Conservation Biology of Lycaenidae (Butterflies) - IUCN

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Figure 2. Classification of the Lycaenidae (after Eliot 1973). 3
egions, and has formed numerous putative subspecies over this broad range. The American subspecies have sometimes been regarded as separate species, C. ladon (Cramer) (Clench and Miller 1980). Most lycaenids are not particularly vagile and some cannot cross even small spaces between habitat patches. Although a few are occasional migrants from Europe to Britain (Lampides boeticus, Everes argiades (Pallas), Cyaniris semiargus (Rottemburg)), these are apparently rather exceptional. Small Lycaenidae have apparently crossed oceanic barriers on occasion, but this process may have played only a minor role in their evolution: Vaga Zimmerman (in the Bonins and Hawaii) and Hypojamides Riley (in Tahiti) are putative examples. L. boeticus probably reached New Zealand from Australia (Gibbs 1980). A few lycaenids have been deliberately introduced to areas where they would not naturally occur. For example both Strymon bazochi Godart and Tmolus echion (L.) were introduced into Hawaii from Mexico early this century as potential agents for the control of lantana (Riotte and Uchida 1979). Poor representation of many lycaenid groups in North America led Eliot (1973) to suggest that the fauna is derived from the Old World. Tentative explanations of present distribution patterns, sometimes involving a Gondwanan origin for the group with dichotomy into Riodininae and other tribes at the time of South American separation (Eliot 1973), are not wholly convincing. Anomalies occur, perhaps related to dispersal: 'coppers' (Lycaena F.) occur in New Zealand but not in Australia or southeast Asia, and their geographically nearest congenors are in the Himalaya. Other distribution patterns are perhaps easier to explain: Udara (Vaga) blackbumi (Tuely) is one of only two endemic butterflies in Hawaii and it is thought that its ancestors may have progressively 'island-hopped' to this location. Members of another genus of small lycaenids, Zizula Chapman, may also have crossed substantial water barriers in the past; such dispersal by wind may be more frequent than commonly supposed. In Panama, Robbins and Small (1981) reported 128 species of hairstreaks being blown by the seasonal trade winds. More than 80% of these were blown through habitats where they do not normally occur. In general, though, lycaenid faunas on remote islands are small, and climatic barriers (e.g. desert) may also counter dispersal on larger land masses. Colonisation of new habitats is clearly facilitated by the presence of larval foodplants and suitable ants, but there are few quantitative data on natural colonisation of islands or other 'new' habitats. However, on the Krakatau Islands (Indonesia), 24 species have been recorded since the sterilising volcanic eruptions of 1883: none were found in 1908, seven from 1919–1921, eight by 1928–1934, and 23 were present in the 1980s (New et al. 1988). Very few of these are habitual deep forest dwellers, and perhaps 15–18 of the species currently present there depend on early successional Ipomoea pes-caprae associations on accreting beach environments. Preservation of these rather transient associations on the islands appears to be a key theme to facilitate lycaenid colonisation from Java and/or Sumatra until more diverse vegetation is present. The eight species which have colonised 4 Anak Krakatau, last sterilised by volcanic activity in 1952, are all associated with such 'strand-line' vegetation. Natural opportunities to detect colonisation patterns of Lycaenidae on this scale are indeed rare. Life histories and biology Many species of Lycaenidae have very precise environmental needs, and a number of recent studies (especially in temperate regions) show that they may have considerable value as environmental indicators and, thus, an enhanced role in conservation studies. At this stage, though, the biology of most tropical taxa is almost entirely unknown, and a tendency to focus on the better understood temperate region forms is inevitable. Myrmecophily The life histories of slightly over 900 species (Downey 1962 noted 838 species) have been documented to varying extents. A remarkable feature of many of these is dependence on ants: 245 of the species noted by Downey had myrmecophilous larvae, and this dependency has attracted much attention. A tentative classification of different degrees of myrmecophily was proposed by Fiedler (1991a, 1991b). The possible advantages of myrmecophily have been addressed by, inter al., Henning (1983), Pierce (1984) and De Vries (1991 a), and a broader overview of aphytophagy is given by Cottrell (1984). In general, the ants tend to protect the caterpillars from natural enemies (Pierce and Mead 1981; Pierce and Easteal 1986) and gain additional food from caterpillar secretions (Fiedler and Maschwitz 1988). Some of these mutualisms are very complex. In Panama, the ant Ectatomma ruidum protects caterpillars of Thisbe irenea (Stoll) (Riodininae) from attacks by predatory wasps, but not from tachinid fly parasitoids, for example (De Vries 1991b). The caterpillars of T. irenea have an elaborate 'calling' system, and attract ants by producing sounds (De Vries 1990). Similar noises were recorded in other species, all of which depended on associations with ants to enhance their well being. The noises mimic vibrations used by the ants in their own communications. Stridulation is also well known in the pupae of many lycaenids, and one function of pupal sound production might also be to attract ants (Downey 1966). Females of Hypochrysops ignitus (Leach) are attracted to colonies of ant-tended Membracidae (Sands 1986). Those of Allotinus major Felder & Felder lay eggs near or on membracids (probably a species of Terentius), using brooding adult female membracids as oviposition cues, and the caterpillars eat the membracid nymphs (Kitching 1987). Younger caterpillars sit on the membracids to feed and are thus exposed – unlike larvae of Feniseca Grote and Taraka Doherty which form silken retreats amongst their prey (Edwards 1886; Iwase 1953). Both the membracid and the caterpillars of A. major are tended by
Page 1 and 2: The IUCN Species Survival Commissio
