic variables 

Demographic 1. variables Majority of the respondents 

Age 2. 

31-40 years (54%) 

Marital 3. status 

Married 

Education 4. 

Primary education 

Type 5. of business 

Canteen, Flour Grinding, Tailoring, Artificial Jewellery, Jute Bags, 

Brick making. 

Number 6. of earning 2 

members 

Source: Primary data 

It is understood that mostly middle aged women participate in large way in the self help groups as the 

need for money increases when the family starts expanding over a period of time. 

Table no.2 

The Business related variables of the respondents are: 

Business related variables 

Business 1. related variables 

Majority of the respondents 

Number 2. of years running the business 

More than 4 years 

Source 3. of loan-Bank 

IOB, SBI, CANARA 

Number 4. of hours they spend 

6-8 HOURS 

Loan 5. repayment Yes (61%) 

Received 6. loan Twice (42.6%) 

Annual 7. profit for the last two years Less than Rs. 50000(45%) 

Number 8. of members More than 10 


It is understood that the respondents have repaid their loans twice and gained consistent profits over 

past two years. The banking institutions are playing a lead role in funding than microfinance 

institutions. 

Table no.3 

Key factors determining the entrepreneurial skills sets 

In order to determine the presence of entrepreneurial skills sets, 33 statements has been formulated 

under 9 variable headings. Responses are elicited in five point scaling. Factor analysis is used to 

analyse the results. 

Entrepreneurial Skill Sets 

Component 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

Knowledge 

Passion-expand business .917 .059 .046 -.240 .229 -.064 


Creativity-like to do known job .878 .171 .370 .079 -.031 -.138 

Risk taking-like to do jobs which comfortable .894 .140 -.285 -.146 .212 .091 

Risk taking-like to bring changes in job .852 .064 .308 .125 -.098 .136 

Decision making- decisions .848 -.070 -.087 -.218 -.326 -.088 

Negotiating skills- price discount .753 -.340 .078 -.286 .237 .245 

Group acceptance 

Decision making-decisions tenable .120 .919 .211 .283 -.080 -.005 

Technical skills-adequate training -.540 .713 .133 -.028 -.184 .350 

Risk taking-welfare measures -.245 .674 .218 .410 .005 -.175 

Communication/employee management skills- get help of -.329 .625 -.215 .356 -.031 -.479 

group members 

Risk taking-I perform better than group members -.535 .535 .406 -.181 -.094 -.279 

Negotiating skills-fixed price only -.251 -.847 .050 .036 .005 .288 

Risk taking-like challenges -.148 -.562 .075 -.294 .221 .070 

Passion & creativity 

Passion-continue business -.009 -.379 .694 -.212 -.063 .083 

Self motivation- motivated by group members -.009 -.379 .694 -.212 -.063 .083 

Creativity-like learn new things -.124 -.363 -.835 -.032 .216 .104 

Self motivation-when stressed group helps -.062 -.214 -.514 -.103 -.183 .075 

Decision making 

Decision making-consensus decisions -.031 .225 .186 .914 .077 .057 

Risk taking-fix target periodically -.350 .341 -.236 .719 -.015 -.070 

Self motivation- I accept criticism -.146 -.028 -.311 .503 .195 .188 

Personal qualities 

Passion-nine to five -.340 -.122 .073 -.034 -.895 .230 

Decision making- importance to other comments -.203 .137 .172 -.254 -.629 .173 

Networking/marketing skills- build rapport -.216 -.057 .246 -.378 .583 .287 

Passion-satisfied -.108 -.207 -.609 -.160 .590 .101 

Networking/marketing skills- my group members market the 

-.128 -.381 

products 

-.004 .254 .534 .176 

Technical skills 

Technical skills-work without others guidance -.085 .180 .130 -.103 .077 -.911 


The variables used for testing the presence of entrepreneurial skill sets among the SHGs were Passion, 

Decision making skills, Creativity, Technical skills, Risk taking, Self motivation, Communication 

skills/ employee or group acceptance, management skills, Negotiating skills, networking skills & 

marketing skills. Among these above variables the most significant skill sets found in the 

entrepreneurs are Knowledge, Group acceptance, Passion & creativity, Decision making, Personal 

qualities, Technical skills. 


Table no. 4 

The factors motivating the Self Help Groups to venture and succeed in their business. 

In order to determine the motivating factors for SHGs to venture and succeed in the business, 16 

statements have been formulated under 5 variable headings. Responses are elicited in five point 

scaling. Factor analysis is used to analyse the results. 

Motivating factors 

Component 

1 2 3 4 

Rewards 

Rewards of entrepreneurship-business opportunity .958 .092 .080 -.053 

Experience-previous experience -.858 .204 .134 -.052 

Rewards of entrepreneurship-self recognition .782 .087 .198 -.481 

Rewards of entrepreneurship-autonomy .768 .262 -.315 .413 

Career -.741 .457 .228 .144 

Non monetary and uniqueness 

Non monetary-personal satisfaction -.135 .962 .080 .091 

Non monetary-self employment .055 .929 .004 .028 

Rewards of entrepreneurship-become entrepreneur .086 -.738 .137 .340 

Rewards of entrepreneurship-difference -.216 -.630 .314 -.037 

Personal qualities and experience 

Personal qualities-instinct -.209 .000 .877 .246 

Rewards of entrepreneurship-scratch .383 -.138 .868 .065 

Experience-adequate technology -.339 .444 .733 -.192 

Intellectual strength 

Personal qualities-intellectual challenge -.177 .038 .079 .734 

Rewards of entrepreneurship-no financial problem .529 -.349 .243 .700 


The variables used to test the motivational factors are Rewards of entrepreneurship, Personal qualities, 

Career, Experience, Non-monetary factors. The most motivating factors influencing entrepreneurship 

are Rewards, Non monetary and uniqueness, Personal qualities and experience, Intellectual strength. 

Table no.5 

Problems faced by the SHGs to venture in micro enterprises 

In order to determine the impeding factors faced by the SHGs to venture entrepreneurship, 15 

statements have been formulated. Responses are elicited in five point scaling. Weighted average 

method has been used to analyse the results. 

Problems hindering women 

entrepreneurship 

Strongly 

disagree 

Disag 

ree 

Moderately 

agree 

Agr 

ee 

Tot 

al 

Sco 

re 

Ra 

nk 

Work life balance 70 88 90 - 248 3.76 3 

Lack of Management skills 0 176 66 - 242 3.67 4 

Disparity by fund providers 25 60 138 - 223 3.38 6 

Lack of contacts with supplier 25 44 150 - 219 3.32 7 

Lack of Negotiation skills 45 228 0 - 273 4.14 1 

Lack of Technical skills 25 64 75 40 204 3.09 8 


Lack of Self reliance 15 80 129 - 224 3.39 5 

Lack of confidence 15 200 39 - 254 3.85 2 

Production skills cost 0 52 75 56 183 2.77 9 


It is understandable that the negotiation skill set, confidence are the most impeding factors to these 

micro enterprise entrepreneurs as they are rural women who are not much exposed to the external 

world. Unlike the urban entrepreneurs, they don’t have the financial ability to spare money for 

household labour; thereby they do have problems of work life balance. 

Table no. 6 

Problems faced by the SHGs to venture in micro enterprises 

In order to determine the impeding factors faced by the SHGs to venture entrepreneurship, 15 

statements have been formulated. Responses are elicited in five point scaling. Factor analysis has been 

used to analyse the results. 

Component 

Problems faced by 

1 2 

Lack 1. of cooperation .928 .051 

Financial 2. institution disparity .893 .439 

Lack 3. of food and health .890 -.020 

Work- 4. life imbalance .874 .272 

Lack 5. of Technical skills .864 .422 

Lack 6. of acceptance (social stigma) .779 -.135 

As 7. a woman, they have many difficulties in business dealing .776 .533 

Men 8. -Women disparity .665 .107 

Lack 9. of Negotiating .539 .232 

Lack 10. of suppliers contacts .525 .505 

High 11. production cost .115 .957 

Lack 12. of self reliance -.126 .768 

Lack 13. of management skills .385 .620 


It is understandable that the micro enterprises entrepreneurs do have financial problems, social stigma, 

lack of networking and confidence level to greater level due to lack of personal qualities as well poor 

outlook by the society towards these groups. 

Entrepreneurial ventures Vs Success 

Table no. 7 

To identify relationship between the presence of entrepreneurial skills set and success factor, 33 

statements has been developed under 9 variable headings which are considered as predictor variables. 

Responses are elicited in five point scaling. Weighted average method has been used to analyse the 

results. 

Predictor variables used were Passion, Decision making skills, Creativity, Technical skills, Risk 

taking, Self motivation, Communication skills/ employee, Negotiating skills, group acceptance/ 

Networking skills & marketing skills and the dependent variable was annual profit. But the following 


predictor variables like Networking/ marketing skills (my group members market the products), 

Communication/employee management skills (speak confidently), Passion-(expand business), 

Technical skills-(teach members), Risk taking-(welfare measures), networking/marketing skills- (build 

rapport), Decision making- (importance to other comments), Decision making-(deep and thorough 

discussion), Passion-(satisfied with the present status), Risk taking-(like challenges), 

Communication/employee management skills- (group speaks), Negotiating skills-(fixed price only), 

Self motivation-(when stressed group helps) has led to success of their venture. 

Coefficients a 

Unstandardized 

Coefficients 

Standardized 

Coefficients 

Model 

B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 

1 (Constant) -2.835 1.348 -2.104 .040 

Passion-satisfied -.545 .124 -.407 -4.386 .000 

Passion-expand business .449 .060 .567 7.511 .000 

Decision making- importance to other comments .701 .069 .597 10.177 .000 

Decision making-deep and thorough discussion 1.102 .153 .641 7.220 .000 

Technical skills-teach members .326 .075 .274 4.353 .000 

Risk taking-welfare measures .013 .099 .010 .134 .894 

Risk taking-like challenges 1.000 .139 .598 7.211 .000 

Self motivation-when stressed group helps -.455 .247 -.196 -1.842 .071 

Communication/employee management skillsspeak 

confidently 

Communication/employee management skillsgroup 

speaks 

-1.318 .124 -.716 

- 

10.662 .000 

-.713 .107 -.642 -6.678 .000 

Negotiating skills-fixed price only -.102 .100 -.101 -1.013 .316 

Networking/marketing skills- build rapport .511 .102 .403 5.026 .000 

Networking/marketing skills- my group members 

.157 .160 .094 .983 .330 

market the products 

a. Dependent Variable: Annual Profit 

Model Summary b 

Model R R Square 

Adjusted R 

Std. Error of the Estimate 

Square 

1 .972 a .945 .932 .21926 

ANOVA b 

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 

Regression 43.318 13 3.332 69.309 .000 a 

Residual 2.500 52 .048 

1 

Total 45.818 65 

It is understood that above said predictor variables do have strong relationship with annual profit. 

94.5% of the variance has been explained by the set of predictors with significant value less than .001 


Observational finding: 

The fund providers are mostly banks; hence they are not taking enough interest in providing training 

programme on soft skills and technical skills. They do provide training session on book keeping alone 

which may not be adequate. 

7. Recommendation: 

As most of them are running their business it is quite understood that they receive good support from 

their family, but still these entrepreneurs are facing work life balance, special programmes on time 

management and conduct of business in a managerial way shall be taught which enables them to 

overcome stress. 

To encourage more entrepreneurs, the policy framers shall concentrate on framing full fledged training 

programmes comprising the development of employee management, networking skills, self 

motivation, communication skills, negotiating skills and risk taking skills which would enable to build 

or shall have improvement in the existing entrepreneurial skills set. 

The Entrepreneurship Development Cell could concentrate on the motivating factors in general as well 

impart the knowledge on career growth and risk diversification to these micro enterprise entrepreneurs 

emphasising its importance to the entrepreneurs about its utility on sustaining the upheavals of 

businesses. 

Lack of Negotiating skills, confidence levels, financial constraints and social stigma are the major 

problems still faced by the women entrepreneurs. Still the confidence level and negotiating skills 

among the group members has to be developed to toughly compete in this intense competitive work. 

All these requires right medication in its own way like exposure through training programmes to 

enrich negotiating and confidence levels. Awareness programmes shall be initiated by the state to 

change the stigma that the society bears on these groups and create a good image. 

Almost the group affiliation and risk bearing ability in a greater sense has led to the success of the 

enterprise. But equally the leadership abilities has to be inbuilt by the group leaders which is not 

mostly warranted among other members of the group. 

About all of them are experiencing very high production. Financial institutions are having special 

counters to deal with SHGs. These counters shall also provide suggestions on technologies which 

ensure low cost of production. 

8. Conclusion: 

Nearly half the population of India are women and most of them are rural based. Empowering them 

has started through SHGs. But real empowerment would be only when they withstand the 

entrepreneurship in the long run too without depending on any other financial body. If rightly directed 

Women entrepreneurship may not only provide employment opportunities, it also adds confidence, self 

reliance, better living, empowerment and in turn better India. 


Violence Against Women in Tehmina Durrani’s 

My Feudal Lord 

Vijay Mehta 

Reader / HOD, Languages, Arni University, Indora (Kangra)-HP -176401-INDIA 

mrvijaymehta@yahoo.co.in 

Sajad Ahmad Khan 

Research Scholar (M Phil) Arni University, Indora (Kangra)-HP -176401-INDIA 

Abstract 

From the womb of her mother till the leaving of coffin to graveyard runs the story of 

the women with innumerable miserable plights including her feticide. She is molested, tortured & 

even raped not in public, but at home where she feels more secure. The life of the women from all 

corners of the world including Middle-East India has now become the focus of the modern 

women writers as a theme of their works. The paper explores and analyses the extent to which a 

woman is exploited from birth to the maturity level of womanhood from various corners in the portal 

of home in Tehmina Durrani’s My Feudal Lord. It also throws light on her low status in patriarchal 

society, as her physical, psychological and spiritual status deprives her of all powers and makes her 

move for suicidal tendency. 

Introduction 

Women in all religions & all communities had in one way or the other had been 

victimized with the lust of the men folk in the patriarchal society. Sexual violation, kidnapping, 

abduction, dowry deaths , murder, wife bettering are the violations which the women face; but 

regretfully female victims of violence have not been given most attention in the literature of 

social problems or in the literature of criminal violence. Aggression or injury committed by 

powerful (man) against less powerful (women) is not the violence, but it is precisely the abuse of 

power. In the multitude of context including schools, hospitals, homes, in workplaces, she is not 

spared without being tortured physically & psychologically in the present world. The incidents of 

trafficking of young girls & young women who are mainly sold into sexual slavery is altering 

their lives permentally each year. 

Among all the violations, a woman faces the most harsh and wicked stage comes when she 

is married either forcefully or early as in Afghanistan women face a variety of discrimination 

ranging from child marriage, forced marriage, polygamy & even “Baad” a tribal custom of giving 

the forcible the hand of a widow or a girl to man from an opposing tribe to settle disputes & end 

enmity. Moreover the treatment meted to her by her-in-laws & by intimate partner, like bride burning 

or dowry death, divorce, sexual, psychological & emotional violence inflicted by intimate partner 

are also wide spread. It is estimated that one in three women is subject to some type of violence 

inflicted by partner over their life time. 

Violence against women is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are 

primarily or exclusively committed against women .similar to a hate crime, this type of violence 

targets a specific group with the victim’s gender as primary motive. The united nation General 

assembly defines violence against women “as any act of gender-biased violence that results in, or is 

likely to result in, physical sexual or mental harm or suffering to a women, including threats of such 

acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty whether occurring in public or in private life”. The 


1993 declaration on the elimination of violence against women noted that this violence perpetrated by 

assailants of either gender, family member or even the state itself . (1) . 

Female Infanticide: 

Violence Inflicted upon Women 

There is a mal practice being followed in the patriarchal society. To ensure the birth of only male in 

the male-dominated society, the men who ruled after Prophet Muhammad have chosen to follow the 

tradition of Dark Ages (Female infanticide) rather than to follow Muhammad’s words…. 

“Prophet Muhammad scorned the practice of infanticide, common practice in his day of ridding the 

family of unwanted females. He in his very words ring with his concern at the possibility of abuse and 

indifference towards females; whoever hath a daughter and doth not bury her alive, or scold her, prefer 

his male children, to her, may God bring him into paradise.” (2) 

In this context of female infanticide, Tehmina Durrani in her novel, My Feudal Lord writes: 

“However, when my mother became pregnant, the convent nuns who looked after her told her that it 

was believed that the family practiced infanticide–the Nawab had no living female offspring, which 

was in those days, not uncommon among remote tribes. My mother left for Lahore to give birth at her 

own family home this was quite normal-the wife stayed away from her husband for forty days so that 

she could be well cared for and healthy enough to return to him.” (3) 

Origin of Domestic violence 

Domestic violence refers to the physical and sexual assault in the home within the family or an 

intimate relationship. It also refers to intimate partner violence, marital rape, assault and battery and 

sexual abuse of children in the house hold; worldwide 40-70% of all female murder victims are killed 

by an intimate partner. Patriarchal structures and related misinterpretation of religion also favour 

violence against women. 

Tehmina Durrani, in her novel My Feudal Lord very aptly, realistically and graphically 

explores the life of women in Muslim culture where religious doctrines are used to circumscribe, 

exploit and oppress them. In patriarchal society, false and rigid interpretation of holy Quran renders 

women as subordinate and inferior to men. As the Quran states: 

“Men are in charge of women, because Allah had made the 

one of them to excel the other and because they spend 

of their property (for support of women).so good women 

are obedient ,guarding in secret that which Allah has guarded. 

As for these (women) which ye rebellion, admonish them and 

banish them to beds apart and scourge(beat) them. 

Then if they obey you seek not a way against them. 

Lo! Allah is the ever high exalted, great.” (4) 

Considering the nature of these laws, it becomes apparent that the Quranic clause “men are in charge 

of women, because Allah hath made one them to excel the other” has been interpreted under the Sharia 

as Men having divinely sanctioned authority over women and thus the power of liberty to subjugate 

them as right of men as per the measures of Men and Religiosity. Tehmina Durrani aptly writes in this 

context: 


“Mustafa, let suggestions pass, in the Feudal moral scheme, Islamic law allow man to kill his 

unfaithful wife in a fit of passion, but does not allow for premeditated vengeance. So he simply 

divorced Safia and banished his offending younger brother to Britain.” (My Feudal Lord, p. 51-52) 

In the beginning of the novel, My Feudal Lord, Tehmina has made it clear how Feudal Lords have 

utilized Islam as a tool to subjugate women flock: 

“In the areas that were later to become Pakistan, some feudal families utilized Islam as a weapon of 

control. The patriarchs were venerated as holy men who spoke with Allah. And, indeed at some earlier 

time many were pious and righteous. But gradually power passed to elder sons who were neither pious 

nor particularly moral, yet were revered by illiterate people of the area and perceived as ‘envoys of 

Allah’. They had the authority to justify their every deed on the basis of their own, quite convenient, 

interpretation of the Quran. A feudal Lord was an absolute ruler who could justify any action.” 

(My Feudal Lord, p.39-40) 

Tehmina goes to the extent to say that Khar did not hesitate to break any law of Islam if his 

sexual drive so urged him. In addition to adultery, he also carried out borderline incest (sex with his 

wife's sister, which is forbidden in the Qur'an). At the general level of the masses, Pakistan is a 

puritanical society, where a man has to be careful to flirt with a woman. In many areas of Pakistan, 

such flirtation could have fatal results. But Khar, as a representative of the elites, could violate Islam 

with impunity. 

Other causes for Battering Women 

The other causes for battering a woman also include neglecting children, going out without 

informing the partner, not cooking properly or at time. As in my feudal lord ther author goes to extent 

of saying that his, (Mustafa) is thrashing to her and Dia Aeshya (The servant) was too brutal for 

delaying in prepration for our dinner as Mustafa played the role of the great chef. No error was allowed 

and the simplest omission brought his hand to her face or his foot to her buttocks. 

One more cause of wife battering is her going out without her husband (Mahram). Once she 

goes away for the operation without her husband who was in prison at that time. This was considered a 

big lapse on her part for punishment. The common public image of the battering husband is of a 

working class male; but male violence crosses all class boundaries and has no association with poverty 

or lack of education. As wife battering is conceived from the public eye , it is difficult to estimate its 

extent in society. 

Marital Violence against Women 

Violence against women in the context of marriage becomes more significant when husband 

who is supposed to love and protect his wife resorts to beating and battering. For a woman being 

battered by a man, whom she trusted most, becomes a shattering experience for her. The violence can 

range from slaps to breaking bones, torture and attempting murder or even murder itself. 

In My Feudal Lord, Tehmina Durrani, the author representing other women as well faces such 

violence including habit of bearing vile and disgusting language from her husband. The author, in part 

two of the novel, presents a scene of physical violence perpetrated by her husband that he hits his 

wife’s (Tehmina’s) face cutting her lips raising black and blue blotches on her cheeks, clutched her and 

pulled her from the bed. He threw her to the floor, kicking her even as she fell, crashed her forehead 

against the corner of the bed side of the table and she screamed in horror as blood gushed into her 

eyes. 


Even in her ill health, her feudal lord did not spare her rather she was made to have sex. 

Tehmina narrates this incident in lurid colours: 

“He wanted to make love. The stitches were still tender. I pleaded that I was not well and would need 

another six weeks to heal, but he didn’t care----He forced himself upon me. The pain was worse than I 

had feared, and the humiliation was even more excruciating. Yet I suffered silently.” (My Feudal Lord, 

p. 227) 

This shows the male mentality towards female partner who is left without any grain of consideration 

for her ill health. Rather he attacks her and proves that there is an animal in him to break his wife both 

physically and psychologically. 

Narcissistic Masochism in Conjugal Relations 

The most blatant form of violence is portrayed at another episode when Tehmina, the author is 

stripped bare and naked by her husband, Mustafa. The author gives vent to her silent cries of life here: 

“I was barely able to rise, but I did as he ordered. 

‘Take off your clothes, ‘he shouted. Every stitch. Take…them…off.’ 

I trembled, clutching at the cloth of my baggy shirt, and when he saw 

that I could not respond he grabbed one arm and twisted it behind my 

back until I shrieked in pain and screamed that I would obey. 

He backed off and sat in an arm chair. He watched as I slowly began to 

remove my shirt. 

Again I was aware of the emptiness of the room, but this time it 

looked unsafe. There was no place to hide, nothing to which I could 

cling. I slipped out of my trousers. Clad only in a bra and panties, I 

stared at him pleading, begging, and crying for him to allow me to 

stop. But there was no reprieve. I felt blood drying on my swollen 

lips and nose. With trembling clothes I pulled off my underclothes. 

He sat on the chair with his arms extended on other side, 

like a king on his throne. His eyes ran up and down my naked body, 

invading. His expression was grim his lips tightly pursed. His eyes 

narrowed, searching, glinting, and gloating. 

Never before had I felt so totally humiliated, so 

utterly controlled. I could see on his face the awareness of the 

importance of this moment. This episode would cripple my sprit-perhaps 

beyond salvation. From this moment forward, it could be nearly 

impossible for me to function as an individual. There was not an iota 

of self esteem left. The shame had burned it down to ashes. I was 

exposed as nothing. 

Please Mustafa I cried, ‘for the sake of prophet, let me wear my 

clothes” (My Feudal Lord, p. 164-65) 

The entire scene speaks in volume the heinous thinking of her husband as she gives the minor 

details of the episode. Here he tries to cripple the feeling of the self-esteem in the wife, his own partner 

and none else. The author portrays the narcissistic masochism in the Male dominated society. 


Strict Discipline for Women 

Women/girls are kept barricaded in a strict discipline and force. They are segregated from 

social, religious and cultural life in the books of Tehmina, be it her ‘Blasphemy’ or his 

autobiographical novel,’ My Feudal Lord ’ women are not permitted to meet and talk to the men 

other than their family members. In the context of woman’s behavior, V. Geetha writes, “----men 

wanting to be like women, or women wanting to do all that men do, are seldom tolerated, especially if 

they presume their desire and interest in every day terms.” (5) 

About strictness, rigidity and discipline for women, Tehmina Durrani writes very clearly and describes 

all in detail: 

“Apart from my father, brother and a few close relatives, the Men were alien creatures, and from my 

earliest moments I was trained to avoid them. My childhood was encumbered to a lengthy list of 

don’ts, all designed to maintain an inviolate distance between myself and the masculine world: near 

wear make-up or nail polish. Do not look at boys. Avoid modern girlfriends and avoid any girl who 

has an older brother. Never visit a friend without a special permission and without your Nany. Never 

pick up the telephone. Never go alone with driver. Never stand around in the kitchen with the male 

servant. And yet clearly, a man was the only future available to a Pakistani girl. My role in life was to 

marry and to marry well. Mother had an ideal man in mind for each of us. Our husbands were 

to be the only males to whom we would be ever exposed. Not surprisingly, they would exhibit a 

combination of eastern and western traits.” (My Feudal Lord, p.28-29) 

The woman as per Tehmina Durrani is kept quite slaved in golden chains and she is totally cut off 

from the society and its happening. As such women are suppressed to develop mentally, socially and 

spiritually. Her mind becomes the sanctuary of secret thoughts of escaping such a house hold where 

she can’t even sigh on her own will. 

REFERENCES: 

1. United Nation Assembly declaration on elimination of V.A.W (1993) 

2. Jean Sasson, Princess: A True Story of Life behind the Veils in Saudi Arabia. London: Bantam 

Books, 1993.p.28. 

3. Tehmina Durrani, My Feudal Lord. London: Bantam Books, 1994.p.28. 

Subsequent quotations are taken from this edition and page numbers are 

Indicated in parentheses. 

4. The Holy Quran: Sura Alnisa-4:34. 

5. V. Geetha, Patriarchy. Calcutta: Stree, 2007. p. 73. 


Impact of Demography on Consumers’ Preference towards Store Brands in Big 

Bazaar, Bangalore 

Pritom Bordoloi, 

M. Phil Scholar 

Christ University 

pritom.bordoloi@gmail.com 

Abstract 

The retail market in India is registering a phenomenal growth. The 2012 A.T. Kearney annual Global 

Retail Development Index (GRDI) ranks India fifth among the top retail investment destinations. The 

recent wave of reforms by the Government to introduce Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in various 

sectors is creating a congenial investment climate in India. One of the most debated reforms is the 

policy for allowing 51 percent FDI in multi-brand retail. The Government has now approved of 51 

percent FDI in multi-brand retail. According to Deloitte, organized retail, which constitutes 8 percent 

of the total retail market in 2012, will grow much faster than traditional retail and is expected to be 20 

percent by 2020. With the emergence of organized retail, a new set of brands – store brands, have 

evolved. Store brands are slowly gaining popularity across the organized retail sector. This study 

intends to identify the impact of demographic variables like gender, age, marital status, educational 

qualification, profession and household income on the consumers’ preference towards store brands 

across Bangalore. Big Bazaar is one of the largest retail store chain in India and also stocks a large 

variety of store brands; the study has hence been confined to the Big Bazaar outlets across Bangalore. 

The study will help to better understand demographic variables that have a definitive impact on the 

consumers’ preference towards store brands. 

Keywords: Organized retail, store brands, demography 


1.1 The Indian Retail Industry 

Koshy et al. (2007) define retailing as “Retailing involves a direct interface with the customer and coordination 

of business activities from end to end”. While major economies like the US and western 

European countries have already witnessed high growth in retail sector, the emerging economies too 

are gaining pace. The GRDI ranks the top 30 developing countries for retail investment. The top five 

retail destinations in the world in order of ranking are: Brazil, Chile, China, Uruguay and India 

(Moriarty et al., 2012). India remains a high potential market and is expected to garner a growth of 15 

to 20 percent over the next five years. Growth is supported by strong macroeconomic conditions, 

higher disposable incomes and rapid urbanization. Changes in foreign direct investment (FDI) 

regulations provide an interesting dynamic to several international retailers’ entry and expansion plans. 

The India’s retail sector is worth US$ 350 billion (Banerjee et al., 2011). Even as international players 

are making plans to enter India, the current outlook among the Indian retailers is to gear up for 

competition. The Indian retail industry is expected to increase to USD 750-850 billion by 2015. Food 

and Grocery is the largest category within the retail sector with 60 percent share followed by Apparel 

and Mobile segment (Deloitte, 2013). 

According to Corporate Catalyst India (2012), the Indian retail industry is generally divided into 

organized and unorganized retailing: 

Organized retailing - Organized retailing is undertaken by licensed retailers who have registered for 

sales tax, income tax, etc. These include specialty malls, corporate-backed hypermarkets and retail 

chains, and also privately-owned large retail businesses. 

Unorganized retailing - Unorganized retailing refers to the traditional forms of low-cost retailing, for 

example, local kirana shops , owner-operated general stores, paan/beedi shops, convenience stores, 

hand cart and street vendors, etc. Most kiranas are owned and managed by small business owners and 

their families (Raj et al., 2010). 


Fig 1.1: The Indian Retail Market 

1.2 The Rise of Store Brands 

Store brands are products or services typically manufactured by one company, to be sold under the 

contracting company’s brand name. The store brands manufacturers fall into three main categories: 

large national or global manufacturers who use their proficiency and surplus production capacity to 

supply store brands; small manufacturers who specialize in producing store brands; and major retailers 

operating their own manufacturing facilities (Rossides, 2012). The spend on product development or 

advertising is minimal for store brands and this significantly helps the store brands to cater to 

consumers at a much lesser price – typically lower by 10-20 percent. Globally, store brand penetration 

is highest in Europe, particularly in the saturated and consolidated Western markets. Switzerland has 

the highest penetration of store brands with a value share of 45.4 percent for 2011, according to 

PLMA/The Nielsen Company. Among the non European countries, Canada has the highest value share 

of store brands at 25 percent. The global average of store brands as per Nielsen stood at 15 percent 

during the year 2011. The emerging markets of the Asia Pacific and Latin America still fall short of 

the global average but as the economies begin to embrace organized retail, the share of store brands is 

set to increase (Klug et al., 2012). A major factor in the rise of store brands is the increased 

concentration in retailing (Boutsouki et al., 2008). 

Retailer strategy also plays a key role in defining store brand development. For many consumers, store 

brands are playing a central role in money saving strategies. Store brands offers an retailer the 

opportunity to differentiate themselves from competitors while simultaneously enjoying a larger 

margin versus national brands. Store brand growth is also being driven by heavy promotional activity 

(Symphony IRI, 2010). Store brands also increase the bargaining power of the retailers (Berge`s- 

Sennou, 2006). 

1.3 Demography 

The Indian market is undergoing major demographic transition. Demography has a significant impact 

on spending, investment and savings (Batini, et al., 2006). It is imperative to understand the 

demographic profile for the success in the market. The retailers should pay more attention towards the 

demographic characteristics of their target consumers (Chatterjee, 2013). Demographic variables 

disclose the ongoing market trends like shift in age, gender and income distribution that may bring in 

business opportunities to the retailers (Alooma, et al., 2013). 

1.4 About Big Bazaar 

Big Bazaar is the largest hypermarket chain in India with over 200 stores spread over more than 90 

cities across India. Big Bazaar offers a wide range of merchandise including food products, toiletries, 

apparel, furniture, household products and electronics. Big Bazaar is part of the Kishore Biyani led 

Future Group. 


1.5 Store Brands at Big Bazaar 

Big Bazaar stocks a large variety of store brands. Few of the store brands of Big Bazaar are – Golden 

Harvest, Premium Harvest, Ektaa, Tasty Treat, Sach, Clean Mate, Care Mate, Dreamline, Spunk, 

Koryo. 

2. Statement of the Problem 

The organized retail in India is still in the nascent stage and so are the store brands. While extensive 

research has been done on store brands across the globe, research on this topic in India is limited. India 

with a population over one billion has a diverse culture and demographic blend. The organized 

retailers still lack substantially to identify the demographic variables that impact the consumers’ 

decision to buy store brands. Consequently the retailers are unable to exploit this information for their 

success. This gap encouraged a lot to do this research. 

3. Objectives of the Study 

To identify the demographic variables that have a definitive impact on the consumers preference 

towards store brands across all categories like food and grocery, soaps and toiletries, kitchenware, 

clothing and electronics. 

4. Research Methodology 

4.1 Study Population 

Consumers from the city of Bangalore in Karnataka are considered as the population for the study. The 

study was limited to consumers visiting the Big Bazaar outlets across Bangalore. 

4.2 Sample Design 

250 respondents were selected for the study using non probability method. The target sample was 

achieved basis convenience sampling. 

4.3 Data Sources 

The study was conducted using both primary and secondary data sources. The secondary data sources 

like research reports, journals, research papers and internet provided the basic framework to 

understand the need of the study. The primary data that elaborates the findings of the study was 

collected using questionnaire method, which was administered by personal interview. 

