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TORRENTE ET AL. Overall, these results provide partial support for universal school-based programs’ effectiveness in transforming the quality of students’ school experiences in low-income countries affected by conflict. However, the unintended consequences for students’ perceptions of predictability and cooperation are a reason for concern and merit further exploration. In particular, systematic observational and qualitative methodologies are needed to unveil the processes whereby school programs, such as LRHC, may disrupt students’ perceptions of predictability and cooperation in the school and classroom. Further research also can help determine whether increased familiarity with the program leads to more positive and fewer negative results. IMPACTS ON STUDENTS’ SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING Learning to Read in a Healing Classroom attempts to transform the quality of social and instructional interactions between students and teachers in order to improve student well-being. Therefore, after one year of partial implementation, we expected the program to have a weaker impact on students’ well-being than on the quality of school interactions. Perhaps not surprisingly, then, our analyses revealed no statistically detectable differences for students’ victimization and mental health problems between the treatment and control conditions. Two potential explanations for these null findings are the heterogeneity of treatment impacts for subgroups of students, and the mixed impacts found for the quality of social and instructional interactions. First, our results revealed significant heterogeneity of treatment effects as a function of student characteristics, which indicates that the program did not have the same impact on all students. Subgroup differences did not reach statistical significance, but they still may have prevented our finding a statistically significant main treatment effect. Prior evaluations of secondary mental health programs in similar contexts have found heterogeneous and significantly negative impacts for subgroups of students (Jordans et al. 2010; Tol et al. 2012). Our results, and those of prior studies, indicate that programs designed to address the needs of children in these challenging circumstances need to be further refined to become more effective, or to at least avoid harming some subgroups of children. Second, we found that the program had mixed but statistically significant impacts on the quality of school interactions (i.e., positive effects on students’ perceptions of supportive schools and teachers, and negative effects on predictability and cooperation). These mixed impacts may explain the mixed effects on students’ well-being. For instance, it is possible that the program had negative effects among students for whom school plays an important compensatory role in terms of safety and predictability. Analyses conducted 80 Journal on Education in Emergencies
QUALITY SCHOOL INTERACTIONS AND STUDENT WELL-BEING IN THE DRC after two years of implementation will help determine whether the differential treatment effects are sustained or attenuated once participants become more familiar with the program. Altogether, the results indicate that, after one year of partial implementation, LRHC did not have an overall positive or negative effect on students’ well-being. The findings also suggest that the program had differential impacts for different subgroups of students. These findings, however, are inconclusive and await replication. LIMITATIONS Although the present study has a number of strengths, it also has several important limitations that should be kept in mind. First, we relied on students’ self-reports to measure the four outcomes of interest. Self-reports are subject to the bias of social desirability, depend on individuals’ introspection, and do not always overlap with information gathered from other sources. However, they are a relatively inexpensive method of gathering information from large samples and, except for predictable and cooperative school environments, we were careful to adapt questions that had been previously validated with elementary school students and, when possible, with students in African countries. Moreover, students’ perceptions of the school environment, their teachers, and their own sense of safety and connectedness have been linked to other important academic outcomes (Kane and Staiger 2012), and therefore it is important to examine them when evaluating a program that aims to improve children’s well-being and learning opportunities. Second, we were unable to track individual students over time. Modeling individual baseline scores would have increased our power to detect treatment impacts by reducing the amount of unexplained variance at the individual level. In addition, we could have tested whether program impacts varied as a function of individual baseline characteristics (e.g., household poverty, academic performance, etc.). Instead, we adjusted for baseline characteristics at the school level and tested treatment interactions with time-invariant student characteristics (e.g., gender and language). Third, there are potential moderators of treatment impacts that we were not able to measure during the first year of the study. For example, we did not measure fidelity of implementation or directly assess students’ exposure to violence or daily stressors related to conflict. These factors have been found to moderate the impact of similar school-based programs (Tol October 2015 81
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VOLUME 1 NUMBER 1 OCTOBER 2015 JOUR
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JOURNAL ON EDUCATION IN EMERGENCIES
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BURDE power to guarantee the right
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BURDE ISSUES AND CONTENTS The journ
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BURDE Since the late 1990s, IRC has
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BURDE The authors note that working
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“WHETHER AND HOW?” HISTORY EDUC
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PAULSON children should be taught t
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PAULSON I conducted English languag
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PAULSON and Stammer 2013; Torsti 20
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PAULSON enquiry-based approach to t
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PAULSON The history of recent confl
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PAULSON (2004) explain that “pain
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PAULSON internal conflict in contem
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Page 32 and 33: PAULSON In Israel, new history text
Page 34 and 35: PAULSON In addition to these positi
Page 36 and 37: PAULSON Controversy, Protest, and P
Page 38 and 39: PAULSON APPENDIX Analysis Author(s)
Page 40 and 41: PAULSON REFERENCES Ahonen, Sirkka.
