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TORRENTE ET AL. Improving the quality of social and pedagogical interactions at school seems particularly important in low-income and conflict-affected countries. Schools can reach large numbers of children and youth, and can play a protective role for students who face various forms of adversity in their homes and communities (Burde et al., under review; INEE 2010; de Jong 2010; Betancourt and Williams 2008; Mosselson, Wheaton, and Frisoli 2009; Winthrop and Kirk 2008). School experiences can bring normalcy and predictability to children’s lives, mitigate the negative effects that life stressors have on their mental health, and reduce the risk of future conflicts by nurturing students’ life skills and reducing inequality and social divides (UNICEF 2009; Burde et al., under review; de Jong 2010; Betancourt and Williams 2008; Mosselson, Wheaton, and Frisoli 2009; Winthrop and Kirk 2008). However, schools are not always able to accomplish this. Despite the importance of positive school experiences, strategies to improve the social and pedagogical interactions between students and teachers remain understudied in countries affected by poverty and conflict. This paper contributes to this small but growing body of literature by reporting one-year results from a cluster-randomized trial of Learning to Read in a Healing Classroom (LRHC), a program in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). LRHC is a universal school-based program aimed at improving the academic and psychosocial outcomes of children and youth by enhancing teacher motivation and well-being, and transforming the social and pedagogical interactions between students and teachers. We examine the effects of LRHC on two sets of outcomes: children’s perception of the quality of school interactions, specifically the levels of support/ care and predictability/cooperation in the school and classroom; and children’s subjective well-being, as measured by self-reports of peer victimization and mental health problems. 1 QUALITY SCHOOL INTERACTIONS Policy, theory, and research point to the quality of social and pedagogical interactions as key predictors of highly valued academic and lifespan outcomes. From a policy perspective, UNICEF’s Child Friendly Schools model strives to create learning environments that are physically healthy and safe, and socially and emotionally supportive (UNESCO 2004; UNICEF 2009). Similarly, the 2005 “Global Monitoring Report on Quality” (Deci and Ryan 2000; UNESCO 2004; Deci et al. 1991) points to interpersonal relationships between students and 1 See Aber et al. (preprint) and Wolf et al. (2015) for reports of the impact of LRHC on student reading and math achievement and teacher motivation and well-being. 50 Journal on Education in Emergencies
QUALITY SCHOOL INTERACTIONS AND STUDENT WELL-BEING IN THE DRC teachers as a central aspect of the learning process. Self-determination theory argues that student-teacher and student-student interactions, which fulfill basic psychological needs for autonomy, safety, connectedness, and competency, motivate students to pursue social and academic goals and are fundamental for mental health (Hughes et al. 2008; Deci and Ryan 2000; Deci et al. 1991). Correlational and longitudinal research from the United States lends support to these theoretical claims and policy goals. Trust, warmth, and a low level of conflict between teachers and students are associated with higher academic engagement and achievement, concurrently and over the long term (Ponitz et al. 2009; Hughes et al. 2008; Cameron et al. 2008; Reyes et al. 2012). Schools and classrooms that have predictable routines and behavioral expectations, and where students enjoy supportive relationships with their teachers and peers and engage in intellectually challenging activities, predict higher levels of motivation for learning and academic attainment (Merritt et al. 2012; Ponitz et al. 2009; NICHD 2003; Cameron et al. 2008; Wilson, Pianta, and Stuhlman 2007; Reyes et al. 2012; Suldo et al. 2009). Moreover, emotionally supportive classrooms characterized by warm and respectful interactions have been linked to a range of positive mental health outcomes, including improved social competence, life satisfaction, and behavioral self-control, as well as reduced depression, anxiety, and aggression (Merrit et al. 2012; NICHD 2003; Wilson, Pianta, and Stuhlman 2007; Suldo et al. 2009). Additional evidence is available from experimental evaluations of schoolbased social and emotional learning (SEL) programs in the U.S. and other highincome countries. In addition to teaching concrete social and emotional skills (e.g., self-awareness, managing emotions, responsible decision making), many SEL programs are built on the premise that establishing a safe, orderly, and emotionally supportive learning environment leads to improved student psychosocial and academic outcomes (Hanushek and Woessmann 2007; Hagelskamp et al. 2013; Gakidou et al. 2010; Jones et al. 2010; Collier and Sambanis 2002; Aber et al. 2011). A recent meta-analysis of over 200 SEL programs shows that SEL is a viable and effective approach to improving student outcomes (Durlak et al. 2011). Despite accumulating evidence from high-income countries, no experimental studies have been conducted in extremely poor and conflict-affected countries to examine whether universal school-based programs can improve the quality of classroom and school interactions, as well as students’ well-being and academic performance. A small number of non-experimental studies show promising results. An observational study of the Nueva Escuela Unitaria program in October 2015 51
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Page 6 and 7: BURDE power to guarantee the right
Page 8 and 9: BURDE ISSUES AND CONTENTS The journ
Page 10 and 11: BURDE Since the late 1990s, IRC has
Page 12 and 13: BURDE The authors note that working
Page 14 and 15: “WHETHER AND HOW?” HISTORY EDUC
Page 16 and 17: PAULSON children should be taught t
Page 18 and 19: PAULSON I conducted English languag
Page 20 and 21: PAULSON and Stammer 2013; Torsti 20
Page 22 and 23: PAULSON enquiry-based approach to t
Page 24 and 25: PAULSON The history of recent confl
Page 26 and 27: PAULSON (2004) explain that “pain
Page 28 and 29: PAULSON internal conflict in contem
Page 30 and 31: PAULSON context” (King 2014, 137)
Page 32 and 33: PAULSON In Israel, new history text
Page 34 and 35: PAULSON In addition to these positi
Page 36 and 37: PAULSON Controversy, Protest, and P
Page 38 and 39: PAULSON APPENDIX Analysis Author(s)
Page 40 and 41: PAULSON REFERENCES Ahonen, Sirkka.
