terms, abbreviations, and linguistic symbols - David Steinberg's ...

EEEE----book book book book Biblical Biblic Biblic Biblical 

al al Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Poetry Poetry Poetry Poetry and and and and Word Word Word Word Play Play Play Play ---- Reconstructing Reconstructing Reconstructing Reconstructing the the the the Original Original Original Original Oral, Oral, Oral, Oral, Aural Aural Aural Aural and and and and Visual Visual Visual Visual Experience 

Experience Experience 

Experience by by by by David David David David Steinberg Steinberg Steinberg Steinberg 

E-book book - History History History History of of of of the the the the Ancient Ancient Ancient Ancient and and and and Modern Modern Modern Modern Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Language Language Language Language 

1 

Edition Edition Edition 1. 1.3 1. 

5 February 2012 

E-book book - Biblical Biblical Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Poetry Poetry Poetry Poetry and and and and Word Word Word Word Play Play Play Play ---- Reconstructing Reconstructing Reconstructing Reconstructing the the the the Original Original Original Original Oral, Oral, Oral, Oral, Aural Aural Aural Aural and and and and Visual Visual Visual Visual 

Experience Experience Experience Experience 

By By David David Steinberg 

Steinberg 

David.Steinberg@houseofdavid.ca 

David.Steinberg@houseofdavid.ca 

Home Home page page http://www.houseofdavid.ca/ 

http://www.houseofdavid.ca/ 

TERMS, TERMS, ABBREVIATIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND AND LINGUISTIC LINGUISTIC SYMBOLS SYMBOLS 

SYMBOLS 

1111. . . . Abbreviations 

Abbreviations 

Abbreviations 

Abbreviations 

abs. abs. abs. - absolute state state ((((status status status status absolutus)))) absolutus absolutus absolutus of aa 

a 

noun or or adjective adjective as as opposed opposed to to the the the construct construct and 

and 

pronominal pronominal states. 

states. 

acc. acc. - accusative accusative case case 

case 

adj. adj. - adjective 

a.p. a.p. a.p. - active participle 

BCE BCE - Before Before Common Common Common Era Era = = BC; BC; CE CE – Common Era = AD AD 

BH BH - Biblical Biblical Hebrew, Hebrew, the the the language language of of the the Hebrew Hebrew Bible. Bible. Typologically it can be divided divided into into ABH ABH, ABH 

CBH CBH and and PCBH PCBH. PCBH . Its Its registers registers registers include include prose prose and and poetic poetic varieties. 

varieties. 

BHA BHA - Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew, Hebrew , its its antecedents ntecedents and and the the development evelopment of of the the Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew reading eading 

tradition radition radition of the Tiberian Masoretes ( (BHA ( 

BHA pha phase pha phase 

se 1 1 - Phas Phase Phas Phas e 66). 

6 ). 

C C - consonant 

consonant 

C( 

C(1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 44) 

4 

) - (first, (first, second, second, third, third, forth) forth) consonant 

consonant 

Cx(C (C (Cx) (C ) - a a given given (same) (same) consonant 

consonant 

constr. constr. constr. - construct construct state state ((((status status status status constructus)))) constructus 

constructus 

constructus of of a a noun or or adjective as as opposed to to the absolute 

absolute 

and and pronominal pronominal states. states. In n transcription constr. constr. is is indicated by the the secondary secondary stress stress marker marker ˌ . 

cp. cp. - common plural 

cs. cs. - common singular





du. du. - dual 

dual 

f. f. - feminine 

fp. fp. - feminine plural 

fs. fs. - feminine singular singular 

gen. gen. - genitive 

genitive 

imp. imp. - imperative 

in inf. in 

f. abs abs. abs - infinitive infinitive infinitive absolute 

absolute 

inf. inf. constr constr. constr - infinitive infinitive construct 

construct 

m. m. - masculine 

MCS MCS - Masoretic Masoretic cantillation cantillation signs 

signs 

ML ML - Matres Matres Matres Matres Lectionis Lectionis Lectionis Lectionis 

mp. mp. - masculine plural 

plural 

ms. ms. - masculine singular 

MSA MSA MSA - Modern Modern Standard Standard Standard (or (or litera literary) litera litera ry) Arabic 

Arabic 

MT MT MT - Masoretic Masoretic Masoretic Text Text 

Text 

n. n. - (foot)note 

(foot)note 

N1....N ....N ....N2 ....N - first noun ... ... second noun 

nom. nom. - nominative nominative case 

case 

obl. obl. - oblique oblique case 

case 

part part. part - participle(s) 

PC PC PC - Prefix Prefix Conjugation Conjugation1 

PC 

cohortative cohortative. cohortative 3 This is the volitive volitive mood mood of of the the first first first person person person of of the the PC ("I would like 

PCcoh coh 2 - cohortative 

to..."; "let's...") . . " "(T) " 

(T) (T)he (T) e e cohortative cohortative has has a a a direct direct direct direct use, use, use, e.g. e.g. May May May May I I I I kill, kill, kill, kill, I I I I wish wish wish wish to to to to kill!, kill!, kill!, kill!, and and an 

an 

indirect indirect or or subordinated subordinated use use (with (with ו ) ), ) , , e.g. in in in in order order order order that that that that I I I I might might might might kill kill kill kill ( ( הָלְטְקֶאְו הָלְטְקֶאְו)." הָלְטְקֶאְו 

)." 

PC 

PCimp imp 5 - 

imperfect imperfect. imperfect imperfect. 

