Aesthetic Perspectives in Music Therapy * - World Federation of ...

Frohne-Hagemann, I (2001) Aesthetic Perspectives in Music Therapy. Music 

Therapy Today (online), November, available at www.musictherapyworld.info 

Aesthetic Perspectives in Music Therapy * 

Isabelle Frohne - Hagemann 

Abstract: 

Aesthetics have to do with how we perceive and evaluate the "world" (our 

experiences). From a philosophical perspective, little research has been done 

so far on the subject "Aesthetic” in music therapy. This is surprising, as 

different theories of aesthetics have a fundamental influence on music therapy. 

They reach from metaphysical to physical and from anaesthetizing to 

aesthetizing positions. 

A short discussion on the history of aesthetic theories from Plato to modern 

philosophers may help us to better place the different explicit and implicit 

philosophies and theories that are used by modern music therapists in order to 

legitimate their music therapy approaches.With regard to the development of a 

basic theory of music therapy it might be helpful to work out a meta-theory of 

aesthetics that music therapists can refer to. 

It could be interesting to have a look at the aesthetic dimensions of music 

therapy since it is in this field that various theories are applied that correspond 

with different historical periods. It may be instructive to relate the aesthetic 

positions of the last 2500 years and music therapy today, to provide a new 

and better aesthetic motivation to this kind of therapy and promote an 

evolving development. 

The history of aesthetics is perhaps not as much a history of art than a history 

of the "body" 1 (German: Leib). Aesthetics have to do with the awareness of 

having a body and being a body. One could assume it as the history of 

suppressing our bodily condition or, on the other hand overstressing the 

importance of the ego. 

* 5. European congress for Music Therapy, Naples April 21rst to 24 th 2001 

1 In integrative music therapy the concept of "body" (Leib) implies the body (the pure matter), 

the soul and the spirit, all of them mingled with the surrounding environment. We are not 

connected to our ecological environment only through the food chain but also through our 

belonging to the so called "social worlds" whose components taught us how to think, feel and 

act. The "body" includes all this. An American colleague once told me that in English it would 

be better to add "The person in the world" to the word "body". Or maybe the person seen as a 

bio psychosocial being or as an ecological being? I will put the word body in inverted commas 

when the concept of the "Leib" is meant. 

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It is necessary at this point to clarify the notion of aesthetics. We generally 

mean in common language something else than "bodily" perception. Our 

perception is related to objects as for instance a nicely prepared table, a 

stylised Japanese garden. A well proportioned woman body is regarded to be 

aesthetic as well as a dance with harmonious movements. In these cases the 

aesthetic element emerges from an element which improves a trivial 

phenomena. It is called the "improving element" (Welsch, 1996, 24). 

Aesthetics in its philosophical history was meant as an embellishment, a 

creation of objective art work and therefore as a way of mastering the world 

outside. The idea that the word aesthetics comes from "aisthesis" ("bodily" or 

sensitive perception) was not considered as essential although the "body" is 

man's only organ for perception and cognition! 

It was only with Feuerbach and Nietzsche that these concepts started having 

such a meaning attached to them (cfr. Jung, 1994; Petzold, 1985). 

Where is the world created and formed? Our "body" is the place where this 

happens. An aesthetics starting from the "body" 2 in the sense of the "body" as 

a "complete sensorial organ", to quote Merleau-Ponty (1945) did not exist. 

The perception of the external reality was referred to what is behind the 

material world, the metaphysical part - from Plato to Romanticism - or to the 

subjective perspective - during the Romantic Age. Either Materialism or 

Idealism but without any exchange processes between these two positions. 

And even today man does not consciously consider his "body" as a place of 

aesthetic knowledge. On the contrary, the more the body (here: the pure 

matter) is the focus of attention, the more our "bodily" dimension is neglected; 

the more the body is made aesthetic the more it is made anaesthetized. 