4.4 Questionnaire design 

The questionnaire had a combination of close ended questions and Likert scale rated questions in the 

range of 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). In view of the area of interest, only the 

demographic profiles of the consumers surveyed has been used for this analysis. 

4.5 Data Analysis 

Six demographic variables were used for identifying the impact of each variable on a consumer’s 

preference towards store brands across categories. Cross tabulation technique was used to analyze the 

data. The results are validated basis hypothesis testing using Chi Square test. SPSS version 13 was 

used for the analysis of data. 

5. Results and Discussion 

5.1 Hypothesis 

The following alternate hypothesis were proposed and subsequently verified to determine the 

demographic variables that impact a consumers’ decision to buy store brands. 

H1: There is significant influence of gender towards consumer preference of store brands 

H2: There is significant influence of marital status towards consumer preference of store brands 


H3: There is significant influence of age towards consumer preference of store brands 

H4: There is significant influence of educational qualification towards consumer preference of store 

brands 

H5: There is significant influence of profession towards consumer preference of store brands 

H6: There is significant influence of monthly household income towards consumer preference of store 

brands 

5.2 Hypothesis Testing (Chi Square Test) 

H1: There is significant influence of gender towards consumer preference of store brands 

Table 5.1: Chi Square Test between Gender and Consumer Preference of Store Brands 

Gender 

Total 

Male 

Gender * Buy_Store_Brands Crosstabulation 

Female 

Count 

% within Gender 

Count 


Count 


Buy _Store_Brands 

Yes No Total 

37 90 127 

29.1% 70.9% 100.0% 

84 39 123 

68.3% 31.7% 100.0% 

121 129 250 

48.4% 51.6% 100.0% 

Value Df Significance 

Pearson Chi-Square 38.36481 1 0.000 


As per the above table, the chi square value for consumers’ preference for store brands basis gender is 

38.36 and the significance value 0.000. Since the significance value is RJSSM: Volume: 03, Number: 03, July-2013 Page 135

As per the above table, the chi square value for consumers’ preference for store brands basis marital 

status is 0.47 and the significance value 0.829. Since the significance value is > 0.05, the same is not 

significant at 95 per cent confidence level. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted and concluded that 

there is no significant influence of marital status towards consumer preference of store brands. 

H3: There is significant influence of age towards consumer preference of store brands 

Table 5.3: Chi Square Test between Age and Consumer Preference of Store Brands 

Age_Group 

Total 

Age_Group * Buy_Store_Brands Crosstabulation 

Less than 25 y ears 

25-40 y ears 

41-50 y ears 

Over 50 y ears 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 


Yes No Total 

27 27 54 

22.3% 20.9% 21.6% 

60 79 139 

49.6% 61.2% 55.6% 

21 17 38 

17.4% 13.2% 15.2% 

13 6 19 

10.7% 4.7% 7.6% 

121 129 250 

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 



Source: Primary Data 

As per the above table, the chi square value for consumers’ preference for store brands basis age is 

5.347 and the significance value 0.148. Since the significance value is > 0.05, the same is not 

significant at 95 per cent confidence level. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted and concluded that 

there is no significant influence of age towards consumer preference of store brands. 

H4: There is significant influence of educational qualification towards consumer preference of store 

brands 

Table 5.4: Chi Square Test between Educational Qualification and Consumer Preference of Store 

Brands 


Edu_Qual * Buy_Store_Brands Crosstabulation 

Edu_Qual 

Total 

Intermediate or Lower 

Graduate 

Post Graduate 

Prof essional Degree 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 


Yes No Total 

15 7 22 

12.4% 5.4% 8.8% 

44 45 89 

36.4% 34.9% 35.6% 

35 56 91 

28.9% 43.4% 36.4% 

27 21 48 

22.3% 16.3% 19.2% 

121 129 250 

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 




As per the above table, the chi square value for consumers’ preference for store brands basis 

educational qualification is 8.269 and the significance value 0.041. Since the significance value is < 

0.05, the same is significant at 95 per cent confidence level. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and 

concluded that there is significant influence of educational qualification towards consumer preference 

of store brands. 

H5: There is significant influence of profession towards consumer preference of store brands 

Table 5.5: Chi Square Test between Profession and Consumer Preference of Store Brands 

Prof ession 

Total 

Student 

Profession * Buy_Store_Brands Crosstabulation 

Government Employee 

Priv ate Employee 

Prof essionals 

Housewife 

Others 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 


Yes No Total 

24 15 39 

19.8% 11.6% 15.6% 

8 14 22 

6.6% 10.9% 8.8% 

34 62 96 

28.1% 48.1% 38.4% 

20 33 53 

16.5% 25.6% 21.2% 

35 1 36 

28.9% .8% 14.4% 

0 4 4 

.0% 3.1% 1.6% 

121 129 250 

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 




As per the above table, the chi square value for consumers’ preference for store brands basis profession 

is 50.976 and the significance value 0.000. Since the significance value is < 0.05, the same is 


significant at 95 per cent confidence level. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and concluded that 

there is significant influence of profession towards consumer preference of store brands. 

H6: There is significant influence of monthly household income towards consumer preference of store 

brands 

Table 5.6: Chi Square Test between Monthly Household Income and Consumer Preference of Store 

Brands 

Mthly_Income 

Total 

Mthly_Income * Buy_Store_Brands Crosstabulation 

< 10,000 pm 

10,001 -30,000 pm 

30,001- 50,000 pm 

Over 50,000 pm 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 

Count 

% within Buy_ 

Store_Brands 


Yes No Total 

11 3 14 

9.1% 2.3% 5.6% 

28 18 46 

23.1% 14.0% 18.4% 

45 41 86 

37.2% 31.8% 34.4% 

37 67 104 

30.6% 51.9% 41.6% 

121 129 250 

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 




As per the above table, the chi square value for consumers’ preference for store brands basis monthly 

household income is 15.345 and the significance value 0.002. Since the significance value is < 0.05, 

the same is significant at 95 per cent confidence level. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and 

concluded that there is significant influence of monthly household income towards consumer 

preference of store brands. 

6. Findings 

Basis the results generated from the cross tabulation, it can be inferred that: 

1. Gender has a significant influence on a consumers’ preference towards store brands. Basis the 

primary data, it can be adjudged that females are more inclined towards store brands than 

males. While 68.3% of the surveyed females opted for store brands, only 29.1% of the males 

opted for store brands. 

2. Marital status does not influence the consumers’ preference towards store brands. 

3. Age of a consumer does not significantly impacts his/her decision to buy store brands. 

4. Educational qualification does have impact on a consumers’ decision to buy store brands. 

5. Profession impacts a consumers’ decision to buy store brands. While private employees and 

professionals did not opt for store brands, almost all the house wives reviewed preferred to buy 

store brands. 

6. Household income has a significant impact on a consumers’ decision to buy store brands. 

While people with lower income preferred store brands, people with higher incomes opted out 

of store brands. 


7. Conclusion 

Basis the analysis of data and subsequently proving it statistically, we can adjudge that gender, 

educational qualification, profession and house hold income have a significant impact on a consumers’ 

decision to buy store brands. The retailers can drive marketing campaigns, advertisements and 

products taking note of the above impacting demographics. 

8. Limitations 

 

 

The study is limited to Big Bazaar outlets in Bangalore 

Due to time and monetary constraints, only a sample was reviewed rather than the whole 

population. 

9. References 

1. Koshy, A. & Jha, M. (2007), Marketing Management (12th Ed.), Dorling Kindersley (India) 

Pvt. Ltd. 

2. Moriarty, M., Ben-Shabat,H., Rhim, H. and Salman, F. (2012), “Global Retail Expansion: 

Keeps on Moving”, Report, AT Kearney. 

3. Banerjee, L., Bhasin, R. and Gupt, A. (2011), “Winning in India’s retail sector – Factors for 

success”, Report, PwC. 

4. (2013), “Indian retail market: Opening more doors”, Report, Deloitte. 

5. (2012), “A brief report on retail sector in India”, Report, CCI. 

6. Raj, P., Vrat, P. and Jain, A. (2010), “A Study of Increasing Competitiveness of Unorganized 

Retail in India”, IIIE Industrial Engineering Journal, Vol. 2 No. 18, pp. 12-27 

7. Rossides, N., (2012), “National Brands and Private Labels: Fierce Rivals, Uncomfortable Bed 

Fellows, or Enlightened Partners?”, Whitepaper, MASMI Research Group. 

8. Klug, D. and Queck, M., (2013), “Private Label 2013, the global grocery trends to watch”, 

Report, Planet Retail. 

9. Boutsouki, K., Zotos, Y. and Masouti, Z. (2008), “Consumer Behaviour towards Own Label: 

monitoring the Greek experience”, Agricultural Economics Review, Vol. 9 No 1, pp. 81-92. 

10. (2010), “Store brands - More Than Just a Safe Harbor in Turbulent Times”, Report, Symphony 

IRI. 

11. Berge`s-Sennou, F. (2006), “Store loyalty, bargaining power and the private label production 

issue”, European Review of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 33 No 3, pp. 315–335. 

12. Batini, N., Callen. T and McKibbin, W. (2006), “The Global Impact of Demographic Change”, 

IMF Working Paper, WP/06/9. 

13. Chatterjee, S. (2013), “A Study of Demographic Variables Affecting Consumer Buying 

Behaviour with Reference to Synthetic Detergents”, Indian Journal of Marketing, Vol. 43 No 5, 

pp. 58 – 63. 

14. Alooma, A. and Lawan, L. (2013), “Effects of Consumer Demographic Variables on Clothes 

Buying Behaviour in Borno State, Nigeria”, International Journal of Basic and Applied 

Science, Vol. 01 No 4, pp. 791-799. 

15. www.futuregroup.in, Website. 


Drive Engineering Education towards Better Employability – Need of The Hour 

ABSTRACT 

Venkatesh Rajagopala Setty Belagodu 

Professor & Coordinator, Department of Management Studies, 

Global Academy of Technology, Rajarajeshwari Nagar, Bangalore - 560 098 

brvenkatesh@gat.ac.in 

Dr. Radha S 

Regional Director, IGNOU REGIONAL CENTRE, PANAJI, GOA 

dr_radha_s@yahoo.com 

Earlier education was viewed as a means to transform an individual into a true human being. Aptly 

said it was “Vidya Viheenam Pashuh Samanam” meaning that “A person without education is just a 

beast”. Probably today, this may be a debatable issue for known and unknown reasons. Basically 

education used to be seen as the best means to raise one’s knowledge horizon with the objective of 

good and service to the society. And today a certificate of qualification is more of a license to work or 

get employed in a particular field to sustain one’s life. Though this may not be absolutely generalized, 

exceptions are far and few. 

Sector wise share of contribution to total GDP in India: 

Agriculture & Allied Industry - Share to 

Financial Year Services -Share to Total GDP 

Total GDP 

Services - Share to 

Total GDP 

2012-13 13.68% 27.03% 59.29% 

We may observe from the above table that in the year 2012-13, the lion’s share of services to total 

GDP is from Services at 59.29% while that from industry is 27.03%. In this combined total of 86.32%, 

the contribution by the engineers is certainly very significant to say the least. Obviously, for this 

reason, the Government of India and various state governments have been focusing on and given a 

strong impetus to engineering education in our country. Hence, The Government and the knowledge 

commission have encouraged growth of engineering colleges in large numbers across the country. 

Gone are the days where our high population was considered a weakness. Today, our population is 

treated as strength in terms of power of the youth, domestic demand for goods & services, possibility 

of generating high foreign exchange balance in our favor and so on. In this regard, bird’s eye view of 

the overall human resource would be very partial without considering the engineering discipline. 

It is good to note that our Indian hardworking and smart engineers have brought us big fame in the 

international market through intellectual and financial contributions. Also, the contribution of the 

engineering fraternity to Indian GDP & economic growth cannot be underestimated or ignored. 

Looking into all these and the government’s encouragement, engineering institutions have been 

producing large numbers of engineering graduates every year. India today is the home for about 3500 

engineering colleges with around 15 lakh seats being offered in different disciplines. 

Unfortunately, the demand side of the equation i.e. the industry is not by & large happy with the 

quality of today’s engineers. Industry chieftains and various bodies do openly say that only about 25% 

- 30% of our engineers are employable. Does this mean to say that the system is delivering high 

quantity of poor quality engineers? Has industry’s expectations gone too high? Is there a mismatch 


etween the academic output and the industry requirement? Can one infer that the unemployable 

engineering graduates are either getting underemployed or getting into jobs only to hop till they feel 

settled? 

The author has made an attempt to study the views of all the three primary stake holders, i.e. 

Engineering Students, Academicians and the Industry Experts with the objective of arriving at 

probable solutions towards improving the employability of the current engineering graduates. 

Key Words: GDP, Engineering Institutions, Employability, Engineering graduates, Academicians & 

Industry experts. 

INTRODUCTION 

The field of education has gone through a sea change right from lower education to higher education. 

It has evolved through generations and through changes in cultural, technological and economic 

scenarios. In the process, national limits are no more a constraint but internationalization has become 

the order of the day. The principle of global village is an accepted phenomenon for the very survival of 

different nations. With specific reference to India, this is further strengthened by constantly exploding 

population, ever increasing burden on the national wealth / resources, deep divide between haves and 

have-nots, changing contributions of different sectors to the GDP pie, olden days’ luxuries being 

changed to present day’s needs, growing impact of consumerism, expanding middle class and many 

such parameters to list. All these make it binding to expand just not our trade but our educational 

system also in global sense. 

Global expansion has made the industry to go for technological collaborations, trade negotiations and 

other related aspects while simultaneously identifying with different languages, cultures and business 

practices. 

Today, we incorporate reforms in teaching methods and pedagogical characteristics to make our 

students globally competent and competitive. Despite our best efforts and big claims, none of our 

Indian institutes and universities have made into the global top 100. Probably, international exchange 

of students and teachers coupled with license free entry of foreign educational institutions will 

stimulate our deep rooted set up to come out of lumbering attitude and look at the current needs in a 

fresh and more pragmatic manner. 

The demand for engineers has been gradually growing right from 1980s in India irrespective of the 

specialized fields. The early 1990s saw rapid growth in IT sector and then a true boom in late 1990s. 

Simultaneously, the expectations of the industry with regard to skills needed in fresh engineering 

graduates changed based on their respective needs of the time. Earlier, the basic technical skills were 

sought while elaborate training or orientation used to be given to fresh engineers in the organizations 

even to the tune of one to two years. But now, engineers with job-ready skills are expected by the 

industry. National Employability Report (NER) 2011 says that, while India produces more than 

500,000 engineers annually, only a meager 3.51 percent are considered job ready that may be directly 

deployed on projects. Looking at these figures and the claims of Industry chieftains, a large gap in 

skills seems to exist with reference to industry requirements. An attempt is made by the author to study 

the three perspectives of students, academicians and the industry experts in finding a probable solution 

towards bridging the gap between industry requirements and academia deliverables, which in fact is 

the doctoral research. 

Major challenge faced by academicians is to produce engineering graduates who have not just the 

traditional technical abilities and skills but who also have the necessary soft skills which are much 

sought by the industry. These non-exhaustively include leadership skills, business insight and 


managerial skills while contributing to the growth of the organization. Today’s employers are 

increasingly focusing on hiring graduate engineers who possess a broader skill-set than in the past. 

Commercial awareness is also identified as a key employee attribute however students on 

undergraduate engineering programmes often struggle to understand its significance. 

Integrating imparting of additional skills into the curriculum and providing students with placement 

opportunities and exposure to real time environment have essentially become today’s needs in order to 

make our engineering students more employable. 

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 

1. Duyen Q. Nguyen in his study 'The Essential Skills and Attributes of an Engineer: A Comparative 

Study of Academics, Industry Personnel and Engineering Students' analyzed through survey data on 

the most essential generic skills and attributes of a modern engineer and concluded on the requirement 

of technical knowledge and skills and attitudes. His study revealed that the emphasis given to personal 

and professional attitudes by the industrial sector was interesting and indicates that engineers are not 

only expected to be technically proficient in the field but also to know how to behave and operate 

within an organisation. He even pointed out that other generic groups such as intellectual skills and 

standards of engineering practice were also highly regarded by industry 

2. Meenakshi Sharma, in her paper 'How Important Are Soft Skills from the Recruiter's Perspective' 

has discussed about the role of soft skills in different managerial roles and weightage of soft skills in 

promotions. Her study results have shown that industry do prefer people with experience, but they also 

look for some other qualities in them. Along with technical skills, people who are adaptable and have 

the zeal to understand and learn new technologies as part of their growth process are sought. She 

quoted that the interpersonal skills, alignment with the corporate culture, the ability to work as an 

effective and contributing team member and the political savvy to know how to get things done in the 

organization” also determine a person’s long-term success in an organization. The study revealed that 

in general, hiring managers are not happy with the new workforce coming out of the colleges and they 

do believe that they should be much better equipped with soft skills as well as hard skills. 

3. In article 'English and Communication Skills for the Global Engineer', Marc J. Riemer, discussed 

about the communication skills and its importance for engineering graduates for the employability. He 

quoted in his article that, Language and communication skills are recognized as important elements in 

the education of the modern engineer, including English for specific purposes. Yet, there seems to be 

limited implementation of English courses globally, despite its current lingua franca status. Those 

institutions that have already implemented multilingual and communication elements will be at the 

forefront of providing the demands of industry and society. The incorporation of several components 

of the fundamentals of emotional intelligence in education will facilitate advanced communication 

skills. 

4. In the article, 'Sustainable Employability Skills for Engineering Professionals, author V. Saravanan 

aimed at exploring the skills set required for sustainable employability of engineering graduates in 

India. His study revealed that as in most of the Indian engineering colleges, students are from different 

academic backgrounds coming from different places having different mother tongues, there is a need 

to provide them a common platform to make them competent enough to face the real challenges of 

today’s corporate world. English is the language which can remove the lingual difference among them 

and give them a common medium to communicate. According to his findings that students with skills 

like positive attitude, effective communication, problem solving, time management, team spirit, selfconfidence, 

handling criticism, flexibility, etc which are also known as soft skills as a whole, have 

much more better chances of survival in the tough corporate world compared to the students who are 

lacking in the soft skills.In the paper author tried to list the skills needed for the students to get 

employed in reputed companies and has shown how these skills are important for them to work in a 

performance oriented work environment. 

5. In the article ‘Enhancing the Employability Skills of Undergraduate Engineering Students’ by 

MARGARET MORGAN1 and PEARSE O’GORMAN 2 , says that methodology for developing 


engineering students at the University delivers the traditional scientific, technical, analytical and 

mathematical subjects that are fundamental to the area of mechanical and manufacturing engineering 

but with an emphasis on developing the students’ commercial awareness and communication skills 

that employers, and beyond, have identified as being so important. Students finishing engineering 

programmes at the University which focuses on enhancing the employability skills of graduates there 

by giving them a competitive edge in securing suitable employment, have reported high levels of 

satisfaction with the extent to which their business awareness and soft-skills have been developed. 

Finally, employers are very satisfied in that a very high percentage of the graduates obtain suitable 

employment in graduate positions within a short time of completing their studies. GORMAN has taken 

ULSAR University for his study and implemented his new method of syllabus on mechanical 

engineering students and has proved the effect of employability training. 

6. Divya Shukla in her article ‘Employability Skill among Professionals – Chagrin of HR Executives 

in Indian Labor Market : A Study on Engineering Graduates of Bhopal City, has focused on attitude 

importance in employability. In her study she has discussed on the mushrooming of the technical and 

professional institutions in India and its resultant into the million of professionals and technocrats’ 

contribution to the Indian labor market and employability among these pass out. The research paper is 

an effort to check the status of the employability among the engineering professional of Bhopal City. 

The objective of the research is to identify the level of employability skill among students, its 

differences based on the respondents’ demography details and to facilitate suggestive measure to this 

regard. The data was collected through questionnaire from 291 engineering professionals who are in 

final year of their BE degree. She analysed the average and moderate level of employability skills 

among the professionals. 

7. In response to the question “How can the Indian industry and academia collaborate to make 

engineering education better?” by EE Times-Asia*, Jaswinder Ahuja, Vice President & Managing 

Director, Cadence Design Systems (I) Pvt. Ltd 4 stated as: There are several ways in which to bridge 

the gap, some of which are detailed below. Industry-academia-government partnership to provide 

students with valuable practical experience while in college by applying their theoretical knowledge to 

actual customer problems; The ecosystem needs to work together to constantly update the curriculum 

of educational institutes for it to be in line with the latest industry developments; Encouraging 

internship programmes. This imparts hands-on technical, business and soft skills to students in a 

professional environment and also gives access to a potential workforce to the company. 

Responding to the same question, T.V. Prasad, HR Director, Cypress Semiconductor Technology India 

Pvt. Ltd suggested that some specific steps that can be taken are: 

a) Universities/colleges need to constantly review their curriculum and adapt to the changing industry 

needs. 

b) Universities/colleges need to focus much on research involving real technical problems that the 

industry is trying to solve. 

c) State level and district level industry-academia interface bodies need to be initiated 

d) Many universities do not have enough faculty. Industry can bridge this gap by asking their 

employees to do part-time faculty assignments. 

e) Industry and academia together can sponsor several innovative challenges / competitions that 

involve solving technical problems that are current and live in the industry. 

The industry and analysts see a growing employability gap for graduating engineers. What is your 

opinion? In response to this query, Krishna Vedula, Professor of Chemical Engineering, Dean 

Emeritus of Francis College of Engineering at University of Massachusetts Lowell; former Executive 

Director of Indo-U.S. Collaboration for Engineering Education with inputs from M.P. 

Ravindra, Executive Director- IUCEE (India)*; Advisor-E&R, Infosys Technologies Ltd expressed 

that: 

The need to innovate new technologies in collaboration with the users of the technologies has changed 

the workforce needs of the business world, while the aptitude and talent of the future workforce have 

changed radically as a consequence of easy access to digital and communications technologies. 

Although engineering educational institutions in U.S. and India are responding to these changes, many 


of them are inhibited by traditional approaches to teaching and research. Engineering education needs 

to pay more attention to the development of innovation, entrepreneurship and the ability of its 

graduates to function in a constantly changing global environment. The future of the U.S. technical 

workforce is challenged by the lack of interest and preparation among its youth for science and 

engineering careers. At the same time, India has a large number of youth with strong math and science 

skills interested in engineering careers, but limited by inadequately trained faculty, poor facilities and 

limited research in a majority of its engineering colleges. 

8. M.Vijayakumar & Dr S Ramalingam in their article ‘A study on competency needs analysis and 

quality factors for fresh recruits’ have attempted to study the methodology and processes involved and 

the strategies and challenges the companies face during the exercise. They discussed about big gap 

between what the employers expect and what the candidate show case in terms of employable 

competencies. They attempted to bring in to lights the factors that are commonly considered in job 

interview and how those factors fall in order of preference. 

9. In the paper ‘An Empirical Study on Expectations of Industry from Academia’, Prof. Neeraj K. 

Dubey, Dr. Saurabh Goyal, Prof. Ravindra Pathak, Dr.Uday Singh Rajput tried to explore gap between 

industry expectations and quality of recent college graduates. They tried to create an active interface 

between industry and academia. In the study they have considered 12 determinants of employability 

namely-soft skills, leadership qualities, suitability, analytical power, ethical component, dressing 

sense, language, appearance, manageability, training needs, industry's view and professional 

commitment. The results indicated the importance of softskills and other criteria along with the basic 

theoretical knowledge. 

10. The study done by FICCI on ‘Industry – Academia Convergence “Bridging the Skill Gap”, talks 

about the need for effective intervention to understand employer needs, variable sector specific skills, 

training requirements that improve business performance, articulation of business expectations in 

education institutions and engagement of industry leaders with higher education institutions. Given its 

mandate, FICCI through the platform of Industry – Academia Convergence, endeavours to bring 

together higher education institutions and employers to evolve modalities for collaboration with the 

aim to meet India’s medium and long – term skills and business needs for the 21st century. 

11. In the article 'Engineering education in the context of labour market requirements and expectations 

- Polish experiences', Agata Pradela has studied on the process of engineering education. The most 

important issues, challenges and problems connected with higher education are described, such as 

educational trends, the low quality of education at schools (in the opinion of academics), demographic 

gaps and the lack of monitoring of labor market requirements. he highlights system solutions of 

engineering education and activities that support engineering education such as career service, 

technology transfer, co-operation between employers and universities, and research on matters relating 

to students’ and graduates’ careers. The author has has come up with the determinants and perspectives 

of engineering education. 

12. SUSAN M. KATZ in her article 'The Entry-Level Engineer: Problems in Transition from Student 

to Professional' has discussed on the issues of the students transformation problems from the stage of 

student to professionals. And suggests that many basic skills required in the workplace, including the 

ability to work on a team and to communicate with one’s peers and supervisors, are missing or 

insufficiently developed in recent college graduates. She quotes that through many employers have 

programs to overcome these deficiencies, academicians also should consider what best can be done 

to prepare students for their future roles, and what students themselves can do to ease the transition. 

13.Winbladh (2004) in his article ‘Requirement engineering: Closing the gap between academic 

supply & industry demand’ has focused on the requirement engineering that involves capturing, 

structuring, and accurately representing the client's requirements in a manner that can be effectively 

implemented in a system that will conform to the client's specifications. He also suggested project 

based & collaborative learning to upgrade the students. He concluded that new graduates are ill 

equipped to enter and survive a market with recessions because they do not exhibit the qualities the 

qualities that the industry treasures. 


14. Eileen M. Trauth in his study 'The IS Expectation Gap: Industry Expectations Versus Academic 

Preparation', focussed on recent changes in information systems technologies, applications, and 

industry requirement for tomorrow's IS professionals. He used data from four groups-IS managers, 

end-user managers, IS consultants, and IS professors-to identify the key skills and knowledge that will 

be required of future IS professionals. These requirements were then compared with current IS 

academic programs. The results reveal that despite a shared vision of the future IS professional, there 

is an "expectation gap" between industry needs and academic preparation. He quotes that Industry and 

universities must work together to close this gap. Universities need to place more emphasis on the 

Information Systems Curriculum integration of technologies, applications, data, and business functions 

and Jess on traditional and formal system development. Firms need to send consistent messages to 

universities about their expectations while recognizing that the mission of university business 

programs is career education, not job training. 

15. Ghosh et al (2007) discovered that at present, there are several mechanisms operational in India, 

with 'Academia-Industry interaction,' as a fulcrum of technical education. He focussed that by 

involving the industries right from the stage of drafting syllabi to absorbing the trained students, they 

are allowed to shape the CORE into a highly productive Human Resource Centre. This also enables 

them to reduce the time required to orient a fresh graduate before s/he could be inducted into shop 

floor and to upgrade/ re-skill their existing employees at a very competitive cost. Zahid (2008) 

concluded that higher education and industry linkages should remain alive for constant updating of 

courses. By creating the partnership between universities and industry, both can benefit from resources 

of each other. 

16. Modi (2009) concluded that fresh graduates, who join the industries, require six months to 2 years 

as gestation period to show their contribution and, many a time, they leave the organisation before they 

start showing results. This is due to the gap between theory and practice. The industry, R&D labs 

should become partners with the centres of higher learning. 

17. Paliwal (2009) has focussed on coordination among the efforts of academia, industry and the 

government. He emphasized on instilling the traits which are expected by the prospective employers. 

Hannan (2003) recommended that faculty-student ratio should be close to 1:10, frequent revision of 

syllabus in consultation with the industry and institutions should create the professionals with global 

mind set so that they can adjust in different cultural & social settings. 

NEED FOR THE STUDY 

We find a phenomenal growth of engineering institutions in India especially after the year 2000. Based 

on TNN-Times News Network of 28th Feb 2012, India is now home to 3,393 engineering colleges that 

have 14.86 lakh seats; Further, just 5 states: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and 

Uttar Pradesh have about 70% tech institutes. With this data on the input end, leading industrialists and 

NASCOM state that only 15% to 25% of technical graduates are employable. 

Here rises a natural question that in spite of so many technical institutions producing large number of 

graduates, why our corporate leaders are not happy with the graduates of the day? Certainly the point 

is towards the holistic quality and not the quantity. 

On one side the Knowledge commission moots for more number of engineering colleges and on the 

other side, lakhs of seats lie vacant after the admissions are completed. (When admissions closed in the 

year 2011-12, AICTE estimated that nearly three lakh seats were unfilled). 

The consequences of not equipping today’s youth with proper employability skills would be not just 

harmful in our national perspective but would be disastrous. In the research done by Mckinsey & 

Company on “Education & Employment”, it is observed that “Employers, Education Providers & 

Youth live in parallel universes”. 

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 

What needs to be done to drive today’s engineering education towards better employability? 

OBJECTIVES 

To identify the skill sets possessed by the final year engineering students 


To know the additional requirements to be met to improve employability of current engineering 

students. 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

Procedure Used To Collect Data: 

As a part of ‘Empirical Study of Engineering Students’ competencies to match Academia Deliverables 

with Industry Needs” - a doctoral thesis, this paper tries to list the skills needed for the students to get 

employed and show how these skills are important for them to work in a performance oriented work 

environment. Data was collected from mainly primary sources: Final Year Engineering Students, 

Engineering Faculty and Technical & HR heads of different organizations. While secondary data has 

been utilized only to conceptualize and substantiate the research work. The primary data was collected 

from the referred three stake holders through structured questionnaires. 

Sample Size: 

Final year Engineering Students: 1100 nos. (From various engineering colleges of VTU) 

Engineering Faculty: 200 nos. (From various engineering colleges of VTU) 

Industries / Organizations: 21 nos. (Industries catering to both manufacturing and service providing) 

As industries are the basic demand creators and end users of the services, Technical & HR heads of 

over twenty organizations like BHEL Electronic Division, Cisco, Sasken Technologies, Nokia 

Siemens Networks, Mind Tree, IBM, Infosys, etc, have been considered as sample data for the study. 

The researcher has considered Technical Skills, Soft skills along with Attitude as the criteria while 

framing of questionnaires for data collection. 

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION: 

Students’ perspective of expected skills by the industry: 

Sl. 

No. 

Students’ perspective of 

expected skills by the industry 

No. of 

students 

Sl. 

No 

Students’ perspective of 

expected skills by the 

industry 

No. of 

students 

1 Domain Knowledge, latest 

427 11 Application of concepts 7 

2 technology, Programming present languages, trends C, C++, 164 12 Coding 7 

3 Java Technical skills, Aptitude 101 13 Embedded Systems 6 

4 Practical Application 43 14 Innovative Skills & 

6 

5 Soft skills, Communication Skill, 15 15 Improving Networks ideas 

3 

time management, learning skills, 

6 personality Problems solving, development analytical skills 10 16 Basic operating systems 3 

7 VLSI 10 17 knowledge Digital Communication 3 

8 Conceptual understanding of 

theory & basic Understanding of 

components & Equipmts. 

10 18 Internships in Good 

Company 

3 

9 Logical Thinking & Reasoning 9 19 Basics of Analog and 

2 

Digital Electronics 

10 Design 8 20 Simulation Language 2 


The above table and the graph directly indicate that today’s engineering students at their threshold of 

graduation perceive Domain Knowledge including latest technology, Programming Skills specifically 

C, C++, Java, Technical Aptitude & Skills as the most needed parameters for getting employed. An 

important point to note here is that Practical Applications and Soft Skills which are being viewed as 

very essential by the industry have taken a back seat in the minds of the students. 

Industry 

Mean 

diff 

t 

value S. D Faculty 

Mean 

diff 

t 

value S. D 

Communication Skills 7.73 1.09 3.48 1.44 6.52 -.12 -1.25 1.29 

Team & Leadership Skills 8.01 1.87 7.74 1.11 5.94 -.20 -1.87 1.50 

Decision Making SkillS 7.53 1.90 8.39 1.04 5.43 -.20 -2.13 1.29 

Time Management Skills 8.60 3.20 12.53 1.17 5.07 -.33 -2.38 1.96 

Execution Skills 7.63 1.83 8.88 .95 5.57 -.23 -2.55 1.28 

Trainability & Grooming Skills 7.84 2.04 7.66 1.19 5.54 -.26 -2.73 1.32 


The opinion of industry and faculty on the technical abilities possessed by the final year 

engineering students: 

Industry 

Mea 

n diff 

t 

valu 

e 

Std. 

Deviatio 

n 

Facult 

y 

Mea 

n diff 

t 

valu 

e 

Std. 

