Research Matters

examinations in English/English Language set in 1980, 1993 and 1994.The results have been
subsequently extended to include comparisons with data from the 2004 and 2007 GCSE English
examinations (Elliott et al., 2008; Massey et al., 2005, respectively).
These studies have found considerable variation in writing features between certain years and
attainment levels. For example, substantial differences were found between 1980 and 1993/94
pupils, particularly, in terms of writing style.The findings suggested that the 1980 pupils were using
a more formal style, tending to use more extensive vocabulary, complex sentence structures, and
fewer Non-Standard English forms. Interestingly, the 2004 pupils showed improvement from
1993/94 in several of these aspects.At certain attainment levels, they also overtook the 1980
cohort, such as in the sophistication of vocabulary and complexity of sentence structure used by
higher attaining students (A–B grade). Elliott et al. (2008) did not find dramatic differences between
the writing of students in the 2007 cohort and those from 2004.
Despite many similarities between the different cohorts, spelling and the use of Non-Standard
English are two areas in which the 1980 cohort was considerably better than all the later years.
Overall, the percentages of total spelling errors were small, reaching no more than five percent
across A–E grades in all cohorts. However, the 1980 pupils made substantially fewer mistakes.
The 1994 cohort made nearly three times as many errors as those in 1980, and over half as many
as those in 1993. Reassuringly, the considerable spelling decline from 1980 to 1993/94 seemed to
have halted in 2004 and even improved at lower grades.The use of Non-Standard English, in
contrast, has shown a continual increase from 1980 to 2004 (it was not reported for the 2007
cohort).The 2004 study also found that the use of non-standard forms was not constrained to
lower attaining students anymore but higher attaining students were starting to use these forms as
well, although the majority were still found in those awarded lower grades. Interestingly, only two
instances of texting language were noted but pupils were more likely to use numbers or symbols
rather than words.This suggested some (albeit limited) influence of informal, media-related
language on students’ writing.
Changes in educational practice
Primary Education
In 1998, the teaching of literacy in primary schools was changed substantially (Goodwyn & Fuller,
2011).The government set a national initiative to improve teaching standards in English by
launching the National Literacy Strategy (NLS) for 5–11 year olds and a corresponding National
Literacy Framework (NLF) which provided practical guidance on class structures and objectives for
teaching literacy skills (Department for Education and Employment [DfEE], 1998). In contrast to the
previous cohorts examined in the Aspects of Writing studies, the 2014 cohort would have been
under the national framework throughout their whole primary education, whereas it was
introduced only half-way through the 2007’s cohort education and after the 2004 cohort had
already left primary school.Table 1 shows key educational milestones in the three most recent
cohorts.
In subsequent years more specific, detailed materials about teaching activities and advice were
provided to teachers to help them to teach writing, including Grammar for Writing for KS2
sentence-level objectives (DfEE, 2000), Spelling Bank (DfEE, 1999), and Developing Early Writing
(DfEE, 2001).The latter was provided following serious concern expressed in a Her Majesty’s
Inspectors (HMI) discussion paper that the teaching of writing was less systematic and structured
6 | RESEARCH MATTERS – SPECIAL ISSUE 4: Aspects of Writing 1980–2014