MODAL ANALYSIS - the Dept. of Mechanical Engineering at - Vrije ...
MODAL ANALYSIS - the Dept. of Mechanical Engineering at - Vrije ...
MODAL ANALYSIS - the Dept. of Mechanical Engineering at - Vrije ...
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<strong>MODAL</strong> <strong>ANALYSIS</strong><br />
P<strong>at</strong>rick Guillaume, Department <strong>of</strong> <strong>Mechanical</strong> <strong>Engineering</strong>,<strong>Vrije</strong> Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan<br />
2, B-1050 Brussel, Belgium.<br />
Keywords: Vibr<strong>at</strong>ion, Estim<strong>at</strong>ion, Frequency domain, Modal analysis, Modal parameters, N<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
frequency, Damping, Mode shapes, Transfer function, SISO, MIMO, <strong>Mechanical</strong> systems, SDOF,<br />
MDOF.<br />
Contents<br />
1. Introduction<br />
2. The “Modal” Model<br />
2.1. Single Degree <strong>of</strong> Freedom<br />
2.2. Multiple Degree <strong>of</strong> Freedom<br />
2.2.1. Mode Shapes and Oper<strong>at</strong>ing Deflection Shapes<br />
2.2.2. Observability and Controllability <strong>of</strong> Modes<br />
3. Frequency-Domain Identific<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> Modes<br />
3.1. Least-Squares Estim<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
3.1.1. Common-Denomin<strong>at</strong>or Model<br />
3.1.2. Linearity in <strong>the</strong> Parameters<br />
3.1.3. Normal Equ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
3.1.4. Reduced Normal Equ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
3.1.5. Stabiliz<strong>at</strong>ion Chart<br />
3.2. Maximum Likelihood Estim<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
3.2.1. Gauss-Newton Optimiz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
3.2.2. Confidence Intervals<br />
4. Applic<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
5. Conclusion<br />
Glossary<br />
DOF: Degree <strong>of</strong> freedom.<br />
FRF: Frequency response function.<br />
GTLS: Generalized total least squares.<br />
IQML: Iter<strong>at</strong>ive quadr<strong>at</strong>ic maximum likelihood.<br />
IRF: Impulse response function.<br />
LS: Least squares.<br />
LSCE: Least squares complex exponential.<br />
MDOF: Multiple-degree-<strong>of</strong>-freedom.<br />
ML: Maximum likelihood.<br />
MIMO: Multiple-input-multiple-output<br />
SDOF: Single-degree-<strong>of</strong>-freedom.<br />
SISO: Single-input-single-output.<br />
TLS: Total least squares.
Summary<br />
In this contribution <strong>the</strong> applicability <strong>of</strong> frequency-domain estim<strong>at</strong>ors in <strong>the</strong> field <strong>of</strong> modal analysis<br />
will be illustr<strong>at</strong>ed. The basics <strong>of</strong> vibr<strong>at</strong>ion and modal analysis are briefly summarized. In modal<br />
analysis, mechanical systems with a few inputs and hundreds <strong>of</strong> outputs have to be identified. This<br />
requires adapted frequency-domain estim<strong>at</strong>ors designed to handle large amount <strong>of</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a in a<br />
reasonable amount <strong>of</strong> time. A practical example will be given and finally <strong>the</strong> conclusions will be<br />
drawn.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
It is well known th<strong>at</strong> (mechanical) structures can reson<strong>at</strong>e, i.e. th<strong>at</strong> small forces can result in<br />
important deform<strong>at</strong>ion, and possibly, damage can be induced in <strong>the</strong> structure.<br />
Figure 1: Tacoma Narrows Bridge Disaster.<br />
The Tacoma Narrows bridge disaster (Figure 1) is a typical example <strong>of</strong> this. On November 7, 1940,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge collapsed due to wind-induced vibr<strong>at</strong>ion (i.e. flutter).<br />
Situ<strong>at</strong>ed on <strong>the</strong> Tacoma Narrows in Puget Sound, near <strong>the</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Tacoma, Washington, <strong>the</strong> bridge<br />
had only been open for traffic a few months.<br />
Wings <strong>of</strong> airplanes can be subjected to similar flutter phenomena during flight. Before an airplane is<br />
released, flight flutter tests have to be performed to detect possible onset <strong>of</strong> flutter. The classical<br />
flight flutter testing approach is to expand <strong>the</strong> flight envelope <strong>of</strong> a airplane by performing a<br />
vibr<strong>at</strong>ion test <strong>at</strong> constant flight conditions, curve-fit <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a to estim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> resonance frequencies<br />
and damping r<strong>at</strong>ios, and <strong>the</strong>n to plot <strong>the</strong>se frequencies and damping estim<strong>at</strong>es against flight speed or<br />
Mach number. The damping values are <strong>the</strong>n extrapol<strong>at</strong>ed in order to determine whe<strong>the</strong>r it is save to<br />
proceed to <strong>the</strong> next flight test point. Flutter will occur when one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> damping values tends to<br />
become neg<strong>at</strong>ive. Before starting <strong>the</strong> flight tests, ground vibr<strong>at</strong>ion tests as well as numerical<br />
simul<strong>at</strong>ions and wind tunnel tests (see Figure 2) are used to get some prior insight into <strong>the</strong> problem.
