Leaving no one behind the imperative of inclusive development

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100 Leaving no one behind Table III.2 Annual changes in education, child mortality and undernourishment, by subgroup, 1998-2007 Place of residence Proportion of youth with less than primary education Proportion of children who died before age 5 Proportion of children undernourished Urban -1.8 -2.7 -1.1 Rural -1.8 -2.8 -0.6 DHS wealth quintile Lowest wealth quintile -1.3 -2.8 -0.7 Highest wealth quintile -3.1 -1.7 -2.0 Occupation of household head Skilled, non-manual a -1.9 -1.5 -0.1 Unskilled manual -4.1 0.0 -7.4 Ethnicityb Ethnic minorities -2.5 -3.1 -0.7 Largest ethnic group 0.3 -0.4 -0.6 Source: Calculations are based on Sumner (2013), with underlying data from Demographic and Health Surveys. Note: Based on data for 33 developing countries: Armenia, Bangladesh, Benin, Plurinational State of Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Mozambique, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Viet Nam, Zambia and Zimbabwe. a Managerial, professional, technical and clerical occupations. b Ethnic minorities are grouped exclusively on the basis of size. It should be noted that the numerically largest ethnic groups are not consistently the better-off groups. areas during the period. The proportion of youth with little education declined fastest among households where the head of the household was working in an unskilled, manual job, whereas households with children headed by an unskilled, manual worker saw no improvements in childhood mortality. Ethnic minorities benefited from considerably larger declines in childhood mortality than did the largest ethnic group, yet trends in malnutrition were similar for both groups. These examples highlight the need to monitor progress in different dimensions of social inclusion separately, adapting the choice of indicators to the purpose for which they are to be employed and to the country context. Different indicators highlight different features of social exclusion; while they can help in understanding the phenomenon, they cannot be expected to provide a complete representation of the state of a society (United Nations, 2010).
Who is being left behind? 101 Given the multiplicity of indicators available, combining them into one single index may hold appeal. However, for the purpose of international comparisons, the diversity of country circumstances puts the usefulness of combining indicators into question. The reduction of a multidimensional phenomenon to a single number can also be questioned on a conceptual basis. Specifically, the importance of each component and therefore the weight assigned to each indicator involve value judgements. Should disparities in labour market participation be given more or less weight than disparities in access to health services or education, for instance? Is political participation more valuable than participation in civic events and are the two forms of participation interchangeable? Not only would very diverse country contexts be ranked similarly on the basis of composite indicators and vice versa, but variations in the weight given to each component would result in significant changes in country rankings (Ravallion, 2010; United Nations, 2010). Different indicators highlight different aspects of social exclusion and help improve understanding of the phenomenon but, by themselves, they do not provide explanations. Findings in this and the previous chapters suggest that there are multiple mechanisms through which individuals and entire social groups are left behind. Yet discrimination stands out as a universal and pervasive driver of exclusion. In chapter IV, this social ill is examined in more detail, with evidence presented on different types of discrimination and a discussion of its effects on the victims of discrimination. While concrete strategies to promote social inclusion and empowerment must therefore be context-specific, certain elements are often present when countries are successful in creating the enabling conditions for the meaningful participation of all members of society. Specifically, as is illustrated in chapter V, countries that have adopted an inclusive approach to policy have expanded opportunities by promoting universal access to key good-quality services, such as health care and education; they have actively addressed discrimination and addressed the special needs of those groups that face the greatest challenges in overcoming exclusion; and they have taken action to ensure that social, economic, political and legal institutions are open and inclusive.
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Leaving no one behind the imperative of inclusive development

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