Devi 

atio 

n 

Design and Analysis 7.20 .85 1.96 1.83 6.28 -.07 -.94 1.11 

Skills 

Programming Skills 7.33 1.86 6.62 1.20 5.30 -.17 -2.12 1.12 

8.33 2.89 11.9 1.03 5.19 -.25 -1.64 2.18 

Testing Skills 

3 

Instrumentation skills 6.94 1.86 4.50 1.65 4.93 -.15 -1.12 1.83 

8.28 3.20 11.5 1.18 4.11 -.97 -5.69 2.41 

Troubleshooting 

1 

8.22 3.64 11.4 1.35 4.25 -.33 -1.80 2.57 

Debugging 

2 

Production & Assembly 

Skills 

7.86 2.94 10.7 

0 

1.03 4.71 -.21 -1.32 2.21 

The above table and the related graph indicate the output of Faculty and the Industry response on 

different technical skill sets as possessed by the students on a ten point rating scale. It is little 

unexpected to note that Faculty seem to be more conservative in their estimation while industry have 

expressed a higher order confidence on the students’ technical skills. 

The opinion of industry and faculty on the soft skills possessed by the final year engineering 

students is 


Here again, referring to the table and the graph shown afore, the industry has indicated relatively 

higher mean values against different soft skill sets as possessed by the engineering students vis-à-vis as 

indicated by the faculty. 

It is crucial to note that industry experts opine based on those students who go beyond the cut-off line 

or percentage, as they appear for written test, aptitude test, GD & interviews. While, the faculty 

opinion is normally expressed based on the entire student strength who are taught in the class rooms. 

Inputs suggested by Students for Better Employability: 

Additional inputs from Institution to make students employable 

Change in Industry- More Lab & Guest Seminars & All the Others 

curriculum Institute hands on lectures conferences above 

2.02 interaction 4.02 2.94 Exp 1.25 0.58 0.5 0.04 

The above table and graph are in response to the question, ‘what changes / additional inputs students 

expect from the institutions to make them more employable / industry ready’, as rated by the students. 

They have accorded the highest priority to industry-institute interaction - the one also suggested by the 


industry experts & academicians. This is immediately followed by more laboratory exposure / handson 

experience. 

When same questions are asked to the academicians (who are the moulders of students to industryready 

professionals) and industry heads (the end users of the skill set possessed by engineering 

professionals), researcher received very valuable information where-in the three stake holders showed 

different preferences with different mean percentages as depicted below. 

Ways to fill the Competence Gap Industry Academics Students 

Change in curriculum 

87.8% 77.5% 21.5% 

Industry-Institute interaction 90.5% 96.0% 36.7% 

More Lab & hands on Exp 90.0% 91.5% 31.1% 

Guest lectures 83.2% 80.5% 17.0% 

Seminars & conferences 

77.5% 80.5% 12.0% 

Among the industry leaders there is high level of consensus on which way ‘the gap between industry 

expectations form the final year engineering students and what the students possess actually’, can be 

bridged. Out of 5 most important ways suggested by the researcher in the form of question to the 

industry and academicians, the top most 2 reasons are Industry-Institute interaction and More Lab and 

Hands on experience, which is almost more than 90% among both academics and industry 

respondents. Similar perception is existed among the students also. 

0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00% 

Industry 

90.50% 

90.00% 

Change in curriculum 

Academics 

96.00% 

91.50% 

Industry-Institute interaction 

More Lab & hands on Exp 

Guest lectures 

Students 

36.70% 

31.10% 

Seminars & conferences 

For an open ended question on what additional efforts are required to raise the competency levels of 

fresh engineering recruits, the industry heads and the academicians have responded suggesting a few 

significant inputs towards specific training on few areas like Motivation workshops, Lectures by 

industry and academic experts, Efficient implementation of development programs, Conducting of 

more aptitude tests and Real time projects, Group activities on industry related case studies and 

project works. Furthering these, few of the very interesting points are to implement: Exploring areas 

beyond the curriculum, Encouraging students on research publications, Imparting practical knowledge 

on current technology, Training on Stress Management, Change Management & Time management, 


Focusing on holistic personality development, Bringing Awareness of Industry Standards and Learning 

Corporate etiquette at Student level. 

CONCLUSION: 

In general parlance, we are aware that education in general leads to raising the knowledge of the 

person and also it provides him an ethical way of employing and engaging oneself to sustain his / her 

life and grow further. In the process, education provides means for both an individual’s growth and 

societal development in the right sense. Especially in the case of Engineering Education, it provides all 

the above hopefully in an accelerated pace for the good of the nation. 

While conducting the study, the researcher has just not focused on gathering the opinion and 

consolidating the same but also attempted to seek probable solutions / suggestions towards making the 

current young engineers more / better employable in the current situation. These suggestions are 

sought from all the three stake holders, i.e. Students, Faculty and the Industry experts as they constitute 

the inputs, processing body and the end user respectively. 

It is very pleasant to note that all the three stake holders do agree with suggestive points in unanimity 

though there looks to be little variation in percentage of each stake holder suggesting different 

solutions or suggestions. 

Industry-Institute-Interaction and More Laboratory & Hands-on experience stand out 

significantly among all the suggested parameters from both the faculty and the industry sectors at a 

level more than 90%, while the other suggestions such as change in curriculum, guest lectures and 

seminars & conferences are found at comparable percentages. One vital point to observe is that the 

students though have indicated the same pattern of suggestions, their respective percentage being in 

the range of less than 37% (in comparison with the other responses), probably, it may be concluded 

that lack of exposure and experience of students to the actual world could be the reason for such a 

response. 

REFERENCES 

1. Duyen Q. Nguyen, 1998 'The Essential Skills and Attributes of an Engineer: A Comparative Study 

of Academics, Industry Personnel and Engineering Students, Global J. of Engng. Educ., Vol. 2, No.1 

UICEE, Australia 

2. Meenakshi Sharma 2009 How Important Are Soft Skills from the Recruiter's Perspective The Icfai 

University Journal of Soft Skills, Vol. III, No. 2, 2009. 

3. Marc J. Riemer 2002 English and Communication Skills for the Global Engineer, , Global J. of 

Engng. Educ., Vol.6, No.1 UICEE, Published in Australia 

4. Sustainable Employability Skills for Engineering Professionals, author V.Saravanan The Indian 

Review of World Literature in English, Vol. 5 No.II – July, 2009 

5. Enhancing the Employability Skills of Undergraduate Engineering Students 

MARGARET MORGAN1 and PEARSE O’GORMAN University of Ulster, School of Engineering, 

Jordanstown, INNOVATIONS 2011, (239 -256), 2011 

6. Employability Skill among Professionals – Chagrin of HR Executives in Indian Labor Market : A 

Study on Engineering Graduates of Bhopal City, 1Divya Shukla* VSRD-IJBMR, Vol. 2 (8), 2012, 418- 

427 

7. How can the Indian industry and academia collaborate to make engineering education better? by 

Jaswinder Ahuja, Vice President & Managing Director, 

Cadence Design Systems (I) Pvt. Ltd and T.V. Prasad, HR Director, Cypress Semiconductor 

Technology India Pvt. Ltd, EE Times-Asia, 26 th May 2010. 

“The industry and analysts see a growing employability gap for graduating engineers” by Krishna 

Vedula, Professor of Chemical Engineering, Dean Emeritus of Francis College of Engineering at 


University of Massachusetts Lowell; former Executive Director of Indo-U.S. Collaboration for 

Engineering Education with inputs from M.P. Ravindra, Executive Director- IUCEE (India); Advisor- 

E&R, Infosys Technologies Ltd, EE Times-Asia, 26 th May 2010. 

8. M.Vijayakumar & Dr S Ramalingam (May- August, 2012). ‘A Study On Competency Needs 

Analysis And Quality Factors for Fresh Recruits’ International Journal of Management (IIJM), 

volume 3, issue 2, pp. 299- 308 

9. Prof. Neeraj K. Dubey, Dr. Saurabh Goyal, Prof. Ravindra Pathak, Dr.Uday Singh Rajput, . 

(December, 2009), ‘An Empirical Study on Expectations of Industry from Academia’, 

www.indianmba.com, E-mail December 14, 2009 

10. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry & NMIMS, Mumbai, Industry – 

Academia Convergence, “Bridging the Skill Gap” 

11.Agata Pradela , (2012) Engineering education in the context of labour market quirements and 

expectations - Polish experiences, Global Journal of Engineering Education, Volume 14, Number 2, 

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to Professional' Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 82, No. 3, 

13. Kristina Winbladh (2004). Requirement engineering: Closing the gap between academic supply 

& industry demand, Crossroad: The ACM student magazine, 2004, 10.4. 

14. Eileen M. Trauth, (September 1993) 'The IS Expectation Gap: Industry Expectations Versus 

Academic Preparation', MIS Quarterly, pp 293-307 

15. Ghosh Debabrata, Deepak Bhatnagar, Jancy A, Neeraj Saxena and S k Muneshwar (2007). 

Innovative mechanism to improve effectiveness of technical education – A case study of mission 

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employability/484760 on Oct 09, 2009 

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commerce, Vol 62 – No. 1. 


A Study of High Levels of Non-Performing Assets, 

Constrain Lower Interest Rate in India 

Dr. Tanmaya Kumar Pradhan, 

Dept of Economics, NM Institute of Engineering and Technology, 

Sijua, Patrapada, Khandagiri, Bhubaneswar, Odisha -751019 

E.Mail : drtanmayakumarpradhan@gmail.com 

Abstract:- 

Gross NPA of both State Bank Group and New Private Sector Banks continue to rise through out from 

the year 2007 to 2011 except the year 2010 in New Private Sector Banks. The study is based on the 

secondary data. The scope of the study is limited to five years data. The study is related to State Bank 

Group and New Private Sector Banks. 

KEYWORDS: Assets, Bank, NPA, Interest rate 

1.Introduction: 

The Indian Banks have managed to grow with resilience during the post reform era. However the 

Indian banking sector still has a large market unexplored. With the Indian households being one of the 

highest savers in the world accounting for 69% of India gross national saving of which only 47% is 

accessed by the banks more than half of the Indian population still unbanked with only 55 per cent of 

the population have a deposit account and 9 per cent have credit accounts with banks. India has the 

highest number of households (145 million) excluded from Banking & has only one bank branch per 

14,000 people. On the other hand, Indian banking industry has to face challenges like financial 

inclusion, deregulation of interest rates on saving deposits, slow industrial growth, management of 

asset quality, increased stress on some sectors, transition to the International Financial Reporting 

System, implementation of Basel II & so on. 

They will need to have a flexible organisational structure with decentralised decision making to reduce 

turnaround time for various processes. This will be especially true when a number of new entities 

including non-banking finance companies (NBFCs), large corporate houses and microfinance 

institutions (MFIs) get banking licenses. In order to serve potential customers in unbanked areas, banks 

should be willing to experiment with various business models to build a scalable and profitable 

business. Technology resources will have to be shared to reduce cost. 

2.Objectives:- 

(1) To examine CD ratio of banks in Odisha 

(2) To analyse Gross NPA of State Bank Group and New Private Sector Banks 

(3) To study Advances of State Bank Group and New Private Sector Banks 

(4) To determine changes introduced by lower interest rates regime 

3.Methodology:- 

The study is based on the secondary data. The scope of the study is limited to five years data. The 

study is related to State Bank Group and New Private Sector Banks. 


Table 1.Gross NPA of State Bank Group and New Private Sector Banks 

(Amounts in Rs. Lakhs) 

Year State Bank Group New Private Sector Banks 

2007 1226000 595300 

2008 1503700 988900 

2009 1881255 1389992 

2010 2133767 1377220 

2011 2814002 1427672 

Source:-www. Department of Banking Supervision, RBI 

The Table1 shows that Gross NPA of both State Bank Group and New Private Sector Banks 

continue to rise through out from the year 2007 to 2011 except the year 2010 in New Private Sector 

Banks. 

Table 2.Gross Advances of State Bank Group and New Private Sector Banks 

(Amounts in Rs. Lakhs) 

Year State Bank Group New Private Sector Banks 

2007 46216307 31387500 

2008 56987508 39598600 

2009 72614499 45471321 

2010 74900128 42818433 

2011 90285760 54501393 

Source:-www. Department of Banking Supervision, RBI 

Table 2 exhibits that Gross Advances of both State Bank Group and New Private Sector Banks 

continues to rise through out from the year 2007 to 2011 except the year 2010 in New Private Sector 

Banks. 

3.1Credit-Deposit Ratio of Banks in Odisha 

This is the ratio of loans advanced to total deposits and serves as an important indicator of 

banking activity. A very high ratio would indicate a high level of risk, while a low ratio would mean 

that banks are being too risk-averse. A ratio in the range of 60-65 percent is considered moderate, 

which is neither too risky nor too conservative. 

In comparison to co-operative banks, commercial banks advance loans in a more conservative 

fashion. Amongst commercial banks, rural regional banks are the most conservative followed by 

public sector and private sector banks. 

It may be observed that Private sector banks hardly advance any loans to weaker sections. Even 

the role of public sector banks for these sections is limited. In this regard, regional rural banks take the 

lead. In the year 2011, the CD ratio in Co-operative banks was at 105.24% as compared to 63.05% in 

commercial banks. CD ratio of different Banks are 56.67%, 67.99%,54.74% and 63.05% respectively 

in the year 2010-11. 

3.2Changes Introduced by Lower Interest Rates Regime 

The interest rate scenario in our country was a regulated structure for a fairly long time. In the 

last few years interest rates have been deregulated. After the deregulation, interest rates initially moved 

up. However in recent times, interest rates have begun to come down, mainly because of the ample 

liquidity prevalent in the system. The integration of the domestic economy with global economies also 

had a positive impact on the interest rates. When global interest rates witnessed a downward 

movement , a similar declining trend was also observed in our interest rates, especially, over the last 


year. In the year 2001, interest rates across all small savings instruments like PPF, Post office monthly 

income schemes, RBI relief bonds have been reduced. Thus the global developments, coupled with 

reduction in the administered rate structure, lower inflation and ample liquidity have led to lower 

interest rates in our country. 

However, the non –interest operating expenses of public sector banks in India are high by 

international standards. These work out to 2.5 to 3 per cent of total assets. The high transaction costs, 

which generally reflect high staff costs, combined with relatively high levels of non-performing – 

assets, further constrain the maneuverability in respect of lending rates. 

Following are some of the factors which reduce downward flexibility in the rate of interest 

structure in India: 

‣ Banks have been given the freedom to offer “Variable” interest rates on long –term deposits. 

However, for various reasons, the preference of depositors as well as the traditional practice 

with banks tended to favour fixed interest rates on term deposits. This practice has effectively 

reduced the flexibility that banks have in lowering their lending rates in the short run, since the 

rates on the existing stock of deposits cannot be lowered. 

‣ For the Public sector banks, the average cost of funds is over 7.00 per cent and for many 

private sector banks, the average cost is even higher. Relatively high overhang of nonperforming-assets 

pushes up further, the lending rate. 

‣ There is persistent and large volume of market borrowing requirements of the government, 

giving an upward bias to the interest rate structure. 

‣ The credit off take is inconsistent with that of deposits due to less demand for credit. 

4. Conclusion:- 

It may be observed that Private sector banks hardly advance any loans to weaker sections. Even 

the role of public sector banks for these sections is limited. Due to the high levels of NPA in the 

banking system in India the cost borrowing also rises. When global interest rates witnessed a 

downward movement , a similar declining trend was also observed in our interest rates, especially, 

over the last year. 

References 

1. Internet Banking in India Consumer Concerns and Bank Marketing Strategies Sufyan Habib, Res.J. 

Management Sci,1(3) (2012), (PP. 20-24) 

2. Bhasin, N. (2008), Banking Developments in India 1947 to 2007, New Delhi, Century Publications 

Science vol 1, no -12 2012,(PP.38-42) 

3. A.V. Aruna Kumari (2002), “Economic Reforms and Performance of Indian Banking: Across 

Structural Analysis”, Indian Economic Panorama, A Quaterly Journal of Agriculture, Industry, Trade 

and Commerce ,Special Banking Issue,(PP. 19-21) 

4. Eze jude O. and Ugwuanyi Uche.,Customer Segment: The Concepts of Trust, Commitment and 

Relationships Res. J. Management Sci, 1 (3) (2012),(PP.15-19) 

5 . Pradhan Kumar Tanmaya “A Comparative Study of NPA of New Private Sector Banks & Old 

Private Sector Banks” Researchers World-Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce vol 4, issue1(2) jan- 

2013, (PP.148-152) 

6. Malyadri , P. (2003), NPA’s in Commercial Banks –An Overview, Banking Finance, Monthly, 

January 2003, Vol. XVI, pp.6-9 

7. Pradhan Kumar Tanmaya “A study of trends of Non –Performing Assets in Public sector banks 

during Post-Reform Period”, The International Journal’s Research Journal of Economics & Business 

Studies vol 1, no-11 2012, (PP.30-37) 

8. Mohamed M Sheik, Adul Kader M Mohiadeen and Anisa H ,Relationship among organizational 

Commitment, Trust and job satisfaction: An Empirical Study in Banking Industry 

, Res, J. Management Sci. 1(2), (2012,(PP.1-7) 


9. Yasir Arafat Elahil and Mishra Apoorva ,A detail Study on Length of Service and Role Stress of 

Banking Sector in Lucknow Region, Res. J.Management Sci, 1(5)2012,(PP.15-18) 

10. Pradhan Kumar Tanmaya “A Comparative Study of NPA of State Bank of India Group & 

Nationalised Banks” The International Journal’s Research Journal of Economics & Business Studies 

vol 2, No 6-2013,(PP.24-27) 

11. Mahipal Singh Yaadav, Swami Vivkananda . Impact of Non Performing Assets on Profitability 

and Productivity of Public Sector Banks in India. AFBE Journal, Academic paper vol 4, no-1 june- 

2011,(pp.232-239) 

12 . Pradhan Kumar Tanmaya “Non-Performing Assets(NPA)-A major Source of weakness of Public 

Sector Banks” The International Journal’s Research Journal of Commerce & Behavioural Science Vol 

1,No 12 2012,(PP.38-42) 

13. Siron Gajendra ,Global Market and Indian Prospective , Res. J. Management Sci, 1 (5), 

2012,(PP.1-5) 

14.Analyzing soundness in Indian Banking: A CAMEL Approach 

Mishra Aswini Kumar, G. Sri Harsha, Shivi Anand and Neil Rajesh Dhruva, Res, J. Management 

Sci, 1(3), (2012),(PP.9-14) 

Books: 

1. Kunjkunju Benson ,Com,mercial Banks in India Growth, Challenges and Strategies 

2. Uppal R.K & Kaur, Rimpi Banking Sector Reforms in India, Review of Post-1991 Developments 


Brand Awareness: A Salient Element in Purchase Decisions 

Mrs. Prabhjot Kaur 

Asst. Professor, Department of Clothing and Textiles, 

Government Home Science College, Chandigarh 

prabhjot07@rediffmail.com 

Mrs. Malvika Agarwal 

Research Scholar, Department of Clothing and Textiles, 

Government Home Science College, Sector-10, Chandigarh 

Abstract 

In today’s world, the biggest distinction between two products is the brands that represent them. 

Brands create a perception in the mind of the customer leading to brand consciousness which acts as a 

prerequisite of consumers’ buying decision. The study was undertaken to comparatively analyse the 

apparel brand awareness among women working in government and private sector. A market survey 

was conducted and information from different branded outlets regarding the availability of the female 

brands under selected garment categories was collected. For the sample selection, Chandigarh was 

divided into four zones i.e. North, South, East and West. From each zone, a total of 50 respondents 

were selected consisting of 25 respondents of different category belonging to the age group 25-35 

years and earning Rs 37000 to 57000 per month from various professions like banking, teaching, 

administrative/I.T. and medical. Convenient random sampling technique was used to select the sample 

from each zone on the basis of co-operative attitude and availability of the respondents. A 

questionnaire cum interview schedule was framed to collect data from working women regarding their 

brand awareness and purchase. The research revealed that working women from private sector were 

more brand conscious than the government sector employees residing in Chandigarh. Increasing brand 

awareness among working women ultimately resulted in more brands purchase and was found to be 

the most differentiating factor in their purchase decisions. Due to the increased awareness and 

consciousness, they were ready to spend higher price for the branded garments. On empirically testing, 

a significant correlation (0.035 RJSSM: Volume: 03, Number: 03, July-2013 Page 157

With more and more Indian women turning professional, they have more control over their life 

choices and path than ever before. They are no longer a simple home maker but had turned into a 

determined person who knows what they want. Despite their purposefulness and high ambitions, they 

have an open and non-prestigious attitude towards life. They have become champions and 

representatives of a new model of management leadership that is more suited to the complexities and 

subtleties of today’s global world. With access to more choices, they are delaying marriage to increase 

their educational and career opportunities. They are considered the trend-setters of the future. So 

manufacturing companies are now focusing on female apparel brands and have started redirecting their 

design and messaging at women. 

This study was taken up to determine the awareness of apparel brands among working women with the 

following aims and objectives:- 

1. To comparatively analyse the apparel brand awareness among working women of government 

and private sector. 

2. To identify the factors influencing awareness regarding brands among working women. 

3. To study the relation between brand awareness and brand purchase decisions of working 

women. 

Methodology 

To carry out the study, short listing of the brands under various garment categories was done and a 

consumer survey was conducted to study the brand awareness and its association with the apparel 

purchase of working women in Chandigarh. Chandigarh was divided into four zones. Map-1 shows the 

division of Chandigarh into four zones. 

Sample size consisted of 200 respondents of Chandigarh comprising of 50 respondents from each 

zone belonging to the age group 25-35 years and earning Rs 37000 to 57000 per month. Convenient 

random sampling technique was used to select the sample from each zone on the basis of co-operative 

attitude and availability of the respondents. A questionnaire cum interview schedule was framed to 

collect data from working women regarding their brand awareness and purchase. Ten percent of the 

selected sample i.e. total 20, comprising 10 of government sector and 10 of private sector working 

women were taken up for the pretesting to check the validity of the questionnaire. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The investigation was conducted in two phases as followsa) 

Phase I: Market survey 

b) Phase II: Consumer survey 

Phase I: Market survey 

The main aim of conducting market survey was to shortlist the brands available in Chandigarh 

under different garment categories. Different garment categories selected were denim jeans , shorts 

,caperies, trousers (formal / casual), formal shirts, casual tops , T – shirts, summer jackets, dresses, 

skirts, suits , salwar, chuddidars and sarees. . Minimum 12 brands were listed. The number varied 

depending on the availability of brands under different garment categories. 

Phase II: Consumer survey 

Interview cum Questionnaire Schedule was used to collect information from the 200 

respondents. Demographic profile revealed that majority of the respondents were post graduates 

whereas only few were doctorates. Most of the respondents belonged to the personal monthly income 


group of Rs 52000-57000 and very few respondents belonged to that of Rs 37000-42000. Maximum 

numbers of the respondents were married. 

Majority of the working women i.e. 53% felt that branded clothes plays a significant role in 

their wardrobe. Table-1 & Fig-1 shows the distribution of the respondents on the basis of significance 

of the branded clothes in their wardrobe. 

Majority of them i.e. 90% of the respondents felt that branded clothes provides high status as 

respondents regarded spending and the buying of expensive branded apparels as way of raising and 

maintaining their social status. Comfort (29%) was the least significant factor. Table -2 & Fig.-2 shows 

the distribution of respondents on the basis of factors making the brands significant. 

Respondents were asked to recognize & recall different brands under various garment 

categories. Selected brands with their logos were shown and were asked whether they recognize these 

brands and were aware of them. Plate -1 gives a snapshot of Brand awareness questionnaire. 

Respondents were also asked to recall some other brands under different garment categories. 

It was found that the majority of the respondents of both the sectors i.e. 65% and 68% of 

government and private respectively were aware of 5 to 10 brands of Denim Jeans/ Shorts/ 

Caperies followed by 29% and 30% of government and private sector respectively were aware of 

10 to 15 brands where as only 6% and 2% of government and private sector respectively were 

aware of less than five brands. 


government and private respectively were aware of 5 to 10 brands of trousers (Formal/ Casual) 

followed by 11% and 14% of government and private sector respectively were aware of 10 to 15 

brands where as only 12% and 1% of government and private sector respectively were aware of 

less than five brands. 


government and private sector respectively were aware of 5 to 10 brands of formal shirts followed 

by 1% and 6% of government and private sector respectively were aware of less than five brands 

where as 29% and 20% of government and private sector respectively were aware of 10 to 15 

brands. 


government and private sector respectively were aware of 10 to 15 brands of casual tops and t- 

shirts followed by 21% and 17% of government and private sector respectively were aware of less 

than five brands where as 20% and 14% of government and private sector respectively were aware 

of 5 to 10 brands. 


government and private sector respectively were aware of 5 to 10 brands of summer jackets 

followed by 13% and 11% of government and private sector respectively were aware of 10 to 15 

brands where as only 8% and 1% of government and private sector respectively were aware of less 

than five brands. 


government and private sector respectively were aware of 5 to 10 brands of dresses and skirts 

where as 17% and 18% of government and private sector respectively were aware of less than five 

brands. 


government and private sector respectively were aware of 5 to 10 brands of suits 

(Salwar/chudidars) and sarees followed by 13% and 3% of government and private sector 

respectively were aware of 10 to 15 brands where as only 5% and 1% of government and private 

sector respectively were aware of less than five brands. Table -3 shows distribution of respondents 

on the basis of brand awareness in various garment categories 

Table -4 gives a detail of brand awareness in all garment categories of the respondents of It 

was revealed by the above scores that the awareness of the garment brands among private sector 


espondents (scored 844.12) was more than the government sector respondents (scored 764.37) as they 

were more aware of the latest fashion trends. 

All the working women in Chandigarh believed that there were factors which influenced them 

in getting aware of the brands. Majority of them agreed that TV advertisements (85%), magazines and 

newspapers (83%) were the main sources of spreading brand awareness because of the easy 

availability of them in their daily schedule and its high specific add recall. Leaflets (7%), trade shows 

(5%) and product exhibition (4%) were the least in influencing brand awareness. While private 

working women were more influenced by family relatives, friends & peers and internet as they usually 

discussed and shared their brand experiences or some recent advertisements seen, with their peers and 

were more tech-savvy as compared to government sector respondents. Table -5 & Fig-3 shows a 

distribution of respondents on the basis of factors influencing brand awareness. 

Respondents were asked about the various brands purchased under different garment categories 

and correlation with awareness was established. Table -6 revealed that there is a correlation between 

brand awareness and brand purchase decisions of the working women in Chandigarh. The correlation 

comes to be (.531) which was moderately high correlation, showing that the brand purchase decisions 

of working women of Chandigarh were correlated with brand awareness. By applying 2-tailed test, the 

value comes significant at 5% level (p value = 0.035 RJSSM: Volume: 03, Number: 03, July-2013 Page 160

An Investigation into some Pragmatic and Cultural Problems 

in Translating Arabic Implicature into English : 

A Case Study Of Jaradat’s “ HABILAT BISHRA” 

Muntaha Samardali 

Al-Balqa Applied university, Dept.of English language and literature, Ajloun university college 

muntaha_samardali@yahoo.com 

Muntaha Ali Al momani 

Al balqa applied university-Ajloun university college, Jordan 

momani.montaha@yahoo.com 

Dr Amal Riyadh Kitishat 

Assistant Professor -Al-Balqa Applied university-Dept.of English language and literature 

Ajloun University college,Jordan 

amal_kitishat2000@yahoo.com 

Abstract 

The purpose of this study is to investigate to what extent a failure to understand the pragmatic and 

cultural dimensions of implicature may lead translators to render Arabic utterances involving 

implicated meanings into English inappropriately. 

The data of the study consists of a questionnaire distributed among 20 M.A translation students at 

Yarmouk University. The questionnaire includes chosen Arabic cultural utterances involving implied 

meaning within their context. These utterances were selected from Jaradat’s Jordanian short story 

“Habilat Bishra”. The students were asked to provide suitable translations to these utterances. 

The findings of the study show that the subjects in many cases opted for literal translation or 

avoidance in rendering problematic utterances with implicature. It was clear that the subjects’ failure in 

grasping the intended meaning of these utterances due to their lack of pragmalinguistic competence as 

well as socio-religious cultural knowledge of either the ( SL) or (TL) . 

1.1. Introduction 

The concept of equivalence has remained controversial and opinions vary radically about its exact 

meaning among both Arab and English scholars. In general, translation is a process of transferring 

meaning from one language into another. It aims at finding equivalent units of the source language 

terms in the target language. However, most scholars believe that it could be challenging or even 

impossible to find these equivalents. 

Newmark (1981) refers to translation as “ a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message 

and/ or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language”. This 

indicates that to convey a natural message needs to render the same effect of the source language (SL) 

expressions in the target language (TL). 

Translation from Arabic into English involves cultural and pragmatic problems which refer to the fact 

that both Arabic and English belong to different language families and have different cultures as well 

.Many writers ( e.g. Nida and Reyburn 1981; Bochner 1982 ; Hall and Freedle 1975 ) point that 

communication across cultures involves problems of meaning that mostly arise from differences of 

culture . In most cases, translators find it difficult to bridge the cultural gap in rendering some Arabic 

utterances that include implicature naturally into English without distorting the meaning. 


Baker (1992) classifies many problems related to equivalence at different levels. She begins at the 

level of words and phrases, and then continues with the grammatical, textual and pragmatic 

equivalences. 

In fact the effects of the SL message should be the same on the TL audience as translation seeks to 

capture the content as well as the effect of the SL text in the TL. This is not always an easy job to 

achieve mainly when it comes to utterances that involve intended implicit meaning. Such problems 

arise from the fact that implicature always goes beyond the literal meaning expressed by the actual 

linguistic expressions and it is understood by what is hidden or implicated by the utterance. 

1.2 Purpose of the Study 

The study attempts to shed light on : 

a. The pragmatic areas of difficulty that presents obstacles to translating Arabic colloquial 

expressions into English . 

b. To identify the cultural problems that encounter the translators during translating Arabic 

literary texts that include implicatures into English . 

c. To show how implicatures can be translated and attempt to bridge the gap between what is 

said and what is implicated . 

d. To suggest certain strategies for translating implicature that help in preserving the 

naturalness and smoothness of the TL text . 

1.3 Statement of the Problem 

Unfortunately , translations between Arabic and English are problematic due to cultural, linguistic and 

stylistic remoteness of these two languages . Both Arabic and English belong to different language 

families ; therefore, translators may opt for unequivalent English expressions for the Arabic ones or 

vice versa . Translation problems are often made worse when translators encounter cultural utterances 

containing implicatures . 

These problems can be in part attributed to the fact that the translator has insufficient or no 

knowledge of the source culture. The more a translator is aware of the cultural differences among the 

different languages , the better translation s/he will create. Moreover, they can be attributed to the 

translators’ lack of pragmatic knowledge that includes the ability to determine the relationship between 

the prepositional content (i.e. pragmatic function) of any utterance . 

The present study attempts to answer the following questions : What are the pragmatic areas of 

difficulty that present obstacles to translating Arabic utterances containing cultural and implicated 

dimensions into English? How should translators deal with such a problem ? And finally , what are 

the strategies and techniques that the translator should use in order to render Arabic implicature into 

English without distorting the message ? 

1.4 Methodology 

The present study is divided into two parts : theoretical and practical . The theoretical part is covered 

by the survey of literature, while the practical one is handled through a questionnaire. Thus, the 

following procedures are utilized: 

1.4.1 The Sample 

In order to highlight the magnitude of the problem under discussion, a questionnaire will be 

distributed among 20 M.A students of translation at Yarmouk University. The sample will be native 

speakers of Arabic and they all hold a B.A degree in English language and literature. Thus, all of them 

are expected to have a good command of both English and Arabic . 

1.4.2 Data of the Study 

The data of the study will be taken from Ahmad Jaradat’s short story “ Habilat Bishra” (1992) and 

its translation into English “Bishra’s ‘Idiot Savant’ ” by Shunnaq (1998) . 

1.4.3 Data Analysis 


The questionnaire which will be administered to M.A students at Yarmouk University will include 

Arabic utterances containing cultural and pragmatic problems . It will also include personal questions 

that seek to elicit the cultural background of the subjects as well as their efficiency of translation . 

The subjects’ translations will be analyzed according to the level of their adequacy and the 

translation strategies students adopt. Then the outcomes of the subjects’ will be compared with the 

translation. 

1.5 Significance of the Study 

The results, recommendations and suggestions come up from this study will typologize the 

problems that translators face in translating Arabic implicature into English. It also sheds light on the 

importance of conveying the implicated meaning of utterances that mean more than what is literally 

said. Moreover, it is expected to help translators and student translators to be aware of the Jordanian 

culture that would help them to understand the contexts better and render them naturally into English. 

2 Review of Related Literature 

There are different approaches concerning the concept of equivalence raised by many linguists. 

Nida (1964) represents the “equivalent effect” that is considered as a significant issue concerning 

equivalence in translation studies .He emphasizes that identical equivalents do not exist between 

different languages. Newmark(1988) refers to “equivalent effect” as the same effect on readership of 

the original . In this context , Nida distinguishes equivalence as formal and dynamic that is the same as 

Newmark’s distinction as semantic ( close to Nida’s formal equivalence ) and communicative ( close 

to Nida’s dynamic equivalence) . 