(a) (b)<br />
Figure 2: Wind tunnel tests on a scaled model <strong>of</strong> (a) a Cessna and (b) an Airbus A380.<br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> structures can be made to reson<strong>at</strong>e, i.e. to vibr<strong>at</strong>e with excessive oscill<strong>at</strong>ory motion.<br />
Resonant vibr<strong>at</strong>ion is mainly caused by an interaction between <strong>the</strong> inertial and elastic properties <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erials within a structure. Resonance is <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong>, or <strong>at</strong> least a contributing factor to<br />
many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vibr<strong>at</strong>ion and noise rel<strong>at</strong>ed problems th<strong>at</strong> occur in structures and oper<strong>at</strong>ing machinery.<br />
To better understand any structural vibr<strong>at</strong>ion problem, <strong>the</strong> resonant frequencies <strong>of</strong> a structure need<br />
to be identified and quantified. Today, modal analysis has become a widespread means <strong>of</strong> finding<br />
<strong>the</strong> modes <strong>of</strong> vibr<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> a machine or structure (Figure 3). In every development <strong>of</strong> a new or<br />
improved mechanical product, structural dynamics testing on product prototypes is used to assess its<br />
real dynamic behavior.<br />
2. The “Modal” Model<br />
Figure 3: Modal analysis <strong>of</strong> a car body.<br />
Modes are inherent properties <strong>of</strong> a structure, and are determined by <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial properties (mass,<br />
damping, and stiffness), and boundary conditions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> structure. Each mode is defined by a n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
(modal or resonant) frequency, modal damping, and a mode shape (i.e. <strong>the</strong> so-called “modal<br />
parameters”). If ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial properties or <strong>the</strong> boundary conditions <strong>of</strong> a structure change, its<br />
modes will change. For instance, if mass is added to a structure, it will vibr<strong>at</strong>e differently. To<br />
understand this, we will make use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> single and multiple-degree-<strong>of</strong>-freedom systems.
2.1 Single Degree <strong>of</strong> Freedom<br />
A single-degree-<strong>of</strong>-freedom (SDOF) system (see Figure 4 where <strong>the</strong> mass m can only move along<br />
<strong>the</strong> vertical x-axis) is described by <strong>the</strong> following equ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
m � x�<br />
( t)<br />
+ cx�<br />
( t)<br />
+ kx(<br />
t)<br />
= f ( t)<br />
(1)<br />
with m <strong>the</strong> mass, c <strong>the</strong> damping coefficient, and k <strong>the</strong> stiffness. This equ<strong>at</strong>ion st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> sum <strong>of</strong><br />
all forces acting on <strong>the</strong> mass m should be equal to zero with f (t)<br />
an externally applied force,<br />
− m�x �(t)<br />
<strong>the</strong> inertial force, − c� x(t)<br />
<strong>the</strong> (viscous) damping force, and − kx(t)<br />
<strong>the</strong> restoring force. The<br />
variable x (t)<br />
stands for <strong>the</strong> position <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mass m with respect to its equilibrium point, i.e. <strong>the</strong><br />
position <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mass when f ( t)<br />
≡ 0 . Transforming (1) to <strong>the</strong> Laplace domain (assuming zero initial<br />
conditions) yields<br />
Z ( s)<br />
X ( s)<br />
= F(<br />
s)<br />
(2)<br />
with Z (s)<br />
<strong>the</strong> dynamic stiffness<br />
2<br />
Z ( s)<br />
= ms + cs + k<br />
(3)<br />
The transfer function H (s)<br />
between displacement and force, X ( s)<br />
= H ( s)<br />
F(<br />
s)<br />
, equals <strong>the</strong> inverse<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dynamic stiffness<br />
1<br />
H ( s)<br />
= (4)<br />
2<br />
ms + cs + k<br />
Figure 4: SDOF system.<br />
2<br />
The roots <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> denomin<strong>at</strong>or <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> transfer function, i.e. d ( s)<br />
= ms + cs + k , are <strong>the</strong> poles <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
system. In mechanical structures, <strong>the</strong> damping coefficient c is usually very small resulting in a<br />
complex conjug<strong>at</strong>e pole pair<br />
λ = −σ<br />
± iω<br />
(5)<br />
d<br />
with f = ω 2π<br />
<strong>the</strong> damped n<strong>at</strong>ural frequency,<br />
d<br />
d<br />
f = ω 2π<br />
<strong>the</strong> (undamped) n<strong>at</strong>ural frequency where ω = k m = λ , and<br />
n<br />
n<br />
ζ = c 2 mωn<br />
= σ λ <strong>the</strong> damping r<strong>at</strong>io ( f d = f n<br />
2<br />
1 − ζ ).<br />
If, for instance, a mass Δ m is added to <strong>the</strong> original mass m <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> structure, its n<strong>at</strong>ural frequency<br />
decreases to ω n = k ( m + Δm)<br />
. If c = 0 , <strong>the</strong> system is not damped and <strong>the</strong> poles becomes purely<br />
imaginary, λ = ± iωn<br />
.<br />
n
The Frequency Response Function (FRF), denoted by H (ω)<br />
, is obtain by replacing <strong>the</strong> Laplace<br />
variable s in (4) by i ω resulting in<br />
1<br />
1<br />
H ( ω)<br />
= =<br />
(6)<br />
2<br />
2<br />
− mω<br />
+ icω<br />