In the digital era human body (meant as the body that we have but not the one 

that we are) appears more and more unnecessary (who needs a body in order 

to chat on the Internet?), but as in fact we need the body as a necessity as 

long as we live we try to dominate the body by programming and moulding it 

as we like. Today as never before our body is submitted to aesthetical 

treatments, massages and relaxing techniques in fitness centres, sport clubs 

and beauty farms, and it is adorned with dresses, tattoos, piercing and so on 

(Klein, 2000). With this body we present ourselves to the external world. Not "I 

am my body" (Marcel, 1985, but 15) I just possess a physical body. However, 

our "body" is still our total sensory organ through which we experience the 

world, get in touch with other people and live with heart and soul! 

2 The concept of aesthetics derived from aisthesis and the "body" means that man takes much more 

into account his bodily relation towards whatever he creates. To create something does not mean to 

only focus on external rules of aesthetic beauty but to perceive and feel (through the "body") what a 

certain phenomenon (as for instance a musical instrument or a musical idea) causes in us as 

perceptions, thoughts, associations, memories, images, emotions, and so on. We then perceive, in 

turn, what comes out of the relationship between the "body" and the created object. 

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Now, if I really am my body and not only own one then I am identical with the 

entire world. This is because I keep in my body the history of my social life, 

the spirit of my time and I am mingled with the environment I live in. This is the 

social - ecological meaning of me being a "body". Therefore it does not make 

any sense just wishing to mould the "body" aesthetically. On the other hand, it 

does make sense to abandon oneself to the "body", and therefore to the 

world, and thus trust the flowing of our being. 

Let's take the example of the improvisation used in music therapy. What 

matters is not as much the aesthetical representation of a form. The client 

does not have to play "well" but starting from an experience he is invited to 

follow the flowing of its becoming, to follow the sounds as they come out of 

him/herself and be surprised by the creative way in which they combine 

themselves and almost autonomously assume a Gestalt which unfolds its 

meaning only within this process. There is no reason to stick aesthetically to 

an externally established rule but it is the aesthetical process of 

GESTALTBILDUNG 3 that matters. 

Philosophical aesthetics in history 

I would like to trace now, always making short comments on music therapy 

aesthetical dimensions, the course of the history of aesthetics which, from a 

very metaphysical position gradually and cautiously also developed a 

consciousness for the position of the 'I am my "body"' dimension. Today 

aesthetics does not refer only to the completed object but starts process from 

the of the "body" in resonance: it is the bio psychosocial "body" which 

perceives and resonates. Aesthetic creation emerges by responding to the 

resonances of the "body". Aesthetics is a process of continuous creation. 

It was not always like that. Let's have a look at history (Helferich, 1998, 464; 

Hauskeller, 1999, 9). 

Classical antiquity 

In classical antiquity the aims of aesthetics were the recognition of divine 

perfection, truth and good. The aesthetic issue was also an issue of 

epistemology. Issues pertaining to philosophical aesthetics became only part 

of the figurative arts, because. art was able to represent reality visually and 

what one believes is generally considered more true than that which is felt 

through other senses. 

According to Plato the experience of beauty had an educational function. Art 

should not rouse our senses or excite our emotions. On the contrary it should 

teach man how to control his emotions and live a virtuous life and be inclined 

to truth. Aristotle's, on the other hand, said that strong excitement, if 

3 With reference to the Gestalt psychology, a Gestalt is something more and different from the sum of 

the different components. A Gestalt is a continuous process in which the components relate to each 

other and to the whole. A subject will respond to the whole as an entity as well as to the parts. In fact it 

responds to the movements and relations. 

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experienced in the right place at the right moment, could by all means have a 

moral value and be compatible with mind. Art was mainly seen as a valve of 

affect and one should be in touch with it in a correct way. As in Plato's opinion 

art served to metaphysics. In the world of art one was to meditate about ideas 

and the senses were to be domesticated. 

Such an aesthetic position, defined by W. Welsch as a "metaphysical 

position", was present throughout classical antiquity. Despite of a passionate 

admiration for everything spiritual, it is a basically anti-sensory position. The 

senses and the "body" are actually a means to pass from sensory 

experiences to extrasensory ones. Therefore, the metaphysical position is 

essentially an "anaesthetizing aesthetics" (Welsch, 1990, 27). 

