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Abstract<br />
International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427<br />
CivilZone review paper<br />
<strong>Numerical</strong> <strong>methods</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> $<br />
L. J<strong>in</strong>g a, *, J.A. Hudson a,b<br />
a Division of Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g Geology, Royal Institute of Technology, S-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden<br />
b Imperial College and Rock Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g Consultants, 7 The Quadrangle, Welwyn Garden City, AL8 6SG, UK<br />
Accepted 19 May 2002<br />
The purpose of this CivilZone review paper is to present the techniques, advances, problems and likely future development<br />
directions <strong>in</strong> numerical modell<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> and <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g. Such modell<strong>in</strong>g is essential for study<strong>in</strong>g the fundamental<br />
processes occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong>, for assess<strong>in</strong>g the anticipated and actual performance of structures built on and <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> masses, and<br />
hence for support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g design. We beg<strong>in</strong> by provid<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g design backdrop to the review <strong>in</strong> Section<br />
1. The states-of-the-art of different types of numerical <strong>methods</strong> are outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Section 2, with focus on representations of fractures<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>rock</strong> mass. In Section 3, the numerical <strong>methods</strong> for <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g coupl<strong>in</strong>gs between the thermal, hydraulic and mechanical<br />
processes are described. In Section 4, <strong>in</strong>verse solution techniques are summarized. F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> Section 5, we list the issues of special<br />
difficulty and importance <strong>in</strong> the subject. In the reference list, ‘significant’ references are asterisked and ‘very significant’ references<br />
are doubly asterisked. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.<br />
Keywords: Review; Rock <strong>mechanics</strong>; <strong>Numerical</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g; Design; Coupled processes; Outstand<strong>in</strong>g issues<br />
Contents<br />
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410<br />
2. <strong>Numerical</strong> <strong>methods</strong> for <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong>: states-of-the-art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411<br />
2.1. The FDM and related <strong>methods</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411<br />
2.2. The FEM and related <strong>methods</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411<br />
2.3. The BEM and related <strong>methods</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413<br />
2.4. The dist<strong>in</strong>ct element method (DEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413<br />
2.5. The DFN method related <strong>methods</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415<br />
2.6. Hybrid models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415<br />
2.7. Neural networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416<br />
3. Coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416<br />
4. Inverse solution <strong>methods</strong> and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417<br />
4.1. Displacement-based back analysis for <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417<br />
4.2. Pressure-based <strong>in</strong>verse solution for groundwater flow and reservoir analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 417<br />
5. Conclusions and rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418<br />
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419<br />
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419<br />
$ This paper was commissioned by Elsevier Science as part of its CivilZone <strong>in</strong>itiative to generate review articles <strong>in</strong> civil eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g subjects.<br />
*Correspond<strong>in</strong>g author. Division of Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g Geology, Royal Institute of Technology, S-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden. Tel.: +46-8-790-6808;<br />
fax.: +46-8-790-6810.<br />
E-mail addresses: lanru@kth.se (L. J<strong>in</strong>g).<br />
1365-1609/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.<br />
PII: S 1365-1609(02)00065-5
410<br />
1. Introduction<br />
L. J<strong>in</strong>g, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427<br />
Because <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g has developed for<br />
the design of <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g structures <strong>in</strong> different<br />
circumstances and different purposes, and because<br />
different modell<strong>in</strong>g techniques have been developed,<br />
we now have a wide spectrum of modell<strong>in</strong>g and design<br />
approaches. These approaches can be presented <strong>in</strong><br />
different ways. A categorization <strong>in</strong>to eight approaches<br />
based on four <strong>methods</strong> and two levels is illustrated <strong>in</strong><br />
Fig. 1.<br />
The modell<strong>in</strong>g and design work starts with the<br />
objective, the top box <strong>in</strong> Fig. 1. Then there are the eight<br />
modell<strong>in</strong>g and design <strong>methods</strong> <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> central box.<br />
The four columns represent the four ma<strong>in</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>methods</strong>:<br />
Method A— design based on previous experience.<br />
Method B— design based on simplified models.<br />
Method C— design based on modell<strong>in</strong>g which attempts<br />
to capture most relevant mechanisms.<br />
Method D— design based on ‘all-encompass<strong>in</strong>g’<br />
modell<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
There are two rows <strong>in</strong> the large central box <strong>in</strong> Fig. 1.<br />
The top row, Level 1, <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>methods</strong> <strong>in</strong> which there is<br />
an attempt to achieve one-to-one mechanism mapp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the model. In other words, a mechanism which is<br />
thought to be occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the <strong>rock</strong> reality and which<br />
Site<br />
Investigation<br />
Objective<br />
Method A Method B Method C Method D<br />
Use of<br />
pre-exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
standard<br />
<strong>methods</strong><br />
Precedent type<br />
analyses and<br />
modifications<br />
Analytical<br />
<strong>methods</strong>,<br />
stress-based<br />
Rock mass<br />
classification,<br />
RMR, Q, GSI<br />
Design based on forward analysis Design based on back analysis<br />
Construction<br />
is to be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the model is modelled directly, such<br />
as an explicit stress–stra<strong>in</strong> relation. Conversely, the<br />
lower row, Level 2, <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>methods</strong> <strong>in</strong> which such<br />
mechanism mapp<strong>in</strong>g is not totally direct, e.g. the use of<br />
<strong>rock</strong> mass classification systems. Some of the <strong>rock</strong> mass<br />
characterization parameters will be obta<strong>in</strong>ed from site<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation, the left-hand box. Then the <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
design and construction proceeds, with feedback<br />
loops to the modell<strong>in</strong>g from construction.<br />
The review is directed at Methods C and D <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Level 1 top row <strong>in</strong> the central box of Fig. 1. An<br />
important po<strong>in</strong>t is that, <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> and<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g design, hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>sufficient data is a way of<br />
life, rather than a local difficulty—which is why the<br />
empirical approaches, i.e. classification systems, have<br />
been developed and are still required. So, we will also<br />
be discuss<strong>in</strong>g the subjects of the representative elemental<br />
volume (REV), homogenisation/upscal<strong>in</strong>g, back analysis<br />
and <strong>in</strong>verse solutions. These are fundamental<br />
problems associated with modell<strong>in</strong>g, and are relevant<br />
to all the A, B, C & D method categories <strong>in</strong> Fig. 1.<br />
The most commonly applied numerical <strong>methods</strong> for<br />
<strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> problems are:<br />
(1) Cont<strong>in</strong>uum <strong>methods</strong>—the f<strong>in</strong>ite difference method<br />
(FDM), the f<strong>in</strong>ite element method (FEM), and the<br />
boundary element method (BEM).<br />
(2) Discrete <strong>methods</strong>—the discrete element method<br />
(DEM), discrete fracture network (DFN) <strong>methods</strong>.<br />
(3) Hybrid cont<strong>in</strong>uum/discrete <strong>methods</strong>.<br />
Basic<br />
numerical<br />
<strong>methods</strong>, FEM,<br />
BEM, DEM,<br />
hybrid<br />
Database<br />
expert<br />
systems, &<br />
other systems<br />
approaches<br />
Extended<br />
numerical<br />
<strong>methods</strong>,<br />
fully-coupled<br />
models<br />
Integrated<br />
systems<br />
approaches,<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternet-based<br />
Level 1<br />
1:1 mapp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Level 2<br />
Not 1:1 mapp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Fig. 1. The four basic <strong>methods</strong>, two levels, and hence eight different approaches to <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g and provid<strong>in</strong>g a predictive capability<br />
for <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g design [1].