. Its range meanings meanings - present, present, future future future and and past past durative durative. durative durative 

PC 

PCimp_ imp_ imp_inj imp_ inj 

- 

2 

)." 4 

imperfect used as injunctive injunctive 6. "The The imperfect in this usage usage is 

differentiated differentiated from the jussive with its prohibitive in in that that that the the imperfect imperfect imperfect is is negated 

negated 

by אֺ אֺ אֺ לל 

ל while while while the the (jussive) (jussive) prohibitive prohibitive has has לל ל ַא ַא. ַא . . The The commandments commandments formulated formulated formulated in 

in 

the the imperfect imperfect often often show show the the archaic archaic long long plural plural suffix suffix suffix and and frequent 

frequent 

reinforcement reinforcement by by the the infinitive infinitive absolute. absolute. The The emphasis emphasis in in this this this kind kind of of injunction injunction is 

is





pl. pl. - plural 

not not on on the the will will will of of the the speaker speaker (as (as it it is is in in the the jussive jussive jussive and and (jus (jussive) (jus 

sive) prohibitive) prohibitive) but 

but 

on on on the the action action enjoined enjoined or or forbidden." forbidden." 7 

PC 

PCimp imp imp_p 

_prfut _p rfut - 

PC 

PCimp_p imp_p imp_pdur imp_p dur 

- 

imperfect in n its its most most common common present, present, present, future future meaning meaning. meaning 

imperfect in in its its less common common past past durative durative meaning. 

meaning. 

PC PCjus PC 

jus 8 - jussive ussive ussive. ussive . This This is is the the volitive volitive mood mood of of the the second second and and third third third person person of of of the the the PC PC. PC 

9 "The 

"The 

jussive jussive is is used used to to express express all all the the nuances nuances of of will will: will : from from a a superior superior to to an an inferior: inferior: command, 

command, 

exhortation, exhortation, advice, advice, advice, invitation, invitation, permission; permission; - from from from an an inferior inferior to to a a superior: superior: wish, wish, prayer, 

prayer, 

request request for for permission permission etc. etc. The The jussive jussive jussive is is often often followed followed by by the the entreating entreating particle particle אָנ אָנ, אָנ , 

especially especially in in requests requests for for permission." permission." 10 

PCpret ret 

ret - preterite i.e. i.e. the the original original past past tense tense that preceded the development of the SC as as a 

a 

verbal verbal tense. 

tense. 

PC 

PCpret_ pret_ pret_sim pret_ sim 

sim 11 - the simple simple yaqtul yaqtul yaqtul yaqtul preterite preterite i.e. i.e. i.e. used used without without the the augmented 

augmented 

conjunction,... 


conjunction,...waw waw waw waw plus plus gemination. gemination. This This is is moderately moderately common common in in poetry poetry poetry and 


used used used sporadically sporadically in in prose prose usually usually where where the the context context context makes makes the the time time reference reference 

reference 

unambiguous. 

unambiguous. 

PC PCpretWC PC 

pretWC 12 - "In prose prose the yaqtul yaqtul yaqtul yaqtul (preterite) (preterite) has has been been restricted restricted to to the the role role of of a a 

a 

narrative narrative past past tense tense expressing expressing a a a sequence sequence of of actions. actions. actions. In In narrative narrative sequences sequences of 

of 

this this nature, nature, it it is is at at the the the head head head of of the the the clause, clause, always always introduced by the the the augmented 

augmented 



conjunction,...waw waw waw waw plus plus gemination...." gemination...." 13 PC PCpretWC PC 

pretWC is is a a a regular regular feature feature of of BH BH prose 

prose 

and and is is used used sporadically sporadically in in BH BH ppoetry. 

p oetry. 

PMT PMT - Proto roto roto-Masoretic roto Masoretic text text - the the consonantal consonantal text text of of the the Hebrew Hebrew Bible Bible inheri inherited inheri ted by by the the the Tiberian 

Tiberian 

Masoretes. Masoretes. Their Their addition addition to to to this this text text form form of of the the MCS MCS MCS and vowel signs signs (pointing) (pointing) produced produced the 

the 

Masoretic Masoretic Text Text. Text Text 

p.p. p.p. - passive participle 

pro. pro. - pronou pronoun, pronou 

n, pronominal 

pronominal 

PS PS - Proto Proto-Semitic Proto Semitic language language language14 

s. s. - singular 

SC SC - Suffix Suffix Suffix Conjugation Conjugation15. 

GK (§106) gives a global overview of the non-waw conversive SC - "(It) (It) 

serves serves to to express express actions, actions, actions, events, events, or or states states, states , which which the the speaker speaker wishes wishes to to represent represent from from the the point 

point 

of of view view of of completion, completion, whether whether they they belong belong to to a a determinate determinate past past time, time, or or extend extend into into the the present, present, 

present, 

or, or, while while while still still in in the the future, future, are are pictur pictured pictur pictured 

ed in in their their complete state." 

SC SChyp SC 

hyp - "Hypothetical "Hypothetical conditions conditions or or unrealizable unrealizable unrealizable wishes" wishes" 16 

3





SC SCpast SC 

ast - past past past tense. tense. Normally Normally non non-durative 

non durative 17. . This This is is the the normal normal usage usage and and and accounts accounts for 

for 

the the great great majority majority majority of of non 

non non-waw waw waw waw conversive conversive conversive conversive instances instances of of the the SC SC. SC 

SC SCpre SC 

pre - A A performati performative performati ve action action that that occurs occurs by by means means means of of speaking. 

speaking. 

םִי ָרְצִמ ץ ֶרֶא־לָכּ לַע ךְָתֹ א יִתַּתָנ 

I appoint you over all the land of Egypt. 18 

SC SCprec SC 

rec - precative precative precative precative perfect perfect perfect perfect i.e. i.e. to to articulate articulate a a request request ( (rare ( ( rare and and and only only found found in in Psalms). Psalms). 19 

SC SCprof SC 

rof - prophetic prophetic perfect perfect presenting presenting the the future future as as if if it it was was already already reality reality20 

(r (rare). (r are). 

