Leaving no one behind the imperative of inclusive development

Who is being left behind? 93
percentage of parliamentary or legislative seats for indigenous people (Htun
and Ossa, 2013).
Proportional representation in political bodies has often increased the
inclusiveness and responsiveness of Government to the needs and viewpoints
of groups traditionally excluded from decision-making processes. In general,
women in parliament are more likely than men to prioritize gender and social
issues, such as childcare, equal pay, parental leave, pensions, reproductive
rights and protection against gender-based violence (Inter-Parliamentary
Union, 2008). After a constitutional amendment reserved one third of seats
and one third of head positions for women in local councils in India’s panchayat
system, women’s participation as eligible voters increased in the councils,
which also more often addressed women’s concerns than had previously
been the case (Chattopadhyay and Duflo, 2004). Similarly, increased political
representation of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes increased their
influence on policymaking (Pande, 2003).
2. Differences in participation in civic and cultural life
Participation in civic and cultural life is closely tied to political and other
forms of participation, such that disentangling the impact that interactions
among family, friends, colleagues and associational memberships have on
individual and community well-being is a complex matter. Frequent social
interaction can generate social capital upon which individuals can draw in
times of need, including to find employment, and is therefore particularly
important for individuals and households with less economic resources. High
levels of social capital have also been found to promote collaboration and
cooperative action at large and therefore have positive effects on economic
development, institutions and governance. Research indicates, for instance,
that societies with higher levels of social capital stand a better chance of
becoming democratic and stable (Kuzio, 2001). However, social networks do
not automatically bestow benefits on individuals and groups. In some cases,
such networks may in fact foster exclusion, particularly if they are composed
solely of individuals from the same social group, community or socioeconomic
stratum (Granovetter, 2005; Lin, Ensel and Vaughn, 1981). In these cases, while
social networks may be strong, they frequently lack the power and capital to
achieve the groups’ desired ends (DeFilippis, 2001).
The evidence reviewed shows that the size of one’s social network
and the availability of social support provided through networks differ
significantly by age, income level and social and cultural context. Several
studies have demonstrated, for instance, positive effects of social capital and
support on the health and well-being of older persons (Litwin, 2010). Data
from the British Household Panel Survey indicate that, among older adults in
the United Kingdom, talking to neighbours and meeting with people “most
days” was positively associated with the availability of social support, as was