Nida and Taber(1982) have devoted a great deal about equivalence in their book . They wrote , “ 

Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source 

language message , first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” , i.e. whether the target 

text has the same effect on TT readers as that of ST on its readers or not . Accordingly they put 

forward their famous notions of dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence. They favor the 

dynamic equivalence that seeks the thought-for-thought translation rather than word-for-word. It 

preserves the meaning of the original text in the TL as it captures the same effects of the SLT in the TL 

. 

This type of equivalence is, in fact, what Wierzbicka (1991) called “ pragmatic equivalence” and 

what Gutt (1991) refers to as functional equivalence guarantees better communication as the translator 

pays a great effort to meet the target readers’ functionally as “ compulsory charity in Islam when the 

income conditions are met ” In order to preserve the same effects the term includes on the TL reader . 

Pragmatic equivalence overlaps cultural translation where the cultural norms or contexts influence 

heavily the translation process and product. Bassent (2007) was in favor of changing and sometimes of 

dramatic altering of the grammatical structure and sacrificing in order to create a resemblance between 

the original effect and its counterpart. 

2.1 Pragmatics and Semantics 

Baker (1990) defines pragmatics as : “ the study of meaning not as generated by the linguistic 

system , but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a communicative situation” . According to 

this definition Baker distinguishes between the semantic meaning of an utterance: “ that is generated 

by the linguistic system ” and the intended meaning the speaker wants to convey by using a particular 

utterance in a particular situation . 

Translation aims at conveying meaning or meanings of a given- linguistic discourse from one 

language to another rather than the words or grammatical structures of the original. The meaning of a 

given word or set of words is best understood as the contribution that word or phrase can make to the 

meaning or function of the whole sentence or linguistic utterance where that word or phrase occurs. 

Thus, the addresser is not after the surface or literal meaning of the utterance ( semantic meaning ) he 

might be after the implicit or the hidden meaning of the utterance ( pragmatic meaning ) . 

Yule(1996) defines pragmatics as “ the study of the relationship between linguistic users of these 

forms”. Stalnaker’s definition is more explicit ( Hatim and Mason 1991) : 


Pragmatics is the study of the purposes for which sentences are used of the 

real world conditions under which a sentence may be appropriately used as an utterance. 

Leech (1983) differentiates between semantics and pragmatics by saying that semantics is rulegoverned 

and its analysis is basically formal , whereas pragmatics is principle controlled and its 

analysis is functional , i.e. for what it is used in language or for what function . 

So semantics refers to the abstract meaning , i.e. what the word or even the sentence means in 

dictionaries while pragmatics is concerned with meaning in use or meaning in context . 

2.2 The Role of the Context 

It has been repeatedly emphasized by linguists that the functions of language should be performed 

within a context. The term context is both social and interpersonal. It is social in the sense that context 

encompasses the internal organization of a society, its intentions, internal differences, sub-groupings, 

and so on. Therefore, the study of language in a social context consists of the study of the linguistic 

material produced within the structure of the society. It focuses on the way in which particular 

characteristics of the society affect the structure of change and variation of the language spoken, and, 

conversely, to the way in which different attitudes about its variation affect the internal dimensions and 

forces of the recipient community. 

The interpersonal context usually takes priority over the social context in such sub disciplines as 

pragmatics, discourse analysis, conversation(al) analysis, etc. 

These disciplines are not 

devoted to understanding the interaction of the linguistic structure of the society. The focus is rather on 

the individuals involved in the interaction. These individuals are the speaker and the hearer, or the 

reader and the writer. The interpersonal context, here, is essential to the understanding of the 

exchanged utterances or texts. Such a context usually includes statements rooted in psychology, such 

as intentions, beliefs, and rationality. 

Thus, the context plays a great role in helping the translator to determine the speaker’s right 

intended meaning by means of depending on the situation in which the utterance takes place. Lyons 

(1977) emphasizes that the text has a clear beginning and end , it also has some internal coherence and 

unity . This means that the context is helpful to the translator to understand the pragmatic meaning of 

an utterance in a particular situation in the SL and convey it naturally into the TL . 

2.3 The Notion of Implicature and Grice’s Maxims 

Implicature is one of the most complicated parts within pragmatics. It is the act of meaning, 

implying or suggesting one thing by saying something else. Therefore, the meaning resides at some 

level, in the context of utterance. Lyons (1977) defines implicature as: 

“It rests, upon a distinction between what is actually said and what is implied (but not entailed) in 

saying what is said”. 

Lyons definition shows that the utterance includes the linguistic reality related to the words that 

make up utterance and the intended meaning the speaker wants to convey from the utterance. For 

example a sentence like ‘ It is cold here’ represent either a semantic meaning that can be understood 

literally or an implied meaning that can be figured out with reference to the context of the utterance . 

Therefore, the linguistic items, the context of the utterance and the principle of co-operation can 

produce the implied meaning (the heating should be turned up). Thus, implicature is the gap between 

what is literally said (linguistic entity) and what is conveyed (not said). 

Speakers usually do not express what they mean explicitly, in some situations they may say 

something and mean something else, or even the opposite. Implicature helps people to understand the 

meaning the speaker tends to imply, that is to say more than what is literally expressed by the 

conventional sense of the linguistic expressions uttered. In this sense Pratt(1977) says : “ without 

implicature it would take us a long time , indeed, to say anything at all ”. 

The theory of implicature in essence was developed by Grice(1975) in an attempt to explain how 

people use language . Grice emphasizes that any discourse does not normally consist of disconnected 

remarks; However, they are cooperative efforts that enable the people participating in that discourse or 

talk to recognize the common purpose of that talk. Such a purpose, argues Grice, may be definite or so 

indefinite. On this account, Grice formulates the following general principle that is known among 

linguists as Cooperative Principle ( CP) : 


“make your conversational contribution such as is required , at the stage at which it occurs, by 

accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged ” 

(ibid : 45) 

Underlying this (CP) , there are four basic rational maxims serving as guidelines to conduct the 

conversation. The participants in a speech event either observe those maxims or flout one or more of 

them. The present study is concerned with how does flouting these maxims may lead to 

communication breakdown among the speaker and the listener as well as the writer and the reader. In 

order to better account for the exploitations of these maxims, consider the following: 

1. Quality : This maxim might be flouted in the following utterance 

A: X is a fine friend ( Grice 1975:51) 

In the above utterance if X is known to A and his addressee that he/she made something bad to A, 

then A is flouting the maxim of quality , i.e, he is not telling the truth . In this case, the hearer 

needs to work hard to know what does the speaker want to convey ironically . In other words, he 

has to understand the implicature inhabited in the utterance which is “ A believes that X is not a 

real but a rotten friend”. 

2. Quantity : This maxim might be flouted in the following exchange between A and B ( Levinson 

1983:111) : 

A: War is war 

B: If he does it, he does it . 

The previous examples convey a meaning that exceeds their literal sense or what is literally 

meant. Their communicative import is related to the pragmatic implications in flouting the maxim 

of quantity. Thus, In (A) one might implicate that it might be: terrible things always happen in 

wars” or the nature of wars is very bad. 

3. Relevance :The following example illustrates the exploitation of this maxim: 

A: Where are my glasses? 

B: I am going out tonight. 

From B’s reply, it is clear that B changes the topic completely. He /She may know where the 

glasses are but indirectly he does not want to confess or to tell A about their place. 

4. Manner : To show how this maxim is violated , consider the following example : 

Mary got pregnant, last month she was married. 

This utterance violates the sub-maxim of manner “be orderly” , mainly in the Arab world since 

women are supposed to get married first then get pregnant. 

According to Leech (1983) , the (CP) is not sufficient to explain the relation between sense and 

force. He says the (CP) cannot explain “why people are often so indirect in conveying what they 

mean, and what is the relation between sense and force when non –declarative types of sentence 

are considered” (ibid: 80). So he presents the politeness principle (PP) to go hand in hand with the 

(CP) in interpreting messages and to rescue the (CP) from serious troubles. To illustrate his point 

Leech presents the following example: 

A: We’ll all miss Bill and Agatha , won’t we ? 

B: Well, we’ll all miss Bill . 

In this exchange of talk B is violating the maxim of quantity by responding to one part of A’s 

opinion and intentionally ignoring the other part. The implicature here is that “ B is of the opinion 

that we will not all miss Agatha” ( ibid: 84) . This implicature is obtained not only on the basis of 

the ( CP) . B could have added “ but not Agatha” in order to be faithful to the (CP ) maxim . But in 

order to be polite he used the (PP) beside the ( CP) maxims . Leech concludes that “ B could have 

been more informative , but only at the cost of being more impolite to a third party : that B 

therefore suppressed the desired information in order to uphold the (PP) .” 


2.4 Arabic Literature on Implicature 

Implicature is one of the rhetorical devices used in Arabic mainly in the Holly Quran . It is called 

التلويح الن المتكلم يلوح ما يريد“‏ : says “ Al- Talwih ” . In reference to this phenomenon , Alzarkashi (1972) 

”… يسمى فيه للسامع 

“ It is also called implicature since the speaker insinuates to the hearer what he intends to convey . ” 

” هو ما يشار به الى المطلوب من بعد خفاء “ : as Also , AL Tibi (1991) refers to it 

“ Alluding to the intended meaning indirectly ” i.e. , by means of implicature .” 

It is important to emphasize that Arab rhetoricians have dealt with implicature as a figurative 

language. Al- Jurjani ( d. 471A.H.) and Al-Suyuti(d.911 A.H.) argue that the Arabs have over 

depended on implicature to achieve the intended purpose of their speech in an elegant way . 

Sometimes they consider the use of implicature in speech as a sign of linguistic creativity and 

elegance. In the past , people underestimated the person who expresses himself directly . 

In addition , Aziz ( 1998) argues that pragmatic meaning ( that includes implicature ) is closely 

associated with culture , a natural equivalent for this meaning needs shift in cultures that must be 

accepted to a reasonable degree . However, the translation of some creative works requires conveying 

the source language taste can be achieved by preserving the cultural elements. 

3 Findings and Discussions 

There are various types of translation equivalence which are limited in this study to the textual and 

pragmatic ones. In general, it is problematic to have an equivalent relation with the source text to 

render it naturally in the target language. This is due to the fact that translators sometimes cannot 

convey the same effects of the SL utterances in the TL. Nababan (2008) mentions that these problems 

emerge due to two main reasons. One of these reasons is that a translator cannot produce but a 

subjective interpretation of the source text. The other is that a translator cannot by all means determine 

how the audience responded to the source text when it was first produced. This is the main reason why 

exact equivalence in translation is unrealistic. 

According to Nababan (2008) , problems of equivalence occur at various levels, from word to 

textual and pragmatic levels due to socio-cultural and textual differences between the source text and 

the target text . Such problems are interrelated with one another. The meaning of the term is culturally 

bound that can only be understood through its context of use. Due to these differences between the 

source text and the target text, translators should use their own strategies to compensate in the target 

text the inevitable loss of the source text and thus produce an accepted and natural version. 

Newmark (1988) says that cultural words are easy to detect and they cannot be translated literally 

since literal translation may distort the meaning , however, a descriptive – functional translation may 

provide an appropriate translation . 

Due to the fact that cultural aspects are very helpful in understanding the message, the reader tries 

to discuss the cultural domains that would be problematic for the translators in translating fiction, 

mainly if the work includes a local touch or atmosphere. 

“Habilat Bishra”, the case study for this research, is a north Jordanian short story that is rich in local 

images and expressions which convey the intended meaning of the original author. It is natural to north 

Jordanian Arabic speakers to use such utterances; the meanings of these utterances are known to them 

and they are easy to comprehend. However, these utterances are problematic to be translated into 

English. The questionnaire of this study was meant to examine the difficulties that translation students 

faced in translating Arabic cultural expressions into English as well as the translation strategies used to 

deal with such difficulties. 

3.1 Culture – Specific Terms 

From the answers in the translation test, it was found that culture is a considerable barrier for the 

subjects. This is related to the fact that Arabic and English are culturally different. The cultural barrier 

mainly lies in capturing the spirit and the flavor of the source text which cannot be achieved unless the 

translator finds appropriate equivalents in the target language. However, sometimes the term is culture 


specific and this makes the problem even more complicated. Such gap constitutes an obstacle for 

transmitting some expressions and even ideas from one language into another. 

Table 1: Subject’s translation of culture specific terms : 

Cultural 

expressions 

Shunnaq’s translations Adequate 

translations by 

the subjects 

Chanting the words on the 

يزفونه 

Inadequate 

translations 

by the subjects 

Untranslatable 

40% 65% - 

rhythm of empty tin cans 

شدقيه 

Sides of his mouth 60% 40% - ايام العز 

The good old days 30% 60% 10 سقا هللا 

Those were the days 25% 55% 20% يوم لك ويوم عليك 

Win a few and lose a few 10% 75% 15% قنبور 

Qanbour. 

0% 70% 30% 

(a tiny kerosene lamp) 

عقال 

?qual 55% 25% 20% As we see from table1, the phrase يوم لك ويوم عليك was the most problematic to the subjects, it was 

rendered incorrectly by 75%. This idiom is used in the Arab culture to indicate that life does not give 

us all what we want or there is not anyone who has only good or bad days all his life long. Life does 

not stay the same all the time; Everyone has good and bad days. 

By that, we can notice that this idiom violates the quantity maxim as what is meant is more than 

what is said. Seventy five of the respondents rendered this idiom into English literally, i.e. “a day for 

you and a day against you”, “a day in your favor, another is upon you”. However, literal translation 

does not convey the natural effect of the SL expressions in the TL, thus, the audience of the TL will 

not get what is literally wanted by the SL text. 

Ten percent of the respondents have translated it functionally into “life is not stable”, but also this 

rendition is not enough as it does not convey the inner meaning of the phrase that is conveyed 

rhetorically. 

‏.”قنبور“‏ Avoidance was the most common strategy that the subjects tend to use in rendering the term 

Perhaps this is because they did not find appropriate equivalents, or because they are not familiar with 

such a term that is so common in the Jordanian villages. Seventy percent rendered it functionally as 

‘lamp’ or ‘electricity’. Nevertheless, both do not convey the natural aspects of the term that is a small 

kerosene lamp used by the Jordanian villagers before electricity was introduced. While 30% 

considered it untranslatable concept. 

Paraphrasing is another translation strategy the subjects opted for in translating ‏”عقال“‏ that is a 

very popular type of clothing some Arabs put on their head over “ الكوفيه ”. Fifty five percent of the 

respondents have transliterated / ?qual / in the TL and considered it as an international item that does 

not need any clarification , whereas 25% of them described it as ‘ head cover’ that does not convey the 

real meaning of / ?qual / and 20% of them did not translate this term and consider it untranslatable . 

was another problematic term to the subjects . It is used in Arab society with reference to the يزفونه 

wedding ceremony. It is used with a positive connotation to show happiness for the bride and/or the 

groom as well as to announce that this couple is married now; either by walking behind them, or by 

driving cars with musical instruments until they reach their wedding house. 

However, زف is also used to indicate a negative connotation as the author uses it in this short story 

to describe the children behavior toward Bishra Idiot . It is used in reference to the act of punishing a 

person for doing something wrong. The villagers used to follow the person who behaved against the 

morals and announce he did such and such. They make a scandal show for this person by following 

him and hitting on empty cans to produce ugly sounds and make fun of him by chanting the words of 

“Bishra’s Idiot”. Thus, it is clear that ‏”زف“‏ violates the maxim of quality as what is said is not what is 

meant. 


By investigating the subjects’ translations, the researcher has found that this term is translated 

inadequately by 65% they render it by conveying its positive connotation i.e. “celebrating him”, 

“singing for him”, walking behind him as if he was a groom”. 

The idiom ايام العز was difficult for the students to render it appropriately . It is used in this story to 

describe the good life in the past, which is not available any more. Only 30% of the respondents were 

able to give an acceptable equivalent for this idiom whereas 60% were not. They have rendered it as ‘ 

dignity’ ‘ prosperity’ ‘glory’ ‘ richness’ without paying attention to its pragmatic function . 10% of the 

respondents considered it untranslatable. 

In addition, the Arabic well known idiom سقا هللا was not easy for the students to translate. It is used 

to indicate longing for the old days and hoping to come back. This idiom violates the quality maxim 

since it does not indicate what is said. It also violates the quantity maxim since its meaning is more 

than what is said. 

It is noticed that most of the students failed to translate this idiom appropriately. 55% of them 

rendered it into “May God repeat those days”. This gives evidence that some of our students are not 

competent even in Arabic. 25% of the respondents have given acceptable translations as ‘May the old 

days come back’. However 20 % of the students have not translated it and considered it as 

untranslatable. 

was the least problematic term to the subjects. It is used by Arabs to indicate the wideness of شدقيه 

the mouth. In the past, this term was used for the camel lips that are big. Jaradat uses this term with a 

negative connotation to show that “Bishra Idiot” has a big, ugly, and thick mouth. 60% of the 

subjects rendered intoشدقيه acceptable equivalents such as ‘corners of his mouth’, ‘sides of his mouth 

’. 

However, such rendering does not convey the inner meaning of the term as it is intended by the 

author. The rest of the subjects (40%) have translated it into ‘his lips’. 

3.2 Colloquial Terms 

Arabic and English are linguistically different; Arabic is a semitic language while English is an 

Indo-European language. These terms are universal among the users of any language. Such 

expressions include unrelated words to the subject being described; However, it can be understood 

easily by the speakers who belong to the same culture. Such terms do not follow a certain grammatical 

or lexical rule that make them difficult to translate. 

“Habilat Bishra”, includes many colloquial terms used by people in north Jordan. These terms can be 

easily understood by the Jordanians without referring to dictionaries since they are used a lot in the 

villagers’ daily life. 

The following table shows the results of the respondents’ renditions regarding colloquial terms 

translation: 

Arabic 

problematic 

expressions 

Shunnaq translations 

Adequate 

translations by 

the subjects 

In adequate 

translations 

by the 

subjects 

No translation 

طنبوز عزه 

Glory days 35% 60% 5% ملح وذاب 

Vanished into the air 80% 15% 5% بتراب المصاري 

Dirt- cheap 10% 75% 15% وال ما يحزنون 

Nothing 55% 15% 30% يا هماللي 

Ah! Too many to 15% 5% 75% remember 

Where are you headed, I 50% 40% 10% 

wish you God’s speed 

It is clear from the table that the subjects encounter problems in translating the colloquial 

expressions mainly those that are culture specific since they are missing in the target language. 

For example, the term " " is a common colloquial expression used by the Jordanian villagers 

to indicate one’s good conditions. It is clear that most of the students have rendered it inadequately 

since 60% of them have referred it to the Youth days and that is not exactly meant by the author. 

طنبوز عزه 

لوين يا مسهل 


It seems that common idioms are easy to be translated. For instance, " " has been translated 

by 80% of the subjects as it is a universal term . 

However, even though " " is a universal term in the Arabic culture , only 10% of the 

respondents translated it adequately . 75% could not render the rhetorical image of the term as found 

in the source text. Most of them translated it into “ little money” or “ very cheap” . Regardless the 

functional equivalence of this term in the English culture is “ dirt cheap” or “ almost free” . 

The Jordanians use the idiom " " to negate the existence of something . Jaradat uses this 

term to assure that Yousef felt lonely as he does not have any body left. This term is missing in the 

English culture. It is translated by 55% of the respondents into “ nothing” that although it does not 

convey the same aesthetic effect of the source text , it is a good choice since it is used to assure the 

negation in the target language . 15% of them misunderstand the original idiom and give inadequate 

translation of it such as “ don’t worry” . 

ملح وذاب 

بتراب المصاري 

وال ما يحزنون 

3.3 Metaphorical expressions 

Literary contexts are rich in metaphorical expressions that must be translated into natural 

equivalents in the TL to convey the same function . These expressions mean more than what is said 

thus they cannot be translated literally as literal translation does not convey the aesthetic aspects and 

implicatures that encapsulated within such figurative terms. Such terms will be problematic for the 

translators due to the fact that each language has its own figurative expressions. 

The following table shows some metaphorical utterances used in Jaradat’s short story and the results 

of the respondents’ translations : 

Arabic cultural Shunnaq’s translations Adequate Inadequate No 

expressions 

translations translations translation 

given by given by 

the subjects the subjects 

يلعن اللي بزركوا 

Damned bastards 5% 70% 25% اوالد الفاعله التاركه 

Bastards 30% 40% 30% عتبك على ذراعك يا يوسف 

Not translated 5% 30% 65% كان يوم اسود من القطران 

It was blacker than tar 65% 25% 10% اكلته الضباع وعظامه صارت 

مكاحل 

He’d been eaten by Hyena and 

nothing was left of him but dry 

bones 

30% 40% 30% 

As we see from the table the metaphorical expression " " was the most difficult to be 

translated by the subjects. The use of the verb " " seems nonsense since it is used with seeds in 

land agriculture rather than child-making process. However, the verb implies that the author means “ 

the fathers of those children” that is a very common expression used to curse the fathers of people we 

are angry at , but it does not exist in the English culture. 

Only 5% of the subjects were able to convey the pragmatic taste of this expression and they have 

rendered it into “Damned bastards”, whereas 70% of them rendered it literally such as “God damned 

your fathers”. However, such translation is not natural in English and it does not convey the cultural 

aspect rooted in the SL utterance. Thus it will be misunderstood in the TL. 

يلعن اللي بزركوا 

بزركوا 

" " is another example of implicature since the meaning is not direct in this 

utterance . Jaradat uses this expression to curse the children indirectly and politely. This term is related 

to sexual relationships that are highly euphemised in Arabian communities .It describes the sons of a 

woman who is involved in a taboo sexual relationship. It corresponds to “sons of a bitch”. 

Nevertheless in the English culture sex is not treated euphemistically. This utterance violates the 

quality maxim since what is literally said is not what is understood from this utterance. 

40% of the subjects ignore the euphemism strategy the original author opted for. They have 

rendered it into “sons of a bitch”. It is clear that this translation does not preserve the euphemistic 

aspect that is used deliberately by the original author. While 30% of them translated it into “ the 

bastards” , and 30% have considered it as untranslatable . 

اوالد الفاعله التاركه 


is used to indicate that every kind of food is available and you have to ‏"عتبك على ذراعك يا يوسف " 

depend on your own to serve yourself with the kinds and amount you like .65% of the respondents 

have considered this utterance untranslatable as well as Al shunnaq ( the translator of Jaradat’s short 

story ) . 30% translated it literally and in adequately as “blame your arm” or “depend on your arm”. 

Only 5% translated it into an adequate equivalence as “depend on yourself” or “ help yourself ”. 

" is a universal metaphor that is used to indicate the gloomy day . 65% of the 

respondents translated it literally as “ It is more black that tar” . However, 25% translated it into “ it 

was a bad day” or “ it was an unfortunate day” . These renderings do not convey the rhetorical image 

of the utterance that violates the quantity maxim as its intended meaning is much more than what is 

literally said. 

" is a metaphorical cultural utterance that literally means “ his bones are used now 

to put kohl in women’s eyes” . In the Arab culture it is used to indicate that this person has been dead 

for ages and his bones are very dry and old now. It may be problematic to convey the rhetorical image 

of such utterance into the target language. Only 30% of the respondents translated this utterance 

literally into “ he is dead since ages” that can be acceptable. However, such equivalence does not 

convey the metaphorical meaning indicated by the Arabic utterance, whereas 40% of them translated it 

into “ he is lost” or “he has disappeared ” that are in adequate . 30% of the respondents did not 

translate the utterance. 

‏"كان يوم اسود من القطران 

‏"عظامه صارت مكاحل 

Conclusions and recommendations 

The primary concern of this study has been to investigate the main cultural and pragmatic problems 

that may encounter translators while translating Arabic cultural utterances including implicature into 

English . 

The findings of this study have revealed that the student translators often render problematic 

utterances literally. They tried to preserve the semantic image of the Arabic utterances at the expense 

of their functional or ideational images. Therefore, literal translation ends with unnatural equivalences 

that are un intelligible to the English reader. 

Moreover, it has been revealed that the respondents have failed in rendering culture -specific 

concepts appropriately due to the referential gap found between Arabic and English. They opt for 

either avoidance or literal rendering for some expressions such as idioms, religion, and clothes. Some 

students have paraphrased these terms and provided many details about them. However, none of them 

has used explanatory notes to clarify their renderings of these culture specific terms and the usage of 

such terms in the SL. 

It is not an easy task to translate cultural utterances between Arabic and English since these two 

languages belong to different cultures. Thus it is important for the translator to be both bilingual as 

well as bicultural to convey a natural message in the TL. 

In addition, the study has revealed that the main reason for the respondents’ failure to render 

cultural utterances with implicature appropriately may due to the fact that they were not familiar of the 

TL culture or even their own culture. Therefore, instructors must pay more attention to get students 

acquainted with these two cultures by selecting texts that enrich the students’ knowledge with the 

cultural usage. Also they must encourage students to read the local literature in depth that will help 

them to understand their culture properly and help them to overcome problems they may encounter in 

translating into other languages. 

Furthermore, it is important for the M.A and PhD. Students to study pragmatics as a good source of 

real life situations to have better results in translating culture specific expressions naturally in the TL. 

References : 

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Semantics 3: Speech Acts . New York : Academic Press,41-58. 


5. Gutt,E.A.(1991). Translation and Relevance. Oxford: Basil Blackwell . 

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7. Leech, G. (1983) The Principles of Pragmatics. Longman group : London. 

8. Levinson, S.(1983) Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

9. Lyons,J.(1977) . Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge Press.Vol.2. 

10. Hall,W. and Freedle, R.(1975) Culture and Language: The Black American Experience. 

Washingtom D.C. : Hemisphere Publishing Corporation . 

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12. Nida,E.A.(1964) .Toward a Science of Translating . Leiden: Brill 

13. Nida,E.A.& Taber,C.R.(1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation. E. J. Brill: The 

Netherlands. 

14. Pratt,M.L(1977) Toward Speech Act Theory of Literary Discouse.Bloomington: Indiana 

University . 

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17. Wierzbicka,A.(1991). Cross- Cultural Pragmatics : The Semantics of Human Interaction. 

Berlin; New York : Mouton de Gruyter. 


Globalization and the Rising Influence of Civil Society Organizations in Africa 

Ukertor Gabriel Moti (Ph.D) 

(Senior Lecturer) 

Department of Public Administration 

University of Abuja, P.M.B 117 Abuja, Nigeria 

ukertor@yahoo.com 

Abstract 

Globalization understood as the thickening of the networks of interdependence spanning international boundaries that 

accompanies increasingly rapid and inexpensive movement of information, ideas, finance, goods and people across 

boundaries has been increasing for some decades now. One of the consequences of globalization process has been the 

rising numbers and influence of international and local Civil Society organizations in many countries of the world 

including Africa. They are emerging as increasingly influential players in international and national decision-making. Civil 

Society play an important role in the acceptance by governments that the rule of law, governmental accountability, peace 

and security are key to the social, economic and political development of Africa. African acknowledgement of global 

transformation was in part due to the activities of civil society and other critical stakeholders such as political parties and 

governments. An interesting question is whether the blossoming in numbers and increasing visibility and influence of 

international and national civil society organizations is merely coincident with globalization, or whether there is something 

about the processes of globalization that spawns these enterprises? Secondly, what impact has these organizations on the 

quality of governance in African countries? The purpose of the paper is to explore this rising trend and increasing 

influence of civil society organizations in Africa and the factors that enhance this phenomenon within the context of 

globalization. Some of the findings include: that the rise of Civil Society organizations and in particular, developmentoriented 

organizations is related to the availability of resources to support them, which is a consequence of globalization. 

Their emergence and increasing influence in the last few decades is associated with and in part caused by the forces of 

globalization, which has contributed to the personal, economic, political and social dynamics that gave rise to stronger 

civil societies. 

Key words: Civil Society; Globalization; Governance; Influence; International; National. 

Introduction 

Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) of all stripes and sizes emerged in the 1990s as a new force in international politics and 

in the international relations literature (Mathew 1997; Boli and Thomas 1999; Boulding 1991; Wapner 1995; Lipshutz 

1992; Spiro 1995; Ghils, 1992. Simmons 1998). As the new representative of "global civil society," NGOs also were and 

continue to be presented in the much of the political science literature as society rising to challenge the state in some way. 

Whether as agents of influence in policy change (Wapner 1995; Bichsel 1996; Princen and Finger 1994; Simmons 1998), 

as self-appointed monitors of state accountability (Clark 1995; Bichsel 1996; Weiss and Gordenker 1996), or as specialized 

experts that go where states have failed (Ghils 1992; Raustiala 1997; Simmons 1998), NGOs have been consistently 

painted as autonomous societal actors. 

Often lost in this new celebration of CSOs, however, is the role of the state – both domestically and internationally and 

globalization – in promoting these new developments. Partly because of its emphasis of CSOs as societal actors that 

challenge the state, the new literature has unintentionally missed the ways in which the state (and international 

governmental organizations) and globalization have actively supported the CSO "boom" of the 1990s. Rising state and 

international organization funding for CSOs over the past decades is one way, for example, in which the rise and influence 

of CSOs in Africa has been a state-supported phenomenon and a globalization process. 

One of the consequences of globalization process has been the rising numbers and influence of international and local 

Civil Society organizations in many countries of the world including Africa. They are emerging as increasingly influential 

players in international and national decision-making. Civil Society play an important role in the acceptance by 

governments that the rule of law, governmental accountability, peace and security are key to the social, economic and 

political development of Africa. African acknowledgement of global transformation was in part due to the activities of civil 

society and other critical stakeholders such as political parties and governments. An interesting question is whether the 

blossoming in numbers and increasing visibility and influence of international and national civil society organizations is 

merely coincident with globalization, or whether there is something about the processes of globalization that spawns these 

enterprises? Secondly, what impact has these organizations on the quality of governance in African countries? The purpose 

of the paper is to explore this rising trend and increasing influence of civil society organizations in Africa and the factors 

that enhance this phenomenon within the context of globalization. 


Conceptual Issues 

Globalization 

Covering a wide range of distinct political, economic, and cultural trends, the term “globalization” has quickly become one 

of the most fashionable buzzwords of contemporary political and academic debate. In popular discourse, globalization 

often functions as little more than a synonym for one or more of the following phenomena: the pursuit of classical liberal 

(or “free market”) policies in the world economy (“economic liberalization”), the growing dominance of western (or even 

American) forms of political, economic, and cultural life (“westernization” or “Americanization”), the proliferation of new 

information technologies (the “Internet Revolution”), as well as the notion that humanity stands at the threshold of realizing 

one single unified community in which major sources of social conflict have vanished (“global integration”). Fortunately, 

recent social theory has formulated a more precise concept of globalization than those typically offered by pundits. 

Although sharp differences continue to separate participants in the ongoing debate, most contemporary social theorists 

endorse the view that globalization refers to fundamental changes in the spatial and temporal contours of social existence, 

according to which the significance of space or territory undergoes shifts in the face of a no less dramatic acceleration in 

the temporal structure of crucial forms of human activity. Geographical distance is typically measured in time. As the time 

necessary to connect distinct geographical locations is reduced, distance or space undergoes compression or “annihilation.” 

The human experience of space is intimately connected to the temporal structure of those activities by means of which we 

experience space. Changes in the temporality of human activity inevitably generate altered experiences of space or 

territory. Theorists of globalization disagree about the precise sources of recent shifts in the spatial and temporal contours 

of human life. Nonetheless, they generally agree that alterations in humanity's experiences of space and time are working to 

undermine the importance of local and even national boundaries in many arenas of human endeavour. Since globalization 

contains far-reaching implications for virtually every facet of human life, it necessarily suggests the need to rethink key 

questions of normative political theory. 

Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of 

different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process 

has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human 

physical well-being in societies around the world. But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have 

spurred increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has 

entered a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has 

increased by 20 times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled, from $468 billion to $827 

billion (Globalization101). 

This current wave of globalization has been driven by policies that have opened economies domestically and 

internationally. In the years since the Second World War, and especially during the past two decades, many governments 

have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and creating myriad new 

opportunities for international trade and investment. Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to 

commerce and have established international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and investment. Taking 

advantage of new opportunities in foreign markets, corporations have built foreign factories and established production and 

marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalization, therefore, is an international industrial 

and financial business structure and the emergence of CSOs to deal with its attendant consequences. 

Technology has been the other principal driver of globalization. Advances in information technology, in 

particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. Information technologies have given all sorts of individual 

economic actors-consumers, investors, businesses-valuable new tools for identifying and pursuing economic opportunities, 

including faster and more informed analyses of economic trends around the world, easy transfers of assets, and 

collaboration with far-flung partners. So also is this information technology available to CSOs. Globalization is deeply 

controversial, however. Proponents of globalization argue that it allows poor countries and their citizens to develop 

economically and raise their standards of living, while opponents of globalization claim that the creation of an unfettered 

international free market has benefited multinational corporations in the Western world at the expense of local enterprises, 

local cultures, and common people. Resistance to globalization has therefore taken shape both at a popular (CSO) and at a 

governmental level as people and governments try to manage the flow of capital, labour, goods, and ideas that constitute 

the current wave of globalization. 