SC SCstate SC 

state - state state of of affairs affairs or or condition. condition. Mainly Mainly with with stative stative verbs. 21 Nb. GK (§106g) "(The "(The SC 

SC 

can) can) rrepresent 

r represent 

epresent actions, actions, events, events, or or states, states, which, which, although although completed completed in in the the past, 

past, 

nevertheless nevertheless extend extend their their influence influence into into the the present present (in (in English English generally generally rendered rendered by by the 

the 

present...." 

present...." 

SC 

SCtimeless timeless - gnomic 

gnomic gnomic gnomic perfect perfect perfect perfect describing describing actions actions or or or events events that that that are are not not time time-bound time bound (rare) 

(rare) 

SC SCwc SC 

wc - waw waw waw waw conversive conversive conversive conversive form of of SC SC carrying carrying the the range range of of of meanings meanings of of of PC 

regularly regularly in in narrative narrative prose prose and and irregularly irregularly in in poetry. 

poetry. 

4 

PCimp imp imp. imp. 

Used 

. Used 

(rare). 22 

sp. sp. - pronominal ronominal state tate ( 

( (status status status status pronominalis) pronominalis 

pronominalis 

pronominalis 23 of nouns nouns governing governing pronominal suffixes contrasting 

with with the the the absolute absolute and and construct construct states. states. Sp. Sp. Sp. resembles resembles the the construct construct both both both in in in function function function and and form form form but 

but 

exhibit exhibits exhibit exhibits 

s a a shift shift of of stress stress which which in in EBHP EBHP rests rests rests on on the the pronominal pronominal suffix suffix suffix or or the the vowel vowel “connecting” “connecting” it 

it 

with with the the noun noun except except except for for the the always always stressed stressed “heavy” “heavy” suffixes suffixes םכ םכ, םכ 

, ןכ ןכ, ןכ 

, םה םה, םה 

, ןה ןה, ןה 

, ם. 

V V - vowel 

vowel 

V(1, V(1, 2) 2) - (firs (first, (firs t, second) vowel 

vowel 

Vx(Vx) ) - a a given (same) vowel 

vowel 

2222. . . . Linguistic Linguistic Linguistic Linguistic Terms Terms Terms Terms and and and and SSymbols 

SS 

ymbols ymbols ymbols24 

Ancep ncep nceps ncep vowels vowels / /ã/, / /, / /ĩ/, / 

/, /, / /ũ/ / 

Colloquial Colloquial Arabic Arabic - current current spoken spoken varieties varieties of of Arabic Arabic 

Arabic 

Energic Energic Mood Mood Mood - 'Found in Classical Arabic and various other Semitic languages, the the energetic 

mood mood expresses expresses something something which which is is sstrongly 

s trongly believed believed or which the speaker wishes wishes to 

emphasize emphasize, emphasize e.g. yaktubanna ﱠنُبُتكَي ("he certainly writes")' - source Wikipedia. 

Epigraphic Epigraphic Hebrew Hebrew ( (EH ( EH EH) EH - the the extra extra-biblical extra extra biblical Hebrew Hebrew inscriptions inscriptions of of Palestine Palestine which which have have been 

attribut attributed attribut ed to to the the period period betwee between betwee between 

n the the tenth tenth tenth and and the the sixth sixth sixth century century century BC BCE. BC 

Fientive Fientive Fientive or or action action verb verb verb designates designates an an action action of of movement movement or change of state in which the the subject 

subject 

performs performs performs the the action. 

action.





Koine, Koine, Koine, Koineization 

Koineization 

Phonemes Phonemes Phonemes - consonants 

Phonemes Phonemes - vowels 

vowels 

Phonologically Phonologically distinct distinct or or phonological - refe refers refe rs to phonic differences capable of distinguishing 

meaning meaning in in a a given given language. language. Essentially sentially it it has has them them same same meaning meaning as as 'phonemic' 

'phonemic' 

Vowel Vowel Letters Letters or or Matres Matres Matres Matres Lectionis Lectionis Lectionis Lectionis (Latin for “mothers of reading”) – abbreviation ML - י ו ו ה א 

when when used used to to represent represent a a vowe vowel. vowe l. For details see these these bbox 

b box 

oxes. ox 

ˈ Primary Primary (or (or Main) Main) stress stress (occasionally 

occasionally 

occasionally phonemic) phonemic) - this symbol symbol symbol is is is plac placed plac ed immediately immediately before before the 

syllable syllable carrying carrying primary primary stress stress with the stressed syllable itself marked bold bold bold e.g. e.g. */ʾaˈda da daːm/. da 

ˌ Secondary Secondary stress stress25 

Phonemic in EBHP EBHP/LBHP 

EBHP LBHP in such cases as: /ˈsūs/ = "horse"; /ˌsūs/ (constr) 

= "horse of -". This his his symbol symbol is placed immediately immediately immediately before before the the syllable syllable carrying secondary secondary stress stress. stress 

For For EBHP EBHP I I I assume assume assume that that nouns in in the the the construct construct construct have a a a secondary secondary stress stress on on the syllable 

which which in in the the absolute absolute case case would would carry carry the the primary primary stress stress. stress 

For For TH syllable syllable: syllable 

o In In the the cas case cas cas e of nouns in the construct construct case, all syllables marked by by Tiberian Tiberian stress 

stress 

indicating indicating accents accents are are assumed assumed to to carry carry secondary secondary stress stress26. 

o In In all all other other cases cases all all syllables syllables marked marked by by Tiberian Tiberian stress stress indicating indicating accents accents, accents other other 

than than the the final final final one one in in the the word, word, are are as assumed as sumed to to carry carry secondary stress. 