Page 42 and 43: PAULSON Freedman, Sarah Warshauer,
Page 44 and 45: PAULSON Murphy, Karen, and Tony Gal
Page 46 and 47: PAULSON Stover, Eric, and Harvey M.
Page 48 and 49: IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL INT
Page 52 and 53: TORRENTE ET AL. postconflict Guatem
Page 54 and 55: TORRENTE ET AL. Only a handful of r
Page 56 and 57: TORRENTE ET AL. Africa. Teachers li
Page 58 and 59: TORRENTE ET AL. The integrated reso
Page 60 and 61: TORRENTE ET AL. strategy, whereby s
Page 62 and 63: TORRENTE ET AL. Student Sample Stud
Page 64 and 65: TORRENTE ET AL. for children from f
Page 66 and 67: TORRENTE ET AL. subsequently added
Page 68 and 69: TORRENTE ET AL. Characteristics at
Page 70 and 71: TORRENTE ET AL. of students’ gend
Page 72 and 73: TORRENTE ET AL. Table 3: Multilevel
Page 74 and 75: TORRENTE ET AL. Table 4: Three Leve
Page 76 and 77: TORRENTE ET AL. Mental Health Probl
Page 78 and 79: TORRENTE ET AL. Impacts on the Qual
Page 80 and 81: TORRENTE ET AL. Overall, these resu
Page 82 and 83: TORRENTE ET AL. et al. 2012). Colle
Page 84 and 85: TORRENTE ET AL. Burde, Dana, Amy Ka
Page 86 and 87: TORRENTE ET AL. Hagelskamp, Carolin
Page 88 and 89: TORRENTE ET AL. Miller, Kenneth E.
Page 90 and 91: TORRENTE ET AL. Tol, Wietse A., Cor
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Page 94 and 95: MENDENHALL ET AL. northwestern Keny
Page 96 and 97: MENDENHALL ET AL. Second, the langu
Page 98 and 99: MENDENHALL ET AL. colleagues, who i
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MENDENHALL ET AL. These principles
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MENDENHALL ET AL. attend schools se
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MENDENHALL ET AL. First, we selecte
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MENDENHALL ET AL. science teacher a
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MENDENHALL ET AL. There are many ty
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MENDENHALL ET AL. at Sud Academy, a
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MENDENHALL ET AL. Notably, the teac
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MENDENHALL ET AL. The confluence of
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MENDENHALL ET AL. New teachers ofte
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MENDENHALL ET AL. In our analysis,
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MENDENHALL ET AL. The head teacher
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MENDENHALL ET AL. particularly in c
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MENDENHALL ET AL. Government of Ken
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MENDENHALL ET AL. Sieff, Kevin. 201
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MENDENHALL ET AL. APPENDIX 1 List o
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MENDENHALL ET AL. 4.2 Teacher used
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REISMAN AND JANKE INTRODUCTION Usin
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REISMAN AND JANKE New challenges ar
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REISMAN AND JANKE youth aged 15 to
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REISMAN AND JANKE This improved acc
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REISMAN AND JANKE According to the
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REISMAN AND JANKE • Renovated or
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REISMAN AND JANKE To address these
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REISMAN AND JANKE • Accelerate im
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REISMAN AND JANKE takes place; anal
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REISMAN AND JANKE simply does not m
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REISMAN AND JANKE to 9-12 weeks per
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REISMAN AND JANKE Domain 4, Standar
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REISMAN AND JANKE In cases where go
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REISMAN AND JANKE • the costs of
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REISMAN AND JANKE • Where there i
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REISMAN AND JANKE To be useful in t
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REISMAN AND JANKE for what CSE can
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REISMAN AND JANKE Government of Sou
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BOOK REVIEW But King’s third mess
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BOOK REVIEW (Bickmore 1999). The re
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CONTRIBUTORS J. LAWRENCE ABER (la39
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CONTRIBUTORS research has shown tha
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CONTRIBUTORS Homelessness; and she
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development and application of tool
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