Globalization can also be considered as a term which has been used to describe and explain many worldwide 

phenomena. It has been given positive connotations by those who advocate greater economic integration across national 

borders, while it has been fiercely criticized by those who perceive it as a threat to social cohesion and as the advancement 

of unfettered capitalism, which undermines the Welfare State. To be sure, globalization is a complex phenomenon, which 

encompasses a great variety of tendencies and trends in the economic, social and cultural spheres. It has a multidimensional 

character and thus does not lend itself to a unique definition. For purposes of simplicity, it may be described as increasing 

and intensified flows between countries of goods, services, capital, ideas, information and people, which produce cross 

border integration of a number of economic, social and cultural activities. It creates both opportunities and costs and for 

this reason it should not be demonized or sanctified, nor should it be used as a scapegoat for the major problems that are 

affecting the world today. 

There are four main driving forces behind increased interdependence: (a) trade and investment liberalization; (b) 

technological innovation and the reduction of communication costs; (c) entrepreneurship; and (d) global social networks. 


Although many believe that technological innovation and entrepreneurship are the main forces behind globalization, these 

factors cannot alone explain the process of enhanced economic integration. National governments have played a pivotal 

role in allowing greater interdependence and economic integration of specific activities through the elaboration and 

adoption of market oriented policies and regulations, at both the international and local levels. Increased global integration 

in a number of economic areas began to intensify in the 1980s when many governments supported economic liberalization. 

The latter has included “financial sector deregulation, the removal of controls over foreign exchange and enhanced freedom 

of trade. Financial deregulation has resulted in the progressive elimination of capital controls, the removal of controls over 

interest rates, and the lifting of traditional barriers to entry into banking and other financial services" (Cable, 1995). 

What are Civil Society Organizations? 

Perspectives on civil society are varied, culturally bound and sometimes controversial. Scholte (2007), views civil 

society as being “a political space, or arena, where voluntary associations seek to shape the rules that govern one or more 

aspect of social life”. Under Scholte’s definition civil society does not cover voluntary associations like households, 

recreational clubs or service NGOs when such groups do not strive to affect ‘the acquisition, distribution and exercise of 

social power’. Hence it covers some rather than all nonofficial and noncommercial activities. He notes that civil society 

associations bring together those who share concerns about a particular policy area or problem. These groups vary 

enormously in scale, organizational form, geographical scope, resources, constituencies and tactics to name but a few 

characteristics. What unites them is that they are voluntary, that is they do not pursue financial profit or public office, and 

they are actively ‘political’, they aim to affect the way that power is distributed and exercised in society at various levels, 

including global decision-making fora. At the same time national and international civil society must not be seen as a 

purely benign force or moral category with various international organisations, states or markets being viewed as malign 

forces. International civil society groups can come together to promote negative agendas from racism to terrorism. Nor can 

civil society organisations be neatly separated from the market or the State. 

Civil society may also be regarded as a sphere of social interaction between the household (family) and the state 

which is manifested in the norms of community cooperative, structures of voluntary association and networks of public 

communication. Norms are values of trust, reciprocity, tolerance and inclusion, which are critical to cooperation and 

community problem solving. Structure of association refers to the full range of informal and formal organizations through 

which citizens pursue common interests. Civil society is composed of autonomous associations which develop a dense, 

diverse and pluralistic network. As it develops, civil society will consist of a range of local groups, specialized 

organizations and linkages between them to amplify the corrective voices of civil society as a partner in governance and the 

market. Civil society actors include charitable societies, churches, neighbourhood organizations, social clubs, civil rights 

lobbies, parent-teachers associations, unions, trade associations, and a wide range of other agencies. 

We are primarily concerned here with civil society agencies, often referred to as nongovernmental organizations 

(NGOs), that focus on issues like poverty alleviation, human rights, environmental degradation, and other issues of social, 

economic and political development (we will use CSOs and NGOs interchangeably in this paper). These NGOs carry out a 

range of activities, such as providing services to poor populations, building local capacity for self-help, analyzing and 

advocating policies that support disadvantaged constituencies, or fostering research and information-sharing. Some NGOs 

focus on serving their members, and others focus on serving clients outside the organization. Some operate domestically, 

working on projects whose impacts may be felt from the village level to national policy to international arenas. While civil 

society organizations are not a new phenomenon, there has been a dramatic increase in their importance in many arenas 

over the last two decades. This change has been characterized by at least one researcher as a “global associational 

revolution” that may be as important to the end of the 21st century as the rise of the nation state was a century earlier. By 

the count of the Yearbook of International Organizations, the number of international NGOs has grown more than fourfold 

in the last decade (Boli and Thomas, 1999). 

In part the rise of civil society organizations and, in particular, development-oriented NGOs is related to the 

availability of resources to support them. The growing interest of foundations, international donors, and even governments 

in supporting nongovernmental agencies has made funds available and created incentives for entrepreneurs to create NGOs 

that can make use of those funds. The result in many countries has been a proliferation of NGOs that are organized more to 

take advantage of those resources than to accomplish their nominally value-based missions. Not all civil society actors are 

equally serious about achieving social missions or public purposes, nor do all subscribe to the values of tolerance, 

reciprocity, and nonviolence that some argue are central to the definition of civil society. As it has grown, civil society has 

spawned a great diversity that is now pushing in a multitude of different, even competing, directions. Civil society actors 

can easily become confused about their legitimacy and accountability; they can focus on single issues to the exclusion of 

understanding the larger context; and they may be better at blocking than implementing large-scale initiatives. But they are 

increasingly influential actors in many circumstances. CSOs are formed by people who have common needs, interests and 

values like tolerance, inclusion, cooperation and equality; and development through a fundamentally endogenous and 

autonomous process which cannot easily be controlled from outside. 

Civil society has been widely recognized as an essential 'third' sector. Its strength can have a positive influence on 

the state and the market. Civil society is therefore seen as an increasingly important agent for promoting good governance 

like transparency, effectiveness, openness, responsiveness and accountability. Civil society can further and improve good 

governance, first, by policy analysis and advocacy; second, by regulation and monitoring of state performance and the 

action and behaviour of public officials; third, by building social capital and enabling citizens to identify and articulate their 


values, beliefs, civic norms and democratic practices; fourth, by mobilizing particular constituencies, particularly the 

vulnerable and marginalized sections of masses, to participate more fully in politics and public affairs; and fifth, by 

development work to improve the wellbeing of their own and other communities. Over the years there have been arguments 

in favour of CSOs. The dominant view is that CSOs are perceived as more flexible, participatory and responsive to local 

needs of the poor. There is the belief that State policies are typically urban based, delivering to politically favoured areas 

(Lehmann, 1990). CSOs can potentially foster and support grassroots organizations to become more numerous, sizable, 

resourceful, and self-reliant. Also, grassroots contacts enable CSOs to provide critical information on potential crisis and 

thus contribute to early warning systems. 

There is the cost effective argument. Typically, CSOs require less financial inputs than government agencies and 

therefore are more cost effective, an attribute that is important in financially constrained third world countries. CSOs can be 

more resourceful and innovative as they involve local communities in the identification and resolution of development 

problems which are more cost effective, more sustainable, and more compatible with community values and norms. Over 

and above these direct development roles, CSOs also have a very important advocacy role to play in promoting effective 

governance. CSOs can potentially contribute to local economic development and respond to the growing challenge of 

poverty in a number of ways. CSOs can improve the local business investment climate; encourage new enterprises and 

livelihood programmes. Very committed CSOs can also deliver social services, provide training and capacity building 

programmes; and contribute to relief and rehabilitation in times of disaster. 

CSOs and Nexus with Good Governance 

Perhaps, the most conspicuous role played by CSOs is in the area of articulating citizens' interests and demands, 

an important function performed by Civil Society Organizations. The importance of CSOs can better be appreciated when 

state policies and the programmes of government agencies do not take account sufficiently of needs of the poor or of some 

other vulnerable sections. CSOs bridge the gap by way of representing the interest of the people. CSOs also engage in 

defending the rights of the down-trodden especially groups that suffer extreme social exclusion. CSOs that are virile are 

capable of articulating the interests and demands of the vulnerable: a key function served by almost every civil society 

organization. While political scientists have traditionally ascribed the function of interest articulation to political parties, 

such parties are not always strong in developing countries, and even where they are strong, they do not always represent the 

interests of the poor. CSOs play the critical role in mobilizing social capital. Social capital is a resource that any community 

possesses to some level and it can help in resolving multiple problems of a collective nature. Like any other resource, 

however, social capital also needs to be activated and it needs to be combined with other kinds of resources, including 

physical, financial and human resources. CSOs can improve the accountability profile of governments. 

Globalization and National NGOs 

Contact with the larger world may also exacerbate both the fact and the awareness of economic discrepancies. 

Economic stabilization can provide more goods at decreased costs to individuals with resources, and it may offer new jobs 

as corporations relocate to use cheap labour. But it may also result in layoffs of government employees in response to 

structural adjustment programmes, marginalize groups dependent on declining exports, or demonstrate through business 

failures how difficult it is to meet the standards of global competition. When the “poor get poorer,” the clients to be served 

or mobilized by NGOs expand in number and in needs. Globalization forces at the national level can reduce state controls 

over the economy, increase pressure for democratic accountability, or raise questions about state sovereignty. These 

developments can create political space for civil society organizations as alternative sources of services once provided by 

the state, as watchdogs over and advocates for government policy formulation and implementation, as policy entrepreneurs 

or implementers with state partners, and as social innovators to guide improved services. When globalization expands 

political space, civil society actors may emerge to respond to the concerns of impoverished and marginalized groups that 

would remain voiceless under prior regimes. 

It is not immediately obvious that political, cultural and economic facets of globalization will necessarily co-vary 

or reinforce one another. Globalization will not simultaneously highlight the importance of core cultural values, or open 

more political space for civil society initiatives, or create economic consequences that exacerbate poverty. Governments 

may open doors to international markets while trying to control the political implications of globalization, or vice versa. 

They may close their boundaries to cultural impacts as well. In general, however, the more open the country is to 

globalization, the more we would expect civil society organizations to become important actors in the country’s 

development. This is a function of three factors: (1) globalization has impacts on consciousness—both liberating and 

counter-revolutionary—that are likely to be expressed via civil society organizations; (2) globalization is likely to place 

enhanced emphasis on the political ideologies of individualism, freedom, and equal rights for which NGOs are both a 

product and an exemplar; and (3) globalization invites in international actors (INGOs, international agencies) that actively 

promote and strengthen the emergence of national civil societies. 

The rapid pace of globalization has seen the space for corporate interests expanded at United Nations and other 

multilateral bodies yet the influence of nation-states in some instances remains rather limited. Partly in response to this the 

1990s witnessed a nineteen per cent growth in international NGOs (to over 37,000 such bodies). In many developed 

countries, political party affiliations are falling while membership of special interest and campaign groups has been steadily 

rising (UNDP 2002). 


Globalization and International NGOs and NGO Alliances 

The increases of information flow, human travel, and trade associated with globalization have on the whole made 

the formation and operation of international NGOs and NGO alliances easier and less expensive. The costs of international 

organization and coordination have been drastically reduced by the shrinking globe (Boli and Thomas, 1999). Globalization 

has also contributed to the rise of new problems to which international NGOs and alliances may be particularly relevant. 

The rise of transnational environmental problems, such as global warming, ozone depletion, and cross-border pollution, has 

sometimes severely taxed the capacities of inter-state institutional arrangements (Young, 1997). 

International NGOs and alliances have emerged to respond to problems associated with globalization in several 

arenas, delivering services and responding to disasters, analyzing and advocating policy alternatives, and promoting 

learning which has differently affected delivering services, advocating policy changes, or promoting learning and problemsolving 

about new issues. International NGOs and NGO alliances have been responding to disasters and delivering 

services for many years, and this is still the most common international NGO role. Most of these organizations originated 

in industrialized countries; many have branch organizations and large projects in developing countries. A conference of the 

eleven biggest international relief and development organizations (CARE, OXFAM) identified a number of challenges 

associated with globalization processes (Lindenberg and Dobel, 1998). 

The end of the cold war, for example, has increased the frequency of intrastate conflicts and internal refugee 

flows, and public cutbacks have reduced the ability of state agencies to deal with conflicts and humanitarian crises. 

Globalization has increased poverty in many regions, and declining development assistance funds have increased 

competition among international NGOs for resources. An important consequence of these trends is significantly increased 

demand for assistance, and seriously reduced capability to meet that demand. In short, for international service delivery 

NGOs, globalization is escalating needs for service while resources are declining. Many of these agencies also feel pressure 

from private and public donors to become more “business-like” and “results-oriented” in response to widespread emphasis 

on market-based approaches to management (Edwards, 1999). In addition, the rise of civil society organizations in many 

developing countries is pressing international service NGOs to turn over local operations to Southern NGOs. This change 

threatens to redefine their primary tasks and render their staffs largely obsolete. The effects of globalization are thus 

pressing many international service NGOs to undertake fundamental changes. 

Globalization processes are clearly having an impact on civil societies and NGOs at both national and 

international levels. Do those impacts have consequences for international governance and policy making? Recent research 

suggests that international NGOs or NGO alliances are playing active roles in the formulation and implementation of many 

international decisions and policies (Fox and Brown, 1998). 

They have shaped international events level in at least the following ways: 

(1) Identifying problems and globalization consequences that might otherwise be ignored, 

(2) Articulating new values and norms to guide and constrain international practice, 

(3) Building transnational alliances that advocate for otherwise ignored alternatives, 

(4) Altering international institutions to respond to unmet needs, 

(5) Disseminating social innovations that have international applications, 

(6) Negotiating resolutions to transnational conflicts and disagreements, and 

(7) Mobilizing resources and acting directly on important public problems. 

Civil society actors are often the first to use global information networks to identify international problems that are not 

raised or resolved by existing international arrangements. International NGOs involved in service or advocacy activities are 

often in close touch with otherwise voiceless populations, and so recognize problems that remain invisible to other actors. 

Since their financial support depends on public visibility of problems, they also develop linkages to media to raise public 

awareness of critical problems. Transparency International, for example, raises awareness about problems of corruption 

around the world and its impact on development. The Worldwatch Institute publishes a “State of the World” report that 

helps global audiences to recognize threats to the global environment. Raising public awareness of problems is often a 

prerequisite to action, and international NGO initiatives can create global discourse on emerging problems. 

In Africa, most civil society organizations work on the principle of Responsibility to Protect norm (RtoP) with the five 

tenets upon which it is based as below: 

(i) Civil society as a custodian for civility- given that CSO’s have a duty to engage in a reform agenda and 

establishing facts to facilitate intervention. 

(ii) Prevention as early warning - observing and alerting relevant institutions in the prevention of conflict depends 

on the penetration civil society has had in the given community. 

(iii) RtoP as a subsisting principle - noting that civil society is already engaged in advocacy with governments in 

conflict prevention and intervention. 

(iv) Cultural backing of RtoP- realizing that civil society provides conducive environments for intervention in 

humanitarian crises. 

(v) Creation of awareness and consensus on other social change issues - acknowledging that CSOs must engage 

the concept and reach consensus on its meaning and application. 


(vi) Civil society as already engaged in promulgating the RtoP norm – given that through the monitoring of 

government activities and determining the need for soft and hard intervention CSOs are engaging the norm. 

The Distinctiveness of Africa 

How do the histories of African countries shape the orientations and capacities of civil society today? At first 

glance, African societies seem to possess few intermediary organizations that occupy the political space between household 

and state. Yet, on closer examination, one can discern cultural and religious institutions that express collective identities-- 

such as clan, age-set, age-grade, and brotherhood - to which rural folk continue to grant allegiance. In addition, Africans 

constructed fresh forms of voluntary association in response to the disruptive effects of urbanization and the market 

economy during the colonial period. Sometimes these were updated expressions of long-standing informal solidarities (like 

ethnic welfare associations, prophetic movements, and agricultural work parties); in other cases they gave expression to 

new occupational and class identities (peasant movements, labour unions, teachers' associations). These associations 

became explicitly political, first by protesting the indignities of colonial rule and, later, by forming the building blocks of 

nationalist political parties. 

After independence, African ruling elites gave top priority to state sovereignty and national security and sought to 

bring about "departicipation". Although they invested heavily in the construction of one-party and military regimes, elites 

were not always successful at discouraging autonomous organizations from taking root in civil society. Some leaders 

nipped them in the bud by incorporating them under the wing of governing parties; others banned them entirely. But, in 

many places, voluntary associations proved too strong to be subordinated and survived as an alternative institutional 

framework to officialdom. 

Associational life took different forms in different countries: Christian Churches in Kenya, Nigeria and Burundi, 

Islamic brotherhoods in Senegal and Sudan, lawyers' and journalists' associations in Ghana and Nigeria, farmer 

organizations in Zimbabwe and Kenya, and mineworkers' unions in Zambia and South Africa. But everywhere that 

independent associations survived they provided ordinary Africans with an outlet for the urge to combine in pursuit of 

shared goals. 

The poor performance of planned economies in Africa gave an added impetus to autonomous activity beyond the 

purview of the state. As a means of evading the costs and inefficiencies of economic regulation, producers and traders 

chose increasingly to participate directly in "that part of the economy variously referred to as the second, parallel, informal, 

underground, black or irregular economy" (MacGaffey, 1987; Kasfir, 1984). In scope and formality, trading networks 

ranged from ad hoc village markets to organized smuggling rings spanning international frontiers. By 1980, the size of the 

second economy in several African countries (e.g. Ghana, Uganda, and Zaire) was estimated to approach, if not exceed, the 

size of the official gross domestic product. 

The fact that African citizens autonomously undertook a wide gamut of organized economic activity had profound 

political implications. As trade shifted to illegal or informal networks, taxes became difficult to collect and public revenues 

diminished, especially in valuable foreign exchange, thereby exacerbating the fiscal crisis of the state. Financially deprived 

governments had little option but to loosen restrictions on autonomous networks and organizations by permitting them to 

perform some of the functions previously monopolized by government. By the end of the 1980s, independent associations 

and alternative economic networks together provided a recruiting ground for a popular upsurge against post-colonial 

autocracy (Chazan 1982; Harbeson et.al. 1994). This vibrant network was to be strengthened by globalization. 

Civil Society Organizations and Democratization in Africa 

An area that has contributed to the influence and rise in number of CSOs in Africa is the democratization process. 

There are many scholars who investigated the roles and activities of the civil society in the development of democracy in 

Africa: (Bergdall; Nicola, 2004; Orvis, 2001; Robinson & Friedman 2005; Appiagyei-Atua) etc. In addition, many other 

scholars have examined the civil society by taking specific countries as case study: Egypt (Bush, 2004), Ethiopia 

(Dessalegn, 2002; Kassahun, 2002), Cameroon (Olivier, 2003), Mozambique (Costy, 1996), Ghana (Appiagyei-Atua; 

Hearn, 1999), South Africa (Hearn, 1999; Ndangwa; Mbongo 2000) etc. 

According to M’boge and Doe (2004), in colonial times civil society organizations were tribal associations that 

strived to advance the economic well-being of their members. These early associations contributed for the birth of the 

African middle class in the colonies that led the colonized people in their struggle for independence. In the early years of 

independence, in many African countries, the distinction between the civil society (trade unions, students’ unions, religious 

associations, bar associations etc) and the state became blurred. Gradually, the new African rulers who came from the 

middle class started to distance themselves from the civil society and started to rule their “subjects” in the same way as the 

colonial White rulers used to rule their colonies (M’boge & Doe, 2004). In other words, as Thomson (2006) revealed, as 

soon as taking political power, the nationalist leaders who emerged from the civil society favoured a one-party government 

and in the process, transformed themselves from the champions of the civil society to authoritarian rulers. In Kenya and 

Nigeria, for instance, civil society organizations (CSOs) had played a very important role in the overthrow of the colonial 

regimes. In Uganda, the civil society was very active during colonialism, but after independence it was persecuted by Idi 

Amin (1971-79) and Milton Obote (1962- 1966, 1996-71, 1980-85). Under Yoweri Museveni (1986- Present), the civil 

society rapidly re-emerged in the form of NGOs (M’boge & Doe, 2004). 

In the 1980s, African civil society organizations led social movements against communist and military dictatorial 

regimes that dominated Africa for more than three decades. In Angola, for example, the civil society’s contribution for the 


end of the civil war was very important. Particularly, the churches such as the Angola’s Roman Catholic Church, the 

Angolan Episcopal Church, the Protestant Council of Christian Churches, and the Angolan Evangelical Alliance made a 

huge effort in the search for peace in the war-torn nation (Hussein & Mathews, 2012). The churches’ appeal for peace was 

instrumental in making peace between the two rival parties, the MPLA (Movemento Popular de Libertacao de Angola) and 

the UNITA (Uniäo Nacional Para a Independencia Total d’Angola (Hussein & Mathews, 2012). Another local NGO, 

ADRA (Action for Rural Development and the Environment) also played a constructive role in raising the peoples’ 

political awareness in the country (Hussein & Mathews, 2012). In Mozambique, according to Costy (1996), NGOs have 

played a very important role in rehabilitating the country’s infrastructure, health, education, water sanitation, agricultural 

extension and de-mining. In South Africa, the civic society comprising women’s groups, students and youth movements 

had actively participated in the struggle against the apartheid rule (Mbongo, 2000). 

According to Ezeoba (2006), in countries where government’s power and activity are severally curtailed due to 

fluid political situations, natural disasters, ethnic strives etc. NGOs/CSOs can play a major role. This explains why, in the 

poor countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, NGOs and CSOs are prevalent. Therefore, in countries like Congo, Ivory Coast, 

Somalia, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Rwanda etc., NGOs have indispensable importance (Ezeoba, 2006). According to Ezeoha 

(2006), NGOs are important in Africa to fill the gap created by the incapacity of government structure to render full 

services to the citizens. Second, the oppression and marginalization of certain segments of the society need NGOs/CSOs 

intervention. Finally, emergency situations in Africa such as famine, war, the outbreak of disease etc., need the services of 

NGOs’ relief programmes. In the movement for democratization that engulfed Africa in the 1990s, the civil society had 

played a considerable role. In Zambia, for instance, the civil society, particularly the labour union had led the movement for 

multi-party democracy. In 1991, it was the labour union leader, Fredericke Chiluba, who took political power by replacing 

Kenneth Kaunda. “Yet, once in power”, says Thomson (2006), “Chiluba used his position within the state to hinder 

political opposition and obstructed the reproduction of civil society.” In Nigeria, the Civil Liberties Organizations (CLO), 

a coalition of Civil Society Organizations have over the decades fought for the end of military rule in the country as they 

continue to fight for the sustenance of democracy. In the 1990s, the Western governments’ interest in funding the civil 

society in Africa highly increased, and to a certain extent, this assistance had bolstered the continent’s effort for 

democratization (Hearn, 1999). This no doubt is a consequence of the globalization process. 

At present, the civil society groups that are mostly selected for the Western democracy aid are advocacy groups 

such as human rights organizations and election monitoring organizations (Carothers, 1997; Hearn 1999). According to 

Robinson and Friedman (2005) the most favoured recipient civil society organizations by the donor countries are the ones 

that are involved in activities “designed to increase government accountability, broaden participation in public life and 

influence state policy”. Dessalegn (2002) argues that the donor community encourages and strengthens voluntary 

institutions “in the belief that the road to democracy in Africa lies not in revolutions and class struggle but in the active 

involvement of civil society in the political process”. Though, in principle, as Chazan (1992:282) notes, “The nurturing of 

civil society is widely perceived as the most effective means of controlling repeated abuses of state power, holding rulers 

accountable to their citizens and establishing the foundations of durable democracy”, the current picture in many African 

countries is not that much encouraging. 

Does the emergence of opposition to authoritarian rule in African countries signify the presence of strong civil 

societies? Certainly, civic actors in Africa derived new-found energy from the climate of political liberalization in the 

1990s. In response to popular protest and donor pressure, African political leaders created political openings -- for example, 

by releasing political prisoners and abandoning one-party constitutions -- that improved the legal environment for free 

expression and association. There is considerable evidence that previously closed political space was occupied by genuine 

manifestations of civil society, namely by structures of associations, networks of communication, and norms of civic 

engagement. Let us briefly examine some of these elements empirically. 

Associational Life: A couple of types of political association can be mentioned to illustrate the current explosion 

of associational life in Africa: civic organizations and national conferences. During the 1980s, a few courageous citizens (in 

Nigeria, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia and Zimbabwe among other places) established non-governmental organizations to 

monitor governmental human rights performance. By 1991, local chapters of Amnesty International operated openly in 

Benin, Sierra Leone and Togo, joining those already active in Zambia and Mauritius (although members in Sudan were 

forced to restrict their activities). 

Some such groups expanded their mandate to include election monitoring, for instance through the GERDESS 

network of intellectuals and professionals in francophone West Africa and through umbrella groups of churches in East 

Africa. By insisting on non-partisan oversight of government performance and electoral contests, civic associations have 

helped to keep governments honest to some extent and to educate people about citizenship. Africa's greatest original 

contribution to civil society is the national conference, a form of political association that has been convened in more than 

half a dozen francophone states. 

A national conference is an assembly of national elites, between several hundred and several thousand strong, 

which includes representatives of all major segments of society and is often chaired by a Church leader. The conference 

meets to address a country's political crisis and to attempt to formulate constitutional rules for political transition. A critical 

point comes when the conferees demand sovereignty to revise the constitution or, as in Benin and Congo, to conduct a 

public impeachment in which the sitting president is accused of corrupt practices and stripped of executive powers. 

Public Communication: African journalists have been a driving force within civil society. Their new publications 

have thrust political opinions, previously censored as "dissident" or "subversive," into mainstream discourse. Even within 


government-owned media, journalists and consumers have sought the expression of alternative viewpoints as a 

counterweight to discredited official propaganda. For example, in an interesting case of liberalization without 

democratization, Tanzania saw the introduction of almost half a dozen lively weekly newsmagazines in Swahili and 

English, all bemoaning the government's slow march to multiparty elections in 1995. 

The international spread of new communications technologies, notably fax machines and satellite TV as a 

consequence of globalization, has helped promote public political discourse. Authoritarian governments find difficulty in 

controlling these decentralized technologies and in preventing the dissemination of international news, information, and 

political values within their borders. Especially in volatile urban areas, African citizens obtain information from Cable 

News Network, Radio France International, and the British Broadcasting Corporation, sources which they say they trust 

more than government-owned media outlets. The fledgling opposition movement in Malawi was organized partly through 

fax messages from exiled leaders in Zambia. And, in West Africa, the proceedings of the national conference in Benin were 

broadcast into neighbouring Togo and Niger, perhaps emboldening pro-democracy forces there. The Arab Spring that 

swept through Algeria, Egypt and Libya had civil society backing and collaboration. 

Civic Norms: Evidence for the emergence of a consensus around norms of democratic procedure and good 

governance is less tangible and more difficult to locate. One can point to the emergence of public debate about human 

rights, a subject that was almost nonexistent a decade ago but which Africans now feel compelled to talk about. Anticorruption 

is another effective message for political mobilization, more effective probably than appeals to multiparty 

democracy. And, where free and fair elections have been conducted, incumbent leaders have usually been ousted, usually 

by a clear majority vote. 

What, then, do Africans think and feel about democracy and their own roles as citizens? Some preliminary 

indications are available from focus groups and sample surveys conducted in conjunction with USAID's democratic 

governance project in Zambia. At least in this one country, a solid majority of citizens claim interest in politics, especially 

community affairs. They belong to voluntary associations; the same scenario obtains in Nigeria, Kenya, Ghana and several 

other African countries. And, while the evidence is mixed, many survey respondents express a set of proto-democratic 

political values including moderate to high levels of interpersonal trust (including towards members of "other" ethnic 

groups) and attitudes of political tolerance that are supportive of basic human rights. At the same time, respondents display 

a predilection to defer to entrenched authority and a deep streak of cynicism about official corruption (Bratton and 

Kattundu, 1993). Much more comparative research is required in other African countries (and between men and women, 

urban and rural dwellers) before we can know whether these political attitudes, which on balance are supportive of a sense 

of civic community, are widespread. The globalization process is gradually changing all these perceptions. 

Challenges faced by CSOs in Africa in the Globalized era 

On the basis of available evidence, a prima facie case can be made that institutions of civil society exist in many 

African countries (even if in some, only in fledgling form). By way of conclusion, let us assess the strengths and 

weaknesses of these institutions in the light of the distinctiveness of African settings. On the positive side, there are 

elements of political culture in African countries that are conducive to building strong civic institutions. Because many 

Africans still draw their identities from collective social units like family, clan and ethnic group, there is a firm basis of 

group solidarity upon which to construct primary associations (Ekeh, 1995; Agbaje, 1992). Moreover, to the extent that 

many Africans still emphasize norms of reciprocity in social relations, they possess a reservoir of social capital which can 

be invested in collective action (Hyden, 1992; Landell-Mills, 1992). The expansion of associational life in African 

countries has also cut across class lines, being equally if not more prevalent among economically marginal groups as 

among emergent middle classes. 

Politically mobilized groups share a widespread perception that incumbent leaders have neglected their political 

obligations to provide for the welfare of their followers. This perception has fueled a resurgence of demands for political 

accountability which is helpful in the construction, not just of civil society, but also of democracy. And, however 

tentatively, organized groups (usually based on occupational affiliations) have begun to project their preferences into the 

policy process. The best examples can be found in labour union representations over state regulation of collective 

bargaining and farmer union representations over land reform and agricultural pricing (Raker, 1992; Skalnes, 1993). 

On the other hand, other aspects of the economic and cultural environments of African countries appear to be 

infertile ground for nurturing civil society. As is well known, most African countries are becalmed in a long-term economic 

crisis characterized by shrinking output per capita, escalating indebtedness, and falling living standards. People who are 

preoccupied with meeting daily needs of economic survival and family welfare have neither the time nor inclination to 

devote themselves to civic and community affairs. Nor are financially strapped governments able to sustain the investments 

in education and adult literacy necessary to cultivate a web of public communication among well-informed citizens. 

Societies riven by wide and growing gaps between rich and poor are structurally ill-suited to the cultivation of norms of 

reciprocity and participation on which civil society is based. Indeed, the global association between stable democracy and 

advanced industrial economy suggests that democratic institutions (including civic institutions) are difficult to construct 

under conditions of mass economic privation and great social inequalities. This is the type of situation globalization seeks 

to mitigate. 

Reflecting the poverty of their clienteles, civic organizations in Africa suffer gross shortages of material resources: 

they own few organizational assets, operate with tiny budgets, and are always understaffed. Few precedents exist for 

mobilizing financial contributions through corporate sponsorship, user fees, or the payment of dues. Instead, civic 


organizations have usually turned to foreign donors to cover the costs of not only capital projects but also core operating 

expenses. Over-dependence on foreign funding has several pathological consequences for the development of voluntary 

organizations and, hence, for civil society. For example, the direction of accountability is reversed within the organization, 

with leaders reporting to donors rather than to members or clients. Moreover, reliance on funds from abroad can be a 

political liability, reducing the credibility of claims by associations to be authentic advocates for a domestic political 

constituency and enabling host governments to dismiss them as agents of foreign interests. 

Beyond economic constraints, a second consideration is culture. African countries also possess political cultures 

embedded under authoritarian regimes in the precolonial, colonial and post-colonial periods. At the risk of 

oversimplification, these cultures can be described as neopatrimonial. Neopatrimonialism originates in the African 

extended family, with the dominance of older males and strong interpersonal ties. It has been reinvented in the form of the 

"big men" and personal political relationships that pervade post-colonial African political institutions, including 

government bureaucracies. At the elite level, neopatrimonialism is manifest in the over centralization of power ("one-man 

management"), arbitrary decision making ("the rule of men"), and the use of public resources for personal advancement 

deference to political superiors ("respect"), in conformity in group behaviour ("government by consensus"), and in 

economic dependence upon wealthy individuals ("patronage"). 

As much as contesting this illiberal political culture, civic organizations in Africa tend to embody and to reproduce 

it. They are usually led by personalistic leaders who use the distribution of material rewards and inducements to build 

support around an ethnic, linguistic, or regional core. Once they have secured office, such leaders typically resort to 

arbitrary decision-making and resist initiatives for democratic control or leadership turnover within the organization. To the 

extent that such leaders encourage political linkages among followers, they promote "vertical" relationships between patron 

and subordinates rather than "horizontal" relationships among political equals. Needless to say, it is the latter sort of 

association that is most conducive to civic community (Putnam, 1993). This is not to say that the ambitions of patrons 

always go unchallenged. The members of voluntary associations have sometimes been able to eject corrupt or unresponsive 

leaders or to break away to form splinter organizations. However, the establishment of internal democracy within civic 

organizations is an important prerequisite to their effectiveness as a force for political influence and accountability in 

relation to the state. 