N.b. N.b. - In In TH, TH, originally originally short short vowels vowels vowels are are found found in in closed closed syllables syllables carrying carrying primary primary or 

or 

secondary secondary stress, stress, and and are are are pronounced pronounced long. long. 27 

. Syllable Syllable break break - a.a (used (used where where where necessary necessary for for clarity clarity) clarity 

/t/ /t/ virgules virgules virgules virgules mark mark phoneme phoneme boundar boundaries boundar ies 

: colon placed placed between between two two words words indicates indicates phonologi phonological phonologi phonological 

cal contrast contrast minimally, minimally, a a a minimal minimal pair pair 

pair 

[t] [t] square square square square brackets brackets brackets brackets mark mark phonetic phonetic/allophone 

phonetic phonetic allophone bound boundaries. 

bound ies. 

graphemes 

graphemes 

? ? Indicates ndicates that iit 

i 

t is is impossible impossible to to decide decide betwee between betwee n alternatives alternatives based based on on current current data. data.e.g. data. e.g. / /ˈḫiṣy/ / 

(EBHP? EBHP? EBHP?) EBHP? ) > > / /ˈḫiṣî/ / / (EBHP? EBHP? EBHP?) EBHP? means means the pre pre-exilic pre 

exilic Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew (BH) (BH) phonemic phonemic pronunciation 

pronunciation 

pronunciation 

was was either either / /ˈḫiṣy/ / / or or or its its later later derived derived derived form form / /ˈḫiṣî/. / /. 

//// slash slash slash slash separates contrastive or variant items, items, categories, etc etc. etc 

√ root root eg eg √gdl √gdl or or or √√לדג 

√ 

5





{ { { } } encloses encloses morphemic morphemic element, element, morphemic, morphemic, element, element, morphemic morphemic junction junction or or root. 

root. 

( ( ) ) in transcriptions encl encloses: encl 

oses: (a) (a) an an element element included included in an alternative reconstruction; reconstruction; or, or, (b) (b) an 

an 

omissible omissible or or optional optional element element. element . Thus EBH BH BHP BH /qaˈṭal al alta(ː)/ al indicates that the the pronunciation pronunciation was either 

/qaˈṭal al alta/ al or or /qaˈṭal al altaː/ al or that either was an an optio option optio 

n at at that that time. 

time. 

< < 'derives 'derives from from ...' 

...' 

'leads 'leads to to ...' 

...' 

>> >> morphophonemic shift 

→ → abridged abridged shift shift (i.e. (i.e. without without without intermediate intermediate stages) stages). stages) 

# # terminal terminal terminal pause pause. pause 

Ø zero zero. zero 

~ 'both both fo forms fo 

rms exist(ed) exist(ed) exist(ed) synchronically 

synchronically'. 

synchronically 

≈ ≈ ≈ by by analogy analogy to 

to 

≈hyp. ≈hyp. cor. cor. hypercorrections 

hypercorrections hypercorrections or pseudo pseudo-correction. 

pseudo 

correction. Example Example for forms for ms such such as as רֵאְבּ /bәˈʾệr/ 

± ± ± 'with with or without without' without 

' or 'indifferent to' to'. to' 

2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 Symbols Symbols Symbols Symbols Denoting Denoting Denoting Denoting Vowel Vowelssss Vowel Vowel ---- see see see see Vowel Vowel Vowel Vowel Phonemes Phonemes Phonemes Phonemes 28 

a) a) Vowel Vowel Vowel Vowel Length Length Length Length 

• Transcribing Transcribing diachronic diachronic examples examples - 

I. IIIIrreducible rreducible rreducible rreducible HHistorically 

HH 

istorically istorically istorically Long Long Long Long Vowels Vowels Vowels Vowels i.e. vowels that seem to have been long as 

far back as we can reconstruct even if their quality has changed - 

/ῑ/, /ē/ ([ɛ̄ ] or [ẹ̄ ] 29 ), /ā/ 30 , /ō/ 31 , /ū/. 

N.b. Such vowels can be gained by analogy as in the case of the 1cs. 

independent pronoun. 

II II. II Irreducible Irreducible Irreducible Irreducible Long Long Long Long Vowels Vowels Vowels Vowels which lengthened due to contraction and assimilation - 

/î/, /ê/ ([ɛ̂ ] or [ệ]), /â/, /ô/, /û/. 

III III. III Long Long Long Long VVVVowels owels owels owels originating from PH anceps vowels, vowels lengthened due to 

stress 

6





(tonic and pretonic lengthening), long vowels whose origin is unclear, and long 

vowels in foreign names etc. e.g. הֹע֛ רְ ַפּ /parˈcoː oː/, oː אר֖ ָסי 

ְ ס ִֽ /siːsạˈra ra raː/ ra - 

/iː/, /eː/ ([ɛː] or [ẹː]), /aː/, /ɔː/, /oː/, /uː/. 

IV IV. IV Vowels Vowels carrying carrying primary primary stress stress when when not not otherwise otherwise marked marked - 

í, ɪ́, é, ẹ́, ɛ́, á, ɐ́, ɔ́, ó, ʊ́, ú. 

V. Vowels Vowels carrying carrying secondary secondary stress stress in in TH when not not otherwise marked - 

ì, ɪ̀, è, ẹ̀, ɛ̀, à, ɐ̀, ɔ̀, ò, ʊ̀, ù. 

• Phonetic Phonetic transcription transcription and and ttranscribing 

t ranscribing reconstructed reconstructed text 

I generally use IPA IPA symbols symbols, symbols , thus historic /ō/, /ô/ and /oː/ (see above) are all 

transcribed [oː] in *[EBHP]. 