L. J<strong>in</strong>g, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427 411<br />
The choice of cont<strong>in</strong>uum or discrete <strong>methods</strong> depends<br />
on many problem-specific factors, and ma<strong>in</strong>ly on the<br />
problem scale and fracture system geometry. The<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uum approach can be used if only a few fractures<br />
are present and if fracture open<strong>in</strong>g and complete block<br />
detachment are not significant factors. The discrete<br />
approach is most suitable for moderately fractured <strong>rock</strong><br />
masses where the number of fractures is too large for<br />
the cont<strong>in</strong>uum-with-fracture-elements approach, or<br />
where large-scale displacements of <strong>in</strong>dividual blocks<br />
are possible. There are no absolute advantages of one<br />
method over another. However, some of the disadvantages<br />
of each type can be avoided by comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uum-discrete models, termed hybrid models.<br />
In this review, we concentrate on the states-of-the-art<br />
of the capability and utility of the numerical <strong>methods</strong><br />
for <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> purposes and note the outstand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
issues to be solved. The emphasis is on civil eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
applications, but the <strong>in</strong>formation applies to all branches<br />
of <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, and is supported here by a<br />
moderately extensive literature reference source.<br />
2. <strong>Numerical</strong> <strong>methods</strong> for <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong>: states-of-theart<br />
2.1. The FDM and related <strong>methods</strong><br />
The basic technique <strong>in</strong> the FDM is the discretization<br />
of the govern<strong>in</strong>g partial differential equations (PDEs) by<br />
replac<strong>in</strong>g the partial derivatives with differences def<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
at neighbour<strong>in</strong>g grid po<strong>in</strong>ts. The grid system is a<br />
convenient way of generat<strong>in</strong>g objective function values<br />
at sampl<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts with small enough <strong>in</strong>tervals between<br />
them, so that errors thus <strong>in</strong>troduced are small enough to<br />
be acceptable. With proper formulations, such as static<br />
or dynamic relaxation techniques, no global system of<br />
equations <strong>in</strong> matrix form needs to be formed and solved.<br />
The formation and solution of the equations are<br />
localized, which is more efficient for memory and<br />
storage handl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the computer implementation. No<br />
local trial (or <strong>in</strong>terpolation) functions are employed to<br />
approximate the PDE <strong>in</strong> the neighbourhoods of the<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts, as is done <strong>in</strong> the FEM and BEM. It is<br />
therefore the most direct and <strong>in</strong>tuitive technique for the<br />
solution of the PDEs. This also provides the additional<br />
advantage of more straightforward simulation of complex<br />
constitutive material behaviour, such as plasticity<br />
and damage, without iterative solutions of predictorcorrector<br />
mapp<strong>in</strong>g schemes which must be used <strong>in</strong> other<br />
numerical <strong>methods</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g global matrix equation systems,<br />
as <strong>in</strong> the FEM or BEM.<br />
The conventional FDM with regular grid systems<br />
does suffer from shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs, most of all <strong>in</strong> its<br />
<strong>in</strong>flexibility <strong>in</strong> deal<strong>in</strong>g with fractures, complex boundary<br />
conditions and material heterogeneity. This makes the<br />
standard FDM generally unsuitable for modell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practical <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> problems. However, significant<br />
progress has been made <strong>in</strong> the FDM with irregular<br />
meshes, such as triangular grid or Voronoi grid systems,<br />
which leads to the so-called Control Volume, or F<strong>in</strong>ite<br />
Volume, techniques. Voronoi polygons grow from<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts to fill the space, as opposed to tessellations where<br />
the polygons are formed by l<strong>in</strong>es cutt<strong>in</strong>g the plane, or by<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g up a mosaic from pre-exist<strong>in</strong>g polygonal<br />
shapes.<br />
The FVM can be formulated with primary variables<br />
(e.g. displacement) at the centres of cells (elements) or at<br />
nodes (grid po<strong>in</strong>ts) for an unstructured grid. It is also<br />
possible to consider different material properties <strong>in</strong><br />
different cells. The FVM approach is therefore as<br />
flexible as the FEM <strong>in</strong> handl<strong>in</strong>g material heterogeneity,<br />
mesh generation, and treatment of boundary conditions<br />
with unstructured grids of arbitrary shapes. It has<br />
similarities with the FEM and is also regarded as a<br />
bridge between the FDM and FEM. The orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
concept and early code development <strong>in</strong> FVM for stress<br />
analysis problems can be traced to the work <strong>in</strong> [2], us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a vertex-centred scheme with a quadrilateral grid. At<br />
present, the most well-known computer code for stress<br />
analysis for <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g problems us<strong>in</strong>g the FVM/<br />
FDM approach is perhaps the FLAC code group [3],<br />
with a vertex scheme of triangular and/or quadrilateral<br />
grids.<br />
Explicit representation of fractures is not easy <strong>in</strong> the<br />
FDM/FVM because they require cont<strong>in</strong>uity of the<br />
functions between the neighbour<strong>in</strong>g grid po<strong>in</strong>ts. In<br />
addition, it is not possible to have special ‘fracture<br />
elements’ <strong>in</strong> the FDM or FVM as <strong>in</strong> the FEM. In fact,<br />
the <strong>in</strong>ability to <strong>in</strong>corporate explicit representation of<br />
fractures is the weak po<strong>in</strong>t of the FDM/FVM approach<br />
for <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong>. On the other hand, the FDM/FVM<br />
models have been used to study the mechanisms of<br />
fractur<strong>in</strong>g processes, such as shear-band formation <strong>in</strong><br />
the laboratory test<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>rock</strong> and soil samples [4], and<br />
fault system formation as a result of tectonic load<strong>in</strong>g [5].<br />
This is achieved via a process of material failure or<br />
damage propagation at the grid po<strong>in</strong>ts or cell centres,<br />
without creat<strong>in</strong>g fracture surfaces <strong>in</strong> the models.<br />
The FVM is one of the most popular numerical<br />
<strong>methods</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, with applications cover<strong>in</strong>g<br />
almost all aspects of <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong>, e.g. slope stability,<br />
underground open<strong>in</strong>gs, coupled hydro-mechanical or<br />
thermo-hydro-mechanical processes, <strong>rock</strong> mass characterization,<br />
tectonic process, and glacial dynamics. The<br />
most comprehensive coverage <strong>in</strong> this regard can be seen<br />
<strong>in</strong> [6].<br />
2.2. The FEM and related <strong>methods</strong><br />
The FEM is perhaps the most widely applied<br />
numerical method across the science and eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g
412<br />
L. J<strong>in</strong>g, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427<br />
fields. S<strong>in</strong>ce its orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the early 1960s, much FEM<br />