+ k ( k − mω<br />
) + icω<br />
Clearly, if c = 0 , <strong>the</strong>n H (ω)<br />
goes to infinity for ω → ω k m (see Figure 4).<br />
Although very few practical structures could realistically be modeled by a single-degree-<strong>of</strong>-freedom<br />
(SDOF) system, <strong>the</strong> properties <strong>of</strong> such a system are important because those <strong>of</strong> a more complex<br />
multiple-degree-<strong>of</strong>-freedom (MDOF) system can always be represented as <strong>the</strong> linear superposition<br />
<strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> SDOF characteristics (when <strong>the</strong> system is linear time-invariant).<br />
2.2 Multiple Degree <strong>of</strong> Freedom<br />
Multiple-degree-<strong>of</strong>-freedom (MDOF) systems are described by <strong>the</strong> following equ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
M x�<br />
�(<br />
t) + Cx�<br />
( t)<br />
+ Kx(<br />
t)<br />
= f(<br />
t)<br />
(7)<br />
In Figure 5, <strong>the</strong> different m<strong>at</strong>rices are defined for a 2-DOF system with both DOF along <strong>the</strong> vertical<br />
x-axis.<br />
f 1 (t)<br />
k 1<br />
f 2 (t)<br />
k 2<br />
m 2<br />
m 1<br />
c 2<br />
c 1<br />
x 2 (t)<br />
x 1 (t)<br />
⎡m<br />
M =<br />
⎢<br />
⎣<br />
1<br />
0<br />
n =<br />
⎡k1<br />
+ k<br />
K = ⎢<br />
⎣ − k2<br />
⎡c1<br />
+ c<br />
C = ⎢<br />
⎣ − c2<br />
0 ⎤<br />
m<br />
⎥<br />
2⎦<br />
2<br />
2<br />
− k<br />
k<br />
2<br />
− c<br />
Figure 5: 2-DOF system.<br />
c<br />
2<br />
⎤<br />
⎥<br />
⎦<br />
2<br />
⎤<br />
⎥<br />
⎦<br />
2<br />
⎧ f1(<br />
t)<br />
⎫<br />
f(<br />
t)<br />
= ⎨ ⎬<br />
⎩ f2(<br />
t)<br />
⎭<br />
⎧ x1(<br />
t)<br />
⎫<br />
x(<br />
t)<br />
= ⎨ ⎬<br />
⎩x2<br />
( t)<br />
⎭<br />
Transforming (7) to <strong>the</strong> Laplace domain (assuming zero initial conditions) yields<br />
Z( s) X(<br />
s)<br />
= F(<br />
s)<br />
(8)<br />
with Z (s)<br />
<strong>the</strong> dynamic stiffness m<strong>at</strong>rix<br />
2<br />
Z ( s)<br />
= Ms<br />
+ Cs<br />
+ K<br />
(9)<br />
The transfer function m<strong>at</strong>rix H (s)<br />
between displacement and force vectors, X ( s) = H(<br />
s)<br />
F(<br />
s)<br />
,<br />
equals <strong>the</strong> inverse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dynamic stiffness m<strong>at</strong>rix<br />
2<br />
−1<br />
N(<br />
s)<br />
H ( s)<br />
= [ Ms<br />
+ Cs<br />
+ K]<br />
=<br />
d(<br />
s)<br />
with <strong>the</strong> numer<strong>at</strong>or polynomial m<strong>at</strong>rix N (s)<br />
given by<br />
2<br />
N ( s ) = adj(<br />
Ms<br />
+ Cs<br />
+ K)<br />
(11)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> common-denomin<strong>at</strong>or polynomial d (s)<br />
, also known as <strong>the</strong> characteristic polynomial,<br />
2<br />
d ( s)<br />
= det( M s + Cs<br />
+ K)<br />
(12)<br />
(10)
When <strong>the</strong> damping is small, <strong>the</strong> roots <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> characteristic polynomial d (s)<br />
are complex conjug<strong>at</strong>e<br />
∗<br />
pole pairs, λ m and λ m , m = 1, �,<br />
N m , with N m <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> modes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> system. The transfer<br />
function can be rewritten in a pole-residue form, i.e. <strong>the</strong> so-called “modal” model (assuming all<br />
poles have multiplicity one)<br />
= m N<br />
R R<br />
H ( s)<br />
(13)<br />
∗<br />
m<br />
m<br />
∑ + ∗<br />
m= 1 s − λm<br />
s − λm<br />
The residue m<strong>at</strong>rices R m , m = 1, �,<br />
N m , are defined by<br />
R m lim H(<br />
s)(<br />
s − λm<br />
)<br />
(14)<br />
=<br />
s→λ<br />
m<br />
It can be shown th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>rix m R is <strong>of</strong> rank one meaning th<strong>at</strong> R m can be decomposed as<br />
⎧ ψ m ( 1)<br />
⎫<br />
⎪<br />
ψ ( 2)<br />
⎪<br />
T ⎪ m ⎪<br />
R m = m m = ⎨ ⎬⎣ψ<br />
m ( 1)<br />
ψ m ( 2)<br />
� ψ m ( N m ) ⎦<br />
(15)<br />
⎪ � ⎪<br />
⎪⎩<br />
ψ m ( N m ) ⎪⎭<br />
with m a vector representing <strong>the</strong> “mode shape” <strong>of</strong> mode m. From equ<strong>at</strong>ion (13), one concludes<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> transfer function m<strong>at</strong>rix <strong>of</strong> a linear time-invariant MDOF system with N m DOFs is <strong>the</strong> sum<br />
<strong>of</strong> N m SDOF transfer functions (“modal superposition”) and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> full transfer function m<strong>at</strong>rix is<br />
completely characterized by <strong>the</strong> modal parameters, i.e. <strong>the</strong> poles λ m = −σ<br />
m ± i ωd<br />
, m and <strong>the</strong> mode<br />
shape vectors m , m N m , , = 1 � .<br />
Taking <strong>the</strong> inverse Laplace transform <strong>of</strong> (13) gives <strong>the</strong> Impulse Response Function (IRF)<br />
N<br />
∑<br />
m=<br />
1<br />
∗<br />
m<br />
∗<br />
m<br />
λmt<br />
λ t<br />
h ( t)<br />
R e + R e<br />
(16)<br />
= m<br />
m<br />
which consists <strong>of</strong> a sum <strong>of</strong> complex exponential functions.<br />
2.2.1 Mode Shapes and Oper<strong>at</strong>ing Deflection Shapes<br />
At or near <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural frequency <strong>of</strong> a mode, <strong>the</strong> overall vibr<strong>at</strong>ion shape (“oper<strong>at</strong>ing deflection<br />
shape”) <strong>of</strong> a structure will tend to be domin<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> mode shape <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> resonance. Applying a<br />