TH qāmeṣ is transcribed [ɔ] in *[TH] regardless of its origin; 

• Word Word-final Word final Vowels Vowels of of intermediate intermediate or or uncertain uncertain length 

length 

I I use use the the IPA IPA IPA symbol symbol ˑ for transcribing reconstructed 

reconstructed reconstructed *[EBHP] [EBHP] word word-final word 

final vowels in 

two wo situations: 

situations: 

when it is uncertain whether a word-final vowel was pronounced short or 

long e.g. TH ׇתּ ְלַט ׇק which was a reflex of /EBHP/ */qaˈṭal al alta(ː)/ al i.e. */qaˈṭal al altaː/ al 

or */qaˈṭal al alta/; al reconstructed pronunciation [EBHP] *[qɐˈṭɐltɐˑ] 

when a historically long word-final vowel is unstressed and hence 

b) b) Restored Restored Restored Restored Vowels Vowels Vowels Vowels ---- 

probably shortened in pronunciation as in many Arabic dialects e.g. TH 

(3fs. SC) ה ָלְט ׇק which was a reflex of /EBHP/ */qaˈṭalâ/ 32 ; [EBHP] *[qɐˈṭɐlɐˑ] 

ạạạạ,,,, ịịịị, , , , ụụụụ in /EBHP/ (ɐɐɐɐ, , , , ɪɪɪɪ , , , , ʊʊʊʊ or or ɐ̣ɐ̣ ɐ̣, ɐ̣ , , , ɪ̣ɪ̣ ɪ̣, ɪ̣ ,,, ʊ̣ʊ̣ ʊ̣ ʊ̣ in my my reconstructed reconstructed [EBHP]) [EBHP]) 33 are used to 

indicate originally short vowels, which have been reduced to ә/Ø ( ְב), ɐ̆ ( ֲב), ɛ̆ ( ֱב) 

or ɔ̆ ( ֳב) in TH. 

Their pronunciation in [EBHP], in descending order of probability - 

7





Notes Notes Notes ---- 

c) Notes 

/ạ/ [ɐ], [ɐ̆ ], [ɛ], [ɛ̆ ], [ə], [Ø] 

/ị/ [ɪ], [ĭ], [ẹ], [ĕ], [ə], [Ø] 

/ụ/ [ʊ], [ŭ], [ŏ], [ɔ], [ɔ̆ ], [ə], [Ø] 

• in diachronic examples, the TH phoneme /ɔ/ is transcribed /ǫ/ 34 *[ɔ] when it originated from short 

u, and /å/ *[ɔː] 

when it immediately originated from long a. 

• in quotations from other authors I have generally kept their notation unless otherwise noted. 

a - furtive pataḥ, Hebrew term pataḥ g'nuvah 

2222....2222 Gemination 

Gemination 

Gemination 

Gemination 35 

Were Were Word Word-Final Word Final Geminated Geminated Consonants Consonants Maintained Maintained in in EBHP EBHP? EBHP 

Long Long continuants 

continuants 

Long Long stops 

stops 

Symbols Symbols Symbols for for for long long vowels vowels and and consonants 

consonants 

List List of of words words with with final final final gemination 

gemination 

2222....3333 Stages Stages Stages Stages of of of of the the the the Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Language Language Language Language 36 

a) a) PNWS PNWS - Proto Proto-Northwest Proto 

Northwest Semitic Semitic ((((BHA BHA BHA BHA phase phase phase phase 1111)))) 

b) PH - Proto Proto-Hebrew 

Proto Hebrew ((((BHA BHA BHA BHA phase phase phase phase 2). 22 

2). 

). ). The The Canaanite Canaanite dialects dialects dialects (c.1200 (c.1200-1000 (c.1200 1000 B.C B.C.E.) B.C .E.) that 

that 

would would develop develop into into Hebrew Hebrew with with the the loss loss of of the the case case endings. endings. Pattern Pattern of of long long and and short short vowels 

vowels 

and and consonants consonants carry carry on on Proto Proto-Semitic Proto Semitic pattern. pattern. Vowel Vowel and and consonant consonant quality quality and and length 

length 

phonemic. phonemic. phonemic. Stress Stress uniformly uniformly uniformly penultimate penultimate penultimate thus thus thus not not not distinct distinct. distinct distinct Sources - see Harris 1939, Hendel- 

Lambdin-Huehnergard, Sáenz-Badillos. 

c) c) AH - Ancient Hebrew 37 - All the Canaanite dialects written written and and spoken spoken spoken in in the the territory 

territory 

described described described in in the the Bible Bible as as being being being settled settled by by the the the tribes tribes of of Israel Israel, Israel Israel, 

, and and and later later the the kingdoms kingdoms of of Israel Israel and 


Judah Judah, Judah Judah , from about 1000 1000 BCE BCE until until the the extinction extinction of of Hebrew Hebrew speech speech with with the he suppression of the 

Bar Bar Kochba Kochba rebellion rebellion in the mid mid-second mid 

second century century CE CE ((((BHA BHA BHA BHA phase phase phase phase 1 11 

1 - Phase Phase Phase Phase 4)))).... 44 

4 

c.1 .1 .1) .1 Pre re reExH 

ExH - Pre----Exilic Pre Pre Pre Exilic Exilic Exilic Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew ((((BHA BHA BHA BHA phase phase phase phase 3)))). 33 

3 This encompasses both both Judean Judean and Israelian Israelian 

Hebrew Hebrew i.e. i.e. all all the the dialects dialects spoken spoken and and wwritten 

w ritten in in the villages and towns of the kingdoms of Judah 

Judah 

and and Israel Israel c. c. early early 10th 10th to to to early early sixth sixth centuries centuries BCE BCE BCE i.e. i.e. i.e. in in tthe 

t he First First First Temple Temple Period Period. Period Period. 

