Active IQ Level 3 Diploma in Personal Training (sample manual)

Manual
Level 3 Diploma in
Personal Training
Version AIQ004228

Unit 1
Section 1: The cardiovascular system
Heart valves
Heart valves are formed from tough connective tissue and are made up of cusps, or flaps, that cover the entrance
or exit to a vessel or chamber. They open and close passively, either sucked into place or blown open depending on
the differential pressure in each chamber or vessel.
• Semilunar valves lie between the ventricles and arteries and prevent backflow of blood from the chamber
to the vessel. The aortic semilunar valve separates the left ventricle and the aorta, and the pulmonary
semilunar valve separates the right ventricle and pulmonary artery.
• Atrioventricular (AV) valves lie between the atria and ventricles and prevent backflow of blood from the
upper to lower chambers. The left AV valve is also known as the bicuspid valve (two cusps) or the mitral valve.
The right AV valve is also known as the tricuspid valve (three cusps).
Figure 1.1 The valves of the heart
Contraction of the heart
SA node
The stimulation starts in the sinoatrial
(SA) node.
The heart is stimulated to contract by a complex series of integrated
systems. The heart’s pacemaker – the sinoatrial (SA) node – initiates the
cardiac muscle contraction. The SA node is located in the wall of the right
atrium (see Figure 1.2). The heart muscle is stimulated to contract about
72 times per minute.
Atria contract
The interconnected cardiac muscle
fibres pass the impulse across the atria.
AV node
The atrioventricular (AV) node
is stimulated and allows the full
contraction of the atria before
stimulating the ventricular muscle to
contract.
Ventricles contract
The AV node stimulates the ventricular
muscles to contract.
Figure 1.2 The contraction of the heart
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Section 1: The cardiovascular system
Unit 1
Circulation
Pulmonary
arteries
Lungs
Pulmonary
veins
Right
ventricle
Right
atrium
Venae
cavae
Atherosclerosis
The right side of the heart receives blood from the upper and lower body
via the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. The blood is saturated in
carbon dioxide (CO 2
) and is referred to as deoxygenated. The deoxygenated
blood is ejected to the lungs by the right ventricle via the pulmonary artery.
In the pulmonary capillaries, CO 2
diffuses into the lungs to be expired, while
oxygen (O 2
) enters the blood (gaseous exchange). The oxygenated blood
travels to the left atrium of the heart via the merging venules and veins that
finally become the pulmonary vein. The left ventricle then ejects the blood
and O 2
via the aorta to the tissues of the body. Once the oxygenated blood
reaches the capillaries, gaseous exchange occurs – the oxygen diffuses into
the tissues and CO 2
diffuses into the bloodstream.
Body
Aorta
Left
atrium
Left
ventricle
In a healthy blood vessel, blood flows smoothly to reach its target tissue or organ and supply it with the nutrients
and oxygen it requires for optimal function. Vascular disease is the narrowing of the blood vessels, and it is one
of the main causes of death in the developed world. It is triggered by inflammation within blood vessels and
the subsequent accumulation of mineral, protein and fat deposits. This creates a build-up of plaques on vessel
walls which can ultimately lead to a blockage that can severely restrict, or completely prevent, blood flow. As a
consequence of this, tissues and organs can be starved of vital nutrients and oxygen.
Vascular disease is most commonly caused by the hardening of arteries – a condition called atherosclerosis (see
Figure 1.3). Atherosclerosis is initiated by the inflammatory response to vessel damage that creates plaques using
cholesterol, protein and mineral deposits in an attempt to heal the area.
As plaques build up, the artery wall becomes thicker, harder and less elastic. The artery narrows as a consequence
of the build-up and cannot effectively stretch to accommodate blood.
A lack of blood flow as a result of atherosclerosis can cause target tissue death unless those tissues are supplied
by blood from alternative arteries.
1 – Inflammation
Known as the ‘fatty streak’ stage because this is how
the condition first becomes visible.
Damage (e.g. caused by smoking or hypertension)
initiates an inflammatory response.
Applied anatomy and physiology for exercise, health and fitness
2 – Narrowing
The body tries to repair the damaged area using
cholesterol, proteins and minerals.
These substances build up, creating a ‘plaque’ that
thickens and hardens the artery walls.
The artery is narrowed by the plaque build-up.
Figure 1.3 Atherosclerosis
3 – Blockage
The plaques build up so much that they rupture and
release cholesterol and connective tissue into the
artery.
The body’s protective mechanism creates a blood
clot around the rupture which further scars, hardens
and can block the entire artery. These are called
‘complicated lesions’.
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Section 2: The musculoskeletal system
Unit 1
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Myofibril
Endomysium
surrounding the
muscle fibre
Myosin
Epimysium
Actin
KEY
POINTS
• Each muscle is covered in a connective
tissue called the epimysium.
• Bundles of muscle fibres called fasciculi
are covered by the perimysium.