harmonic force <strong>at</strong> one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> DOFs, say r, with angular frequency corresponding to <strong>the</strong> damped<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ural frequency <strong>of</strong> for instance <strong>the</strong> n-th mode, i.e. s = iω<br />
d , n , results in a displacement vector th<strong>at</strong><br />
is approxim<strong>at</strong>ely equal to<br />
nψ<br />
n ( r)<br />
X( ω d , n ) ≈ Fr<br />
( ωd<br />
, n )<br />
(17)<br />
σ<br />
n<br />
The observed displacement <strong>at</strong> angular frequency ω d , n is called an “oper<strong>at</strong>ing deflection shapes” and<br />
is approxim<strong>at</strong>ely proportional to <strong>the</strong> mode shape vector <strong>of</strong> mode n, i.e. n . When σ n is small, <strong>the</strong><br />
proportionality is well s<strong>at</strong>isfied. In reality, <strong>the</strong>re will always be a (small) contribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
modes resulting in<br />
⎛<br />
Nm<br />
Nm<br />
∗ ∗ ⎞<br />
⎜ nψ<br />
n ( r)<br />
mψ<br />
m ( r)<br />
mψ<br />
m ( r)<br />
⎟<br />
X ( ω d , n ) = ⎜ + ∑<br />
+ ∑<br />
Fr<br />
( ωd<br />
, n )<br />
σ n m 1 σ m i(<br />
ωn<br />
ωm<br />
) m 1 σ m i(<br />
ωn<br />
ω m )<br />
⎟<br />
(18)<br />
⎜<br />
= + −<br />
= + + ⎟<br />
⎝<br />
m≠n<br />
⎠
2.2.2 Observability and Controllability <strong>of</strong> Modes<br />
Assuming, for example, th<strong>at</strong> one force is applied in DOF 1 while <strong>the</strong> displacement is observed in<br />
DOF 2. In th<strong>at</strong> case, <strong>the</strong> multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) transfer function m<strong>at</strong>rix simplifies<br />
to <strong>the</strong> following single-input-single-output (SISO) transfer function<br />
H<br />
2,<br />
1<br />
( s)<br />
= m N<br />
ψ<br />
( 2)<br />
⋅ψ<br />
( 1)<br />
ψ<br />
( 2)<br />
⋅ψ<br />
( 1)<br />
∗ ∗<br />
m m<br />
m m<br />
∑ +<br />
∗<br />
m= 1 s − λm<br />
s − λm<br />
If ψ n ( 1)<br />
≠ 0 <strong>the</strong>n mode n will only be “observed” in DOF 2 if ψ n ( 2)<br />
≠ 0 . If ψ n ( 1)<br />
= 0 <strong>the</strong>n it is<br />
clear th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> terms corresponding to mode n will not appear in <strong>the</strong> sum, i.e. mode n cannot be<br />
excited (or “controlled”) by applying a force in DOF 1. The DOFs where a mode shape vector<br />
equals zero are called nodal points or nodes. In practice, this means th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> force actu<strong>at</strong>or should<br />
not be positioned in a nodal point <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> modes <strong>of</strong> interest. To reduce <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> missing modes, <strong>the</strong><br />
number <strong>of</strong> excit<strong>at</strong>ion points can be increased. The same is true for <strong>the</strong> response measurements. The<br />
number <strong>of</strong> inputs (excit<strong>at</strong>ion points) is typically in <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> 1 to 10, while <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> outputs<br />
(response measurements) can reach more than 1000 points when using optical measurement<br />
equipment such as for instance a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer.<br />
3. Frequency-Domain Identific<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> Modes<br />
Typical for modal analysis is <strong>the</strong> very large number <strong>of</strong> outputs. This huge amount <strong>of</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a requires<br />
dedic<strong>at</strong>ed algorithms th<strong>at</strong> balance between accuracy and memory/computing needs. In Section 3.1<br />
such a ‘dedic<strong>at</strong>ed’ frequency-domain least-squares estim<strong>at</strong>or will be presented. Based on <strong>the</strong>se<br />
results, it is possible to implement more sophistic<strong>at</strong>ed identific<strong>at</strong>ion methods (see 6.43.8.2<br />
Estim<strong>at</strong>ion with Known Noise Model and 6.43.8.4 Estim<strong>at</strong>ion with Unknown Noise Model) such as<br />
for instance <strong>the</strong> frequency-domain Maximum Likelihood (ML) estim<strong>at</strong>or (Section 3.2).<br />
3.1 Least Squares Estim<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
3.1.1 Common-Denomin<strong>at</strong>or Model<br />
The rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between output o ( o = 1, �,<br />
N o ) and input i ( i = 1, �,<br />
N i ) is modeled in <strong>the</strong><br />
frequency domain by means <strong>of</strong> a common-denomin<strong>at</strong>or transfer function<br />
ˆ N k ( ω)<br />
H k ( ω)<br />
= (20)<br />
d(<br />
ω)<br />
for k = 1, �,<br />
N o N i (where k = ( o −1)<br />
N i + i ) and with<br />
k<br />
n<br />
∑<br />
j=<br />
0<br />
N ( ω ) = Ω ( ω)<br />
B<br />
(21)<br />
j<br />
kj<br />
<strong>the</strong> numer<strong>at</strong>or polynomial between output o and input i and<br />
n<br />
∑<br />
j=<br />
0<br />
d(<br />
ω ) = Ω ( ω)<br />
A<br />
(22)<br />
j<br />
j<br />
<strong>the</strong> common-denomin<strong>at</strong>or polynomial. The real-valued coefficients j A and B kj are <strong>the</strong> parameters<br />
to be estim<strong>at</strong>ed. Several choices are possible for <strong>the</strong> polynomial basis functions Ω j (ω)<br />
. For a<br />
discrete-time domain model, <strong>the</strong> functions Ω j (ω)<br />
are usually given by Ω j ( ω ) = exp( −iωTs<br />
⋅ j)<br />
j<br />
(with T s <strong>the</strong> sampling period) while for a continuous-time domain model Ω ( ω ) = ( iω)<br />
. The bad<br />
j<br />
(19)