. 

8





Israelian Israelian Israelian Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew 

Israelian Hebrew (some scholars call Northern or Israelite Hebrew 38) (BHA phase 3)))) - 

This This is is not not a a dialect dialect; dialect ; it it is is a a catchall term term for for all all the dialects spoken spoken and and and written written in in in the 

the 

villages villages and and towns towns of of the the Kingdom Kingdom of of Israel Israel Israel c. 1000 1000 BCE until at at lleast 

l least 

east the the late eigh eighth eigh 

th 

century century BCE. BCE. It It does does not not iimply 

i mply that these dialects had more in common with each each other 

other 

than many of of them had to to some some of of the the dialects dialects spoken spoken in in the the Kingdom Kingdom of of of Judah Judah Judah and 


hence hence hence classed classed under under under the the rubric rubric Judahite Judahite Judahite Judahite Hebrew. Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew . It is possible possible that that the the major major areas areas of of the 

the 

kingdom kingdom ( (Samaria ( Samaria Samaria, Samaria Galilee Galilee, Galilee the Coastal Coastal Plain Plain and Gilead Gilead) Gilead Gilead developed recognizable 

regional regional dialects. dialects. 

dialects. 

IEH IEH - Israelian Israelian Israelian Israelian Epigraphic Epigraphic Epigraphic Epigraphic Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew 

*[EBH BH BHPisr BH isr isr] isr a possible reconstruction reconstruction of of Samarian Samarian Hebrew Hebrew when when probably probably at 

at 

variance variance variance from from EBHP HP HP. HP 

Judahite Jud Jud Judahite 

ahite ahite Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew (some scholars call Southern or Judean Hebrew) ((((BHA BHA BHA BHA phase pp 

phase 

hase hase 3)))) 33 

3 - This 

is is not not a a dialect dialect; dialect dialect; 

; it it it is is a catchall term term for for all the dialects dialects spoken spoken spoken and and written written in in the the villages 

villages 

and and towns towns of of the the Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom of of Judah Judah during the First First Temple Temple Period Period. Period . The The spoken spoken dialects 

dialects 

ancestral ancestral to to MH MH, MH falls falls under under this rubric. Use of the term Judahite Judahite Judahite Judahite Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew does does does not not not imply 

imply 

that that these these dialects dialects had had more more in in common common with with each each other other than than many many of of them them had had to to some 

some 

of of the dialects spoken in the Kingdom Kingdom of Judah and hence classed classed under under the the rubric 

rubric 

Israelian Israelian Israelian Israelian Hebrew. Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew . 

ABH ABH - Archaizing Archaizing Archaizing Archaizing Biblical Biblical Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew ---- The The language language of of a a few few few important important poems poems poems39. 

These These poems poems could could have have been been authored authored at at any any time time after after 1000 BCE 40 probably 

using using a a standard standard set set of of archaizing archaizing features features41. 

CBH H - Classical Classical Classical Classical Biblical Biblical Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew (BHA phase 3) - The literary dialect of of Jerusalem 

Jerusalem 

c.950 c.950-586 c.950 586 586 B.C.E B.C.E (First First Temple Temple Pe Period Pe Period 

riod) riod as as recorded recorded in in the the passages passages of of of the 

the 

Hebrew Hebrew Bible Bible Bible reasonably reasonably dated dated to to the the pre pre-exilic pre exilic period. period. It It is is represented represented by by the 

the 

PMT PMT, PMT PMT , of of these these these passages, passages, minus minus non non-word non word final final final vowel vowel letters. letters. This is the only 

widely attested form of Judahite Judahite Judahite Judahite Hebrew. It is clear that: (1) CBH shows very little 

if if if any any any internal internal internal developm development 

developm nt nt 42 suggesting suggesting later later revision revision of of of any any early early early texts, texts, texts, (2) (2) all 

CBH CBH CBH biblical biblical texts texts were were transferred transferred to to the the Aramaic Aramaic Aramaic script script, script , modernized modernized in 

in 

orthography 

orthography orthography and and possibly possibly linguistically linguistically and/or and/or textually textually revised revised in in the the post post-exilic post exilic 

period period. period (3) CBH continued continued to be wri written, wri 

tten, alongside alongside alongside PCBH PCBH, PCBH , well well well into into the the Persian Persian 

Persian 

period period43. 

In the the post post-exilic post 

exilic period period the the author/editors author/editors would would have have used used PMH MH or 

or 

Aramaic Aramaic as as their their daily daily speech speech and and have have written written the the very very different different CBH CBH and and and PCBH 

PCBH 

in in th the th e way way way that that modern modern Arabs Arabs write write MSA MSA, MSA , Iron Iron Age Age Babylonian Babylonian scribes scribes composed 

in in Standard Standard Babylonian Babylonian 44 or as medieval medieval Italians wrote Church Latin. Latin. N.b. . the 

language of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, while being substantially CBH, show some 

PCBH features. 