development work has been specifically oriented towards<br />
<strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> problems, as illustrated <strong>in</strong> [7–10].<br />
This has been because it was the first numerical method<br />
with enough flexibility for the treatment of material<br />
heterogeneity, non-l<strong>in</strong>ear deformability (ma<strong>in</strong>ly plasticity),<br />
complex boundary conditions, <strong>in</strong> situ stresses and<br />
gravity. Also, the method appeared <strong>in</strong> the late 1960s and<br />
early 1970s, when the traditional FDM with regular<br />
grids could not satisfy these essential requirements for<br />
<strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> problems. It out-performed the conventional<br />
FDM because of these advantages.<br />
Representation of <strong>rock</strong> fractures <strong>in</strong> the FEM has been<br />
motivated by <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> needs s<strong>in</strong>ce the late 1960s,<br />
with the most notable contributions reported <strong>in</strong> [11,12].<br />
The well-known ‘Goodman jo<strong>in</strong>t element’ <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong><br />
<strong>mechanics</strong> literature has been widely implemented <strong>in</strong><br />
FEM codes and applied to many practical <strong>rock</strong><br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g problems. However, these models are<br />
formulated based on cont<strong>in</strong>uum assumptions—so that<br />
large-scale open<strong>in</strong>g, slid<strong>in</strong>g, and complete detachment of<br />
elements are not permitted. The zero thickness of the<br />
Goodman jo<strong>in</strong>t element causes numerical ill-condition<strong>in</strong>g<br />
due to large aspect ratios (the ratio of length to<br />
thickness) of jo<strong>in</strong>t elements, and was improved by jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
elements developed later <strong>in</strong> [13–20].<br />
Despite these efforts, the treatment of fractures and<br />
fracture growth rema<strong>in</strong>s the most important limit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
factor <strong>in</strong> the application of the FEM for <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong><br />
problems. The FEM suffers from the fact that the global<br />
stiffness matrix tends to be ill-conditioned when many<br />
fracture elements are <strong>in</strong>corporated. Block rotations,<br />
complete detachment and large-scale fracture open<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cannot be treated because the general cont<strong>in</strong>uum<br />
assumption <strong>in</strong> FEM formulations requires that fracture<br />
elements cannot be torn apart.<br />
When simulat<strong>in</strong>g the process of fracture growth, the<br />
FEM is handicapped by the requirement of small<br />
element size, cont<strong>in</strong>uous re-mesh<strong>in</strong>g with fracture<br />
growth, and conformable fracture path and element<br />
edges. This overall shortcom<strong>in</strong>g makes the FEM less<br />
efficient <strong>in</strong> deal<strong>in</strong>g with fracture problems than its BEM<br />
counterparts. However, special algorithms have been<br />
developed <strong>in</strong> an attempt to overcome this disadvantage,<br />
e.g. us<strong>in</strong>g discont<strong>in</strong>uous shape functions [21] for implicit<br />
simulation of fracture <strong>in</strong>itiation and growth through<br />
bifurcation theory, the ‘enriched FEM’ and ‘generalized<br />
FEM’ approaches [22–25]. The treatment of fractures is<br />
at the element level: the surfaces of the fractures are<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed by assigned distance functions so that their<br />
representation requires only nodal function values,<br />
represented by an additional degree of freedom <strong>in</strong> the<br />
trial functions, a jump function along the fracture and a<br />
crack tip function at the tips. The motions of the<br />
fractures are simulated us<strong>in</strong>g the level sets technique and<br />
no pre-def<strong>in</strong>ed fracture elements are needed. In the<br />
Generalized FEM, the meshes can be <strong>in</strong>dependent of the<br />
problem geometry. In [26], the enriched FEM method<br />
was applied to tunnel stability analysis with fractures<br />
simulated as displacement discont<strong>in</strong>uities.<br />
The Generalized FEM is <strong>in</strong> many ways similar to the<br />
‘manifold method’ except for the treatment of fractures<br />
and discrete blocks [27–29]. The manifold method<br />
uses the truncated discont<strong>in</strong>uous shape functions to<br />
simulate the fractures and treats the cont<strong>in</strong>uum bodies,<br />
fractured bodies and assemblage of discrete blocks <strong>in</strong> a<br />
unified form, and is a natural bridge between the<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uum and discrete representations. The method is<br />
formulated us<strong>in</strong>g a node-based star cover<strong>in</strong>g system for<br />
construct<strong>in</strong>g the trial functions, where a node is<br />
associated with a cover<strong>in</strong>g star, which can be a set of<br />
standard FEM elements associated with the node or<br />
generated us<strong>in</strong>g least-square kernel techniques with<br />
general shapes. The <strong>in</strong>tegration, however, is performed<br />
analytically us<strong>in</strong>g Simplex <strong>in</strong>tegration techniques. The<br />
manifold method can also have meshes <strong>in</strong>dependent of<br />
the doma<strong>in</strong> geometry, and therefore the mesh<strong>in</strong>g task is<br />
greatly simplified and simulation of the fractur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
process does not need remesh<strong>in</strong>g. The technique has<br />
been extended for applications to <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong><br />
problems with large deformations and crack propagation<br />
[30,31]. Most of the publications are <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong><br />
the series of proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the ICADD 1 conferences<br />
[32–35].<br />
The mesh generation, with complex <strong>in</strong>terior structures<br />
and exterior boundaries, is a demand<strong>in</strong>g task when<br />
apply<strong>in</strong>g the FEM to practical problems. The problem is<br />
critical when deal<strong>in</strong>g with 3-D problems with complex<br />
geometry. Significant progress has been made <strong>in</strong> the last<br />
decade <strong>in</strong> the ‘meshless’ (or ‘meshfree’, ‘element-free’)<br />
method that simplifies greatly the mesh<strong>in</strong>g tasks. In this<br />
approach, the trial functions are no longer standard, but<br />
generated from neighbour<strong>in</strong>g nodes with<strong>in</strong> a doma<strong>in</strong> of<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence by different approximations, such as the leastsquares<br />
technique. A comprehensive overview of the<br />
method is given <strong>in</strong> [36]. From the pure comput<strong>in</strong>g<br />
performance po<strong>in</strong>t of view, it has not yet outperformed<br />
the FEM techniques, but it has potential for civil<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g problems <strong>in</strong> general, and <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong><br />
applications <strong>in</strong> particular—due to its flexibility <strong>in</strong><br />
treatment of fractures, as reported by Zhang et al. [37]<br />
for analysis of jo<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>rock</strong> masses with block-<strong>in</strong>terface<br />
models, and by Belytschko et al. [38] for fracture growth<br />
<strong>in</strong> concrete. A contact-detection algorithm us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
meshless technique was also reported by Li et al. [39]<br />
that may pave the way for extend<strong>in</strong>g the meshless<br />
technique to discrete block system modell<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />
concept was also extended to the BEM.<br />
1<br />
ICADD: International Conference on Analysis of Discont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
Deformations.