We find such a metaphysical position also in music therapy when music is 

used to transcend and/or dominate our drives rather than to express our 

personal emotions. It is present when music is used in order to arrange and 

structure the soul and the client is to follow the music as his/her teacher. We 

can find the same position not only in some music therapy conceptions, as for 

instance Anthroposophical Music Therapy, but also in GIM or in Analytical 

Music Therapy, or whenever that we deal with the concepts of transcendence 

or sublimation. 

We could reproach Freud for not having valued drives and the Id, because he 

wanted to submit them to the Ego. According to Freud being sensory should 

be sublimated. This can make sense in many cases but each music therapist 

has to ask him/herself whether he/she uses music in order to restrain or to 

increase the "body's" wisdom and whether the sense perception itself is 

sufficiently valuated as a subject of reflection. 

Medieval aesthetics 

Back to history. In medieval aesthetics the purpose of art was not only to 

highlight beauty but also to show the essence of the invisible in through the 

visible, that is to reveal divine signs to the world. What could not be perceived 

by the senses, was to be represented aesthetically using light and colours, 

thus through sight. The invisible needs symbols in order to be represented. 

This explains the wide use of symbols and allegories not only in the pictorial 

arts, but also in music. 

What cannot be perceived by the senses certainly is much more interesting 

than that which can be perceived. In music we perceive not only sounds but 

also take into the awareness energy fields and relations (Zuckerkandl, 1963) 

which refer to symbolic meanings. They also play an important role in music 

therapy. However, as for the interpretation of symbols and a general 

interpretation there are different trends. Among music therapists some 

scholars consider the aesthetical representation and interpret the 

extemporary work of art according to certain theoretical criteria while others 

prefer to concentrate on the aesthetical processes as for instance intensifying, 

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widening, shortening, , distorting, sharpening, inverting , merging or 

transposing musical motifs, figures and forms in their relation to psycho 

dynamical processes. The second group is the one I prefer. Instead of trying to 

understand the symbol as an accomplished piece of aesthetical presentation I 

try to understand the symbolization. Symbolization is a way to create Gestalt 

configurations and an aesthetic dimension used f. ex. in Morphological Music 

Therapy (according to Salber, 1991, 6 Gestalt factors). Here the process of 

transformation is more important than the created product. 

Two dimensions concerning aesthetical perception come clearly out: some 

music therapists focus on the music as the accomplished creation of patients 

while the others highlight the act of creating in itself. As far as I know this last 

aesthetic position did not matter in the past. 

Renaissance 

Up to the XV century visible objects were considered as signs of a divine 

invisible reality. During the Renaissance, instead, objects now expressed 

themselves. If an object was considered beautiful, this meant to acknowledge 

the structural laws expressed by its appearance. Artists started to apply the 

laws of perspective. Things can appear smaller or bigger, thinner or larger, 

clearer or darker. Indeed, the discovery of perspective established a 

relationship between the object and the observer, the eyes. However, 

aesthetic perception remained fixed on the object and was still basically 

visually oriented. There was no awareness of the sensory resonance of the 

"body" on the perception of the object. 

It is necessary to underline that the western aesthetics with its concepts of 

experience and truth has been and still is strongly influenced by the Greek 

"theoreo" (I see). Cognition, and therefore theory, are connected to the eye 

which is as part of the brain. This might be the reason why aesthetics were 

mostly applied to the pictorial arts and not so much to music. Aesthetical 

concepts like vision, gaze, survey, perspective, lightening and so on have a 

visual nature and convey a different kind of knowledge if compared with the 

sensory knowledge of hearing, feeling, touching and tasting. This second kind 

of knowledge has a "bodily" nature based on feelings, contacts, empathy and 

resonance. What is the difference between "hearing some voices" and "have 

some visions"? The answer is that somebody who is "hearing voices" is 

regarded to be a psychiatric case, whereas a person "having visions" could 

be qualified to become a candidate at the State General Elections. The 

valuation of the importance of the eye goes along with a narrow-mindedness 

for the other senses which means a reduction of knowledge! 