Page 3 and 4: The IUCN Species Survival Commissio
Page 5 and 6: The Palos Verdes Blue, Glaucopsyche
Page 7 and 8: The task of preparing this volume h
Page 9 and 10: Dr. T. Hirowatari Entomological Lab
Page 11: Figure 1. Classification of the Lyc
Page 15 and 16: Table 1. Lycaenidae with larvae whi
Page 17 and 18: locality may not overlap in their f
Page 19 and 20: Table 3. Lycaenidae protected by le
Page 21 and 22: Table 4 (cont.). Lycaenidae listed
Page 23 and 24: Table 5. (cont.) Lycaenidae include
Page 25 and 26: Figure 3. Distribution of Zizina ox
Page 27 and 28: Managing lycaenid populations Vario
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Page 31 and 32: PART 2. REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS This s
Page 33 and 34: Table 1. European Lycaenid species
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Page 49 and 50: Table 2 (cont). Lycaenid taxa that
Page 51 and 52: shrub and tree species. In 1978, de
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Figure 2. Biogeographical patterns
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areas, are included in usual foragi
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very rich in amino acids (De Vries
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BOWERS, M.D. and LARIN, Z. 1989. Ac
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Threatened Lycaenidae of South Afri
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Table 1. Status of threatened lycae
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e inevitable as there are no known
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nevertheless are playing a role. Ac
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Introduction Australian Lycaenidae:
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caterpillars of some species may li
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of considerable phylogenetic import
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playing their part as 'invertebrate
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The mariposa del Puerto del Lobo Ag
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KUDRNA, O. 1986. Butterflies of Eur
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smaller and lay fewer eggs. Neverth
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from its oviposition behaviour, but
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Habitat and Ecology: M. arion occur
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Polyommatus humedasae (Toso & Balle
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Polyommatus galloi (Balletto & Toso
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The Sierra Nevada Blue, Polyommatus
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Sierra Nevada are its small endemic
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fires (of course due to urbanisatio
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microclimates: it occurs on sites t
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The Zephyr Blue, Plebejus pylaon (F
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Threats: Most lowland populations a
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drawn up (Bálint 1991b), but there
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Cupido osiris (Meigen) Country: Hun
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and Q. petraea (Mattuschka) Lieblei
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Habitat and Ecology: Hygrophilous,
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Country: Japan. 'Chosen-aka-shijimP
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Country: Japan. 'Oruri-shijimi', Sh
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Lange's Metalmark, Apodemia mormo l
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at the base of the plant, in late J
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The Hermes Copper, Lycaena hermes (
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Thome's Hairstreak, Mitoura thornei
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Sweadner's Hairstreak, Mitoura gryn
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Bartram's Hairstreak, Strymon acis
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The Avalon Hairstreak, Strymon aval
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are black with iridescent green in
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the effects of management efforts;
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120ha of dunes as a golf course. Fo
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of the federal Endangered Species A
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authors in 1963-67 in essentially u
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The major culprits in this regard a
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1983). Both sexes visit flowers (es
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(J.F. Emmel, cited in Arnold 1985)
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Selected Neotropical species K.S. B
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Distribution: J. praeclarus is know
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Neotropical Lycaenidae endemic to h
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Theclinae endemic to the Cerrado ve
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Aloeides dentatis dentatis (Swierst
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Erikssonia acraeina Trimen; Subfami
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Alaena margaritacea Eltringham; Sub
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Country: Australia Hypochrysops C.
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Another factor that is decreasing t
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Habitat and Ecology: The colonies a
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Country: Australia. The Elthani Cop
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The Bathurst Copper, Paralucia spin
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does not appear to have worked. The
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Figure 1. Distribution of subspecie
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