L. J<strong>in</strong>g, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427 413<br />
2.3. The BEM and related <strong>methods</strong><br />
Unlike the FEM and FDM <strong>methods</strong>, the BEM<br />
approach <strong>in</strong>itially seeks a weak solution at the global<br />
level through a numerical solution of an <strong>in</strong>tegral<br />
equation derived us<strong>in</strong>g Betti’s reciprocal theorem and<br />
Somigliana’s identity. The <strong>in</strong>troduction of isoparametric<br />
elements us<strong>in</strong>g different orders of shape functions, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
same fashion as that <strong>in</strong> FEM, <strong>in</strong> [40,41], greatly<br />
enhanced the BEMs applicability for stress analysis<br />
problems.<br />
The most notable orig<strong>in</strong>al developments of the BEM<br />
application <strong>in</strong> the field of <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> may be<br />
attributed to early works reported <strong>in</strong> [42–44] which was<br />
quickly followed by many others, as reported <strong>in</strong> [45–48].<br />
The applications were for general stress and deformation<br />
analysis for underground excavations, soil-structure<br />
<strong>in</strong>teractions, groundwater flow and fractur<strong>in</strong>g processes.<br />
Notable examples of the work are as follows:<br />
* Stress analysis of underground excavations with and<br />
without fractures [49–55].<br />
* Dynamic problems [56–58].<br />
* Back analysis of <strong>in</strong> situ stress and elastic properties<br />
[59,60].<br />
* Borehole tests for permeability measurements [61].<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the early 80s, an important developmental<br />
thrust concerns BEM formulations for coupled thermo-mechanical<br />
and hydro-mechanical processes, such<br />
as the work reported <strong>in</strong> [62–64]. Due to the BEMs<br />
advantage <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g model dimensions, 3-D applications<br />
are also reported, especially us<strong>in</strong>g the displacement<br />
discont<strong>in</strong>uity method (DDM) for stress analysis, such as<br />
<strong>in</strong> [65–67]. The DDM approach [68] is most suitable for<br />
fracture growth simulations and was extended and<br />
applied to <strong>rock</strong> fracture problems for two-dimensional<br />
[69] and three-dimensional [70,71] problems. Its counterpart,<br />
the fictitious stress method [44], is also an <strong>in</strong>direct<br />
BEM approach suitable for stress simulations.<br />
To simulate fracture growth us<strong>in</strong>g the standard BEM,<br />
two techniques have been proposed. One is to divide the<br />
problem doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>to multiple sub-doma<strong>in</strong>s with fractures<br />
along their <strong>in</strong>terfaces, with a pre-assumed fracture<br />
path, [72]; and the second is the dual boundary element<br />
method (DBEM) us<strong>in</strong>g displacement and traction<br />
boundary equations at opposite surfaces of fracture<br />
elements [73,74]. However, the orig<strong>in</strong>al concept of us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
two <strong>in</strong>dependent boundary <strong>in</strong>tegral equations for<br />
fracture analysis, one displacement equation and another<br />
with its normal derivatives, was developed first <strong>in</strong><br />
[41]. Special crack tip elements, such as developed <strong>in</strong><br />
[75–76], should be used at the fracture tips to account<br />
for the stress and displacement s<strong>in</strong>gularity.<br />
A special formulation of the BEM, called the<br />
Galerk<strong>in</strong> BEM, or GBEM, produces a symmetric<br />
coefficient matrix by double <strong>in</strong>tegration of the tradi-<br />
tional boundary <strong>in</strong>tegral twice multiplied by a weighted<br />
trial function <strong>in</strong> the Galerk<strong>in</strong> sense of a weighted<br />
residual formulation. A recent review of the GBEM is<br />
given <strong>in</strong> [77] and an application for <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong><br />
problems was reported <strong>in</strong> [78].<br />
Inclusion of source terms, such as body forces, heat<br />
sources, s<strong>in</strong>k/source terms <strong>in</strong> potential problems, etc.,<br />
leads to doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrals <strong>in</strong> the BEM. This problem will<br />
also appear when consider<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>itial stress/stra<strong>in</strong> effects<br />
and non-l<strong>in</strong>ear material behaviour, such as plastic<br />
deformation. The traditional technique for deal<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
such doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrals is the division of the doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>to<br />
a number of <strong>in</strong>ternal cells, which essentially elim<strong>in</strong>ates<br />
the advantages of the BEMs ‘boundary only’ discretization.<br />
Different techniques have been developed over the<br />
years to overcome this difficulty [79], most notably<br />
the dual reciprocity method (DRM) [80]. In [81] the<br />
approach is applied for solv<strong>in</strong>g groundwater flow<br />
problems.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> advantage of the BEM is the reduction of<br />
the model dimension by one, with much simpler mesh<br />
generation and therefore <strong>in</strong>put data preparation, compared<br />
with the FEM and FDM. In addition, solutions<br />
<strong>in</strong>side the doma<strong>in</strong> are cont<strong>in</strong>uous, unlike the po<strong>in</strong>t-wise<br />
discont<strong>in</strong>uous solutions obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g the FEM and<br />
FDM. However, <strong>in</strong> general, the BEM is not as efficient<br />
as the FEM <strong>in</strong> deal<strong>in</strong>g with material heterogeneity—<br />
because it cannot have as many sub-doma<strong>in</strong>s as<br />
elements <strong>in</strong> the FEM. The BEM is also not as efficient<br />
as the FEM <strong>in</strong> simulat<strong>in</strong>g non-l<strong>in</strong>ear material behaviour,<br />
such as <strong>in</strong> plasticity and damage evolution processes<br />
because doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrals are often presented <strong>in</strong> these<br />
problems. The BEM is more suitable for solv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
problems of fractur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>homogeneous and l<strong>in</strong>early<br />
elastic bodies.<br />
2.4. The dist<strong>in</strong>ct element method (DEM)<br />
Rock <strong>mechanics</strong> is one of the discipl<strong>in</strong>es from which<br />
the concept of DEM orig<strong>in</strong>ated [82–85]. The key<br />
concepts of the DEM are that the doma<strong>in</strong> of <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
is treated as an assemblage of rigid or deformable<br />
blocks/particles and that the contacts among them need<br />
to be identified and cont<strong>in</strong>uously updated dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
entire deformation/motion process, and be represented<br />
by appropriate constitutive models. The theoretical<br />
foundation of the method is the formulation and<br />
solution of equations of motion of rigid and/or<br />
deformable bodies us<strong>in</strong>g implicit (based on FEM<br />
discretization) and explicit (us<strong>in</strong>g FDM/FVM discretization)<br />
formulations. The method has a broad variety of<br />
applications <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong>, soil <strong>mechanics</strong>, structural<br />
analysis, granular materials, material process<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
fluid <strong>mechanics</strong>, multibody systems, robot simulation,<br />
computer animation, etc. It is one of most rapidly<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g areas of computational <strong>mechanics</strong>. The basic
414<br />
L. J<strong>in</strong>g, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427<br />
difference between the DEM and cont<strong>in</strong>uum-based<br />
<strong>methods</strong> is that the contact patterns between components<br />
of the system are cont<strong>in</strong>uously chang<strong>in</strong>g with the<br />
deformation process for the former, but are fixed for<br />
the latter.<br />
The most representative explicit DEM <strong>methods</strong> are<br />
the computer codes UDEC and 3DEC for two and<br />
three-dimensional problems <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> [86–92].<br />
The hybrid technique with dist<strong>in</strong>ct element and boundary<br />
element <strong>methods</strong> was also developed [93] to treat the<br />
effects of the far-field most efficiently for two-dimensional<br />
problems. Similar but different formulations and<br />
numerical codes with the same pr<strong>in</strong>ciples have also been<br />
developed and applied to various problems, such as rigid<br />
block motions [94,95], plate bend<strong>in</strong>g [96], and the blockspr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
model (BSM) [97–99] which is essentially a subset<br />
