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1174 © 2011 ACADEMY PUBLISHER JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND RESEARCH [31] Lewis R (1999). Teachers coping with the stress of classroom discipline. Social Psychology of Education 3, 155-171. [32] Morton L. L., Vesco R., Williams N. H., & Awender M. A. (1997). Student teacher anxieties related to class management, pedagogy, evaluation and staff relations. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 69-89. [33] Mousavi, E. S. (2007). Exploring teacher stress in non-native and native teachers of EFL. ELTED, 10, 33-41. [34] Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: clearing up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62 (3), 307–332. [35] Pajares (2002). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic contexts: An outline. Retrieved Jun 8, 2010, from http://des.emory.edu/mfp/efftalk.html. [36] Pithers, R. T., & Soden R. (1998). Scottish and Australian teacher stress and strain: A comparative study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 269-279. [37] Ross, J. A. (1994). Beliefs that make a difference. The origins and impacts of teacher efficacy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies. [38] Sava, F. A. (2002). Causes and effects of teacher conflict-inducing attitudes towards pupils: A path analysis model. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 1007-1021. [39] Schonfeld. I. (1990). Psychological distress in a sample of teachers. The Journal of Psychology,123, 321-338. [40] Smylie, M.A. (1999). Teacher stress in a time of reform. In R. Vandenberghe & Huberman, A.M. (Eds.), Understanding and preventing teacher burnout (pp. 59–84). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [41] Stein, M. K., &Wang, M. C. (1988). Teacher development and school improvement: The process of teacher change. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4 (2), 171–187. [42] Travers, C. J., & Cooper, C. L. (1996). Teachers under pressure: Stress in the teaching profession. London: Routledge. [43] Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk-Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202-248. [44] Tschannen-Moran, A. & Woolfolk-Hoy, W.K. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17 (7), 783–805. [45] Wisniewski, L. A., & Gargiulo, R. M. (1997). Occupational stress and burnout among special educators: A review of the literature. Journal of Special Education, 31 (3), 325-347. Shahin Vaezi has a Ph.D. in TEFL. She is an assistant professor at the Iran University of Science and Technology. Her research interests are related to teaching English to young learners and metacognition and the processes that one engages in while learning a language. As she works with E-Learning Center at the Iran University of Science and Technology, she has gained insight into teaching English in virtual classrooms. She is also an advocate of trying to reframe ELT research and practice to contextualize it within various cultural contexts. She has published and presented her ideas in various national and international conferences. Nasser Fallah is an MA candidate of TEFL at Iran University of Science and Technology. His main research interests are reading and vocabulary learning strategies, CALL and educational psychology. He has published a few papers in different international journals.
ISSN 1798-4769 Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 1175-1179, September 2011 © 2011 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/jltr.2.5.1175-1179 The Role of Metonymy in the Formation of Euphemism in Chinese and English Yeli Shi Foreign Language College, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan City, Zhejiang Province, 316000, China Email: willa504@163.com Jinfang Sheng Foreign Language College, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan City, Zhejiang Province, 316000, China Abstract—Euphemism is a widespread language phenomenon and indispensable lubricant in language communication. It is an expression, which can show politeness, ease the tone and coordinate the personal relationships. It can be found out that many English and Chinese euphemisms are generated in the framework of conceptual metonymy in daily life. The study of euphemisms from the perspective of cognitive metonymy enjoys its significance in language learning, cross-cultural communication and translation of euphemisms. Index Terms— euphemism, metonymy, generating mechanism © 2011 ACADEMY PUBLISHER I. INTRODUCTION As a common language phenomenon, euphemism has been studied from different perspectives. With the development of cognitive linguistics, metonymy was introduced to the formation of euphemism. Some cognitive theories like conceptual metonymy, advocated by Lakoff, paved the way for further study on metonymy and the formation of euphemism. The current studies on euphemism are mainly built on traditional semiotic semantics and pragmatics. Due attention still has not been given to the euphemism and its generating mechanism in the scope of metonymy. Yet, using euphemism properly is still a difficulty for English learners. Thus, the author of this paper intends to further explore the role metonymy plays in the formation of euphemism both in English and Chinese. II. THE RELATION BETWEEN EUPHEMISM AND METONYMY The word “euphemism” was first put forward by George Blunt in 1580s. Derived from Greek, euphemisms are words of “good omen” or “good speech” literally. Up to date, there is no universal agreement about the definition of euphemism. Generally, euphemism is often defined as “substituting an inoffensive or pleasant term for a more explicit, offensive one, thereby veneering the truth by using kind words” (Neaman & Silver, 1983, p.4). With the naissance and development of cognitive linguistics, conceptual metonymy has been emphasized by linguists. As stated by Lakoff (1987), metonymy is one of the basic characteristics of cognition. It is extremely common for people to take one well-understood or easy-to-perceive aspect of something and use it to stand either for the thing as a whole or for some other aspect or part of it. In addition, metonymy is a situation in which some subcategory or member or sub-model is used (often for some limited and immediate purpose) to understand the category as a whole, that is, there are cases where a part (a subcategory or member or sub-model) represents the whole category in reasoning, recognition, etc. Metonymy is not random or arbitrary occurrence, it is systematic. For these cognitive features and functions of metonymy, there is no difficulty associating conceptual metonymy with the formation of euphemism. With the understanding of definition, functions and characteristics of euphemism, we can find that many euphemisms are generated in the framework of conceptual metonymy in our daily life. According to cognitive linguistics, the generation manifests itself in two ways: within the same cognitive domain, whole and part metonymic relationship and part and part metonymic relationship. What’s more, there also exists other ways to generate euphemism, such as lexical device, pragmatic device, and grammatical device. III. METONYMIC APPROACH TO THE GENERATING MECHANISM OF EUPHEMISM The vagueness and indirectness of euphemism rely on conceptual metonymy. The explanation of the relation between euphemism and metonymy gives us a clear understanding that metonymic mechanism works on the basis of contiguity or relevance between things. There are mainly two types of metonymic approaches to the generating mechanism of euphemism, that is, whole and part metonymic relationship and part and part metonymic relationship. A. Whole and Part Metonymic Relationship From the angle of cognitive linguistics, the whole and part metonymic relationship is applied to things related. Here are two variants: the whole stands for the part and the part replaces the whole.
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