In spite of the above, the influence of Civil Society Organizations in Africa is growing stronger and stronger. This 

has led to the setting up of the West African Civil Society Institute (WACSI) which is positioning itself to become a civil 

society knowledge sharing hub and a credible centre of learning with international recognition and accreditation. We 

envision a veritable civil society resource centre that caters for the capacity development needs of civil society 

organizations in West Africa. In East Africa, the East African Civil Society Organizations’ Forum is an autonomous 

umbrella body of all Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and CSOs in East Africa, with the primary objective of 

building a critical mass of knowledgeable and empowered civil society in the region, in order to foster their confidence and 

capacity in articulating grassroots needs and interests to the EAC (East African Community), and its various organs, 

institutions and agencies. To this end, EACSOF galvanizes the initiatives of CSOs and partners with the EAC for the 

improvement of humanity, social security, regional integration, as well as economic and social development in East Africa. 

EACSOF also seeks to facilitate the building of associational networks, promotion of solidarity, trust, and reciprocity 

among CSOs both nationally and at regional level aiming to empower civil society to exploit the public space in a liberal 

democracy, to which EACSOF aspires, where the sovereign is the people. Similar CSO coalitions exist in Southern Africa. 

Conclusion 

We have argued that civil society organizations are increasingly important actors in international arenas as well as 

in many African nations. Their emergence in the last few decades is associated with and in part caused by the forces of 

globalization, which have contributed to the personal, economic, political and social dynamics that give rise to stronger 

civil societies. The rise of civil society organizations has been uneven across countries, though openness to globalization 

seems in general to be associated with growing strength and diversity of NGOs and other civil society organizations. The 

growth of international NGOs and NGO alliances has also been shaped by globalization, with impacts particularly visible 

NGOs for providing of services and disaster relief, policy analysis and advocacy, and social learning and problem-solving. 

At the international level NGOs and NGO alliances identified emerging problems, articulated new values and norms, 

created or reformed institutional arrangements, fostered innovations in international practice, and helped resolve conflicts 

and managed differences. These contributions to international governance in turn highlight problems of democratic and 

institutional accountability of international NGOs and NGO alliances, and the possibilities of multi-sectoral cooperation to 

solve complex problems of international governance. 

The growing recognition and influence of civil society actors as legitimate and valuable actors in international 

governance may be a prelude to increased use of multi-sectoral cooperation to grapple with international governance issues. 

As governments and businesses accept civil society actors as representing real rights and wielding real power, the lower 

costs of reconciling interests in collaborative processes may encourage much wider efforts to work together. On the other 

hand, the potential reach and resources of the other sectors is potentially a significant threat to the autonomy and 

independence of civil society actors in Africa. 


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APPENDIX A 

NON- GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN AFRICA 

S/NO 

COUNTRIES 

NO. OF 

REGION 

NGOs 

1 North Africa Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Western Sahara, Sudan, South Sudan, Tunisia, Egypt 202 

2 East Africa Burundi, Comoros, Mayotle, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, 956 

Mozambique, Reunion, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, Zimbabwe, Uganda, United 

Republic of Tanzania, Zambia 

3 Central Angola, Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of 478 

Africa the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe 

4 West Africa Cape Verde, Benin, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, 1902 

Niger, Nigeria, Guinea Bissau, Saint Helena, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Burkina 

Faso 

5 Southern Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland 387 

Africa 

Total NGOs in Africa: 3, 925 

APPENDIX B 

AREAS OF NGO ACTIVITIES IN AFRICA 

Ageing, Children & Youth, Family, Health & Law & Legal Human 

Refugees, Relief 

Agriculture, Communications Nutrition, Human Affairs, Settlements, Sports Services, 

Animal & & Media, Conflict Rights, Indigenous Narcotics, & Recreation, Religion, Beliefs 

Health Rights, Resolution, People, International Drugs & Crime, Trade & & Ethics, 

Business & Development, Organisations, Peace & International Science & 

Economic Education, Labour 

Security, Finance, 

Technology, 

Policy, Children 

Youth, 

Environment 

Population, 

Human 

Transportation, 

Women’s Status & 

Social & Cultural 

Development 

Settlements, Issues 

Source: Worldwide NGO Directory/World Association of Non-Governmental Organisations (WANGO), 2012. 


APPENDIX C 

NGOs IN OTHER REGIONS OF THE WORLD 

S/NO REGION No OF NGOs 

1 South America 616 

2 Central America 315 

3 Northern America 22,875 

23,806 

4 Southern Europe 1045 

5 Eastern Europe 8332 

6 Northern Europe 4612 

7 Western Europe 3722 

17,711 

8 Eastern Asia 395 

9 South Eastern Asia 923 

10 South Central Asia 3506 

11 Western Asia 723 

5,547 

12 Oceania 639 

13 Caribbean 466 

Source: Worldwide NGO Directory/World Association of Non-Governmental Organisations (WANGO), 2012. 


Comparative Study of the Motivational Factors in Hotel of Two Different 

Countries- India & Juffair 

Gunjan Garg 

Assistant Registrar, Amity University Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India 

garg_gunjangarg@rediffmail.com 

Dr Daleep Parimoo 

Associate Professor & Head Recruitment, School of Business 

daleep.parimoo@sharda.ac.in, 

Abstract 

With aggressive competition across industries, and ample choices and offerings from companies, a high 

abrasion rate is seen where employees do not wink an eyelid before switching jobs. Therefore, a lot of 

companies are trying their best to attract, retain and push employees to perform. It is significant not only 

to provide good pay but also to inspire them, nurture their talent and, create an environment for their 

welfare. Motivation is necessary to boost employees to perform better so that in long run it would serve 

in the growth of the organisation. A comparative research was carried out between 2 hotels, one of India 

& another of Juffair to evaluate the motivation factors of employees in the two Hotels of different 

Countries. Main emphasis of the study was as to find out the preference of employees working for these 

hotels along with the motivational factors influencing them to give their Best to their Hotels & also to 

find if there’s any variation in these factors on the basis of gender. 

Key words: Motivation, hotel industry, motivational factors, performance, employees. 

Introduction: 

Highly motivated and dedicated employees with high levels of job involvement are an important asset 

for an organization which leads to quality and productivity improvements. In today’s competitive 

environment, organizations want to use utmost potential of their employees to survive & stay ahead of 

the highly changing scenario. Successful organizations are built on the innate value of their employees, 

as motivated and committed employees nearly always allow an organization to grow faster than their 

competitors. Well motivated and committed workforce feels that organization value them and they are 

playing an essential role within their organization which significantly enhance both employees’ as well 

as organizational performance (Shore, & Martin, 1989; Meyer, Paunonen, Gellaty, Goffin, & Jackson, 

1989). Employee motivation and commitment is very important for an organization’s rapid growth. 

Motivated and committed employees with high levels of job involvement are considered as an 

important asset to an organization and keeping the employee motivation, commitment and job 

involvement up is always rewarding to a business as motivated and committed employees are more 

productive and higher productivity usually results in higher profits (Denton, 1987). In a service sector, 

employee’s motivation is very important in terms of ensuring the continuity of service quality (Hays & 

Hill, 1999). In today’s scenario to face the competitive world, hotel industry has to focus on employee 

motivation and to be in effort of continuous development of their businesses facilities provided for their 

performance and working efficiently relates to their enough satisfaction of their jobs (Toker, 2007). In 

hotel industry, employees who are highly motivated will provide more quality customer service keeping 

the customer happy and satisfied is always a positive for business. The level of employee motivation 

can be determined by the volume of staff turn over during a certain period. Highly motivated employees 

are more likely to stay with the organisation. They grow in skill and become even more valuable to their 

employer and the business. Employees with high job involvement are more focused towards their jobs 

(Hackett, Lapierre, & Hausdorf, 2001), likely to have less turnover and leaving intensions (Blau, 1986; 

Blau, & Boal, 1987; Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993) and are more motivated to stay with the organization 

(Bashaw, & Grant, 1994; Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974). Employees with high levels of 

commitment and job involvement go on work in time and are usually more motivated to put extra 


efforts, on the other hand, employees having minor level of commitment and job involvement are least 

motivated and have more excuses such as illness or transportation problems etc. as compared to highly 

committed employees (Blau, 1986; Blau, & Boal, 1987). If employee motivation issues are addressed 

and acknowledged the cost of recruiting and training new staff is reduced and more time can be focused 

on growing the business. 

Literature Review: 

Motivation refers to “the reasons underlying behavior” (Guay et al., 2010, p. 712). Paraphrasing 

Gredler, Broussard and Garrison (2004) broadly define motivation as “the attribute that moves us to do 

or not to do something” (p. 106). According to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, a motive is 

“something a need or desire that causes a person to act”. “Motivate, in turn, means “to provide with a 

motive,” and motivation is defined as “the act or process of motivating”. According to Butkus & Green 

(1999), motivation is derived from the word “motivate”, means to move, push or influence to proceed 

for fulfilling a want (Kalimullah et al, 2010). Frederick Herzberg (1968) [8] asserted that the way to 

motivate employees was to enrich their jobs. He wrote that they would perform better and do more if 

they were challenged intellectually, and they would get more psychological satisfaction from their 

work. Bartol and Martin (1998) describe motivation as a power that strengthens behavior, gives route to 

behavior, and triggers the tendency to continue (Farhad et al, 2011). This explanation identifies that in 

order to attain assured targets; individuals must be satisfactorily energetic and be clear about their 

destinations. It symbolizes those psychological procedures that foundations the stimulation, route, and 

determination of deliberate actions that are target oriented (Farhad et al, 2011). Also motivation is a 

progression of moving and supporting goal-directed behavior (Chowdhury.M.S, 2007). It is an internal 

strength that drives individuals to pull off personal and organizational goals (Reena et al, 2009). 

Motivation is a set of courses concerned with a kid of strength that boosts performance and directs 

towards accomplishing some definite targets (Kalimullah et al, 2010). According to (Baron,1983) it is 

an accumulation of different processes which influence and direct our behavior to achieve some specific 

goal. In view of Bedeian, (1993) it is an internal drives to satisfy an unsatisfied need and the will to 

accomplish. Employee motivation is one of the policies of managers to increase effectual job 

management amongst employees in organizations (Shadare et al, 2009). A motivated employee is 

responsive of the definite goals and objectives he/she must achieve, therefore he/she directs its efforts in 

that direction. Rutherford (1990) reported that motivation formulates an organization more successful 

because provoked employees are constantly looking for improved practices to do a work, so it is 

essential for organizations to persuade motivation of their employees (Kalimullah et al, 2010). Getting 

employees to do their best work even in strenuous circumstances, is one of the employees most stable 

and greasy challenges and this can be made possible through motivating them. The significance of 

employee motivation, influencing the behaviors of their employees to behave in certain ways, can 

ultimately decide the success or failure of an organization. Kovach (1987) suggests that if a company 

knows why its employees come to work on time, stay with the company for their full working lives, and 

are productive, then the company may be able to ensure that all of their employees behave in that way. 

Such a company would have a decided marketplace advantage over competitors suffering from 

absenteeism, costly re-training programs, and production slowdowns (p.58). Moreover, Wiley (1997) 

also suggests ensuring the success of a company employers must understand what motivates their 

employees, and such understanding is essential to improving productivity (p. 271). These suggestions 

imply that organizational success depends heavily on employee motivation, and managers must 

understand what motivates their employees in order to motivate their employees. Understanding the 

concept of motivation could assist incompetent and inexperienced managers, in terms of employee 

motivation, identify what motivates their employees. 

Methodology: 

Population was 225, including 135 males and 90 females from 18 departments of TAJ PLAZA HOTEL 

KINGDOM OF BAHRAIN, JUFFAIR and Population of CLUB MAHINDRA EMERALD PALMS 

HOTEL, GOA was 175, having 110 males and 65 females from 10 departments. 


i) Sample Selection & Data Collection: Employees were selected by Random & Systematic sampling 

technique. Labels were prepared of all 225 employees of TAJ PLAZA HOTEL KINGDOM OF 

BAHRAIN, JUFFAIR, out of which 112 labels were drawn out making a balance of 56 males & 56 

females. Finally labels were redrawn till 55 males & 50 females were finalized. Similarly labels were 

prepared of each employee of CLUB MAHINDRA EMERALD PALMS HOTEL, GOA and 90 labels 

were drawn out of 175 labels. The balance was made by selecting 45 males & 45 females. Labels were 

returned to the pool until 28 men and 22 women (50 in all) were selected. 

ii) Survey Instrument: was a questionnaire addressing 2 major concerns of these researches: (i) the 

reason why employees prefer to work in these Hotels and (ii) motivational factors stimulating 

employees to give their best. The questionnaire was of 2 pages carrying 8 questions examining the 

demographic data and opinions of employees. The 1st part of questionnaire (Q1-Q6) gathered 

respondents’ demographic data : gender (Q1), age (Q2), employment position (Q3), employment status 

(Q4), and period of work in hospitality organization (Q5, Q6). The 2nd part (Q1- Q2) gathered 

respondents’ motivation characteristics. 

iii) Data Analysis: Statistical Program for the Social Science (SPSS) was used to analyze the completed 

questionnaire. The statistical tools used were means, frequency counts, percentages, and T-test. 

Results 

Graph:1 Population and Response Rate Respondents’ Personal Data: Gender 

It could be seen from above that there were 52.3% males and 47.7% female respondents from Taj Plaza 

Hotel Kingdom Of Bahrain, Juffair, whereas there were 53.5% males and 46.7 % females from Club 

Mahindra Emerald Palms Hotel, Goa. 

Graph 2: Respondents’ Personal Data: Age 

Taj Plaza Hotel Kingdom Of Bahrain, Juffair 

Club Mahindra Emerald Palms Hotel, Goa. 

Graph 2 clearly shows that there were 28 respondents in age group of 18-28 years from Taj Plaza where 

as 8 respondents in same age group from Club Mahindra hotel. Similarly there were 46 respondents 

within age group 29-39 years from Taj Plaza where as 21 from Club Mahindra; 22 within age group 40- 

50 years from Taj Plaza whereas 12 from Club Mahindra; over 50 there were 9 respondents from Taj 

Plaza and 4 from Club Mahindra. 


Graph 3 :Respondents’ Personal Data: Position 


Club Mahindra Emerald Palms Hotel, Goa 

From Graph 3 it can be seen that 23.8 % of the respondents worked in the room position in Taj Plaza 

whereas 22.2% worked in same position in Club Mahindra Hotel; further 26.7% worked in Food 

position in both Taj Plaza and Club Mahindra Hotel; besides this 49.5% respondents of Taj Plaza 

worked in other positions where as 51.1% respondents of Club Mahindra were working in other 

positions. 

Graph 4: Respondents’ Personal Data: Working status 



Graph 4 clearly indicates that 90.5% of the respondents were full time & 9.5 % were part time 

employees in Taj Plaza whereas in Club Mahindra there were 88.9% full time & 11.1% part time 

employees. 

Graph 5: Respondents’ length of employment in the hospitality industry 




Graph 5 shows that 10.5% of the respondents of Taj Plaza had served hospitality industry for less than 1 

year whereas in Club Mahindra Hotel there percentage was 6.7%; similarly 24.8% of the respondents of 

Taj Plaza had served this industry from 1-3 years whereas from Club Mahindra it was 26.7%; 

respondents serving for 4-6 years were 30.5% from Taj Plaza whereas only 24.4% from Club Mahindra; 

34.2% respondents of Taj Plaza had served hospitality industry from more than 6 years whereas 42.2% 

of Club Mahindra had served this industry for more than 6 years. 

Graph 6: Respondents’ working period in these Hotels 



From Graph 6, it can be seen that 11.4% of the respondents had been serving Taj Plaza Hotel for less 

than 1 year, whereas only 11.1% from Club Mahindra had served it for less than 1 year; similarly 20% 

from Taj Plaza & 22.2 % from Club Mahindra served them for 1-3 years respectively; for duration 4-6 

years there were 43.8% of the respondents from Taj Plaza where as 42.2% from Club Mahindra; and for 

more than 6 years working period in these hotels, the percentage was 24.8% from Taj Plaza and 24.5% 

from Club Mahindra. 

Table 1: The reason for choosing a Career in these Hotels 

Taj Plaza Hotel Kingdom Of Bahrain, Juffair Club Mahindra Emerald Palms Hotel, Goa. 

Reasons 

Mean Std 

Mean Std 

Ranking Reasons 

Ranking Deviation 


Rank 

Salary 4.40 0.64 1 Salary 4.28 0.71 1 

Fringe 

Fringe 

4.14 0.90 2 

Benefits 

Benefits 

3.77 0.98 2 

Class of 

Class of 

4.05 1.0 3 

Hotel 

Hotel 

3.71 1.4 3 

Interesting 

Interesting 

3.81 1.22 4 

Job 

Job 

3.62 1.43 4 

Flexible 

Opportunity 

3.64 1.33 5 

Hours 

to meet 

3.6 1.27 5 


Become 

manager in 

this field 

Opportunity 

to meet 

people 

Close to my 

Home 

Friends 

work here 

Somebody 

in my 

family 

works here 

Could not 

find any 

3.55 1.32 6 

3.4 1.37 7 

3.23 1.45 8 

3.15 1.52 9 

2.93 1.22 10 

1.99 1.05 11 

people 

Flexible 

Hours 

Become 

manager in 

this field 

Close to my 

Home 

Friends 

work here 

Could not 

find any 

other job 

Somebody 

in my family 

works here 

3.46 1.14 6 

3.2 1.26 7 

2.77 1.19 8 

1.95 1.03 9 

1.91 1.05 10 

1.84 0.86 11 

other job 

Part II Q 1; Table 1 shows reason for choosing career in these Hotels which didn’t had too much 

variation in initial rankings. In Taj Plaza Hotel, “Salary” was the Ist one (4.40), “Fringe Benefits” the 

2nd one(4.14), “Class of Hotel” 3rd (4.05), “Interesting Job” 4th (3.81), “Flexible Hours” 5th (3.64), 

“Become manager in this field” 6th (3.55), “Opportunity to meet people” 7th (3.4), “Close to my 

Home” 8th (3.23), “Friends work here” 9th (3.15), “Somebody in my family works here” 10th (2.93), 

“Could not find any other job” 11th (1.99) and in Club Mahindra Hotel also “Salary” was the Ist one 

(4.28), “Fringe Benefits” the 2nd one (3.77), “Class of Hotel” 3rd (3.71), “Interesting Job” 4th (3.62), 

“Opportunity to meet people” 5th (3.6), Flexible Hours” 6th (3.46), “Become manager in this field” 7th 

(3.2), “Close to my Home” 8th (2.77), “Friends work here” 9th (1.95), “Could not find any other job” 

10th (1.91), and “Somebody in my family works here” 11th (1.84). 

Table 2: The most significant motivational factors in these Hotels 

Taj Plaza Hotel Kingdom Of Bahrain, Juffair Club Mahindra Emerald Palms Hotel, Goa. 

Reasons 

Mean Standard 

Mean Std 

Ranking Reasons 



Ranking 

Salary 4.42 0.64 1 Salary 4.24 0.89 1 

Working 

Job Security 

4.33 0.76 2 

environment 

4.20 0.80 2 

Interesting 

Interesting 

4.29 0.82 3 

Job 

Job 

4.02 0.90 3 

Job Security 

Working 

4.19 0.93 4 

environment 

3.86 1.06 4 

Opportunity 

Training 

for 

4.07 1.07 5 

3.86 1.06 4 

advancement 

Empowerment 3.99 1.1 6 Co-workers 3.86 1.00 4 

Loyalty to 

3.94 1.19 7 

Fringe 

3.84 0.86 5 

employees 

Part of the 

team 

3.92 1.2 8 

Benefits 

Opportunity 

for 

3.40 1.48 6 


advancement 

Fringe 

Empowerment 

3.81 1.27 9 

Benefits 

3.22 1.38 7 

Flexible 

Loyalty to 

3.77 1.32 10 

Hours 

employees 

3.08 1.44 8 

Training 3.63 1.42 11 Part of the 3.08 1.44 8 

Co-workers 

team Flexible 

3.56 1.4 12 

Hours 

2.97 1.35 9 

Q-2, Table 2 shows significant motivational factors in Taj Plaza were, “Salary” the 1st one (4.42), 

“Working environment” the 2nd one (4.33), “Interesting job” 3rd (4.29), “Job security” as 4th (4.19), 

“Opportunity for Advancement” 5th (4.07), “Empowerment” 6th (3.99), “Loyalty to employees” 7th 

(3.94), “Part of the team” 8th (3.92), and “Fringe Benefits 9th (3.81), “Flexible hours” 10th (3.77), 

“Training” as 11th (3.63) & “Co- workers” as 12th (3.56) whereas in Club Mahindra “Salary” was 

the 1 st 0ne (4.24), “Job security” the 2 nd one (4.20), “Interesting job” 3rd (4.02), “Working 

environment” “Training” & “Co- workers” as 4th (3.86), “Fringe Benefits 5 th (3.84), Opportunity for 

Advancement 6 th (3.40), “Empowerment” 7 th (3.22), “Part of the team” & “Loyalty to employees” 8th 

(3.08), and “Flexible hours” 9th (2.97) 

Conclusion: (A) Employees Chose To Work In These Hotels For: 



It can be clearly seen from above Charts that the employees preferred to work for these hotels because 

of similar reasons- Salary (1), Fringe Benefits (2), Class of Hotel (3) & Interesting Job (4). 

(B) The Most Significant Motivation Factors Regarding These Hotels 




Above Charts clearly shows that significant motivational factors of Taj Plaza were Salary (1), Working 

environment (2) , Interesting job (3) and Job security (4) whereas for Club Mahindra they were Salary 

(1), Job security (2), Interesting job (3), Working environment (4), Training (4) and Co-workers (4). 

( C) Overall, Males’ And Females’ Ratings 



Work Motivation Ranking Work Motivation Ranking 

Male Female Male Female 

Salary 1 2 Salary 1 4 

Job security 2 5 Job security 2 5 

Fringe benefits 2 3 Loyalty to employees 3 7 

Interesting job 3 2 Co-workers 4 3 

Working 

4 1 Working environment 5 2 

environment 

Opportunity for 5 4 Interesting job 6 1 

advancement 

Empowerment 6 8 Fringe benefits 7 11 

Loyalty to employees 7 10 Flexible hours 8 8 

Part of team 8 6 Part of team 8 6 

Flexible hours 9 7 Training 9 10 

Training 10 9 Opportunity for 10 9 

advancement 

Co-workers 11 10 Empowerment 11 8 

It was found that both female & male employees had almost similar preference in Taj Plaza Hotel. 

Females preferred for Good working environment, Interesting work, Salary & Fringe Benefits & 

Males preferred Salary, Job Security Fringe Benefits & Interesting job. Whereas in Club Mahindra 

it was found that female employees had a high preference for interesting work, good working 

environment, co-workers & salary somewhat similar to the employees of Taj Plaza, where as Male 

employees of Club Mahindra Hotel preferred Salary, Job Security Loyalty to employees & Coworkers 

the most. 


Limitations Of The Studies 

1. If we compare the number of respondents to total number of employees in these Hotels, it is a small 

number hence the outcome of these studies might not apply to the total population. 

2. The outcome of these studies might be generally applied to employees of Taj Plaza Hotel Juffair & 

employees of Club Mahindra Emerald Palms Hotel Goa only. 

Scope For Further Studies 

1. These researches could be further taken by other hospitality researchers using different groups of 

employees in a hotel to find out the similarities or differences from these researches. 

2. Different class of hotels & that too in other different Countries could be a good scope for comparative 

study in the future. 

3. A larger sample size should be taken for further studies to encourage effectiveness and achieve the 

effective observation of the results. 

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Human Resource Management: Recent Trends Changing the Way of Business 

Dr. M.Subba Rao 

Director/Principal, Sri Balaji P.G College (MBA), Anantapur – 515002, Andhra Pradesh, India 

sai999msrao@gmail.com 

R. Srinivasulu 

Research Scholar, Department of Commerce, S.K University – Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India 

srisrinivas26@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

There are an incredible number of pressures on today's businesses. To name a few: 

environmental pressures such as increasing globalization, rapid technological change, and tougher 

competition; organizational changes such as new organizational alliances, new structures and 

hierarchies, new ways of assigning work, and a very high rate of change; changes in the workforce, 

including employees' priorities, capabilities, and demographic characteristics; changes in the recent 

trends such as recruitment by the use of internet, in career planning as a technique of retaining 

employees, paradigm shift from collective bargaining to individual bargaining, change in the attitude 

of unions towards management. In achieving the objectives of business the modern trends play very 

important role. 

The present article is related to the study of modern trends of human resource management 

towards the changing face of business. It also includes recent trends in recruitment in India, trends in 

career planning, recent trends in virtual organizations, current trends in performance appraisal, recent 

trends in collective bargaining, latest trends in trade unionism and trends in e-learning. And the study 

ends with conclusion. 

Keywords: Environmental, Globalization, Organizational, Demographic, Trends, Recruitment, 

Collective Bargaining, Career Planning, Performance Appraisal, Trade Unionism, e- 

learning. 

INTRODUCTION 

The business world is changing at jet plane speed – technology, the global economy, increasing 

regulatory scrutiny, the looming talent crisis, and the recognition that mental illness is dramatically 

affecting the workplace. All of these are having a huge impact on the HR profession. 

The c-level is finally starting to realize how important your role is. They want you to get out of 

the day-to-day administrivia - while still making sure everything is done perfectly, mind you. They 

want you to measurably contribute to the top-line and the bottom line, and help mitigate risk. 

Following are the major trends that are changing the way of business. 

 

I – Recent Trends in Recruitment in India 

Human Resource Outsourcing 

Recruitment is a complex job. It demands considerable amount of experience, expertise 

and the ability to understand market dynamics and react quickly. Also in many cases, reputed 

companies do not want to get their names published in a big way and unnecessarily become targets 

of critical attention. They may like to hire the required numbers in a quiet manner. In such a 

scenario, the only option left to the firm is to hand over the job to an outside agency specializing in 

the hiring and related process. The recruiting company, thus, may draw everything through what is 

popularly known as Outsourcing. 


“Human Resource Outsourcing” refers to the process in which an organization uses the 

expert services of at third party to take care of its HR functions while HR Management can focus 

on the strategic dimension of their function. The functions that are typically outsourced are the 

functions that need expertise, relevant experience, knowledge and best methods and practices. The 

outsourcing firms help the firm by the initial screening of the applicants according to the 

requirements of the firm – by charging a fee. 

Poaching/Raiding 

Poaching has become a common practice nowadays especially in industries where there 

is cutthroat competition and there is chronic shortage of skilled, experienced and trained hands. For 

example: if Reliance retail wants to hire competent professionals in the retail industry, it would be 

easy to hire people from a competing firm – say Big-Bazaar, Pantaloon Retail, Westside or 

Spencer’s – through attractive salaries and benefit packages. 

The poaching firm does not want to waste time in hiring inexperienced hands, put them 

on the job and train them for months together the new recruits will be a back-breaking exercise. 

And there is no guarantee that after receiving training the new recruits will stay on. So, the easiest 

way to get the right kind of people doing a job that demands considerable experience and experts is 

to raid over a competing firm. 

E-recruitment 

Many large-scale organizations use Internet as a valuable source of hiring talent. E- 

recruitment is nothing but the brilliant use of technology to aid the recruitment process. The 

recruiter here would advertise job vacancies through the World Wide Web. The potential jobseekers 

send their curriculum vitae (CV) through e-mail using the Internet. The recruiter can put as 

many screening filters as possible to put a check over applications from unsuitable candidates. Of 

course, this saves considerable time also. 

Since there are no intermediaries, there is considerable saving on money – as the 

exercise could alert quite a large number of potential job-seekers and entice them to apply for the 

vacant position. The recruiter can carefully scan the details sent in by only qualified applicants 

more closely and send appropriate signals to the right kind of people – instead of getting bulldozed 

by a large number of applications from both suitable as well as unsuitable job-seekers. (C.B. 

Mamoria, et al., 2012) 

II – Current Trends in Performance Appraisal 

o Elimination of ratings, as ratings seems to distract all efforts of organizational improvements. 

o Focus on performance improvements: Prime focal points of Performance improvement 

programmes are to improve performance, standards, observable outcomes linked to business goals. 

o Identification of constraints and eradicating them. 

o Focus on expected and observable standards. 

o Development of enablers. 

o Align performance systems with strategies and goals. 

o Create internal performance consultants. Performance consultants define performance, 

benchmarking and analyses performance. (P. Subba Rao, 2013) 

III – Recent Trends in Career Planning 

o Organisations started using career planning as a technique of retaining employees. Career planning 

should be designed such that it not only provides multiple alternatives, but also helps them have 

their skills and widen their knowledge base. 

o Organisations started viewing career plan as an opportunity because a well designed career 

planning system will offer a gamut of alternatives to employees, instead of traditional corporate 

‘on-the-way-up’ ladder, now there is this concept of multiple career paths, where employees are 

shown plentiful lateral opportunities and employees are involved in their own career plan 


Recent Trend: Concentrate on Contract Staff, but not on Career Plan 

Why companies are going for contract staff, rather than concentrating on career plan? 

1. The employee market is tight and finding good people tough, especially in technical areas. 

2. The market place is highly volatile. Unexpected changes call for a flexible staff that can be 

moved out when projects are finished. 

3. Skills are scare, particularly in the areas like IT and highly specialized technical areas. 

4. There is a need for project work in specialized technologies. Such project work is conducive to 

short term contract and a flexible workforce to increase productivity. 

5. Full-time employee overheads are expensive. 

6. The transition from temporary to permanent is alternative, both for the company and the 

worker. Companies can bring in contract workers for a probation period, ‘try-them-out’, and 

then decide whether to hire them full time or not. 

7. Revenue per employee is higher with more contracts and less full time staff. 

8. Employees prefer being independent contractors, because they earn higher salaries, and get 

independence and mobility. (P. Subba Rao, 2013) 

IV – Recent Trends: Collective Bargaining Vs Individual Bargaining 

Competition consequent upon globalization brought paradigm shifts in traditional collective 

bargaining. Added to this the role of trade unions in industrial relations, particularly in collective 

bargaining, has been on declining trend. The paradigm shift in collective bargaining is a trend towards 

individual bargaining. 

REASONS FOR SHIFT TOWARDS INDIVIDUAL BARGAINING 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Declining role of trade unions: Due to increase the professionals among employees, who are 

disinterested in trade unions. In addition the number of non-union/union-free organizations has 

been increasing. The declining role of trade unions reduced the relevance of collective bargaining 

concept. 

Proactive approach: Organisations have been following proactive approach for fixing salaries, 

benefits, working conditions, career opportunities, terms and conditions of employment and in 

providing quality of work-life. Therefore, either the employees or trade unions do not find much 

need for bargaining with management collectively. 

Competency based salaries and benefits: Organisations started fixing the salaries and benefits 

based on employee’s competency and performance. Therefore, salaries and benefits vary from 

employee to employee. It does mean that the days of uniform salaries at least in private sector have 

gone. Collective bargaining has no place in those companies where salaries and benefits and other 

conditions of employment are based on individual competency and performance. 

Shift from welfare society to result-oriented economies: globalization brought shift from 

welfare society to result-oriented economies. Result-oriented economies approach needs 

performance based human resource management, which displaces collective bargaining. 

Shift in loyalty from organisation to profession: Employee loyalty has been shifted from a 

particular organisation to a profession. Therefore, employees do not prefer to bargain collectively 

as professional improvement varies from employee to employee. 

Increased rate of employee turnover: employees have been shifting from one company to 

another for higher salaries, benefits and for better career rather than bargaining with the present 

employer. 

In view of these shifts employees may bargain individually with the employer for their 

salary, benefits, terms and conditions of employment and working condition based on his/her 

competencies and/or performance. Therefore, there is no need to bargain for a group or class of 

employees. Thus the concept of collective bargaining is replaced by ‘individual bargaining’ at least 

in private sector organizations where the performance is of top priority. (P. Subba Rao, 2012) 


V – Human Resource Trends in Virtual Organisations 

o Organisation’s human resources are the loose web of people 

o Knowledgeable people are hired for short term projects depending upon market demand 

o Employees have autonomy at work but are accountable to the targets, performance etc., 

o Employees can work from their homes or from any other place as such social and work 

environment do not draw much attention of HR Manger 

o Career planning and development are based on projects 

o Employees are selected based on not only technical skills but their ability to work in terms and 

o Emotional and attitudinal quotient is the prime factor in employees selection rather than 

intelligence quotient (P. Subba Rao, 2013) 

VI – Trends in Trade Union Movement 

i. A major trend witnessed these days is the change in the attitude of unions towards 

management, industry, government and the economy. 

a) Unions are becoming increasingly matured, responsive and realistic in their thinking and 

action. Gone are the days of cat-call strikes, bandhs and violence. 

b) Unions are reconciled to economic reforms. Their accent is on opposing the adverse impact 

of reforms and not the reforms per se. 

c) Discussion among trade union circles nowadays is on issues like productivity, total quality 

management, technology, competition, exports and the like. Major unions like that of the 

telecom employees, for example, are on line with corporation plans of the department. They 

are now talking about issues like gearing up for competition and inculcating a customer 

friendly approach. 

d) Unions have accepted that there is surplus labour everywhere and the fat needs to be shed. 