of the explicit DEM by treat<strong>in</strong>g blocks as rigid bodies.<br />
Due ma<strong>in</strong>ly to its conceptual attraction <strong>in</strong> the explicit<br />
representation of fractures, the dist<strong>in</strong>ct element method<br />
has been enjoy<strong>in</strong>g wide application <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
A large quantity of associated publications has been<br />
published, especially <strong>in</strong> conference proceed<strong>in</strong>gs. Some of<br />
the publications are referenced here to show the wide<br />
range of applicability of the <strong>methods</strong>.<br />
* Underground works [100–109].<br />
* Rock dynamics [110,111].<br />
* Nuclear waste repository design and performance<br />
assessment [112–114].<br />
* Reservoir simulations [115].<br />
* Fluid <strong>in</strong>jection [116–118].<br />
* Rock slopes [119].<br />
* Laboratory test simulations and constitutive model<br />
development [120–122].<br />
* Stress-flow coupl<strong>in</strong>g [123,124].<br />
* Hard <strong>rock</strong> re<strong>in</strong>forcement [125].<br />
* Intraplate earthquakes [126].<br />
* Well and borehole stability [127,128].<br />
* Rock permeability characterization [129].<br />
* Acoustic emission <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> [130].<br />
* Derivation of equivalent properties of fractured <strong>rock</strong>s<br />
[131,132].<br />
A recent book [133] <strong>in</strong>cludes references to a collection of<br />
explicit DEM application papers for various aspects of<br />
<strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The sem<strong>in</strong>al DEM work for granular materials for<br />
geo<strong>mechanics</strong> and civil eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g application is <strong>in</strong> a<br />
series of papers [134–138]. The development and<br />
applications are mostly reported <strong>in</strong> series of proceed<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
of symposia and conferences, such as <strong>in</strong> [139–140] <strong>in</strong> the<br />
field of geo<strong>mechanics</strong>. The most well-known codes <strong>in</strong><br />
this field are the PFC codes for both two-dimensional<br />
and three-dimensional problems [141], and the DMC<br />
code [142,143]. The method has been widely applied to<br />
many different fields such as soil <strong>mechanics</strong>, the<br />
process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry, non-metal material sciences and<br />
defence research. More extensive coverage of this<br />
subject will be given <strong>in</strong> a later expanded version of<br />
this review.<br />
The implicit DEM is represented ma<strong>in</strong>ly by the<br />
discont<strong>in</strong>uous deformation analysis (DDA) approach,<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> [144,145], and further developed <strong>in</strong><br />
[146,147] for stress-deformation analysis, and <strong>in</strong><br />
[148,149] for coupled stress-flow problems. Numerous<br />
other extensions and improvements have been implemented<br />
over the years <strong>in</strong> the late 90s, with the bulk of<br />
the publications appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a series of ICADD<br />
conferences [32–35]. The method uses standard FEM<br />
meshes over blocks and the contacts are treated us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the penalty method. Similar approaches were also<br />
developed <strong>in</strong> [150–152] us<strong>in</strong>g four-noded blocks as the<br />
standard element, and was called the discrete f<strong>in</strong>ite<br />
element method. Another similar development, called<br />
the comb<strong>in</strong>ed f<strong>in</strong>ite-discrete element method [153–155],<br />
considers not only the block deformation but also<br />
fractur<strong>in</strong>g and fragmentation of the <strong>rock</strong>s. However, <strong>in</strong><br />
terms of development and application, the DDA<br />
approach occupies the front position. DDA has two<br />
advantages over the explicit DEM: relatively larger time<br />
steps; and closed-form <strong>in</strong>tegrations for the stiffness<br />
matrices of elements. An exist<strong>in</strong>g FEM code can also be<br />
readily transformed <strong>in</strong>to a DDA code while reta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g all<br />
the advantageous features of the FEM.<br />
The DDA method has emerged as an attractive model<br />
for geomechanical problems because its advantages<br />
cannot be replaced by cont<strong>in</strong>uum-based <strong>methods</strong> or by<br />
the explicit DEM formulations. It was also extended to<br />
handle three-dimensional block system analysis [156]<br />
and use of higher order elements [157], plus more<br />
comprehensive representation of the fractures [158]. The<br />
code development has reached a certa<strong>in</strong> level of maturity<br />
with applications focus<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ly on tunnell<strong>in</strong>g, caverns,<br />
fractur<strong>in</strong>g and fragmentation processes of geological<br />
and structural materials and earthquake effects<br />
[159–165].<br />
Similar to the DEM, but without consider<strong>in</strong>g block<br />
deformation and motion, is the Key Block approach,<br />
<strong>in</strong>itiated <strong>in</strong>dependently by Warburton [166,167] and<br />
Goodman and Shi [168], with a more rigorous<br />
topological treatment of block system geometry <strong>in</strong> the<br />
latter (see also [169,170]). This is a special method for<br />
analysis of stability of <strong>rock</strong> structures dom<strong>in</strong>ated by the<br />
geometrical characteristics of the <strong>rock</strong> blocks and hence<br />
the fracture systems. It does not utilize any stress and<br />
deformation analysis, but identifies the ‘key blocks’ or<br />
‘keystones’, which are formed by <strong>in</strong>tersect<strong>in</strong>g fractures<br />
and excavated free surfaces <strong>in</strong> the <strong>rock</strong> mass which have<br />
the potential for slid<strong>in</strong>g and rotation <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> directions.<br />
Key block theory, or simply block theory, and the<br />
associated code development enjoy wide applications <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, with further development consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Monte Carlo simulations and probabilistic predictions
L. J<strong>in</strong>g, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427 415<br />
[171–175], water effects [176], l<strong>in</strong>ear programm<strong>in</strong>g [177],<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ite block size effect [178] and secondary blocks [179].<br />
Predictably, the major applications are <strong>in</strong> the field of<br />
tunnel and slope stability analysis, such as reported <strong>in</strong><br />
[180–186].<br />
2.5. The DFN method related <strong>methods</strong><br />
The DFN method is a special discrete model that<br />
considers fluid flow and transport processes <strong>in</strong> fractured<br />
<strong>rock</strong> masses through a system of connected fractures.<br />
The technique was created <strong>in</strong> the early 1980s for<br />
both two-dimensional and three-dimensional problems<br />
[187–197], and is most useful for the study of flow <strong>in</strong><br />
fractured media <strong>in</strong> which an equivalent cont<strong>in</strong>uum<br />
model is difficult to establish, and for the derivation of<br />
equivalent cont<strong>in</strong>uum flow and transport properties of<br />
fractured <strong>rock</strong>s [198,199]. A large number of publications<br />
have been reported, and systematic presentation<br />
and evaluation of the method have also appeared <strong>in</strong><br />
books [200–203]. The method enjoys wide applications<br />
for problems of fractured <strong>rock</strong>s, perhaps ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to<br />
its conceptual attractiveness. There are many different<br />
DFN formulations and computer codes, but most<br />
notable are the approaches and codes FRACMAN/<br />
MAFIC [204] and NAPSAC [205–207] with many<br />
applications for <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g projects over the years.<br />
The stochastic simulation of fracture systems is the<br />
geometric basis of the DFN approach and plays a<br />
crucial role <strong>in</strong> the performance and reliability of the<br />
fracture system model <strong>in</strong> the same way as for the DEM<br />
[208,209]. A critical issue is the treatment of bias <strong>in</strong><br />
estimation of the fracture densities, trace lengths and<br />
connectivity from conventional surface or borehole<br />
mapp<strong>in</strong>gs. Recent development us<strong>in</strong>g circular w<strong>in</strong>dows<br />
is reported <strong>in</strong> [210,211].<br />
Solution of flow fields for <strong>in</strong>dividual fracture disks <strong>in</strong><br />
the DFN uses closed-form solutions, the FEM and<br />
BEM mesh, pipe models and channel lattice models.<br />
Closed-form solutions exist, at present, only for planar<br />
fractures with parallel surfaces of regular (i.e. circular or<br />
rectangular discs) shapes [212,213]. For fractures with<br />
general shapes, the FEM discretization technique is<br />