Romantic Age 

During the Romantic Age in the XVIII century an aesthetics of feeling 

(Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, Burke) became to appear. What was perceived as 

beautiful could be considered as such, apart from the objective appearance of 

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the object. The romantic approach which put human feelings on the 

foreground was prevailing. The "felix estheticus" became the new ideal of man 

(Welsch, 1990, 28). This was the period when in 1750 Alexander Gottlieb 

Baumgarten in his work "Aestetica" (Schweizer, 1988) reconsiders the 

meaning of aisthesis from which he takes the concept of sense perception and 

sense cognition. Man should become aesthetical himself through the arts. 

Such a conception could make us believe that man's sensibility, sensitivity and 

the wisdom of the "body", thus aisthesis, was to be recognized. 

But it was not like that. The "education of sensitivity", meant as an 

"ennoblement", to quote Schiller, marked the ultimate detachment from the 

primary sensory condition (Schiller, quoted in Welsch, 1996, 117). According 

to Schiller (1759 - 1805) art shows man what he could become, by realizing 

his becoming a complete being through playing. "Man is a complete human 

being only when he plays" (Schiller, quoted in Fricke, Göpfert, 1984, 618). 

However, Schiller did not mean by playing a free game, or what is considered 

today a free improvisation, but he thought that when playing we learn how to 

take possession of the "world", that is to mould it in order to possess it. He 

states that is necessary to modify everything actively in a way that nothing is 

as it was before but becomes as we want it to be (Schiller, 11. Lettera, 603). 

Schiller's theory reveals a lack of openness to submit oneself to an 

uncomplete process, to devote oneself to the subject and let us be changed by 

the material world. Schiller recommends, on the contrary, to control the 

material world. The world must be moulded and created without surrendering 

to it and its peculiarities. "Festgemauert in der Erden, Steht die Form aus 

Lehm gebrannt; Heute soll die Glocke werden, Frisch, Gesellen, seid zur 

Hand; Soll das Werk den Meister loben, Doch der Segen kommt von oben" ( 

the burnt clay shape is walled up in the earth; today the bell will be moulded, 

my friends be ready to operate; if the teacher praises the work it is from above 

that the blessing comes) (Schiller, Die Glocke). This again is the situation of 

the traditional aesthetics. 

We can see that the projects aiming at making the romanticism aesthetical did 

not recover the concept of aisthesis. If senses are only meant to serve for 

being educated and if they are not allowed to speak for themselves, it is better 

to become insensitive and anaesthetized. Music teachers at colleges of music 

teach their students not to sense their own feelings and not to express 

themselves with the unprejudiced enthusiasm children still have. The 

musician who is taught to restrain his abilities within the limits of aesthetical 

perfection will go to the doctor for inflammated tendons or to the psychoanalyst 

for being stressed. This is the other part of the process of becoming 

anaesthetized. Shouldn't there be a correspondence between sensing and 

moulding? 

Also in music therapy there are therapeutical approaches based on the idea 

that everything can be treated by applying perfect techniques and rules that 

the patient's soul. If our Governments compels us to demonstrate the 

effectiveness of music therapy methods and techniques but at the same time 

they should accept the concept of "aisthesis" as a treatment tool. In therapy 

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there are illnesses which, according to modern aesthetics, cannot be solved if 

we do not give the client the possibility of coming to an understanding of 

his/her pain by aesthetically processing his/her own feelings, perceptions and 

actions. Play rules and tasks shouldn't be used as prescription but they should 

be offered as different experience fields within which the client experiments 

with the adequate aesthetical perspectives on his disturbances and where 

he/she is responsible for his willingness to give in aesthetical poiesis. 

When we merely let us be moulded from an external norm, like Schiller's bell, 

we loses our "bodily" nature of perception and are forced to restrain our 

uniqueness. Our pseudo-aesthetical trend towards becoming aesthetical by 

moulding, absorbing and exploiting the world around us has devastating 

consequences: If everything can be made and moulded, nothing can 

possibly be felt in resonances and therefore nothing can be improved in 

an aesthetical process. What is left is a temporary kick out of it which leaves 

an empty space. Any perception is illusion and senseless without the ability of 

empathy and resonance. In my opinion, Schiller's idea of moulding oneself and 

the world by playing leads to nowadays conception according to which we 

strongly anaesthetize ourselves with everything aesthetical. 