numerical conditioning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> continuous-time domain approach can be improved by using for<br />
instance orthogonal Forsy<strong>the</strong> polynomials (<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> expense <strong>of</strong> an increase <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> comput<strong>at</strong>ion time).<br />
3.1.2 Linearity in <strong>the</strong> Parameters<br />
In modal analysis, measurements <strong>of</strong> Frequency Response Functions (FRFs) are commonly used (see<br />
6.43.8.1 Measurements <strong>of</strong> Frequency response functions). Replacing <strong>the</strong> model H ˆ ( ω)<br />
in (20) by<br />
<strong>the</strong> measured FRFs H k ( ω f ) for f N f , , = 1 � gives, after multiplic<strong>at</strong>ion with <strong>the</strong> denomin<strong>at</strong>or<br />
polynomial,<br />
n<br />
∑ ∑<br />
Ω ( ω ) B − Ω ( ω ) H ( ω ) A ≈ 0<br />
(23)<br />
j f kj<br />
j=<br />
0 j=<br />
0<br />
n<br />
j<br />
f<br />
k<br />
f<br />
j<br />
with o i N N k , , 1 � = and f N f , , = 1 � . Because <strong>the</strong> equ<strong>at</strong>ions (23) are “linear-in-<strong>the</strong>-parameters”,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y can be reformul<strong>at</strong>ed as<br />
with<br />
⎡X<br />
⎢<br />
0<br />
⎢<br />
⎢ �<br />
⎢<br />
⎣<br />
0<br />
1<br />
k<br />
0<br />
X<br />
0<br />
2<br />
�<br />
�<br />
X<br />
⎧Bk<br />
0 ⎫<br />
⎪ ⎪<br />
⎪Bk<br />
1 ⎪<br />
= ⎨ ⎬ ,<br />
⎪ � ⎪<br />
⎪⎩<br />
B ⎪ kn ⎭<br />
0<br />
0<br />
N N<br />
o<br />
i<br />
Y<br />
Y<br />
Y<br />
�<br />
1<br />
2<br />
N N<br />
o<br />
⎧A0<br />
⎫<br />
⎪ ⎪<br />
⎪ A1<br />
⎪<br />
= ⎨ ⎬<br />
⎪ � ⎪<br />
⎪⎩<br />
A ⎪ n ⎭<br />
i<br />
⎧<br />
⎤ ⎪<br />
⎥ ⎪<br />
⎥ ⋅ ⎨<br />
⎥<br />
⎪<br />
⎥<br />
⎦<br />
⎪<br />
⎪⎩<br />
�<br />
1<br />
2<br />
N N<br />
o<br />
i<br />
⎫<br />
⎪<br />
⎪<br />
⎬ ≈ 0<br />
⎪<br />
⎪<br />
⎪⎭<br />
⎡ W<br />
⎤<br />
k ( ω1<br />
)[ Ω0<br />
( ω1<br />
) , Ω1<br />
( ω1<br />
) , �,<br />
Ωn<br />
( ω1<br />
) ]<br />
⎢<br />
⎥<br />
X k = ⎢<br />
�<br />
⎥<br />
(26)<br />
⎢<br />
⎥<br />
⎣<br />
Wk<br />
( ω N )[ Ω0<br />
( ω ) , Ω1<br />
( ) , , Ω ( ) ]<br />
f<br />
N ω<br />
f<br />
N � f<br />
n ω N f ⎦<br />
⎡ −W<br />
⎤<br />
k ( ω1)[<br />
Ω0(<br />
ω1)<br />
H k ( ω1<br />
) , Ω1<br />
( ω1<br />
) H k ( ω1<br />
) , �,<br />
Ωn<br />
( ω1<br />
) H k ( ω1<br />
) ]<br />
⎢<br />
⎥<br />
Y k = ⎢<br />
�<br />
⎥ (27)<br />
⎢<br />
⎥<br />
⎣<br />
−Wk<br />
( ω N )[ Ω0<br />
( ω ) ( ) , Ω1<br />
( ) ( ) , , Ω ( ) ( ) ]<br />
f<br />
N H<br />
f k ω N ω<br />
f<br />
N H<br />
f k ω N � f<br />
n ω N H<br />
f k ω N f ⎦<br />
Note th<strong>at</strong> every equ<strong>at</strong>ion in (23) has been weighted with a frequency-dependent function Wk ( ω f ) .<br />
The quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>es can <strong>of</strong>ten be improved by using an adequ<strong>at</strong>e weighting function. The<br />
(complex) Jacobian m<strong>at</strong>rix J <strong>of</strong> this least-squares problem<br />
⎡X1<br />
⎢<br />
0<br />
J = ⎢<br />
⎢ �<br />
⎢<br />
⎣<br />
0<br />
0<br />
X<br />
0<br />
2<br />
�<br />
�<br />
X<br />
0<br />
0<br />
N N<br />
o<br />
i<br />
Y<br />
Y<br />
Y<br />
�<br />
1<br />
2<br />
N N<br />
o<br />
⎤<br />
⎥<br />
⎥<br />
⎥<br />
⎥<br />
⎦<br />
i<br />
has Nf No Ni rows and (n+1)(No Ni +1) columns (with Nf >> n, where n is <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
n = 2N<br />
).<br />
polynomials, m<br />
k<br />
(24)<br />
(25)<br />
(28)
3.1.3 Normal Equ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
Many estim<strong>at</strong>ors used in modal analysis form <strong>the</strong> normal equ<strong>at</strong>ions explicitly, i.e. <strong>the</strong>y compute<br />
Re( J J)<br />
H<br />
explicitly. Note th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> real part <strong>of</strong> J J<br />
H has to be taken because <strong>the</strong> coefficients are real.<br />
Deriving <strong>the</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>es directly from <strong>the</strong> Jacobian m<strong>at</strong>rix leads to a better-conditioned problem.<br />
However, forming <strong>the</strong> normal equ<strong>at</strong>ions can result in a faster implement<strong>at</strong>ion, as will be <strong>the</strong> case<br />
here too. The normal equ<strong>at</strong>ions can be written as<br />
⎡R1<br />
⎢<br />
0<br />
⎢<br />
⎢ �<br />
⎢<br />
T<br />
⎢S1<br />
⎣<br />
S<br />
0<br />
R<br />
2<br />
T<br />
2<br />
�<br />
�<br />
�<br />
S1<br />
⎤ ⎧<br />
⎪<br />
S<br />
⎥<br />
2 ⎥ ⎪<br />
� ⎥ ⋅ ⎨<br />
⎥ ⎪<br />
Tk<br />
⎥ ⎪<br />
⎦ ⎩⎪<br />
NoN<br />
i<br />
∑<br />
k=<br />
1<br />
�<br />
1<br />
2<br />
N N<br />
o<br />
i<br />
⎫<br />
⎪<br />
⎪<br />
⎬ ≈ 0<br />
⎪<br />
⎪<br />
⎪⎭<br />
H<br />
H<br />
H<br />
with R k = Re( X k X k ) , S k = Re( X k Yk<br />
) , and T k = Re( Yk<br />
Yk<br />
) . The entries <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se m<strong>at</strong>rices equal<br />
⎛<br />
R ⎜<br />
k ( r,<br />
s)<br />
= Re<br />
⎜<br />
⎝<br />
⎛<br />
T ⎜<br />
k ( r,<br />
s)<br />
= Re<br />
⎜<br />
⎝<br />
N<br />
f<br />
∑<br />
f = 1<br />
⎛<br />
S<br />
⎜<br />
k ( r,<br />
s)<br />
= − Re<br />
⎜<br />
⎝<br />
N<br />
N<br />
f<br />
∑<br />
f<br />
∑<br />
f = 1<br />
W<br />
f = 1<br />
k<br />
W<br />
k<br />
( ω )<br />
k<br />
f<br />
f<br />
f<br />
⋅Ω<br />
k<br />
H<br />
r−1<br />
W ( ω ) H ( ω )<br />
2<br />
( ω )<br />
2<br />
k<br />
f<br />
( ω ) Ω<br />
f<br />
f<br />
⋅Ω<br />
s−1<br />
H ( ω ) ⋅Ω<br />
2<br />
H<br />
r−1<br />
H<br />
r−1<br />
⎞<br />
( ω ⎟ f )<br />
⎟<br />
⎠<br />
( ω ) Ω<br />
( ω ) Ω<br />
f<br />
f<br />
s−1<br />