perhaps the most well-known techniques used <strong>in</strong> the<br />
DFN codes FRACMAN/MAFIC and NAPSAC. The<br />
use of BEM discretization is reported <strong>in</strong> [194,195].<br />
The pipe model [214] and the channel lattice model<br />
[215] provide simpler representations of the fracture<br />
system geometry, the latter be<strong>in</strong>g more suitable for<br />
simulat<strong>in</strong>g the complex flow behaviour <strong>in</strong>side the<br />
fractures, such as the ‘channel flow’ phenomenon.<br />
Computationally, they are less demand<strong>in</strong>g than the<br />
FEM and BEM models because the solutions for the<br />
flow fields through the channel elements are analytical.<br />
The fractal concept has also been applied to the DFN<br />
approach <strong>in</strong> order to consider the scale dependence of<br />
the fracture system geometry and for up-scal<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
permeability properties, us<strong>in</strong>g usually the full box<br />
dimensions or the Cantor dust model [216–218]. Power<br />
law relations have been also found to exist for<br />
tracelengths of fractures and have been applied for<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g fracture system connectivity [219]. The<br />
fracture–matrix <strong>in</strong>teraction for DFN models was<br />
reported <strong>in</strong> [220] us<strong>in</strong>g full FEM discretization and <strong>in</strong><br />
[221] with a simplified technique us<strong>in</strong>g a probabilistic<br />
particle track<strong>in</strong>g technique. The effects of <strong>in</strong> situ stresses<br />
on fracture aperture variations <strong>in</strong> DFN models were<br />
reported <strong>in</strong> [222]. Below are some examples of developments<br />
and applications of the DFN approach.<br />
* Developments for multiphase fluid flow [223].<br />
* Hot-dry-<strong>rock</strong> reservoir simulations [224–226].<br />
* Characterization of permeability of fractured <strong>rock</strong>s<br />
[227–234].<br />
* Water effects on underground excavations and <strong>rock</strong><br />
slopes [235–237].<br />
Despite the advantages of the DEM and DFN, lack of<br />
knowledge of the geometry of the <strong>rock</strong> fractures limits<br />
their more general application. In general, the detailed<br />
geometry of fracture systems <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> masses cannot be<br />
known and can only be roughly estimated. The adequacy<br />
of the DEM and DFN are therefore highly dependent on<br />
the <strong>in</strong>terpretation of the <strong>in</strong> situ fracture system<br />
geometry—which cannot be even moderately validated<br />
<strong>in</strong> practice. The same problem applies to the cont<strong>in</strong>uumbased<br />
models as well, but the requirement for explicit<br />
fracture geometry representation <strong>in</strong> the DEM and DFN<br />
models makes the drawback more acute, even with<br />
multiple stochastic fracture system realizations. The<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g and quantification of the system uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty<br />
become more necessary <strong>in</strong> discrete models.<br />
There are other numerical techniques such as percolation<br />
theory and lattice models that are closely related to<br />
DEM and DFN approaches. Reviews on their fundamentals<br />
and applications are covered <strong>in</strong> the extended<br />
version of this paper to be published later.<br />
2.6. Hybrid models<br />
Hybrid models are frequently used <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
basically for flow and stress/deformation problems<br />
of fractured <strong>rock</strong>s. The ma<strong>in</strong> types of hybrid models are<br />
the hybrid BEM/FEM, DEM/FEM and DEM/BEM<br />
models. The BEM is most commonly used for simulat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
far-field <strong>rock</strong>s as an equivalent elastic cont<strong>in</strong>uum,<br />
and the FEM and DEM for the non-l<strong>in</strong>ear or fractured<br />
near-fields where explicit representations of fractures<br />
and/or non-l<strong>in</strong>ear mechanical behaviour, such as plasticity,<br />
are needed. This harmonizes the geometry of<br />
the required problem resolution with the numerical<br />
techniques available, thus provid<strong>in</strong>g an effective representation<br />
of the far-field to the near-field <strong>rock</strong> mass.
416<br />
The hybrid FEM/BEM was first proposed <strong>in</strong> [238],<br />
then followed <strong>in</strong> [239,240] as a general stress analysis<br />
technique. In <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong>, it has been used ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
for simulat<strong>in</strong>g the mechanical behaviour of underground<br />
excavations, as reported <strong>in</strong> [241–245]. The<br />
coupl<strong>in</strong>g algorithms are also presented <strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong> [48].<br />
The hybrid DEM/BEM model was implemented<br />
only for the explicit dist<strong>in</strong>ct element method, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
code group of UDEC and 3DEC. The technique<br />
was created <strong>in</strong> [246–248] for stress/deformation analysis.<br />
In [249–250] a development of hybrid discrete-cont<strong>in</strong>uum<br />
models was reported for coupled hydro-mechanical<br />
analysis of fractured <strong>rock</strong>s, us<strong>in</strong>g comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />
of DEM, DFN and BEM approaches. In [251], a<br />
hybrid DEM/FEM model was described, <strong>in</strong> which<br />
the DEM region consists of rigid blocks and the<br />
FEM region can have non-l<strong>in</strong>ear material behaviour.<br />
A hybrid beam-BEM model was reported <strong>in</strong> [252]<br />
to simulate the support behaviour of underground<br />
open<strong>in</strong>gs, us<strong>in</strong>g the same pr<strong>in</strong>ciple as the hybrid BEM/<br />
FEM model. In [253], a hybrid BEM-characteristics<br />
method is described for non-l<strong>in</strong>ear analysis of <strong>rock</strong><br />
caverns.<br />
The hybrid models have many advantages, but special<br />
attention needs to be paid to the cont<strong>in</strong>uity or<br />
compatibility conditions at the <strong>in</strong>terfaces between<br />
regions of different models, particularly when different<br />
material assumptions are <strong>in</strong>volved, such as rigid and<br />
deformable block–region <strong>in</strong>terfaces.<br />
2.7. Neural networks<br />
L. J<strong>in</strong>g, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427<br />
All the numerical modell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>methods</strong> described so far<br />
are <strong>in</strong> the category of ‘1:1 mapp<strong>in</strong>g’, i.e., the Level 1<br />
<strong>methods</strong> <strong>in</strong> Fig. 1. The neural network approach is a<br />
‘non-1:1 mapp<strong>in</strong>g’ <strong>in</strong> the Methods C and D categories of<br />
the Level 2 <strong>methods</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> Fig. 1. The <strong>rock</strong> mass is<br />
represented <strong>in</strong>directly by a system of connected nodes,<br />
but there is not necessarily any physical <strong>in</strong>terpretation of<br />
the geometrical or mechanistic location of the network’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternal nodes, nor of their <strong>in</strong>put and output values.<br />
Such a ‘non-1:1 mapp<strong>in</strong>g’ system has its advantages and<br />
disadvantages.<br />
The advantages of neural networks are that<br />
(1) The geometrical and physical constra<strong>in</strong>ts of the<br />
problem, which dom<strong>in</strong>ate the govern<strong>in</strong>g equations<br />
and constitutive laws when the 1:1 mapp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
techniques are used, are not such a problem.<br />
(2) Different k<strong>in</strong>ds of neural networks can be applied<br />
to a problem.<br />
(3) There is the possibility that the ‘perception’ we<br />
enjoy with the human bra<strong>in</strong> may be mimicked <strong>in</strong> the<br />
neural network, so that the programs can <strong>in</strong>corporate<br />
judgements based on empirical <strong>methods</strong> and<br />
experiences.<br />
The disadvantages are that<br />
(1) The procedure may be regarded as simply supercomplicated<br />
curve fitt<strong>in</strong>g—because the program has<br />
to be ‘taught’.<br />
(2) The model cannot reliably estimate outside its range<br />
of tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g parameters.<br />
(3) Critical mechanisms might be omitted <strong>in</strong> the model<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />
(4) There is a lack of any theoretical basis for<br />
verification and validation of the techniques and<br />
their outcomes.<br />
Neural network models provide descriptive and<br />
predictive capabilities and, for this reason, have been<br />
applied through the range of <strong>rock</strong> parameter identification<br />
and eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g activities. Recent published works<br />
on the application of neural networks to <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong><br />