Already 200 years ago, however, it was Kant who indicated this different 

direction from the theoretical aesthetics perspective. In his Criticism of Reason 

(Kritik der Urteilskraft), § 9, (Weischedel, 1974) he claims that beauty comes 

from the "free game of cognitive abilities". A sensational statement! According 

to him beauty is not created out of the complete absence of rules but by the 

artist himself who introduces his own aesthetical rules . 

Kant demonstrated that the basis of what we call reality is of fictious nature. 

We recognize only what we put into the things. But these recognitions 

are based on purely aesthetical suppositions(Welsch, 1996, 47). 

Nietzsche developed further Kant's knowledge: What we perceive as reality is 

based all together on aesthetical projections. Recognizing is therefore a 

mainly metaphoric activity (Welsch, 1996, 47). 

This aesthetical turn has a remarkable influence on hermeneutic and 

diagnostic issues in music therapy (Frohne-Hagemann, 1999a, b). Aesthetical 

poiesis is continuous. This means that each acquired piece of cognition is just 

a temporary arrival point and at the same time the starting point of a new 

movement of aesthetical search (hermeneutics). Any explanation, any 

interpretation of a process in music therapy is a hypothesis that has to be 

verified. 

The aesthetical turn started by Kant and Nietzsche prevents us from putting 

diagnostic statements on record. It is necessary to be very cautious with 

clinical stigmatisation by music therapy improvisation. Musical processes can 

indicate the texture and the activity of an illness (the process) but not a fixed 

classified disease. 

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Our clients' aesthetical way of acting is a creative process (nothing remains 

unchanged, everything flows), a free "game of cognitive abilities". According to 

Nelson Goodman, born in 1906, the world is created on the basis of our way 

of being related to it, and the way we are considering, defining and describing 

the world (Goodman, 1968, 242). We take actively part of the continuous 

creation of lived world. Therefore the how, why and aim of perception and 

cognition are much more important than the perceived object. Each aesthetical 

perception no matter whether it the "body" is consciously in action or not, is 

already an interpretation. What we consider true and real is only what matches 

our perceptive habits which can be very much different according to the 

moment and the culture we come from. When we interpret a music therapy 

improvisation we have to take into account our previous aesthetical and 

theoretical assumptions about (music)therapy. This is important because 

by interpreting we also produce new realities. 

Modern aesthetics 

Modern aesthetics changes from being "opinion (or attitude)" to being 

"(inter)action". Aesthetics means continuously to create and re-create. 

Understanding and creation go together. A modern aesthetical experience in 

music therapy is characterized by an exchange of a thinking that is sensed 

and felt and a feeling that is reflected by thinking and acting. This is the 

reference to the body. 

The body as a central concept 

Who has been the first in history to valuate the "bodily" sensory aspect and 

sensory cognition? Schopenhauer, Feuerbach and Nietzsche were the three 

philosophers who actually gave importance to the "body". Schopenhauer was 

the first to claim that the "body" is the foundation of cognition (Helferich, 1998, 

340). Art can only portray the ideas (because, as I would add, it serves our 

sight) while music is an expression of our own will. If music is an expression 

of our will, we can assume that man is able to feel this will in himself. 

Therefore "bodily" perceptions, music and sensory cognition are in 

correspondence with each other. Such a "bodily"- musical correspondence" 

(Frohne-Hagemann, 1999b) is for me of the outmost importance because it 

shows the possibility of "recognizing" ourselves in musical creations through 

our "bodily" wisdom. When I listen to music and experience it in an 

aesthetical way, the interpretation of such music is connected with my 

sensitiveness for the moment being, with my way of feeling and with my 

personal and cultural experiences. There is less projection on my side rather 

than creation. 