s−1<br />
⎞<br />
( ω ⎟ f )<br />
⎟<br />
⎠<br />
⎞<br />
( ω ⎟ f )<br />
⎟<br />
⎠<br />
If a discrete time-domain model is used, i.e. Ω j ( ω f ) = exp( −iω<br />
f Ts ⋅ j)<br />
, and if <strong>the</strong> frequencies are<br />
uniformly distributed (i.e. ω f = f ⋅ Δω<br />
, f N f , , 1 � = , with summ<strong>at</strong>ions can be rewritten as<br />
Δ ω = 2π<br />
NTs<br />
), <strong>the</strong>n, <strong>the</strong> above<br />
⎛<br />
R ⎜<br />
k ( r,<br />
s)<br />
= Re<br />
⎜<br />
⎝<br />
⎛<br />
T ⎜<br />
k ( r,<br />
s)<br />
= Re<br />
⎜<br />
⎝<br />
N<br />
f<br />
∑<br />
f = 1<br />
⎛<br />
S<br />
⎜<br />
k ( r,<br />
s)<br />
= − Re<br />
⎜<br />
⎝<br />
N<br />
N<br />
f<br />
∑<br />
f<br />
∑<br />
f = 1<br />
W<br />
f = 1<br />
k<br />
W<br />
k<br />
( ω )<br />
k<br />
f<br />
f<br />
f<br />
⋅ e<br />
k<br />
i2π<br />
( r−s<br />
) f N<br />
W ( ω ) H ( ω )<br />
2<br />
( ω )<br />
2<br />
k<br />
f<br />
f<br />
⋅ e<br />
⎞<br />
⎟<br />
⎠<br />
H ( ω ) ⋅e<br />
2<br />
i2π<br />
( r−s<br />
) f N<br />
i2π<br />
( r−s<br />
) f N<br />
⎞<br />
⎟<br />
⎠<br />
⎞<br />
⎟<br />
⎠<br />
One can readily verify th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> above m<strong>at</strong>rices have a Toeplitz structure and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir entries can be<br />
time-efficiently computed with <strong>the</strong> Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm.<br />
3.1.4 Reduced Normal Equ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> rows <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> normal m<strong>at</strong>rix in (29) is much smaller than <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> rows<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jacobian m<strong>at</strong>rix (28), its size is still quite huge (i.e. (n+1)(No Ni +1) rows and columns). As<br />
we are mainly interested in a fast and stable method to construct a stabiliz<strong>at</strong>ion chart (see next<br />
section), only <strong>the</strong> denomin<strong>at</strong>or coefficients (i.e. <strong>the</strong> poles) are in fact required. Elimin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
numer<strong>at</strong>or coefficients<br />
yields<br />
⎡<br />
⎢<br />
⎣<br />
k<br />
−1<br />
= −R<br />
⋅S<br />
⋅<br />
NoN<br />
i<br />
∑<br />
k=<br />
1<br />
k<br />
k<br />
T −1<br />
⎤<br />
Tk − Sk<br />
⋅ R k ⋅ Sk<br />
⎥ ⋅ ≈ 0<br />
⎦<br />
(29)<br />
(30)<br />
(31)<br />
(32)<br />
(33)
N<br />
T −1 or M ⋅ ≈ 0 with M = ∑ T − ⋅ ⋅<br />
k=<br />
1 k Sk<br />
R k Sk<br />
. The size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> square m<strong>at</strong>rix M is n+1, and thus<br />
o i N<br />
much smaller than <strong>the</strong> original normal equ<strong>at</strong>ion (29). To remove <strong>the</strong> parameter redundancy <strong>of</strong><br />
transfer function model (20) (and to avoid <strong>the</strong> trivial solution with all coefficient equal to zero), a<br />
constraint has to be imposed on <strong>the</strong> coefficients <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> transfer functions. This can be done, for<br />
instance, by imposing th<strong>at</strong> one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> coefficients is equal to a non-zero constant value. Assume, for<br />
instance, th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> last coefficient <strong>of</strong> � is constrained to 1 (i.e. coefficient n+1). In th<strong>at</strong> case, <strong>the</strong><br />
Least Squares (LS) estim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>of</strong> � is given by<br />
ˆ<br />
LS<br />
−1<br />
⎧ − [ M(<br />
1:<br />
n, 1:<br />
n)]<br />
⋅{<br />
M(<br />
1:<br />
n,<br />
n + 1)}<br />
⎫<br />
= ⎨<br />
⎬<br />
⎩<br />
1<br />
⎭<br />
Once ˆ LS is known, (32) can be used to derive all ˆ<br />
LS coefficients. This approach is more time<br />
2 2<br />
efficient th<strong>at</strong> solving (29) directly (approxim<strong>at</strong>ely o i N N times faster). The mode shape vectors are<br />
derived using (14) and (15).<br />
3.1.5 Stabiliz<strong>at</strong>ion chart<br />
In modal analysis, a stabiliz<strong>at</strong>ion chart is an important tool th<strong>at</strong> is <strong>of</strong>ten used to assist <strong>the</strong> user in<br />
separ<strong>at</strong>ing physical poles from ma<strong>the</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ical ones. A stabiliz<strong>at</strong>ion chart is obtained by repe<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong><br />
analysis for increasing model order n. For each model order, <strong>the</strong> poles are calcul<strong>at</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong><br />
estim<strong>at</strong>ed denomin<strong>at</strong>or coefficients. The stable poles (i.e. <strong>the</strong> poles with a neg<strong>at</strong>ive real part) are<br />
<strong>the</strong>n presented graphically in ascending model order in a so-called “stabiliz<strong>at</strong>ion chart” (see Figure<br />
6). Estim<strong>at</strong>ed poles corresponding to physically relevant system modes tend to appear for each<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>ion order <strong>at</strong> nearly identical loc<strong>at</strong>ions, while <strong>the</strong> so-called ma<strong>the</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ical poles, i.e. poles<br />
resulting from <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>the</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ical solution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> normal equ<strong>at</strong>ions but meaningless with respect to<br />