They are, therefore, extending co-operation to schemes like voluntary retirement, golden 

handshake and the like. 

ii. Depoliticisation of unions is another trend witnessed these days. It is too well-known, that the 

federations of the unions are affiliated to one political party or the other. No surprise then, that 

the prominent national leaders in post-independent India were incidentally popular union 

leaders. Being affiliated to one or the political party, the unions were more engrossed in toeing 

the lines of their political bosses than protecting workers; interests. 

a) The Philips employees’ union successfully stalled the entry of the Tatas into the company. 

When the Philips management allegedly offered the Tatas a part of their right-cumpreferential 

issue at an unusually low premium, the union demanded that it should be 

allowed to examine the agreement and successfully moved the Bombay High court in 

settling the issue. 

b) The internal union at the ailing Kamani Industries successfully took over the company and 

is now running it as a workers’ co-operative. 

c) Independent Unions obtained a high-court order scraping the ceiling on house rent 

allowance fixed by the Maharashtra government. 

iii. “Nature abhors vacuum”, so goes the saying. Unions seem to relish affiliations. They are now 

formed on the basis of religious and caste. This is indicative of the sociopolitical realities after 

the mandalisation of the polity and heightened sectarian consciousness after the demolition of 

the disputed structure at Ayodha. 

iv. Workers’ associations in our country are highly fragmented and the consequences have been 

the multiplicity of unions. Multiplicity is caused by ideological rifts, personal ambitions of 

leaders, craft divisions among workers, and the management’s own myopia. The number of 

unions in some organizations is truly mind-boggling. 

v. One of the defects of the trade union movement in our country has been the phenomenon of 

outside leadership. Individuals who were not connected with a factory would assume the 


vi. 

leadership mantle of the union. A Bangalore-based electric company is an example to be 

quoted in this context. For a long time, a communist leader was the president of the workers’ 

union, but he was neither a worket nor a supervisor in the company. 

The clout of the central trade unions, which peaked during the post nationalization years, has 

started waning. For example, the membership if the INTUC, which claimed to have a strength 

of 54.35 lakh in 1989, had slipped to 54.05 lakh in 1993, a fall by 30,000. Same is the fate of 

CITU. 

One of the reasons for this trend is the gradual realization on the part of the workers, who are 

young and well-educated, that independent unions are more advantages than all India federations. 

Thus, the trade unions are at the cross-roads. Their membership is declining, their political 

support is waning, and public sympathy is receding, their relevance itself is at stake and instances are 

fortunately few and far between. (K. Aswathappa, 2011) 

The trend, particularly that of declining membership of unions, is universal, fewer than 11 per 

cent of America’s private sector workers, for example, are unionized, a percentage that has falling for 

four decades. French and Australian union membership too, fell in the 1980s. in Japan, union 

membership has declined steadily since the 1970s. Unions have held up better in Scandinavia, but 

young people join only half as often as their parents. In all the OECD countries, service business 

accounts for a growing share of workforce. Except in government units, unions have largely failed in 

the service sector. 

VII – Trends in E-Learning 

E-Learning is a catch-all term that covers a wide range of instructional material that can delivered on 

ac CD-ROM or DVD, over a local area network (LAN), or on the Internet. It includes computer-based 

Training (CBT), Web-Based Training (WBT), Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS), 

distance or online learning and online tutorials. (C.B. Mamoria, et al., 2012) 

Business-to-employee 

initiative will address 

e-learning 

E-Learning will 

extend to customers 

Simulation, gaming 

and interactivity will 

enrich e-learning 

There will never be 

enough of the right 

skills 

Trends in E-Learning 

Companies will build B2E intranets or corporate portals to conduct business 

with employees, and provide them self-service for access to benefits, forms 

and information. B2E capabilities will become increasingly important tools 

for recruitment, retention and employee-relationship management. 

CRM initiatives might include customer education. According to Gartner, 

companies can use e-learning to introduce new products, educate customers 

in self-service techniques, and compare competitor’s products and services. 

Research shows that student understanding and retention improves when they 

learn by experience. Technologies such as collaboration, interactivity, 

modeling, simulations, virtual reality interfaces and gaming will help students 

experience the skill while being taught. 

Along with technologies and business practices, some skills are changing so 

quickly that they’re outdated within a few months of introduction, in addition, 

the number and range of skills required of the average employee is increasing. 

CONCLUSION 

HRM must respond to the ever-changing trends in the business world and the ability to adapt to 

these changes will allow those respective firms to prosper and move right along with those trends - the 

rest will fall behind unless proper training is implemented or new faces are hired to take over. Most 

things change with time, so as in nature when animals change to be able to survive in certain climates 

and conditions the animal that is HRM must be able to do the same for business conditions. 

HR professionals need to step up to these challenges. Establish an employer brand. 

Communicate the employer brand. Sell the employer brand. Don’t just preach the benefits of 


continuous learning to your employees. Be continuous learners. Be at the forefront of the latest trends 

and requirements and react to them quickly. 

Do real talent management – know who your stars are, nurture them, develop them, and figure 

out what support they need to thrive in your organization – because if you don’t another company will. 

Start working on an HR outsourcing strategy today. Otherwise, you won’t have time to do the rest. 

REFERENCES 

1. C.B Mamoria, V.S.P. Rao – “Personnel Management”, Himalaya Publishing House, 2012 

2. P. Subba Rao – “Essentials of Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations”, 

Himalaya Publishing House, 2012 

3. K. Aswathappa – “Human Resource Management”, Mc Graw Hill, 2011 

4. P. Subba Rao – “Personnel and Human Resource Management”, Himalaya Publishing 

House, 2013 

5. N.G. Nair and Latha Nair, “Personnel Management Industrial Relations”, S. Chand & Co., 

1999 

6. P.R.N. Sinha, Wage Determination, Asia Publishing House, Mumbai, 1971 

7. David a. Dr cenzo and Stephen P. Robbins, “Human Resource Management”, John Wile & 

Sons Inc., New York, 1994 

8. T.V. Rao “Reading in Human Resource Development”, - Oxford & IBH Publishing 

Company Private Limited, New Delhi 1991 

9. P. Ghosh and Santhosh Ghosh, “Labour Relations in India”, Sudha Publications (P) Ltd., 

1973 


Introduction: 

Role of Nanotechnology in the Field of Textile Finishes 

Mehreen Ijaz, 

Lecturer (Home Economics Department, Specialized Field: Textiles and Clothing) 

Lahore College for Women University, Lahore Pakistan 

World is growing very fast. In this competitive market, everyone needs to equip him or herself 

with the latest technology. Technology is demanded in every sphere of today’s life. In this scenario, 

textile manufacturers are very much interested in adopting new trends as well as focusing on 

improving the current products. 

In the field of engineering, Nano technology is very popular these days. There is a trend of 

using smart phones, smart TV’s and smart computers, so is the case of smart textiles. Nano technology 

has changed the whole field of textile industry by incorporating unique and different properties to the 

fabric. There is still research is going on this aspect to explore more and more and produce much 

greater benefits to the users in the whole world. 

Nanotechnology greatly focuses on handling, arranging and controlling of nanoscale structures 

to incorporate into large material structures and components. “Within these larger scale assemblies, the 

control and construction of their structures and components remains at the nanometer scale. (Gorga E.) 

Moreover, this technology is used in the finishing of these fibers and fabrics. Textile finishes 

are used to change the appearance, look, physical and chemical properties of a specific fabric. Without 

finishes, textile manufacturers are unable to present their products to the public. With Nanotechnology, 

textile products are finished in different forms that can never be finished with the help of mechanical 

and chemical processes. 

Meaning of Nano: 

Nano means extremely small or very minute. Nano in nanotechnology comes from the Greek 

word ‘nanos’ meaning Dwarf. Scientist use this to indicate (10 -9 ) or one billionth.( Lei Qian & juan P, 

2004). It is the size of one small molecule, which is 50,000 times smaller than a human hair. (Nano 

sciences). 

It indicates the minute details of material structures that help to create interesting results. 

Meaning of Technology: 

Technology refers to the branch of knowledge that is related with the development and creation 

by using technical means resources. 

The word technology refers to the knowledge and skill necessary for application of scientific 

approach into the practical one, for the betterment and improvement of life, and by increasing the 

efficiency and adequacy of the products and processes which are necessary to penetrate in the growing 

market at highest level. 

Meaning of Nanotechnology 

The meanings of ‘nano’ and ‘technology’ help to explain the term ‘nanotechnology’ as 

something that can help to bring detailed and minute work on different structures and surfaces. It is 

basically working with the bottom line of the structure. It reaches at the deep end of any component to 

create dramatic results rather than changing the upper layer of the components. And it comes up with 

many endless outcomes for the mankind by providing comfort to their lives. This field of knowledge 

provides us with innovative, unique, new and different products by either incorporating something in 

the basic structures or improving the existing structures with better and effective results. 


A basic definition of Nanotechnology given by Center of Responsible Nanotechnology is “The 

engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current work and concepts 

that are more advanced”. (Crnano.org) 

More precisely, it refers to the following main considerations. 

Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at the nanoscale, at dimensions between 

approximately 1 and 100 nanometers, where unique phenomena enable novel applications. 

Encompassing nanoscale science, engineering, and technology, nanotechnology involves imaging, 

measuring, modeling, and manipulating matter at this length scale. 

So how small is "nano"? A nanometer is one billionth of a meter. A sheet of paper is about 100,000 

nanometers thick. And there are 25,400,000 nanometers in one inch. (National Nanotechnology 

Initiative) 

“Nanotechnology”–Building and using materials, devices and machines at the nanometer 

atomic/molecular scale, making use of unique properties that occur for structures at those small 

dimensions. (M. Deal). The idea of nanotechnology began with famous physicist Richard Feynman, 

who gave a 1959 talk titled, "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom," in which he said, "The principles 

of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by 

atom." Feynman proposed using a series of robot arms construct ever-smaller robot arms, until the 

arms get so small that they are able to manipulate individual atoms. (Wise Geek). 

Nanotechnology and textile fibers 

Nanotechnology greatly helps in the formation of textile fibers by altering their structures and 

giving them unique and interesting surfaces. It incorporates different structural variation in the fibers. 

Nanotechnology incorporates novel properties even to the blends of natural, manmade and synthetic 

fibers to a larger extent. 

Some of the examples are given by (Will Soutter) to show nano materials with their developed 

characteristics or properties into the fiber structures. 

Nano materials 

Carbon black nanoparticles or Nano fibers 

Carbon nanotubes 

Metal oxide nanoparticles 

Metal nanoparticles 

Clay nanoparticles 

Fiber properties 

Abrasion resistance 

High tensile strength 

Good chemical resistance 

Electrical conducting 

Exceptionally strong 

Light weight 

Electrically conducting 

Thermally conducting 

Photo catalytic 

Electrically conductive 

UV protection 

Antimicrobial 

Antimicrobial 

Solar cells 

Aesthetic properties 

Electrical resistance 

Chemical resistance 

Fire retardant 

UV shielding 

Scope of Nanotechnology in Textile Finishing: 

Some of the application areas of nanotechnology in the field of textiles include water repellant 

fabrics, fire retardant garments, wrinkle resistant and UV absorber materials, antimicrobial functional 

clothing, stain and oil repellant garments, increased electric resistance of fabrics and many more. 


These nano particles and whiskers help to improve the physical and chemical properties of 

garments and fabrics thus simultaneously reduce the weaknesses of materials. Nanotechnology 

provides various benefits like increases the durability and strength, keeps the fabric soft and 

comfortable, improves the absorbency, increases the thickness, weight and stiffness of the materials, 

and develops self-cleaning and self-sterilizing functions. 

Characteristics produced by Nano Finishes: 

There are so many properties that can be produced in garments with the help of Nano finishes. 

Following are few examples. 

1. Nano finishes help to provide protective coating to the garment in order to make them water 

repellant. 

2. These finishes help to make garments cost effective by saving time, money and energy. 

3. They do not produce harmful and toxic effects to the body. 

4. They make the fabrics more durable and strong. 

5. They can maintain the fresh look to the garments thus adding value to them. 

6. They make the garments smoother and comfortable which suits the end purpose of wearing. 

7. They help to make materials flame retardant which are greatly demanded by fire fighters and 

for industrial works. 

8. They make the material wrinkle and crease resistant, which is greatly demanded by the busy 

consumers these days. 

9. They protect the users from extreme rays of sunlight by making their garments UV absorbers. 

10. They make the fabrics moulds and mildew resistant. 

11. They make the garments more UV absorbers. 

Types of Nano Finishes used in the field of textiles: 

Following are the most commonly used types of nano finishes that are used in the field of 

textiles and produce unique and dramatic results with cost effective processes and techniques. 

Water Repellent Finishes 

Previously paraffin wax was used to make fabric water repellent. These fabrics block the penetration 

of water into their structures. For example water droplet can’t stay on the wax surface and it drips 

down from the fabric. But there are some considerations that are much important in dealing with wax 

emulsion. As explained by K. Anar “emulsifying system not detract from the hydrophobic character 

of paraffin. Either non-rewetting emulsifiers or some means of deactivating the hydrophilic group after 

the fabric is impregnated with the finish must be used.” 

Moreover it is also observed that wax may melts, whenever, the fabric is given any other 

treatment by using heat. Moreover, wax is also not so much durable and become brittle and may 

remove in repeated washings. (K.Anar). Secondly Silicon, a non-porous product is always considered 

very vital in making the water repellent fabric. But Nanotechnology in combination with Silicon brings 

new and better results. 

Scientists from the University of Zurich have come up with a fabric, which is considered as the 

latest invention in this field. Water stays on the top of this fabric as balls, and can be removed with just 

a tilt of the cloth. These fabrics are made from polyester fibres, and are coated with millions of 40 

nanometer wide silicone nanofilaments. In this process, silicone is condensed into the fibres in the 

form of gas to form nanofilaments. A permanent layer of air, trapped in silicone nanofilaments, that is 

present in the fabric, prevents the water from penetrating into the cloth. The water that stays on the top 

of the fabric needs to be tilted only a little and all the water will roll off the fabric like marbles without 

leaving a trace. (S. Ricardo, 2012) 

The relationship of fabric and fluid is well documented in a research by Schrauth et 

al.(2004). They supported the theory that by changing the nano scale surface of a fabric, can result in 

better and strong resistance of wettability of materials. 


This type of an alteration in the fabric's surface properties is capable of exhibiting the "Lotus- 

Effect," which demonstrates the natural hydrophobic behavior of a leaf surface. (A.P.S.Sawhney1 et al. 

2008) 

This is the natural form of treatment applied onto the fabric surface that is friendly 

environment. It helps to retain the original look of the garment and at the same time helps to impart the 

smooth and fine appearance. 

Anti-Microbial Finishes 

Microorganisms are dangerous for all types of textile materials including raw fiber, yarns or 

fabrics, old woolen materials, unused fabrics and so on. Manufacturers have to place their raw material 

in the warehouses, until they take them to the next stage, during that time these materials are prone to 

such type of microorganism like moulds, mildews and moths. Humid environment also attracts these 

organisms. Due to this, fabrics may create an unpleasant odour, a hole in fabric, color loss, adding a 

stain on the surface or alter other physical and chemical properties. 

The antimicrobial agents can be applied to the textile substrates by exhaust, pad-dry-cure, 

coating, spray and foam techniques. The substances can also be applied by directly adding into the 

fibre spinning dope. It is claimed that the commercial agents can be applied online during the dyeing 

and finishing operations. Various methods for improving the durability of the finish include: 

• Insolubilisation of the active substances in/on the fibre 

• Treating the fibre with resin, condensates or cross linking agents 

• Micro encapsulation of the antimicrobial agents with the fibre matrix • Coating the fibre surface 

• Chemical modification of the fibre by covalent bond formation 

• Use of graft polymers, homo polymers and/or co polymerization on to the fibre (D.Gopalakrishnan & 

R K Aswini) 

These finishes can help to increase the durability and maintain the comfort for the wearer. It is 

an old concept that “silver” molecules have a power to resist bacteria and microorganism. Hence the 

food, water, any other substance have great weakness to bacteria or microorganism were kept in the 

utensils of silver metal. This antibacterial property of silver particles has been proved scientifically. 

This finishing procedure is carried out by the encapsulation of the silver compounds i.e. the nano 

particles of silver are encapsulated in the fiber reactive polymer. (M. Ruhul Amin.) 

In the world of Nanotechnology, Nano-sized silver, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide colloidal 

solutions are used on to the cotton and polyester fabrics. Metallic ions and metallic compounds 

display a certain degree of sterilizing effect. It is considered that part of the oxygen in the air or water 

is turned into active oxygen by means of photo catalysis with the metallic ion, thereby dissolving the 

organic substance to create a sterilizing effect. With the use of nano-sized particles, the number of 

particles per unit area is increased, and thus anti-bacterial effects can be maximized. (D. 

Gopalakrishnan & K.G. Mythili). 

Moreover, this fact is also highlighted by others researchers that silver nano particles are also 

effective for use of natural fibers including cotton, silk and wool and many of the synthetic fibers. 

They help to improve the efficiency and durability of fabrics. The use of nanoparticles of silver and 

zinc oxide has been seen as a viable solution to stop infectious diseases due to the antimicrobial 

properties of these nanoparticles. The intrinsic properties of a metal nanoparticle are mainly 

determined by size, shape, composition, crystallinity, and morphology. (N. Gokarneshan, P. P. 

Gopalakrishnan, & B. Jeyanthi, 2012) 

M. Romagnuolo & M. Ruberti, (2010) explain that nano-sized silver, releasing Ag+ ions, 

presents opti- mal activity (reaching bacterial reduction rates near to 100% even after several home 

launderings), for a long time, against a broad range of germs (bacteria, virus, parasites etc.) even in 

concentrations as low as 0.0003÷0.0005% (so it has been defined an “oligo-dynamic” molecule), nontoxic 

for higher life forms and not-expensive at all. 


Flame retardant finishes 

Flame retardant clothing is very much required both for commercial use and for domestic 

purpose. There are numerous efforts going on to discover such type of safe and protective clothing for 

the consumers, to avoid drastic consequences. 

In the past several decades, a number of chemical treatment procedures have been developed 

to reduce the flammability of cellulosic substrates. However, only a few of them are still being 

practiced today. Currently, the durable flame retardant finishing systems for cellulosic fibers available 

to the industry include the “pre-condensate”/ammonia process and reactive organophosphorus 

chemicals. Both processes have certain limitations due to cost, need for special equipment, 

requirement of multiple after-washes, and other difficulties associated with the textile finishing 

operations. 

According to Marsh, some of the developments have led to the introduction of flame proof 

finishes such as Proban, Antiflamm, and Lifeguard. (Marsh, J.T). These are the chemical finishing 

processes that are mostly used in industries to make protective clothing for the customers. (Weidong 

Wu, 2004) 

In the field of nano technology, it has been observed by Md. Ruhul Amin that the antimony 

pent oxide nano particles along with Halogenated flame-retardants are used for the flame retardant 

finishing. The antimony has a characteristic of flame retardency. Hence the presence of antimony 

particles along with halogenated flame retardant in the fabric increases a flame retardant property of 

the 

fabric. 

(M. Ruhul Amin.) 

Moreover another research supports the same theory of making fabric with nano finishes, more 

flame retardant suggests that Colloidal antimony pentoxide has been offered as fine particles 

dispersion, for use as a flame retardant synergist with halogenated flame-retardants (the ratio of 

halogen to antimony is 5:1 to 2:1). Nano antimony pentoxide is used with halogenated flame retardants 

for a flame retardant finish to the garments. (Abu Mohammad Azmal et al 2010). 

Dirt and Stain repellant 

Nanotechnology makes textile fibres dirt and dust repellent, which is the need of the busy 

consumer now a days. Stain repellant is the property of fabric that helps to withstand any sort of 

penetration of liquid soils. It helps to protect the garments from being get spoiled at work place or 

some formal gathering, while taking some fluid. The finishes applied with the nanotechnology help 

greatly in this regard and show effectiveness in most of the natural fibers including cotton, silk, flax 

and wool, as well as performs good with synthetic materials including polyester and nylon that are 

commonly used. 

When a substance is manipulated at sizes of approximately 100 nm, the structure of the 

processed clothing becomes more compressed. This makes clothing stain- and dirt-resistant. (V 

Parthasarathi. 2008). 

Scientists at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University have been able to build a nano-thin layer 

of particles of titanium dioxide, a substance that reacts with sunlight to break down dirt and other 

organic material. This layer can be coated on cotton to keep the fabric clean. (P.G. Cookson and X. 

Wan, 2005). 

Theses finishes maintain the overlook look of the garment fresh and original makes them more 

absorbing and comfortable and protects them oily and sticky stains. 

UV Resistant finishes 

Excessive UV exposure can result in a number of chronic problems like skin diseases. And 

people have to face high exposure to UV radiation especially during outwork. So, for this reason 

adequate clothing that protects UV rays is highly demanded by the consumers. 

One of the very important characteristic of nano finishes is to absorb UV rays. It helps the 

wearers to protect their skin from potential damage. The fabrics treated with nanotechnology for this 

purpose are more durable and perform better. This fact is highlighted by V Parthasarathi (2008) that 


“Metal oxides like ZnO as UV-blocker are more stable when compared to organic UV-blocking 

agents. Hence, nano ZnO will really enhance the UV-blocking property due to their increase surface 

area and intense absorption in the UV region.” 

Sol gel method is very considerably used for making fabrics UV resistant due to its 

improved results. This element is also studied by (The Oklahoma Nanotecnology Education Intiative) 

that UV blocking treatment for cotton fabrics was developed using the sol-gel method. A thin layer of 

titanium dioxide is formed on the surface of the treated cotton fabric which provides excellent UVprotection. 

By uniformly distributing Nano-TiO2 into fiber molecules, the decomposition of the 

macromolecule chain could be effectively inhibited and free radicals could be reduced (Wang et al 

2004). The role of nano finishing agents is also well explained by Haixia Li, Hua Deng & Jing Zhao. 

(2009). They concluded that Nano-TiO2 finishing agent has exceptional anti-ultraviolet effect and 

UVA, UVB section could be effectively shielded. In the visible light section, the agent has good 

transmittance and transparence. 

Conclusion: 

Nanotechnology is the technology of present day and creating dramatic results in almost 

every field of life, especially targeting the major industry like textiles. There is still to explore in this 

new arena of technology and research is being conducted by many individuals, groups, technologists, 

and specialists to bring the unknown features and characteristics of fabric surface to the world for 

superior and quick processes or procedures of manufacturing and developing products and materials 

for the end users. 

References: 

1. A.P.S.Sawhney1 and B. Condo, K.V. Singh, S.S. Pang and G. Li and David Hui , (2008). Modern 

Applications of Nanotechnology in Textiles. Textile Research Journal: SAGE Publications Los 

Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapor. 

2. Abu Mohammad Azmal Morshed, Md. HasanIkbal and S.M Kamrul Hasan. (2010). . Impact of 

Nano technology in the arena of textile apparel finishes. Textile Today. A comprehensive 

publication for textile and apparel industry. Issue July-August: Bangladesh Retrieved from 

http://www.textiletoday.com.bd/magazine/printable.php?id=68 

3. Centre for responsible nanotechnology: Retrieved from http://crnano.org/whatis.htm 

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http://www.textileworld.com/Articles/2010/November/Nov_Dec_issue/Nanotechnology_In_Textil 

es.html 

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Nano Titanium Dioxide (N ano-TiO2) Anti-ultraviolet Finishing. International journal of 

chemistry. Vol , No.1 

8. K. Anar. Oil and water repellent finishing. Retrieved from 

www.anarkimya.com/images/pdf/fluorocarbons.pdf 

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An Overview of Factors Affecting Property Tax Revenue Generation in Local 

Governments in Malaysia 

Muhammad Akilu Umar, Rozilah Kasim & David Martin 

Faculty of Technology Management and Business 

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Darul Ta azim, Johor, Malaysia. 

akilumuhammad78@gmail.com, rozilah@uthm.edu.my, martin@uthm.edu.my 

Provision of facilities and delivery of strategic services to improve the quality of life the people living 

in the sub-urban communities is an imperative issue to municipal councils. However, property tax 

revenue generation is affected by certain factors, which tend to have an effect on the amount of 

property tax revenue generated. The aim of this paper is to review the factors, which affects property 

tax revenue generation. On the other hand, the taxpayers are very observant, if there are no 

commensurate provisions of facilities and services they avoid paying the property tax with the believe 

that, the revenue generated is not effectively utilized. Therefore, key to improving the property tax 

revenue generation is by resolving these issues, which will inevitably promote regional development. 

Keywords: Property Tax, Facilities and Services, Revenue Generation, Public Goods, Tax 

Compliance. 

Introduction 

Local governments serve as a link between the government and the people living in rural 

communities in terms of public goods delivery. Goods produced by the government are referred to as 

public goods; these goods can be used up by more than one person, it is produced for the benefit of the 

society (Miller, 2006). Some public goods are excludable, while others are non-excludable (Miller, 

2006). Excludable public goods are those that people can be able to exclude themselves from using 

them, like roads and schools. One can choose the roads to used or to avoid, school to take your 

children can also be selected but a person cannot avoid non-excludable public goods like services: 

environmental waste control, defense, waste management, landscaping. These are mostly strategic 

services offered by the public authorities using the revenue generated from property tax. 

The revenue generated from property tax is used in the delivery of basic infrastructures like 

electricity, water supply, environmental waste management, pollution control among others. Thus, it is 

anticipated that local governments is to generate funds to foster growth and development to 

complement constitutional allocation (Kuye, 2002). However, if the generated revenue from property 

tax is not prudently utilized in providing efficient public goods, this tends to create tax resistance. 

Fjelstad, (2001) has summarized the reasons for resistance from taxpayers as; 

i) Taxpayers see few tangible benefits hence property tax perceived to be unfair. 

ii) Poor development activities 

iii) Absence of public service and enforcement increase tax resistance. 

In a municipal area where taxpayers are observant it is imperative for the local government to 

step-up their services and infrastructural provision to the community in order to create a tax friendly 

environment. 

An Overview of Property Tax in Malaysia 

Property tax is imposed to finance the construction and maintenance of public facilities such as public 

toilets, bus stops, children's playgrounds, parks, public places, construction and maintenance of 

infrastructure such as roads, sewers and drain, provision and maintenance of street lights. Mohamed 

(1998) support this and states that the major functions of Malaysia local authorities can be summarized 

as environmental, public, social and developmental. The Local Government Act of 1976 provides local 


authorities in Malaysia with a very comprehensive set of functions and responsibilities. Two other main 

laws, the town and Country Planning Act (1976) and the Street, Drainage and Building Act (1974), help 

local governments to perform their functions under the 1976 Act. These Acts allow the local authorities 

to assume more developmental functions in the field of urban management and play a more dynamic 

role in national development. These roles are: 

a) Environmental control; this relates to functions of maintenance and improvement of the 

environment within the area of jurisdiction. This includes obligatory services such as cleansing, 

collection and disposal of solid wastes, proper drainage and sewage, sewerage system and 

beautification programs. 

b) Provisions of public amenities; this applies to services such as abattoirs, veterinary services, 

transportation, burial grounds and crematoria. 

c) Provisions of Public health; this function includes the provision of sanitation and solid waste 

management system, cleaning drains and roads and the general upkeep of the environment. The 

licensing of hawkers, stall holders, shop and business operators whose businesses are public 

nuisances and obnoxious in nature, falls under this function as well. 

d) Social functions; some larger municipalities provide social services such as child care centers, 

clinics within their health care service program ambulance other services. Besides these, they 

maintain fountains and arrange for lighting public streets and other public services and provide 

manual labor and facilities to state governments or the district offices to assist in the organization of 

ad hoc social services at the state and district levels. 

e) Developmental functions; as opposed to mandatory functions of the local authorities, the 

development functions are considered "discretionary" under the Local Government Act, 1976. 

Even though local authorities could be regarded as an important instrument for local socioeconomic 

modernization, the lack of financial and physical capacity limits the extent and functions that they 

can provide. This is particularly the case with district councils. In the face of rapid growth and the 

pressure to fulfill multiple needs of the local citizens and the private sector community, the scope 

of functions and responsibilities of local authorities is expanding every day. 

The increase in the rate of industrialization, trade, commerce and development of modern 

services is not only pushing the demand for urban space but also that of urban support services. Increase 

in concentration of people and industries in urban areas the functions and responsibilities of local 

authorities to have significantly expanded. According to Mohamed (1998), local authorities in Malaysia 

to perform multifarious roles that include: 

a) Efficient service delivery functions and employment generation; 

b) The normal system maintenance function for public places, drainage and sewerage, market places 

and crematorium, road maintenance and street lighting, landscaping and maintenance, public health 

and sanitation; 

c) The development planning and control and management functions (building control, land-use 

planning, development, creation of industrial estates etc.) 

d) The promotion of tourism and urban renewal beautification program; infrastructural development and 

support facilities which could facilitate industrial development and other locally-based economic 

development initiatives. 

Ismail (1995) stated that the major source of revenue is the assessment rates which accounted 47 

percent of total revenue for a local government in Peninsular Malaysia. Rateable hereditament is a 

holding which is subject to the payment of a rate made and levied under the Local Government Act, 

1976 (Act 171), the interpretation is even if it is a bare site without any form of development or the land 

is attached to a building. According to Section 2, Local Government Act, 1976, holding means any 

land, with or without buildings attach to it, which is held under a separate document of title and in the 


case of subdivided buildings, the common property and any parcel of it in the municipal council, the 

holdings which are categorized into rateable holdings. These categories are as follows: 

a) Land attaches with building such as housing, low cost house, terrace house, shop lot, factory or 

office on it 

b) Vacant land 

c) Agriculture land with buildings 

d) Quarry 

The property tax revenue is generated from these holdings. Some researchers think that rates of 

a falling proportion of local authority income with other taxes through government grant system 

providing an increasing share of the resources. (Hepworth, 1980). This statement is not true because 

property tax represents a sizeable portion of local government resources. Part V, Section 39 of Local 

Government Act 1976 state the revenue of a local government shall consist of: 

a) All taxes, rates, rents, license fees, dues and other sums or charges payable to the local authority by 

virtue of the provisions of this Act or any other written law. 

b) All charges or profits arising from any trade, service or undertaking carried on by the local authority 

under the powers vested in it. 

c) All interest on any money invested by the local government and all income arising from or out of the 

property of the local government, movable and immovable. 

d) All other revenues accruing to the local government from the government of the federation or of any 

State or from any statutory body, other local government or from any other sources as grants, 

contributions, endowments or otherwise. 

An Overview of Factors Affecting Property Tax 

In any country equity and fairness plays an important role. Equity and fairness are essential elements 

of property tax system. Wenzel, (2004) suggested three areas of fairness from the taxpayers’ point of 

view are social psychological in nature. 

1) Distributive justice (viewed as the exchange of resources that is benefit and cost). 

2) Procedural justice (viewed as the process of resource distribution). 

3) Retributive justice (viewed as the appropriateness of sanctions when norm-breaking occurs). 

In distributive justice, an individual is concerned about the fairness of his actions, and wants to 

be treated in relation to his merits, efforts and needs (Kirchler et. al., 2008). If he feels that his tax 

burden is higher than other people within the same income group, his tax compliance probably 

decreases more widely at group levels; taxpayers want a fair treatment of their group relative to other 

income groups. If a specific group perceives that their tax liability is higher than other groups, then tax 

evasion might occur among the group members (Spicer and Becker, 1980). At the society level, tax 

compliance is less likely occur but if the perception is held that the tax system is unfair, wide scale tax 

evasion is likely to take place (Allingham and Sandmo, 1972; Barjoyai, 1987). In contrast, if the 

society perceives that the tax system is equitable and fair, voluntary compliance is expected to 

increase. 