Expression as a way of acquiring knowledge was essential also in Benedetto 

Croce's opinion (1866 - 1952). We acquire the knowledge of something only 

the very moment in which we express a subjective feeling (Croce, 1930,4). 

It is above all with Feuerbach (1985) and Nietzsche (1988, KSA 4, 15) that 

the dichotomy between physical body and spirit comes to be overcome. 

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Human "body" becomes a central concept without any metaphysical reference. 

Actually in the XX. Century aesthetics becomes more and more "physical" and 

therefore " lived world (lebensweltlich)" 4 because the body is meant as "the 

person in the world". The "body" is the embodiment of the world in which we 

live. Aesthetics does not relate only to art but also to experiences in the lived 

world. Hence the experience of the "beautiful" arts expires. The integral world 

is completely out. 

Free improvisation and non conventional instrumental sounds make also the 

cacophony to be appreciated since it is part of aesthetics just as is 

consonance and harmony. Healing means being able to look again into the 

abysses without suppressing the feelings connected to it and being allowed to 

express one's feelings. 

In the middle of the last century Adorno (1903-1969) added an important 

aspect on the concepts of the aisthesis (Adorno, 1973, 53 and on). Art should 

not comply with today's "titty-tainment" (consumption of art and music as 

"suckling the tits" like a baby). It should not address unsatisfied people's need 

for entertainment. Aesthetical processes are not comfortable. What is clear 

and simple to understand cannot be defined as art, neither as, I would say, 

therapy. Music Therapy deals with the incredible and the extraordinary not 

only in the psyche but also in social life. 

Moreover Adorno underlines the importance of the context and the critical 

judgement of social contexts and debates for understanding and interpretation. 

This is an aesthetical and gnoseologic dimension of music therapy that shows 

the importance to perceive the conditions of certain socially determined ways 

of life. 

Finally I would like to take into consideration another existential aspect of 

aesthetics. We become more and more personally responsible of our way of 

life and in our search for a coherent identity we note that and how we submit to 

an ongoing process of aesthetical transformation. The more we undergo such 

a process the more aesthetics makes us confront with the incomprehensibility 

of being. 

According to Jean François Lyotard, born in 1924, aesthetics deals with 

incomprehensibility meaning by that in the presence something can happen 

that the intellect cannot control (see Hauskeller, 1999, 95). Lyotard defines this 

quality as the Sublime. The Sublime is something too big and powerful to be 

completely understood by imagination. as Death is an example. Being obliged 

to stand the moment in which something happens or does not happen is 

terrible but healthy at the same time. When a client in relation to his/her 

therapist lets his own sensitivity and feelings develop an aesthetical Gestalt 

both do not know where this journey will take them. They abandon themselves 

to the mere present, and what is incomprehensible is this being in the here 

and now. The intellect has to confide completely in the "body" and "bodily" 

4 A world meant as individual, social and cultural realities experienced personally (Lebenswelt). 

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communication: a very important task from the point of view of commitment. It 

means to give up the anaesthetization of the body. 

From the post modern attitude of stressing the unexpected and overcoming 

rigid rules follows that also the music therapist should be open to the 

possibility that an improvisation might not develop along the therapeutic lines 

he/she was expecting that it should or could. 

Play rules should be considered as an open framework which can be 

abandoned each time it is needed for a single client in regard to his 

perceptions, feelings and actions within the therapeutic relationship. 

To summarize: we have experienced in the history of aesthetics a 

development and the shift from a metaphysical position towards a physical 

orientation of aesthetics (in the meaning of "aisthesis") where the awareness 

of the process lies in the creation in itself. 

However, in spite of such a shift the anaesthetizing process goes on 

spreading as a social way of anaesthetizing which leads to ignore the social 

needs. The results of modern aesthetical research do not find any resonance. 

Could a music therapy code of aesthetical awareness possibly contribute to 

change this process? From the aesthetical point of view it would be a major 

social service given by music therapy, not only to people in need of being 

treated but also to each and everybody. 

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Aesthetic Perspectives in Music Therapy * - World Federation of ...

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