<strong>the</strong> physical interpret<strong>at</strong>ion, tend to jump around. These ma<strong>the</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ical poles are mainly due to <strong>the</strong><br />
presence <strong>of</strong> noise on <strong>the</strong> measurements.<br />
(a) (b)<br />
Figure 6. Stabiliz<strong>at</strong>ion chart obtained with (a) a time-domain estim<strong>at</strong>or (LSCE) and<br />
(b) <strong>the</strong> frequency-domain least-squares estim<strong>at</strong>or.<br />
The LSCE estim<strong>at</strong>or (Least Squares Complex Exponential) is probably <strong>the</strong> most frequently used<br />
technique in industry. The LSCE estim<strong>at</strong>or is a time-domain technique th<strong>at</strong> makes use <strong>of</strong> impulse<br />
response functions (16) to derive <strong>the</strong> modal parameters. In Figure 6 <strong>the</strong> stabiliz<strong>at</strong>ion chart <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
LSCE estim<strong>at</strong>or is compared with <strong>the</strong> proposed frequency-domain least squares estim<strong>at</strong>or. It turns<br />
out th<strong>at</strong> in many applic<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>the</strong> frequency-domain estim<strong>at</strong>or is able to gener<strong>at</strong>e quite clear<br />
stabiliz<strong>at</strong>ion compared to <strong>the</strong> LSCE approach.<br />
(34)
3.2 Maximum Likelihood Estim<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
3.2.1 Gauss-Newton Optimiz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Assuming <strong>the</strong> FRFs to be uncorrel<strong>at</strong>ed, <strong>the</strong> (neg<strong>at</strong>ive) log-likelihood function reduces to<br />
NoN<br />
N i f Hˆ<br />
k ( , ω f ) − H k ( ω f )<br />
� ML(<br />
) = ∑∑<br />
(35)<br />
var{ H ( ω )}<br />
k=<br />
1 f = 1<br />
k f<br />
2<br />
T T T T<br />
The Maximum Likelihood (ML) estim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>of</strong> = [ 1 , �,<br />
No<br />
N , ] is obtained by minimizing (35).<br />
i<br />
This can be done by means <strong>of</strong> a Gauss-Newton optimiz<strong>at</strong>ion algorithm, which takes advantage <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> quadr<strong>at</strong>ic form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cost function (35). The Gauss-Newton iter<strong>at</strong>ions are given by<br />
(a)<br />
(b)<br />
solve Re( J<br />
set<br />
p+1<br />
=<br />
H<br />
p<br />
p<br />
J<br />
p<br />
+<br />
)<br />
p<br />
p<br />
= − Re( J<br />
with r p = r(<br />
p ) , J = ∂r(<br />
) ∂ and<br />
p<br />
p<br />
H<br />
p<br />
r<br />
p<br />
)<br />
for<br />
p<br />
⎧ Hˆ<br />
⎫<br />
11(<br />
, ω1)<br />
− H11(<br />
ω1)<br />
⎪<br />
⎪<br />
⎪ var{ H11(<br />
ω1)}<br />
⎪<br />
⎪<br />
⎪<br />
r( ) = ⎨<br />
� ⎬<br />
(37)<br />
⎪ Hˆ<br />
N ( , ) − ( ) ⎪<br />
oN<br />
ω<br />
i N H<br />
f NoN<br />
ω i N f<br />
⎪<br />
⎪<br />
⎪ var{ H N ( )}<br />
⎩<br />
oN<br />
ω i N f ⎪⎭<br />
The Jacobian m<strong>at</strong>rix J p has <strong>the</strong> same structure as <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>rix J given in (28). Also here it is possible<br />
H<br />
H<br />
to form <strong>the</strong> normal equ<strong>at</strong>ions (i.e. Re( J p J p ) and Re( J p rp<br />
) ) in a similar time-efficient way as<br />
presented in Section 3.1. See 6.43.8.2 Estim<strong>at</strong>ion with Known Noise Model and 6.43.8.4 Estim<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
with Unknown Noise Model for more inform<strong>at</strong>ion about frequency-domain ML identific<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
3.2.2 Confidence Intervals<br />
A good approxim<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> covariance m<strong>at</strong>rix <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ML estim<strong>at</strong>e ˆ<br />
ML is obtained by inverting <strong>the</strong><br />
Fisher inform<strong>at</strong>ion m<strong>at</strong>rix (see 6.43.8. Frequency Domain System Identific<strong>at</strong>ion)<br />
ˆ<br />
cov{<br />
ML<br />
} ≈ [ 2 Re( J J<br />
H<br />
∞<br />
∞<br />
)]<br />
−1<br />
with J ∞ <strong>the</strong> Jacobian m<strong>at</strong>rix evalu<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> last iter<strong>at</strong>ion step <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gauss-Newton optimiz<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
As one is mainly interested in <strong>the</strong> uncertainty on <strong>the</strong> modal frequencies and damping r<strong>at</strong>ios, only <strong>the</strong><br />
covariance m<strong>at</strong>rix <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> denomin<strong>at</strong>or coefficients is in fact required. Starting from (38), one can<br />
show th<strong>at</strong> this m<strong>at</strong>rix is given by<br />
ˆ<br />
cov{<br />
ML<br />
}<br />
⎡<br />
⎢2<br />
⎣<br />
≈ ∑ i oN N<br />
k=<br />
1<br />
−1<br />
(36)<br />
(38)<br />
T −1<br />
⎤<br />
T k − Sk<br />
⋅ R k ⋅ Sk<br />
⎥<br />
(39)<br />
⎦<br />
with R k , S k , and T k as defined in Section 3.1.3 but now applied to Re( J ∞ J ∞ )<br />
H<br />
. Hence, it is not<br />
necessary to invert <strong>the</strong> full m<strong>at</strong>rix occurring in (38). From (39), it is possible to compute <strong>the</strong><br />
uncertainty on <strong>the</strong> modal frequencies and damping r<strong>at</strong>ios. For flight flutter testing – but also for<br />
applic<strong>at</strong>ions such as vibr<strong>at</strong>ion-based fault detection and oper<strong>at</strong>ional modal analysis – <strong>the</strong> availability<br />
<strong>of</strong> reliable estim<strong>at</strong>es toge<strong>the</strong>r with confidence intervals is important.