With regard to procedural justice, the main elements for perceived fairness are neutrality of 

procedures used, trustworthiness of the tax authorities, and the polite, dignified, and respectful 

treatment of taxpayers as individuals or groups (Tyler and Lind, 1992). It is argued therefore that 

increased information about tax law and regulations can increase fairness perception and compliance 

(Wartick, 1994). Retributive justice, unreasonable and intrusive audits and unfair penalties lead to 

stressful and dissatisfied taxpayers (Spicer and Lundsted, 1976). Unfavorable retributive justice 


perceptions could lead to non-compliance (Allingham and Sandmo, 1972; Barjoyai, 1987). In contrast, 

if the society perceives that the tax system is equitable and fair, voluntary compliance is expected to 

increase. 

Empirical Evidence on Determinants of Tax Compliance 

Theoretically, there is evidence suggesting tax compliance is influenced by numerous factors (Brook, 

2001; Alm, 1999). Scholars identified these factors as economic, social and psychological factors 

(Jackson & Millron, 1986; Fischer, 1993; Alm, 1999; Brook, 2001; Kirchler, 2007; Devos, 2008). To 

tackle the challenge of tax noncompliance, it is necessary to understanding factors influencing 

individual’s decision to comply with provision of tax laws. The early researchers based their work on 

economic perspective of tax compliance and they identified tax rate, penalty and detection probability 

as factors influencing taxpayers’ behavior (Allingham & Sandmo, 1972). 

In the course of time, researchers realized that taxpayers’ compliance behavior is equally 

influenced by psychological and social issues this provide the basis for carrying out research in these 

areas (Fischer et al., 1992; Bobek, 1997; Wenzel, 2004; Manaf, 2004; Jabbar, 2009). Similarly, 

taxpayer social background affects his thinking and conduct and invariably his compliance (Akilu et, 

al. 2013). However, comprehensive review on tax compliance by Jackson and Millron (1986) 

identified 14 key factors influencing tax compliance. Fischer et al. (1992) categorized these key 

determinants into four group constructs and it became known as Fischer’s Model of tax compliance. 

This model consists of tax system structure (tax rate, penalty, and probability of detection, complexity 

of tax system); noncompliance opportunity (income level, income sources and occupation) and 

demographic factors (age, gender and education); attitude and perception (fairness, ethics, and peer 

influence). 

Major considerations on taxpayers’ attitudes and perceptions to tax compliance are the fairness 

of the tax system and peer influence, this is part of Fischer’s model. It is widely believed by tax 

administrators and the taxpayers that growing dissatisfaction with the fairness of tax system is the 

major causes for increasing tax noncompliance. However, Porcano (1984) finds that taxpayers’ need 

and ability to pay are the most significant variables related to perceptions of fairness of the tax system. 

Thus, unfairness of the tax system may reflect taxpayer’s perceptions that they are overpaying taxes in 

relation to the value of the services provided by government or in relation to what other taxpayers pay. 

If the whole system is misconceived or negatively perceived, then there might be resistance in tax 

compliance. 

Conclusion 

Conclusively, in countries like Malaysia the taxpayers’ perceptions, differences in income, different 

levels of education and different ethnic groups regarding tax payment may cause variation in 

compliance behavior in different parts of the country. Chan and Leung (2009) also observed that, 

Culture is considered as a powerful environmental factor that affects the taxpayer’s compliance. It is 

argued that people are likely to be willing to pay local taxes where the amount they contribute can 

relate to services received (Livingstone & Charlton 1998) & (Westergaad & Alam 1995). The study 

concluded that taxpayers observe the state of affairs in terms of facilities and services provision. 

Therefore policies should be tilted towards adequate delivery such facilities and services aspired by the 

residents of the area. Facilities and services delivery process by the local government should 

incorporate the community to create awareness on projects under execution and further strengthen the 

relationship between the people and the local authority. Similarly, Community-based skills are an 

addition to the professional skills key requirement for organizational success (Kasim 2011). Taxpayer 

education is also essential in the study area. These proposed recommendations might assist in 

improving the property tax revenue generation capacity of the local government. 


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A Study on Employee Engagement in Manufacturing Micro, Small and Medium 

Enterprises (MSMEs) in India 

T. Ravikumar, Department of Management studies, Christ University, Bangalore – 29, Email: 

ravibhagavath@gmail.com. 

ABSTRACT 

Employee engagement has emerged as a critical driver of business success in today’s 

competitive marketplace. Further, employee engagement can be a deciding factor in organizational 

success. Not only does engagement have the potential to significantly affect employee retention, 

productivity and loyalty, it is also a key link to customer satisfaction, company reputation and overall 

stakeholder value. Thus, to gain a competitive edge, organizations are turning to HR to set the agenda 

for employee engagement and commitment. 

The challenge today is not just retaining talented people, but fully engaging them, capturing 

their minds and hearts at each stage of their work lives. This article focuses on studying level of 

engagement possessed by employees of MSMEs (Manufacturing) in India. 

KEY WORDS: Employee engagement, MSMEs, India, Manufacturing sector 

I. INTRODUCTION 

India has emerged as one of the fastest growing economies in the world having recorded an 

annual growth of more than 8% over the last few years. The Government recognises that in order to 

sustain its current economic progress, broad based robust growth in industrial and services sector is 

required, which needs to be supported by the MSME segment. MSMEs play a vital role in the 

development of the economy and also ensure regional balance in economic development. This segment 

is the subject of intense focus from several Government institutions, corporate bodies and banks and is 

rightly viewed as an agent of economic transformation and growth. 

The then President of India, Shrimathi Pratibha Devisingh Patil on the occasion of presentation 

of National Awards instituted by the Ministry of MSME observed that, “The contribution of MSMEs 

to the economic growth of countries is recognised worldwide. In India, these enterprises account for 

almost 45% of manufacturing output, 95% of the number of industrial units and 40% of exports. 

Besides, the sector provides employment to almost 60 million people, making it the largest source of 

employment after agriculture…. and plays an important role in the national endeavour for inclusive 

growth. 54% of the MSMEs are located in rural areas and has the capacity to generate economic 

activity in rural areas using local raw materials; local skills and providing people employment close to 

where they live”. The President added that the MSME sector is a nursery of entrepreneurship, often 

driven by individual creativity and innovation, and also described as a nursery for new ideas of 

innovative products and processes. 

Shri Virbhadra Singh, then Union Minister for MSMEs, at a conference of MSME officials 

noted that, “Micro, small and medium enterprises are contributing a lot towards empowerment of 

people of India by providing them employment as well as support to establish self-entrepreneurship 

ventures….They are the backbone of the nation’s economy and constitute a bulk of the vendors and 

sub-contractors of large manufacturers…. This Ministry has risen well to this job and is trying to touch 

almost every pressure point, every strategy, which can actuate the growth of MSMEs like a catalyst”. 

These observations highlight the crucial role played by the MSME sector in promoting and 

sustaining the economic growth in our country. Human capital is an important component of all 

organisations since they contribute to the efficient working of the enterprise. Large corporates establish 

their own HR department to cater to the requirements of the management and employees. They 


continuously strive to match the expectations of the employees by initiating policy measures and serve 

as a connecting link between the management and the employees. 

Hence, this study is aimed to throw light on the key areas to be focussed on by the employers to 

motivate the human capital in their enterprises. Employee retention is a major challenge of MSMEs as 

they will face stiff competition from multinationals and big companies who will be in a position to pay 

a much higher compensation for these experienced and well trained employees. 

II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 

The study is intended to examine the perceptions of the employees in engaging themselves in 

their jobs, to analyse the theoretical and empirical aspects in fostering an environment of engagement 

in the workplace. Additionally, the key issues in driving satisfaction and performance level of the 

employees is also attempted. Based on this context, the research study is entitled; “Employee 

Engagement among employees of MSMEs in India” has been undertaken. 

III. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 

The study is intended to observe the extent of employee engagement in MSMEs as most of 

these units do not have enough funds to establish a separate HR department which usually functions as 

a connecting link between the management and the employees and would address the issues relating to 

both sides. Since most of them do not have a separate HR department and the owner/CEO has to play 

the dual role of taking care of the business on one hand and simultaneously addressing employee needs 

as well on a day-to-day basis. This study aims at throwing insights into the level of engagement. The 

basic objective is to determine the level of engagement in the MSME sector based on demographic 

details. There is a lot of discontentment among the younger generation as they feel they are always 

underpaid and the management is not giving them enough responsibility. 

IV. METHOD OF RESEARCH 

Survey method through structured questionnaire was adopted for the study. 

Sampling frame and data collection procedure 

Primary data required for the study was collected through questionnaires distributed to 500 

employees, who included top management, middle management and employees in the MSMEs. They 

represented workforce employed in the private sector in South India mainly in some parts of Chennai, 

Bangalore, Cochin and Hyderabad working in different functional areas like production, sales, 

marketing, finance accounts and administration departments. A total of 28 units were covered in the 

study – 12 micro units, 10 small units and 6 medium units. 

Convenience sampling was adopted taking into account availability and approachability of 

employees for the purpose of data collection. 

A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed after translating the questions in the native 

language for the convenience of the employees after obtaining the consent of the owners/HR 

department officials. Completed questionnaires received were 445, which represents 89% response 

rate and only 441 questionnaires were used and the remaining were discarded as they were incomplete 

and could not be used for statistical purposes. 

V. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 

The research instrument used for this study is questionnaire. It was designed to measure 

engagement, team work, leadership, relation with owner/top management, work culture and 

compensation of the workforce. The questionnaire comprises of three sections measuring the level of 

engagement of the employees and determining the important factor determining satisfaction and 


performance at work. In addition to questionnaire, practical discussions were held with the 

respondents. 

VI. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 

VI.1. ANALYSES OF DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EMPLOYEES: 

TABLE - 1 

DEMOGRAPHIC VAIABLES OF THE EMPLOYEES 

No. Particulars No.of respondents Percentages 

1. GENDER 

Male 331 75.1 

Female 110 24.9 

Total 441 100 

2. TOTAL WORK EXPERIENCE 

0 – 5 years 175 39.7 

5 – 10 years 103 23.3 

More than 10 years 163 37.0 

Total 441 100 

3. EXPERIENCE IN THE PRESENT ORGANISATION 

0 – 5 years 233 52.8 

5 – 10 years 094 21.3 


Total 441 100 

4. POSITION IN THE PRESENT ORGANISATION 

Top management 020 4.5 

Middle management 100 22.7 

Employees 321 72.8 

Total 441 100 

5. AGE 

Up to 25 years 136 30.8 

26 years to 40 years 234 53.1 

41 years to 50 years 060 13.6 


Total 441 100 


Important demographic characteristics based on the sample survey of employees as shown in the above 

table are presented below. 

1. Sample population reveals that 75.1% of the employees are male and 24.9% are female. It 

indicates that there are more male employees than female employees working in MSMEs. 

2. 63% of the employees possess less than ten years of total work experience and 37% of the 

employees possess more than tenyears of experience. 

3. 74.1% of the employees have less than ten years of service in the present organisation and 

25.9% of the employees have more than 10 years of service in the present organisation. 

4. Top management employees who include General manger, Vice President and President of the 

organisation represent 4.5% of the sample; middle management who include managers and 

team leaders constitute 22.7% of the sample and 72.8% of the sample are employees. 


5. 83.9% of the respondents belong to the age group of below 40 years, 13.6% of the respondents 

belong to the age group of 40 years to 50 years and 2.5% of the respondents belong to the age 

group of more than 50 years. 

VI.2 ANALYSIS OF ENGAGEMENT BASED ON DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES 

Personal characteristics are likely to influence the engagement levels of the employees. Hence, 

by applying ANOVA (f test) and (t-test), the level of engagement of the workforce has been tested on 

the basis of selected demographic variables. The results and their significance are explained below: 

TABLE – 2 

TABLE SHOWING THE GENDER AND ENGAGEMENT OF THE RESPONDENTS 

Particulars Mean F – Value P – Value Level of significance 

Male 

Female 

86.98 

85.32 2.890 0.090 

Not 

Significant 

Source: Primary data. ** Significant at 1% level, * Significant at 5% level. 

The above table shows that the sample population does not significantly differ in their 

perceptions towards major components of engagement when classified on gender basis. It reveals that 

small and medium enterprises’ employees whether male or female view the affective characteristics of 

their perceived commitment to the organization equally with positive engagement perceptions, which 

is supported by the high mean values. However, male employees show better perceptions of 

engagement and are psychologically more favoured towards their work organisations compared to 

female employees. 

This could be because both employed men and women are more careers oriented nowadays and 

would like to excel in their respective jobs. Women world over are equally hard working and have 

made their presence felt in all the sectors. In some instances, women may be forced to leave their job 

or take a break due to family responsibilities or may not be able to perform strenuous jobs as compared 

to men. 

In Schaufeli et al., (2006) and in Yildirim, (2008) studies on engagement, burnout was also 

included, in which it was found that engagement and burnout did not differ significantly between 

genders. 

Hranexi (2008) in his study “Exhibit employee engagement survey in India” found that 36% of 

men were fully engaged and 28% of the women were fully engaged. His finding is similar to the 

findings of the present study. 

Karen Wilson (2009) found that there were no significant differences between the engagement 

levels among men and women although men recorded higher mean scores. 

TABLE – 3 

TABLE SHOWING THE TOTAL WORK EXPERIENCE AND 

ENGAGEMENT OF THE RESPONDENTS 

Particulars Mean F – Value P – Value Level of 

significance 

Up to 5 years 

6 years – 10 years 


84.80 

86.50 

88.51 

Source: Primary data, ** Significant at 1% level, * Significant at 5% level. 

1.618 0.024 * Significant 


TABLE - 4 

TABLE SHOWING THE EXPERIENCE IN PRESENT ORGANISATION AND 



Up to 5 years 

6 years – 10 years 


85.02 

86.79 

89.55 

1.595 0.028 * Significant 

Source: Primary data, ** Significant at 1% level, * Significant at 5% level. 

The above tables reveal that there are high levels of significance with regard to the perceptions 

of employees towards engagement based on total work experience and also experience in the same 

organisation. However, those with more than ten years’ experience seem to be more committed 

towards the achievement of organisational goals. Another reason for higher level of commitment 

which leads to engagement could be that the perception of their future in the organisation is linked to 

the growth of work organisation. This will be the motivating factor for them as they have been a part 

of the organization’s growth in the past and will contribute to its further growth and betterment. 

Moreover these employees would have settled into the work system and will be better engaged 

compared to their counterparts with lesser experience. If the individual has a positive feeling of 

organisation’s support, it will help in maintaining the high level of engagement and the employee will 

be inclined to continue in the same organisation. Though generally the mean values of employee 

engagement perceptions are high, employees with less than five years’ experience need to understand 

and adapt to the culture in the work place. They will be able to contribute their innovative ideas and 

suggestions and will give them a feeling of involvement which will improve their engagement levels. 

Coffman and Gonzalez-Molina (2002) indicated that, in general, employees start out energized, 

engaged and ready to take on the responsibility of the job. However, over the first six months of 

employment only 38% remain engaged and after ten years engagement drops to about 20%. The 

above finding differs from the theoretical assumption of work engagement which says that engagement 

will decrease in the increase in experience. 

Robinson D., Perryman S. Hayday S. (2004) study revealed that engagement levels decline as 

the length of service increases. 

TABLE – 5 

TABLE SHOWING THE POSITION IN THE PRESENT ORGANISATION AND 


Particulars Mean F – Value P – Value Level of Significance 

Top management 

Middle management 

Employees 

88.36 

86.90 

86.36 


** Significant at 1% level, * Significant at 5% level. 

0.813 0.745 

Not 

Significant 

The above table reveals that there is a gradual increase in the level of engagement from the 

employee level to senior management and there are no significant differences in their perceptions of 

engagement in the job and irrespective of employment position all are having high level of positive 

engagement towards their organisation. The reason for high engagement level among top executives 

could be that they have the maturity to know what is good for them and also achieve the same. Greater 

authority and control over work, proximity to deciding the decision making process and determining 

the objectives of the work organization could be some of the reasons for the top management 

exhibiting higher engagement levels. Moreover, since they would have been a part of the organisation 

for a long time their individual values will be complemented by the organisation’s values and will be 

able to associate better with the work environment. 


In a case study at NHS by Institute for Employment studies, U.K. (2004), managers and 

professionals tend to have higher engagement levels than their colleagues in supporting roles 

Schaufeliet.et. al., (2006) found that blue collar workers were less engaged than managers. 

Employee engagement is important for managers and top executives because engagement is 

directly linked to performance metrics which is important to business. It further states that 

organisations with more than four engaged employees for every one actively disengaged employee 

saw 2.6 times more growth in earnings per share than did organisations with a ratio of slightly less 

than one engaged worker for every one actively disengaged employee. 

Juana Llorens (2010) studied “Engaging for Results” database which indicated that there was a 

large drop among middle managers in terms of performance management and in recognition there was 

a 14% decline and in people-manager capabilities, there was a 10% fall. They felt that middle 

managers are the key to bringing employee engagement back and this requires lowering hierarchies, 

empowering them and involving them in strategic discussions. At the same time there is a need for the 

middle managers to become better leaders and enhance their people-management capabilities. 

Globally senior executives are more engaged. In some regions they are twice as much engaged 

compared to the contributors. A possible reason could be that individuals with personal clarity and 

initiative required for engagement are more likely to be promoted consistently. 

Blessingwhite and HR Anexi report revealed the following engagement levels – 28% of 

clerical staff, 29% of specialist/professional, 36% of team leader and manager/supervisor. It indicates 

higher engagement levels among middle management. This is not in consonance with the present study 

where the top management has recorded higher mean values. 

A study on the relationship between mentoring and impact on employee engagement and found 

no significant variation based on job level indicating that employees-from individual contributors to 

executives perceived similar benefits from mentoring programme. This supports the philosophy of 

mentoring at all levels so that each can benefit in their own way. 

Below 25 

25 – 40 years 

40 – 50 years 


TABLE – 6 

TABLE SHOWING THE AGE AND ENGAGEMENT OF THE RESPONDENTS 


84.44 

87.41 

Not 

87.48 1.33 0.12 

significant 

90.00 


** Significant at 1% level, * Significant at 5% level. 

The above results reveal that with advancement of age the employees’ perception towards the 

organisation shows a positive and higher level of engagement and also that there are no significant 

differences in their engagement levels based on age. The results explain that irrespective of age sample 

respondents have higher level of engagement. Increase in age accompanied by respect and regard 

among co-workers, comfort factor both in the job and work environment – possible reasons to remain 

in the existing job. Moreover, older employees realize that costs associated with leaving the 

organisation and difficulty in finding an alternative job encourage them to serve their existing 

employer with more loyalty. 

The level of engagement is almost the same among employees in the age group of twenty five 

to forty. This is because they focus more on their career and constantly keep looking out for challenges 

in the job. Low satisfaction in the job leads to low level of engagement. The younger generation would 

have invested considerable amount of money and time in their education and will need time to adapt 

and perform in their new job. 

Derek et. al., (2007) findings suggested that satisfaction with one’s co-workers related 

significantly to engagement. Their study indicated that among older employees, the relationship 


etween perceived age similarity with their peers and their workplace engagement appeared to be 

stronger than among younger employees. They suggest that by surrounding aging employees with 

efficient, reliable, knowledgeable, and enthusiastic peers should create psychological conditions in the 

workplace to increase their engagement. 

Robinson D., Perryman S. Hayday S, study demonstrated that engagement levels decline as 

employees get older – until they reach the oldest group (60 plus), where levels suddenly rise, and show 

the oldest group to be the most engaged of all. 

Research shows that web based mentoring is an excellent way to keep the more seniors 

engaged particularly when faced with a potential of ending their careers, many people start thinking of 

ways to establish a legacy, so that they can leave a lasting mark in their organisation. Another viable 

way to keep the new employee and veteran employees feel valued is by pairing new recruit with 

seasoned employees so that a culture of learning and appreciation is established between them. 

The opinion is that the older workers substitute lengthy job experience and greater general 

expertise for speed of information acquisition and information recall. This wisdom is accumulated over 

their career, may be sufficient to compensate for productivity losses due to any changes in cognitive 

and physical abilities. 

VII. CONCLUSION 

This study focused on measuring employee engagement in manufacturing MSMEs in India. 

The tables from 2 to 6 revealed that an employee, may be male or female, having more than 10 years 

of total work experience and more than 10 years of work experience in present organization 

irrespective of the age and level of management enjoy more level of employee engagement. Further, 

the study also revealed that an employee, may be male or female, having less than 5 years or 5 years of 

total work experience and less than 5 years or 5 years of work experience in present organization 

irrespective of the age and level of management have least level of employee engagement. 

REFERENCES 

1. Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement 

with a short questionnaire: A cross-national study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 

66(4), 701-716. 

2. Yildirim, I. (2008), “Relationships between burnout, sources of social support and Socio 

demographic variables”, Social Behavior and Personality, 36(5) 603-616. 

3. The Employee engagement equation in India 

(2008)http://www.hranexi.com/Employee_Engagement_Report_2008.pdf 

4. Karen Wilson, “A survey of employee engagement”, PhD dissertation, University of Misssouri – 

Columbia, May, 2009. 

5. BlessingWhite_2011,http://www.blessingwhite.com/content/reports/BlessingWhite_2011_EE_Rep 

ort.pdf Page 54. 

6. Triple Creek’s Employee Engagement Research (2011) Mentoring Leads to Improved Employee 

Engagement for Major Technology Company. 

7. Coffman, C., & Gonzalez-Molina, G. (2002), “Follow this path; How the world’s greatest 

organizations drive growth by unleashing human potential”, Warner Books. 

8. Robinson D., Perryman S. Hayday S, “The drivers of Employee Engagement” (2004). 

http://www.employment-studies.co.uk/pubs/summary.php?id=408. 

9. http://gmj.gallup.com/content/115213/Building-Engagement Economic-Crisis.aspx Building 

Engagement in this economic crisis – How managers can maintain morale and profitability in their 

increasingly anxious workgroups By Jennifer Robison, Dated 19 February 2009. 

10. Juana Llorens, 2010, “Up from the middle” T+D, October 2010, page 18. 

11. Derek R.Avery, Patrick F. McKay and David Wilson (2007), “Engaging the aging workforce: The 

relationship between perceived age similarity, satisfaction with co-workers and employee 

engagement” Journal of Applied Psychology, 2007, page 1542 – 1556. 


Indian Rural Telecom Market Opportunities and Challenges 

Mrs. Swati Arora Shrivastava, 

India 

Abstract 

Over the past few years Rural India has witnessed an increase in the purchasing power of 

customers, accompanied by a strong desire to upgrade their standard of living. The PSUs and the 

MNCs have metamorphosed the marketing landscape in rural India. The focus is on to rural for most 

of the business firms primarily due to saturation in the urban market. The BOP segment is shrinking 

from 400mn level. 

The Country’s rural consumer market generated $425 bn of revenue in 2011 up from $266 bn 

in the previous year. According to a survey conducted by A.C. Nielsen Indian rural market is set to 

grow at least ten fold to $100 trillion in the next 15 years. The Rural Telecommunication Sector is also 

growing by leaps and bounds. 

This paper is an attempt to discuss the profile of the rural Indian customer and analyses the 

characteristics of the diverse and scattered rural market. Also effort is on highlighting the success of 

rural telecom sector along with an examination of the challenges, opportunities and marketing 

strategies of the Telecom players. 

Keywords: - Rural Telecom, Tele density, Rural market, 

INTRODUCTION 

There are differences between an urban and a rural Indian. While their ethos may be the same, their 

behavior, habits and language may be quite different. According to the studies, it is revealing the fact 

that the rural market is growing at a faster rate than the urban market. The rural market has a huge 

population with a great level of disposable income. To encash this, products have to be specifically 

developed and positioned to meet the needs of rural markets. Sometimes, existing products/ services 

branding strategies might have to be modified to suit these markets too accordingly. 

The rural consumers have become very tech-savvy with the higher penetration of mobile phones, cable 

TV and IT enabled services. Recognizing the impact of major technological developments in rural 

India, advertising agencies as well as marketers are now updating their offerings and services. Rural 

consumers today have access to diverse media with the advent of modern technology. So the focus is 

on offering diverse communication solutions to in different media to reach out to rural consumers. The 

organizations are studying consumer behavior to design effective communications so that the 

maximum market can be covered. 

METHODOLOGY 

This study is purely based upon the secondary data and findings and has been compiled in a form of a 

generalized study. 

OBJECTIVE 

The primary objective is to review latest trend of Indian telecom industry and the secondary objective 

is to study the opportunity and challenges available for telecom industry in rural India. 


AN OVERVIEW 

Indian Telecom Industry – An Overview and Latest Trend 

The Indian telecommunications industry is abundant with exciting possibilities. The industry is 

growing at the fastest pace in and this portentous growth of the Indian Telecom sector in the past ten 

years has opened up numerous opportunities, with only traces of these being felt by rural India. The 

booming domestic telecom market has been attracting huge amounts of investment, which is likely to 

accelerate with the entry of new players and launch of new services. 

Latest Trend: 

1) Roaming Free: It is expected that from october 2013, the Indian telecom subscribers may not 

have to pay roaming charges when they hop between circles. The proposition to abolish 

roaming charges was a part of National Telecom Policy 2012, which had received a nod from 

Cabinet in May 2012. 

2) Possible hike in Mobile tariffs: The mobile tariffs in India are amongst the lowest in the 

world. Most telecom operators have already shared that they are finding it difficult to sustain 

operations and even considering increasing the telecom tariff. Even 2012 saw increase in 

certain tariffs, and 2013 it is expected that there will be a marginal increase in telecom tariff 

during the course of 2013 as well. 

3) Cheaper 3G: While the calling tariff may see an upward trend, the cost of usin 20g 3G data 

will likely get cheaper. In a bid to get more users to try the next generation 3G services telecom 

operators will be looking at offering better cost-effective deal to the masses. 

4) PAN India MNP: Mobile Number portability is the service that allows customers to switch 

operators and yet retain their mobile number. However, up till now this service is only 

available within the same circle. 

5) 4G services: With consumers seeking faster Internet connections, it is expected that telecom 

operators will be pushing 4G services in India. Airtel is currently offering 4G (LTE) services in 

Kolkata, Bengaluru and Pune and it is expected that it will be introducing these services to 

other states as well in 2013. 

Indian Rural Market 

The major segmentation of mass population is located in rural area. Rural markets are rapidly growing 

in India but have often been ignored by marketers. Most of them are remote-fully ignorant due to the 

reason of diversification of products produced thereby slitting into disposable income. 

But In the last few years rural India has witnessed an increase in the buying power of consumers, 

accompanied by their desire to upgrade their standard of living. both from the government and the 

private companies have changed the rules of the marketing game in rural India by introducing new 

projects.. The NREGA (National Rural Employment Guarantee) schemes, as well as other rural 

employment schemes have given the rural population an opportunity to meet their daily needs. 

Rural customers have upgraded their lifestyles and as a result are they spent part of their income in 

purchasing lifestyle products as electronics , cosmetics, branded consumer goods etc, Urbanisation 

has become more of a life style and it is no longer bound to geographical areas. 

Facts and figures for consumers in Rural India: 

69 percent of India’s population lives in rural area(world bank) 


46 percent of soft drinks, 49 percent of motorcycles, 59 percent of cigarettes, 50 percent of 2 

million BSNL mobile connections, 53 percent of FMCG products, 59 percent of consumer 

durables are sold in rural India. 

TELECOM IN RURAL INDIA 

Though Indian telecommunications sector is the third largest in the world and the second largest 

among the emerging economies of Asia, when it comes to rural tele-density, it is still low. The 

government proposed to achieve rural tele-density of 25 per cent by means of 200 million rural 

connections by the end of the 11th Plan. So far, around 88 million phones have been provided in the 

rural areas with a tele-density of around 11per cent. The government envisages providing 600 million 

connections by the end of 2012. This would necessitate an estimated requirement for equipment worth 

US$ 73 billion during the next five years and majority of it is expected to be realized through FDI, 

particularly in the area of mobile communication. 

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR RURAL TELECOM 

OPPORTUNITIES 

The developed mobile markets all over the world approach saturation, the industry has begun to 

consider ‘the next billion’ users. These are the rural populations living beyond the reach of traditional 

communications networks of any kind. 

The mobile phone population in India is growing by eight million phones per month. But rural teledensity 

has yet to break the 5% barrier (despite television penetration levels of 26% and growing). A 

huge population – 720 million people in 630,000 villages across 3.2 million square miles. There are 

almost same numbers of middle to high income households in rural areas (21.16 mn) as urban India 

(23.22 mn). 

Telecom would be a critical enabler in driving basic amenities to the rural population of the country 

such as: 

Education: With the median age of 25.1 years and over 40% of population below 19 years of age, 

India’s population is young. There arises the need to drive education to every nook and corner of the 

country and wireless connectivity could be the answer to that. 

Banking: 65 percent of Indian population is still unbanked. Rural India has 3 million active no-frills 

bank accounts as opposed to 140 million wireless connections. This clearly highlights a strong case for 

branchless banking through mobile to make basic credit facilities available. 

High disposable income in rural areas: Rural India contributes almost 45 percent to India’s GDP. 

Hence, if appropriate telecom services are offered at the prevailing prices, rural India can very well 

afford them. 

Data Usage and MoU from rural India: For Leading Telco’s, UP is the highest contributor to VAS 

revenues across circles and Bihar is highest contributor in terms of pre-paid recharges asserting the 

strong case of high MoU (Minutes of Usage) and data usage from rural India. Moreover, rural India 

has a PC (Personal Computer) to Mobile ratio of 3:26, which means that broadband might be 

accessible to rural India on the mobile before a PC. 

Government and regulatory initiatives: The investment of over INR 75,000 crore required to drive 

inclusive growth across 70 percent of the country’s population calls for a major involvement from the 


Indian government, similar to the initiatives taken by countries such as China, US & Australia. 

Government has INR 18,000 crore of funds at its disposal for enhancement of broadband penetration 

and rural telephony which can be utilized to setup DG supply infrastructure, run pilot projects for 

renewable energy sites and provide subsidies. 

CHALLENGES 

Energy and infrastructure woes: Availability of DG (Direct Grid) power, required for running the 

telecom towers, is the biggest challenge for rural areas. 

Big setup cost and low ARPU (Average Revenue Per User): The cost of setting up a tower is around 

INR 30 – 35 lakhs. Apart from this, setting up the infrastructure for roads, power, tower site and others 

would require a huge amount of capital expenditure from the Telecom service providers and from the 

government as well. Additionally, it is estimated that ARPU from rural consumer will be very low, 

almost 3 times lower compared to urban ARPU. That makes it a risky investment for telecom service 

providers. 

Spectrum Crunch: India has the second largest number of subscribers globally but one of the lowest 

spectrum allocation. An Indian TSP has 7-8 MHz of spectrum on an average against an international 

average of 17.5 MHz per TSP. 

CONCLUSION 

The paper was inspired by the fact that the market attractiveness of rural markets has been accepted by 

the major players of the telecom industry. Thus for success in rural telecom have to be innovative in 

both product which they offer and the ways in which they tackle the challenges posed by rural markets. 

The telecom sector in India has registered remarkable growth during last few years propelled largely 

by the unprecedented growth of the mobile telephony and various IT enabled services. As we all know 

the growth in infrastructure sector like telecom is not just the growth of a sector but it has multiplier 

effect on the entire economy. 

The key to the growth of telecom in India has been liberalization, reforms and competition. The 

positive regulatory framework has played a major role. Three years back, a target of 250 million 

telephone subscribers by 2007 was considered too ambitious. The overall tele-density of the country is 

already over 26 percent now. Today we have over 300 million telephone subscribers of which around 

40 million are wire-line subscribers. The developments in telecom sector have resulted in massive 

investments and explosion in supply, which are signs of a vigorous, competitive and fast-growing 

sector. 

While the tele-density in the urban areas is over 50 percent, in rural areas it is around eight percent 

only. Clearly, the future lies in the rural areas. Telecommunication access to rural India is going to be 

the most important development since the Green Revolution. 

Moreover rural telecom in India having lots of opportunities to perform and grow and with the 

entrance of new market players and technological advancement of telecom industry it is not far to 

overcome the exiting challenges. 

REFERENCES 

http://www.telecomlead.com/whitepaper/rural-telephony-in-india/ 

http://www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/telecom/building_rural_telecom_one_rupee_at_a_time.pdf 

http://www.imaginmor.com/telecom-india 


http://archive.ciol.com/News/News-Reports/Raja-calls-for-push-to-rural-telepenetration/24908110806/0/ 

http://www.trai.gov.in/Content/ShowPDF.aspx?LNK_PATH=WriteReaddata/StudyPaper/Document/N 

CAER--Report08june12.pdf 

http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/Miscelleneus/Document/201301150318386780062Annual%20 

Report%20English%202012.pdf 

http://indiafacts.in/india-census-2011/urban-rural-population-o-india/ 

http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS 

Rural Marketing In India, : G. Srinivas Rao,Anmol Publisher, 2002 

Rural Marketing: Targeting the Non Urban Consumer, Sanal Kumar Velayudhan, Response books, 

Sage Publications, Second Edition.

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