Page 42 and 43: PAULSON Freedman, Sarah Warshauer,
Page 44 and 45: PAULSON Murphy, Karen, and Tony Gal
Page 46 and 47: PAULSON Stover, Eric, and Harvey M.
Page 48 and 49: IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL INT
Page 50 and 51: TORRENTE ET AL. Improving the quali
Page 52 and 53: TORRENTE ET AL. postconflict Guatem
Page 54 and 55: TORRENTE ET AL. Only a handful of r
Page 56 and 57: TORRENTE ET AL. Africa. Teachers li
Page 58 and 59: TORRENTE ET AL. The integrated reso
Page 60 and 61: TORRENTE ET AL. strategy, whereby s
Page 62 and 63: TORRENTE ET AL. Student Sample Stud
Page 64 and 65: TORRENTE ET AL. for children from f
Page 66 and 67: TORRENTE ET AL. subsequently added
Page 68 and 69: TORRENTE ET AL. Characteristics at
Page 70 and 71: TORRENTE ET AL. of students’ gend
Page 72 and 73: TORRENTE ET AL. Table 3: Multilevel
Page 74 and 75: TORRENTE ET AL. Table 4: Three Leve
Page 76 and 77: TORRENTE ET AL. Mental Health Probl
Page 78 and 79: TORRENTE ET AL. Impacts on the Qual
Page 82 and 83: TORRENTE ET AL. et al. 2012). Colle
Page 84 and 85: TORRENTE ET AL. Burde, Dana, Amy Ka
Page 86 and 87: TORRENTE ET AL. Hagelskamp, Carolin
Page 88 and 89: TORRENTE ET AL. Miller, Kenneth E.
Page 90 and 91: TORRENTE ET AL. Tol, Wietse A., Cor
Page 92 and 93: QUALITY EDUCATION FOR REFUGEES IN K
Page 94 and 95: MENDENHALL ET AL. northwestern Keny
Page 96 and 97: MENDENHALL ET AL. Second, the langu
Page 98 and 99: MENDENHALL ET AL. colleagues, who i
Page 100 and 101: MENDENHALL ET AL. These principles
Page 102 and 103: MENDENHALL ET AL. attend schools se
Page 104 and 105: MENDENHALL ET AL. First, we selecte
Page 106 and 107: MENDENHALL ET AL. science teacher a
Page 108 and 109: MENDENHALL ET AL. There are many ty
Page 110 and 111: MENDENHALL ET AL. at Sud Academy, a
Page 112 and 113: MENDENHALL ET AL. Notably, the teac
Page 114 and 115: MENDENHALL ET AL. The confluence of
Page 116 and 117: MENDENHALL ET AL. New teachers ofte
Page 118 and 119: MENDENHALL ET AL. In our analysis,
Page 120 and 121: MENDENHALL ET AL. The head teacher
Page 122 and 123: MENDENHALL ET AL. particularly in c
Page 124 and 125: MENDENHALL ET AL. Government of Ken
Page 126 and 127: MENDENHALL ET AL. Sieff, Kevin. 201
Page 128 and 129: MENDENHALL ET AL. APPENDIX 1 List o
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MENDENHALL ET AL. 4.2 Teacher used
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REISMAN AND JANKE INTRODUCTION Usin
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REISMAN AND JANKE New challenges ar
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REISMAN AND JANKE youth aged 15 to
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REISMAN AND JANKE This improved acc
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REISMAN AND JANKE According to the
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REISMAN AND JANKE • Renovated or
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REISMAN AND JANKE To address these
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REISMAN AND JANKE • Accelerate im
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REISMAN AND JANKE takes place; anal
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REISMAN AND JANKE simply does not m
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REISMAN AND JANKE to 9-12 weeks per
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REISMAN AND JANKE Domain 4, Standar
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REISMAN AND JANKE In cases where go
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REISMAN AND JANKE • the costs of
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REISMAN AND JANKE • Where there i
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REISMAN AND JANKE To be useful in t
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REISMAN AND JANKE for what CSE can
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REISMAN AND JANKE Government of Sou
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BOOK REVIEW But King’s third mess
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BOOK REVIEW (Bickmore 1999). The re
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CONTRIBUTORS J. LAWRENCE ABER (la39
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CONTRIBUTORS research has shown tha
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CONTRIBUTORS Homelessness; and she
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development and application of tool
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