4. Applic<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
In this section, modal analysis will be applied to a sl<strong>at</strong> track, which is safety critical component <strong>of</strong> a<br />
airplane. Sl<strong>at</strong> tracks (see Figure 7) are loc<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> leading edge <strong>of</strong> an aircraft wing and make part<br />
<strong>of</strong> a gliding mechanism th<strong>at</strong> is used to enlarge <strong>the</strong> wing surface. The enlargement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> wing<br />
surface is needed in order to increase <strong>the</strong> lift force <strong>at</strong> reduced velocity during landing and take <strong>of</strong>f.<br />
A sl<strong>at</strong> track <strong>of</strong> an Airbus A320 airplane is considered here. The A320 airplane has 5 sl<strong>at</strong>s per wing.<br />
The first sl<strong>at</strong> (i.e. <strong>the</strong> inboard sl<strong>at</strong> between fuselage and engine) contains 4 sl<strong>at</strong> tracks. The o<strong>the</strong>r 4<br />
sl<strong>at</strong>s have 2 sl<strong>at</strong> tracks each. Safety critical components such as sl<strong>at</strong> tracks are rigorously tested to<br />
prove <strong>the</strong>ir ability to withstand all safety regul<strong>at</strong>ions. It is commonly accepted th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> track should<br />
outlive <strong>the</strong> plane by five times. Using computer simul<strong>at</strong>ions, it is possible to predict <strong>the</strong> lifetime <strong>of</strong><br />
a track using Finite Element (FE) models. To valid<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> dynamic behavior <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se FE models,<br />
experimentally obtained estim<strong>at</strong>es <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> modal parameters are required.<br />
SLAT TRACK<br />
LEADING<br />
EDGE<br />
OF WING<br />
SLAT TRACK<br />
SLAT<br />
Figure 7: Mounted sl<strong>at</strong> track on an Airbus A320 in extended position.<br />
FORCE SENSOR<br />
STINGER<br />
SHAKER<br />
SHAKER<br />
SCANNING LASER<br />
DOPPLER VIBROMETER<br />
(a) (b) (c)<br />
Figure 8: Measurement setup. (a) Excit<strong>at</strong>ion with a shaker. (b) Response measurements with a<br />
scanning laser Doppler vibrometer. (c) Measurement points on <strong>the</strong> surface <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sl<strong>at</strong> track.<br />
In Figure 8(a) a shaker is used to excite <strong>the</strong> sl<strong>at</strong> track with a multisine signal. A multisine is a<br />
periodic signal consisting <strong>of</strong> a sum <strong>of</strong> sine waves <strong>at</strong> uniformly distributed frequencies (from 0 Hz to<br />
8192 Hz in this case with a resolution <strong>of</strong> 1 Hz). A force sensor is <strong>at</strong>tached on <strong>the</strong> sl<strong>at</strong> track and is in<br />
contact with <strong>the</strong> shaker through a stinger. The stinger has <strong>the</strong> characteristic <strong>of</strong> being stiff in only<br />
one direction, i.e. th<strong>at</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> intended excit<strong>at</strong>ion. In this example, one surface <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> track is
measured by means <strong>of</strong> a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (see Figure 8(b); <strong>the</strong> shaker is <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
backside <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sl<strong>at</strong> track, which is vertically suspended by means <strong>of</strong> a elastic rope). The FRF<br />
measurements are performed in 500 points uniformly distributed over <strong>the</strong> surface <strong>of</strong> one side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sl<strong>at</strong> track (see Figure 8(c)).<br />
Starting from <strong>the</strong> FRF measurements, <strong>the</strong> modal parameters can be estim<strong>at</strong>ed using <strong>the</strong> frequencydomain<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>or given in Section 3. In <strong>the</strong> considered frequency band, a few hundreds <strong>of</strong> modes<br />
are present. Figure 9 shows 4 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>ed mode shapes (with enlarged displacement<br />
amplitudes). The real displacements are <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> a few micrometers.<br />
(a) (b)<br />
(c) (d)<br />
Figure 9: Mode shapes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sl<strong>at</strong> track for a modal frequency <strong>of</strong><br />
(a) 4091 Hz, (b) 4161 Hz, (c) 4739 Hz, and (d) 5169 Hz
5. Conclusions<br />
In this contribution about modal analysis, a ‘dedic<strong>at</strong>ed’ multivariable implement<strong>at</strong>ion for frequencydomain<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>ors, based on a common-denomin<strong>at</strong>or transfer function model, has been given.<br />
Typical for modal analysis is <strong>the</strong> very large number <strong>of</strong> outputs. This huge amount <strong>of</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a requires<br />
dedic<strong>at</strong>ed algorithms th<strong>at</strong> balance between accuracy and memory/computing requirements.<br />
The results given in this contribution can be generalized to o<strong>the</strong>r frequency-domain estim<strong>at</strong>ors such<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Total Least Squares (TLS), Generalized Total Least Squares (GTLS), Iter<strong>at</strong>ive Quadr<strong>at</strong>ic<br />
Maximum Likelihood (IQML), … (see 6.43.8.2 Estim<strong>at</strong>ion with Known Noise Model and 6.43.8.4<br />
Estim<strong>at</strong>ion with Unknown Noise Model).<br />
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