• Each muscle fibre is surrounded by the
endomysium.
• Muscle fibres are made up of myofibrils.
• Myofibrils are segmented into
compartments called sarcomeres.
• Each sarcomere contains myofilaments
(actin and myosin).
The sliding filament theory and muscle contractions
Perimysium
surrounding
the fascicle
Figure 2.2 The structure of a muscle
Muscular contraction begins with the two contractile proteins (or myofilaments): actin and myosin. Actin (the thin
filament) is anchored to the ends of the sarcomere and myosin (the thick filament) is located in the middle of the
sarcomere.
Spiralling from the myosin filament is a series of ‘hook-like’ projections referred to as the myosin heads. During
muscular contraction, these heads attach themselves to the actin and rotate, pulling on the filaments. This causes
the actin to be drawn inwards, dragging the ends of the sarcomere together. This shortening process is referred
to as the sliding filament mechanism. The characteristic contraction of muscles is caused by the simultaneous
shortening of multiple sarcomeres.
Applied anatomy and physiology for exercise, health and fitness
Figure 2.3 The sliding filament theory
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Section 2: The musculoskeletal system
Unit 1
Common postural distortions
Kyphosis refers to the outward curve of the thoracic spine.
Lordosis refers to the inward curve of the lumbar spine.
These terms are often used to describe excessive curvature,
but normal curvature of the thoracic region is kyphotic in
nature and normal curvature of the lumbar region is lordotic.
For this reason, the following terms can be used to distinguish
dysfunction:
POINT OF
INTEREST
ROOT
WORDS
• Hypo = ‘under’ or ‘less’
• Hyper = ‘over’, ‘above’ or
‘too much’
• Hyperkyphosis – an excessive curve of the thoracic spine.
• Hypokyphosis – a flattened curve of the thoracic spine.
• Hyperlordosis – an excessive curve of the lumbar spine, also known as a ‘hollow back’.
• Hypolordosis – a flattened curve of the lumbar spine.
The term scoliosis is of Greek origin and means ‘crooked’ or ‘bent’. A scoliotic spine has an excessive lateral
curvature.
Upper crossed syndrome
Upper crossed syndrome refers to a hyperkyphotic spinal position combined with protracted shoulders and a
forward-poking head. The shortened and lengthened areas caused by this syndrome can be divided by a cross
shape (see Figure 2.6), which is where this condition gets its name.
Shortened/dominant/
overactive muscles
• Scalenes
• Sternocleidomastoid
• Upper trapezius
• Levator scapula
• Pectoralis major
• Anterior deltoids
• Latissimus dorsi
• Teres major
• Subscapularis
• Pectoralis minor
Lower crossed syndrome
Shortened
Lengthened
Lengthened
Shortened
Lengthened/inhibited/
underactive muscles
• Deep neck flexors
(longus capitis and colli)
• Serratus anterior
• Lower trapezius
• Middle trapezius
• Teres minor
• Infraspinatus
• Supraspinatus
• Thoracic erector spinae
Figure 2.6 Upper crossed syndrome
The shortened and lengthened regions caused by lower crossed syndrome can again be divided by a cross shape.
This condition is characterised by an anterior pelvic tilt and hyperlordosis (see Figure 2.7).
Applied anatomy and physiology for exercise, health and fitness
Shortened/dominant/
overactive muscles
• Iliopsoas
• Lumbar erector spinae
• Rectus femoris
• Adductors
• Tensor fasciae latae
• Quadratus lumborum
• Lumbar multifidus
Shortened
Lengthened
Lengthened
Shortened
Lengthened/inhibited/
underactive muscles
• Rectus abdominis
• Obliques
• Transversus abdominis
• Gluteus maximus
• Gluteus medius
• Gluteus minimus
Figure 2.7 Lower crossed syndrome
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Section 4: The endocrine system
Unit 1
Section 4: The endocrine
system
The role of the endocrine system
Along with the nervous system, the endocrine system helps to maintain homeostasis. Instead of using action
potentials, however, the endocrine system exerts its influence via hormones (chemical messengers).
Hormones are chemicals released into the bloodstream to help control and manage the internal environment of the
body. Hormones are derived from amino acids, steroids or occasionally fatty acids and are released from various
glands around the body, known as the endocrine glands. Different hormones have different chemical shapes which
determine the effects they will have.
The chemical messages from hormones are slower than the electrical messages (action potentials) of the nervous
system. Cell response times to a specific hormone can range from a few seconds to 30 minutes, depending on
concentration levels. However, although neural stimulus is very rapid, it does not last; endocrine stimulus can last
for hours, days or even longer.
How hormones work
KEY
POINT
Hormones are chemical messengers (the
key) that affect specific target cells (the lock).