and <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>cludes the follow<strong>in</strong>g publications.<br />
* Stress–stra<strong>in</strong> curves for <strong>in</strong>tact <strong>rock</strong> [254].<br />
* Intact <strong>rock</strong> strength [255,256].<br />
* Fracture aperture [257].<br />
* Shear behaviour of fractures [258].<br />
* Rock fracture analysis [259].<br />
* Rock mass properties [260,261].<br />
* Microfractur<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> [262].<br />
* Rock mass classification [263,264].<br />
* Displacements of <strong>rock</strong> slopes [265].<br />
* Tunnel bor<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e performance [266].<br />
* Displacements and failure <strong>in</strong> tunnels [267,268].<br />
* Tunnel support [269,270].<br />
* Surface settlement due to tunnell<strong>in</strong>g [271].<br />
* Earthquake <strong>in</strong>formation analysis [272].<br />
* Rock eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g systems (RES) modell<strong>in</strong>g [273,274].<br />
* Rock eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g [275].<br />
* Overview of the subject [276].<br />
As evidenced by the list of highlighted references<br />
above, the neural network modell<strong>in</strong>g approach has been<br />
widely applied and is considered to have significant<br />
potential—because of its ‘non-1:1 mapp<strong>in</strong>g’ character<br />
and because it may be possible <strong>in</strong> the future for such<br />
networks to <strong>in</strong>clude creative ability, perception and<br />
judgement, and be l<strong>in</strong>ked to the Internet. However, the<br />
method has not yet provided an alternative to conventional<br />
modell<strong>in</strong>g, and it may be some time before it can<br />
be used <strong>in</strong> the comprehensive Box 2D mode envisaged <strong>in</strong><br />
Fig. 1 and described <strong>in</strong> [277].<br />
3. Coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) models<br />
The coupl<strong>in</strong>gs between the processes of heat transfer<br />
(T), fluid flow (H) and stress/deformation (M) <strong>in</strong><br />
fractured <strong>rock</strong>s have become an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly important<br />
subject s<strong>in</strong>ce the early 1980s [278,279], ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to the
L. J<strong>in</strong>g, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427 417<br />
modell<strong>in</strong>g requirements for the design and performance<br />
assessment of underground radioactive waste repositories,<br />
and other eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g fields <strong>in</strong> which heat and<br />
water play important roles, such as gas/oil recovery,<br />
hot-dry-<strong>rock</strong> thermal energy extraction, contam<strong>in</strong>ant<br />
transport analysis and environment impact evaluation <strong>in</strong><br />
general. The term ‘coupled processes’ implies that the<br />
<strong>rock</strong> mass response to natural or man-made perturbations,<br />
such as the construction and operation of a<br />
nuclear waste repository, cannot be predicted with<br />
confidence by consider<strong>in</strong>g each process <strong>in</strong>dependently.<br />
The THM coupl<strong>in</strong>g models are based on heat and<br />
multiphase fluid flow <strong>in</strong> deformable and fractured porous<br />
media, and have been ma<strong>in</strong>ly developed accord<strong>in</strong>g to two<br />
basic ‘partial’ but well established coupl<strong>in</strong>g mechanisms:<br />
the thermo-elasticity theory of solids and the poroelasticity<br />
theory developed by Biot, based on Hooke’s law of<br />
elasticity, Darcy’s law of flow <strong>in</strong> porous media, and<br />
Fourier’s law of heat conduction. The effects of the THM<br />
coupl<strong>in</strong>gs are formulated as three <strong>in</strong>ter-related PDEs,<br />
express<strong>in</strong>g the conservation of mass, energy and momentum,<br />
for describ<strong>in</strong>g fluid flow, heat transfer and<br />
deformation. The solution technique can be based on<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uum representations us<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ly the FEM [280–<br />
287], FVM [3] and the discrete approach us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
UDEC code without matrix flow but with heat convection<br />
along fractures [288]. In [289] and [290] systematic<br />
development of the govern<strong>in</strong>g equations and FEM<br />
solution techniques are presented for porous cont<strong>in</strong>ua.<br />
Comprehensive studies, us<strong>in</strong>g both cont<strong>in</strong>uum and<br />
discrete approaches, have been conducted <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational DECOVALEX 2 projects for coupled<br />
THM processes <strong>in</strong> fractured <strong>rock</strong>s and buffer materials<br />
for underground radioactive waste disposal s<strong>in</strong>ce 1992,<br />
with results published <strong>in</strong> a series of reports [291,292], an<br />
edited book [293] and two special issues of the<br />
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Sciences <strong>in</strong> [294,295]. Other applications are reported, as<br />
examples, <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g list.<br />
* Reservoir simulations [296–298].<br />
* Partially saturated porous materials [299].<br />
* Advanced numerical solution techniques for coupled<br />
THM models [300–302].<br />
* Soil <strong>mechanics</strong> [303].<br />
* Simulation of expansive clays [304].<br />
* Flow and <strong>mechanics</strong> of fractures [305].<br />
* Nuclear waste repositories [306,307].<br />
* Non-Darcy flow <strong>in</strong> coupled THM processes [308].<br />
* Double-porosity model of porous media [309].<br />
* Parallel formulations of coupled models for porous<br />
media [310].<br />
* Tunnel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> cold regions [311].<br />
2<br />
DECOVALEX—DEvelopment of COupled Models and their<br />
VAlidation aga<strong>in</strong>st EXperiments.<br />
The coupled processes and models represent a great<br />
advance <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> towards an well founded<br />
branch of physics. Their extensions to <strong>in</strong>clude chemical,<br />
biochemical, electrical, acoustic and magnetic processes<br />
have also started to appear <strong>in</strong> the literature and are an<br />
<strong>in</strong>dication of future research directions.<br />
4. Inverse solution <strong>methods</strong> and applications<br />
A large and important class of numerical <strong>methods</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> and civil eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g practice is the<br />
<strong>in</strong>verse solution techniques. The essence of the <strong>in</strong>verse<br />
solution approach is to derive unknown material<br />
properties, system geometry, and boundary or <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
conditions, based on a limited number of laboratory or<br />
usually <strong>in</strong> situ measured values of some key variables,<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g either least square or mathematical programm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
techniques of error m<strong>in</strong>imization. In the case of <strong>rock</strong><br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, the most widely applied <strong>in</strong>verse solution<br />
technique is back analysis us<strong>in</strong>g measured displacements<br />
<strong>in</strong> the field [312,313] and the <strong>in</strong>verse solution of <strong>rock</strong><br />
permeability us<strong>in</strong>g field pressure data.<br />
4.1. Displacement-based back analysis for <strong>rock</strong><br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce displacements measured by extensometers with<br />
multiple anchors and the convergence of tunnel walls are<br />
the most directly measurable quantities <strong>in</strong> situ, and are<br />
one of the most used primary variables <strong>in</strong> many<br />
numerical <strong>methods</strong>, they have been used extensively to<br />
derive <strong>rock</strong> properties over the years. The majority of<br />
applications concern identification of constitutive properties<br />
and parameters of <strong>rock</strong>s, us<strong>in</strong>g displacement<br />
measurements from tunnels or slopes. Below are some<br />
typical and recent examples of such applications.<br />
* Underground excavations [314–325].<br />
* Slopes and foundations [326–330].<br />
* Initial stress field [331].<br />
* Time-dependent <strong>rock</strong> behaviour [332,333].<br />
* Consolidation [334].<br />
4.2. Pressure-based <strong>in</strong>verse solution for groundwater flow<br />
and reservoir analysis<br />
The <strong>in</strong>verse solution has long been used <strong>in</strong> hydrogeology,<br />
reservoir eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g (oil, gas and hot-dry-<strong>rock</strong><br />
(HDR) geothermal reservoirs) and geotechnical eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
analyses of environmental impacts—as a critical<br />
technique for estimat<strong>in</strong>g hydraulic properties of largescale<br />
geological formations, such as permeability,<br />