*EBH EBH EBHP EBH - Early Early Early Early Biblical Bib Bib Biblical 

lical lical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew PPPPronunciation 

ronunciation 

ronunciation 

ronunciation 

9





/EBHP EBHP EBHP/ EBHP +45 - This reconstruction includes - 

• th the th phonemic honemic transcription transcription of of reconstructed CBH BH 

10 

BH (/EBH (/EBHP/) (/EBH P/) 

P/) recovering, as 

closely as possible, the the the pronunciation that a scribe in in in Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem 700 700-600 700 600 

BCE BCE BCE would would have have used used in in reading reading poetry poetry and and and other other literature literature to to upper upper class 

class 

Judeans Judeans or or members members of of the the king king’s king s court court. court . Vowel and consonant quality and 

length and word stress phonological. N.b. N.b. It It is is quite quite possible possible that that that Early Early Early Early 

Biblical Biblical Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Pronunciation Pronunciation 

Pronunciation 

Pronunciation continued to to be used in some circles circles for 

formal formal literary literary reading reading of of CBH BH and PCBH PCBH, PCBH , alongside alongside alongside LBHP LBHP, LBHP , well into the 

Persian Persian period period; period period 

• the the occasionally occasionally phonemic phonemic placement placement of of primary primary word word stress stress; stress 

• the the non non-phonemic non non phonemic placement placement placement of of secondary secondary word word stress stress; stress ; and, 

and, 

• the he he non non-phonemic non 

phonemic phonemic distinction distinction distinction between between th the th 

e e long long long vowels vowels vowels of of various various various origins origins origins e.g. e.g. 

e.g. 

ῑ, î, iː iː. iː 

[EBHP EBHP EBHP] EBHP 46 a phonetic honetic transcription of of reconstructed Early Early Early Early Biblical Biblical Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew 

Pronunciation 

Pronunciati Pronunciati Pronunciation. 

on on. 

. 

/EBH BH BHP+/ BH +/ more probable of alternative reconstructions. 

/EBH BH BHP-/ BH less probable of alternative reconstructions. 

/EBH BH BHP?/ BH ?/ possible reconstruction usually used when it is impossible to 

decide, based on current data, between and earlier and later form. 

/EBHPsam sam sam/ sam possible reconstruction of Samarian pre-exilic Hebrew when 

when 

probably probably at at variance variance from from Jerusalem Jerusalem dialect dialect. dialect 

JEH EH EH - Judahite Judahite Judahite Judahite Epigraphic Epigraphic Epigraphic Epigraphic Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew (see A A A A Note Note Note Note on on on on Epigraphic Epigraphic Epigraphic Epigraphic Hebrew) Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew - 

inscriptions inscriptions contemporaneous contemporaneous with with pre pre-exilic pre exilic CBH BH BH. BH . Scribes trained in in Jerusalem 

Jerusalem 

700 700-586 700 586 586 BCE BCE were likely likely the authors of the bulk bulk of surviving surviving JEH EH EH e.g. Siloam 

Siloam 

Inscription Inscription, Inscription Lachish Lachish oostraca 

oo 

straca straca, straca Arad Arad ostraca ostraca. ostraca ostraca. 

. For their orthography see see see Matres Matres Matres Matres 

Lectionis Lectionis Lectionis Lectionis in in in in Hebrew. Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew The same same circles circles were were were likely likely the the composers composers composers and/or 

and/or 

transmitters transmitters of of most most most of of the the pre pre-exilic pre exilic exilic biblical biblical texts. texts. texts. Epigraphic Epigraphic Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew documents documents 

documents 

have have have been been preserved in in their their original original language language and and and orthography orthography and, and, within within within limits 

limits 

, , , , can can serve serve as as as a a guide guide to to pronunciation. pronunciation. Except Except for for archaisms archaisms used used in in poetry poetry, poetry the 

original original orthography orthography of of the the pre pre-exilic pre exilic bbiblical 

b iblical texts texts would would very very likely likely likely to to have 

conformed conformed to to the the norms norms of of JEH JEH. JEH 

I I I am am working working on on the the assumption assumption that that in in in JEH EH - 

• all final final stressed stressed vowels vowels were were long long and and and generally generally marked marked by 

by 

vowel vowel letters; 

letters;





• final final unstressed unstressed long long vowels vowels were were were generally generally generally marked marked by by vowel 

vowel 

letters; letters; letters; and, 


• final final unstressed unstressed short short vowels vowels, vowels , were were unmarked unmarked i.e. i.e. were were not not 

not 

marked marked by by vowel vowel letters letters or or in in any any other other way. 

way. 

c.2 .2 .2) .2 Post ost ostExH ost ExH - PPPPost ost----Exilic ost ost Exilic Exilic Exilic Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew (BHA phase 4) 

PC PCBH PC 

H - Post----Classical 

Post Post Post Classical Classical Classical Biblical Biblical Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew (BHA phase 4) ---- A A literary literary dialect dialect dialect of 

of 

Jerusalem Jerusalem c.500 c.500 B.C.E. B.C.E.- B.C.E. 70 70 CCE. 

C It is a direct continuation of, and very similar to 

CBH 47 and like CBH texts the language of PCBH biblical passages shows no 

discernable internal development.. However, it shows internal linguistic 

developments that were probably influenced by Aramaic 48 and contemporary 

spoken Hebrew. PCBH diverged increasingly from spoken Hebrew and should 

be considered a diglossic prestige language. 49 In In In the the post post-exilic post exilic period period the 

the 

author/editors author/editors would would have have used used PMH PMH or or Aramaic Aramaic as as their their their daily daily speech speech and and have have 

have 

written written the the very very different different CBH CBH and and PCBH PCBH PCBH iin 

i n the the the way way that that modern Arabs Arabs write write 

MSA MSA MSA or or or as as medieval medieval Italians Italians wrote wrote Church Church Latin Latin50. 

. Sources Sources Sources Sources later books of the 

Bible such as Chronicles. 

LBH LBHP LBH /LBH LBH LBHP/ LBH / (Late Late Late Late Biblical Bi Bi Biblical 

blical blical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew PPPPronunciation 

ronunciation) 

ronunciation 

ronunciation ) - Phonemic 

Phonemic 

transcription transcription of of reconstructed reconstructed reading tradition of of BH c.500 c.500 BCE - 200 

200 

CE. CE. Naturally it would have changed considerably over that period. It was 

increasingly affected by Aramaic and spoken Hebrew. 