To fully understand how the endocrine system works,
the way hormones function around the body must first
be appreciated. The process begins when an endocrine
gland receives a stimulus that requires a response. The
response is initiated by releasing a hormone into the
surrounding bloodstream. Hormones are transported
around the body, seeking out specific target cells. Each
type of hormone is attracted to particular receptors
within the target cells which, in turn, will only be
triggered by the ‘right’ hormone (in the same way that
a lock can only be opened with the right key). Once the
released hormone reaches a target cell, it docks at the
cell’s receptor site; this initiates the desired response in
the cell or group of cells.
Finally, when the hormone response has had the desired
effect, there is usually a feedback loop between the
targeted tissue and the initiating endocrine gland which
reduces or stops the hormone production.
Applied anatomy and physiology for exercise, health and fitness
Figure 4.1 How hormones work
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Unit 1
Section 6: The digestive system
Mouth and
pharynx
• Chewing (mastication) – mechanical breakdown.
• Produces saliva – contains enzyme salivary amylase – begins breakdown
of carbohydrate. Also moistens food and protects teeth against decay.
• Food is swallowed and passes from the mouth into the pharynx.
• Rhythmical involuntary muscular contractions (peristalsis) push food into
the stomach.
Oesophagus
Stomach
• Produces gastric juices containing hydrochloric acid (kills bacteria) and the
enzyme pepsin to break down protein.
Pancreas
• Secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes
that help further the digestion and absorption of nutrients:
• LIPASE – breaks down fat.
• AMYLASE – breaks down carbohydrate into
glucose.
• TRYPSIN – breaks down protein into amino acids.
• Liver produces bile acids which enable fats to mix with
water (emulsification).
• Gallbladder acts as storage for bile which is released into
the small intestine.
Liver and
gallbladder
Small intestine
• Receives bile juice from gallbladder and pancreatic juice.
• Primary site for digestion and absorption.
• A combination of inner surface folds and finger-like projections (villi and
microvilli) provide large surface area for absorption.
• Digested food is able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the
intestine through the process of diffusion.
Large intestine
(colon)
• Absorbs water, vitamins and minerals.
• Contains bacteria, which produce vitamins
and help prevent infection in the intestine.
• Stores faeces.
Rectum
• Opening for elimination of
waste.
Anus
Figure 6.1 The digestive process
60
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Section 4: Using nutrients to fuel activity
Unit 2
POINT OF
INTEREST
Aerobic activities include:
• Jogging.
• Distance running.
• Distance cycling.
• Distance swimming.
• Exercise to music.
• Distance rowing.
• Brisk walking.
• Skiing.
Aerobic activities
During aerobic activities (low-intensity, longer-duration) the
demand for energy is slower. ATP is produced using oxygen,
so this type of exercise can be kept up for longer. Fats can
also be used to produce energy for aerobic activities as
they can only be broken down with oxygen present. The
body has a larger store of fat than carbohydrate.
Most sports and activities involve a mixture of both
anaerobic and aerobic exercise, e.g. football, hockey and
rugby contain short bursts of strenuous activity (sprints,
kicks, throws) interspersed with longer periods of less
strenuous activity (jogging, walking).
Fuel
Creatine
phosphate
Muscle
glycogen
Liver glycogen +
blood glucose
Maximal
short bursts
High
intensity
intermittent
Intensity of exercise
High
intensity
150 min
Low intensity
Great. Very great. Moderate. Moderate. Moderate. Negligible.
Slight. Moderate. Moderate. Very great. Very great. Negligible.
Negligible. Slight. Slight. Moderategreat.
Great-very
great.
Slight.
Fat Negligible. Slight. Negligible. Negligible. Slight. Slight.
Energy to start exercise
Table 4.2 Depletion of fuel for different types of exercise
At the start of exercise, energy is produced without oxygen. As the heart and lungs work harder, carbohydrates and
fats can be broken down. If the exercise becomes aerobic in nature, more oxygen is delivered around the body and
fats start to be broken down into fatty acids, taken to muscle cells and used as energy. For the first 5-15 minutes
(depending on fitness level) carbohydrate (glycogen) is used for fuel. As time goes on, the use of carbohydrate
lessens and more fat is utilised for energy.
Fatigue
The fitter the individual is, the longer it takes to fatigue or run out of glycogen. After three or more hours of exercise,
fatigue is caused by the depletion of glycogen in the muscles and liver, as well as low blood glucose levels.
The principles of nutrition and their application to exercise and health
No matter what type of exercise is completed, or how fit the
individual is, the body will always need glycogen. The amount
of glycogen in the muscles (and liver) before exercise is
crucial, as the size of a person’s store dictates how long they
will be able to exercise for before fatiguing. The message is
‘always start with a full glycogen store’.
A diet rich in carbohydrates ensures high glycogen stores.
The amount of glycogen in the muscles dictates how hard
and for how long an athlete can exercise. If the individual eats
a high-carbohydrate diet prior to training and competitions,
their stores will be full.
• Low glycogen levels would only allow for low-intensity
exercise and cause early fatigue.
• High glycogen levels mean an athlete can train harder
and longer.
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