porosity, storativity, etc. by assum<strong>in</strong>g hydraulic constitutive<br />
laws of porous media based on Darcy’s law or<br />
non-Newtonian fluid models. Complexity is <strong>in</strong>creased
418<br />
L. J<strong>in</strong>g, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sciences 39 (2002) 409–427<br />
when thermal processes are also <strong>in</strong>volved, due to phase<br />
changes dur<strong>in</strong>g multiple-phased flow of fluids with<br />
various states of saturation.<br />
A comprehensive review of the subject is given <strong>in</strong> [335]<br />
with the history of <strong>in</strong>verse solution development and<br />
<strong>methods</strong> for the past 40 years, especially the application<br />
of the stochastic approach us<strong>in</strong>g geostatistics. Some of<br />
the most recent developments <strong>in</strong> this subject are<br />
referenced below to illustrate the advances.<br />
* Capillary pressure-saturation and permeability function<br />
of two-phase fluids <strong>in</strong> soil [336].<br />
* Water capacity of porous media [337].<br />
* Unsaturated properties [338].<br />
* Transmissivity, hydraulic head and velocity fields<br />
[339].<br />
* Hydraulic function estimation us<strong>in</strong>g evapotranspiration<br />
fluxes [340].<br />
* Use of BEM for <strong>in</strong>verse solution [341].<br />
* Integral formulation [342].<br />
* Hydraulic conductivity of <strong>rock</strong>s us<strong>in</strong>g pump test<br />
results [343].<br />
* Least-square penalty technique for steady-state aquifer<br />
models [344].<br />
* Maximum likelihood estimation method [345].<br />
* Inversion us<strong>in</strong>g transient outflow <strong>methods</strong> [346].<br />
* Use of geostatistics for transmissivity estimation<br />
[347–350].<br />
* Successive forward perturbation method [351].<br />
A dist<strong>in</strong>ct advantage of the <strong>in</strong>verse solution technique<br />
is the fact that the measured values <strong>in</strong> the field represent<br />
the behaviour of a large volume of <strong>rock</strong> and the scaleeffects<br />
of the constitutive parameters are automatically<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the identified parameter values. It also<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicates a promis<strong>in</strong>g method for validation of constitutive<br />
models and properties us<strong>in</strong>g back analysis with<br />
field measurements. On the other hand, the uniqueness<br />
of the solution is not guaranteed because the m<strong>in</strong>imization<br />
of the same objective error function may be<br />
achieved through different paths.<br />
5. Conclusions and rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g issues<br />
Over the last three decades, advances <strong>in</strong> the use of<br />
computational <strong>methods</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> have been<br />
impressive—especially <strong>in</strong> specific numerical <strong>methods</strong>,<br />
based on both cont<strong>in</strong>uum and discrete approaches, for<br />
representation of fracture systems, for comprehensive<br />
constitutive models of fractures and <strong>in</strong>terfaces, and <strong>in</strong><br />
the development of coupled THM models. Despite<br />
all the advances, our computer <strong>methods</strong> and codes can<br />
still be <strong>in</strong>adequate when fac<strong>in</strong>g the challenge of<br />
some practical problems, and especially when adequate<br />
representation of <strong>rock</strong> fracture systems and fracture<br />
behaviour are a pre-condition for successful modell<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Issues of special difficulty and importance are the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
* Systematic evaluation of geological and eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
uncerta<strong>in</strong>ties.<br />
* Understand<strong>in</strong>g and mathematical representation of<br />
large <strong>rock</strong> fractures.<br />
* Quantification of fracture shape, size, connectivity<br />
and effect of fracture <strong>in</strong>tersections for DFN and<br />
DEM models.<br />
* Representation of <strong>rock</strong> mass properties and behaviour<br />
as an equivalent cont<strong>in</strong>uum and existence of the<br />
REV.<br />
* Representation of <strong>in</strong>terface behaviour.<br />
* Scale effects, homogenization and upscal<strong>in</strong>g <strong>methods</strong>.<br />
* <strong>Numerical</strong> representation of eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g processes,<br />
such as excavation sequence, grout<strong>in</strong>g and re<strong>in</strong>forcement.<br />
* Time effects.<br />
* Large-scale computational capacities.<br />
The ‘model’ and the ‘computer’ are now <strong>in</strong>tegral<br />
components of <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> and <strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
studies. Indeed, numerical <strong>methods</strong> and comput<strong>in</strong>g<br />
techniques have become daily tools for formulat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conceptual models and mathematical theories<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g diverse <strong>in</strong>formation about geology, physics,<br />
construction techniques, economy, the environment and<br />
their <strong>in</strong>teractions. This achievement has greatly enhanced<br />
the development of modern <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong>—<br />
from the traditional ‘empirical’ art of <strong>rock</strong> deformability<br />
and strength estimation and support design, to the<br />
rationalism of modern <strong>mechanics</strong>, governed by and<br />
established on the three basic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of physics:<br />
mass, momentum and energy conservation.<br />
As a result of numerical modell<strong>in</strong>g experience over the<br />
past decades, it has become abundantly clear that the<br />
most important step <strong>in</strong> numerical modell<strong>in</strong>g is, perhaps<br />
counter-<strong>in</strong>tuitively, not operat<strong>in</strong>g the computer code,<br />
but the earlier ‘conceptualization’ of the problem <strong>in</strong><br />
terms of the dom<strong>in</strong>ant processes, properties, parameters<br />
and perturbations, and their mathematical presentations.<br />
The associated modell<strong>in</strong>g steps of address<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
uncerta<strong>in</strong>ties and estimat<strong>in</strong>g their significance via<br />
sensitivity analyses is similarly important. Moreover,<br />
success <strong>in</strong> numerical modell<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> and<br />
<strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g can depend almost entirely on the<br />
quality of the characterization of the fracture system<br />
geometry, the physical behaviour of the <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
fractures and the <strong>in</strong>teraction between <strong>in</strong>tersect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fractures. Today’s numerical modell<strong>in</strong>g capability can<br />
handle very large scale and complex equations systems,<br />
but the quantitative representation of the physics of<br />
fractured <strong>rock</strong>s rema<strong>in</strong>s generally questionable,<br />
although much progress has been made <strong>in</strong> this direction.<br />
The eng<strong>in</strong>eer must have a predictive capability for<br />
design, and that predictive capability can only be
achieved if the key features of the <strong>rock</strong> reality have<br />
<strong>in</strong>deed been captured <strong>in</strong> the model. Furthermore, the<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer needs some reassurance that this is <strong>in</strong>deed<br />
the case, which is why the authors place importance on<br />
the concept of audit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>rock</strong> <strong>mechanics</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
<strong>rock</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g design to ensure that the modell<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
adequate <strong>in</strong> terms of the modell<strong>in</strong>g or eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g design<br />
objective.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
The authors would like to express their s<strong>in</strong>cere<br />
appreciation and gratitude to Professor B.H.G. Brady,<br />
Professor Y. Ohnishi, Professor W.G. Pariseau and Dr<br />
R.W. Zimmerman for their comments, suggestions,<br />
corrections, and especially encouragement, <strong>in</strong> their<br />
reviews of the extended version of this paper.<br />
Introduction to references<br />
In CivilZone review papers, the ‘significant’ and ‘very<br />
significant’ references quoted <strong>in</strong> the review are highlighted,<br />
as <strong>in</strong>dicated here by the symbols * and **,<br />
respectively. The asterisked references represent groundbreak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
developments or major advances <strong>in</strong> the subject,<br />
or conta<strong>in</strong> comprehensive review material.<br />
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