[LBH LBH LBHP] LBH ] a phonetic honetic transcription transcription51 

transcription transcription of of reconstructed 

reconstructed reconstructed Late 

Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew Pronunciation. 

Pronunciation 

Pronunciation 

Pronunciation 

QH QH - Qumran Hebrew Hebrew i.e. i.e. the the Hebrew Hebrew of of the the non non-biblical 

non biblical Dead Dead Sea Sea Sea Scrolls Scrolls (see 

Qimron 1986). Opinions differ as to whether it should be considered a highly 

idiosyncratic and Aramaized form of PCBH or a separate line of development 52. 

Most scholars consider it to have been a literary language probably spoken in 

formal situations much like MSA today in the Arab world. For For the the relation 

relation 

between between BH BH and and and QH QH see see Young, Young, Rezetko, Rezetko, Ehrensvärd Ehrensvärd 2008 2008 chapt. chapt. 10 10. 10 

PMH PMH PMH - Proto Proto-Mishnaic Proto Mishnaic or or Proto Proto-Rabbinic Proto Rabbinic Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew ---- see see Development Development Development Development of of of of Proto---- Proto Proto Proto 

Mishnaic Mishnaic Mishnaic Mishnaic Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew (c. (c. 586 586 BCE BCE-c. BCE c. 70 70 70 BC) BC). BC) 53. 

MH MH MH - Mishnaic Mishnaic, Mishnaic , Middle Middle or or Rabbinic Rabbinic Hebrew Hebrew ---- Basically Basically the the spoken spoken Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew of 

of 

some some aareas 

a reas of of of rural rural Judah Judah of of the the first first and and early early second second second centuries centuries C.E. C.E. C.E. Its 

Its 

population population base base was was destroyed destroyed destroyed with with the the suppression suppression of of of the the Bar Bar Kochba Kochba Kochba rebellion 

rebellion rebellion.... 

Source Source Source Source - Tannaitic Literature especially the Mishnah. For the the relation relation between 

BH BH and and and MH MH see see see Young, Young, Rezetko, Rezetko, Ehrensvärd Ehrensvärd 2008 2008 ch chapt. ch apt. 9. 

11





d) ) MidH MidH - Medieval Medieval Hebrew Hebrew. Hebrew . Various Various forms forms of of Hebrew Hebrew c. c. 1000 1000-c. 1000 c. 1850 1850 C.E. 

C.E. 

e) ) IH H - Israeli Israeli Heb Hebrew Heb Hebrew 

rew. rew . Spoken and written Hebrew Palestine (1900 (1900-1947)/Israel 

(1900 

1947)/Israel (1948- (1948 

present). 

present). 

/IH IH IH/ IH Phonemic transcription of IH. IH. 

[IH IH IH] IH Phonetic transcription of IH. Not Note Not 

Vowel Vowel Vowel Vowel System System System System ---- Modern Modern Modern Modern Israeli Israeli Israeli Israeli Hebrew. Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew 

2.4 2.4) 2.4 2.4) 

) ) Proto Proto----Tiberian, 

Proto Proto Tiberian, Tiberian, Tiberian, Tiberian Tiberian Tiberian Tiberian and and and and Other Other Other Other Tradition Traditionssss Tradition Tradition of of of of Reading Reading Reading Reading Biblical Biblical Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew 

a) ) PTH - Proto Proto-Tiberian Proto 

Tiberian Hebrew Hebrew (BHA BHA BHA BHA Phase Phase Phase Phase 5 55 

5 - c. c.150 c. 

150 150-c.500 150 c.500 C.E. C.E.). C.E. Th This Th is is th the th 

e developing 

traditional traditional pronunciation 

pronunciation pronunciation of of some circles of Aramaic speaking Palestinian scholars when when when reading 

reading 

the the the Proto Proto-Masoretic Proto Masoretic text text of the Hebrew Bible Bible. Bible 

This This tradition tradition tradition underlies underlies underlies TTH 

T H and and is is largely largely largely deduced deduced from from the phonology of TH. 

/PTH PTH PTH/ PTH + This This This reconstruction includes includes - 

• the phonemic honemic 54 transcription transcription of of reconstructed reconstructed PTH PTH (/PTH PTH PTH/) PTH/) 

/); /) 

• the the occasionally occasionally phonemic phonemic placement placement of of primary primary primary word word stress stress; stress 

• the the the non non-phonemic non phonemic placement placement of of secondary secondary word word word stress stress; stress 

• the the the allophonic allophonic spirantization pirantization of of the the bgdkpt bgdkpt bgdkpt bgdkpt consonants onsonants (dageš qal (Hebrew) or 

dagesh lene (Latin) - b/b, g/g, d/d, p/p, t/t; and, 

• the the non non-phonemic non phonemic distinction distinction between between between the the the long long vowels vowels of of various various origins origins e.g. e.g. ῑ, î, iː iː. iː 

[PTH PTH PTH] PTH Phonetic Phonetic 55 transcription transcription transcription of of reconstructed reconstructed PTH. 

b) TH - Tiberian Tiberian Hebrew Hebrew (BHA BHA BHA BHA Phase Phas Phas Phase 

e e 6 66 

6 - c.850 C.E.) C.E.). C.E.) 

. TH masoretic asoretic asoretic cantillation cantillation and vowel 

points points basically basically reflect reflect the the the final final development development of of PTH PTH as it continued to develop develop from from from the the fift fifth fift h to 

the the ninth ninth centuries centuries CE CE CE (see Tiberian Tiberian Tiberian Tiberian Vowel Vowel Vowel Vowel System). System System System ). Compared to EBHP there there was was a a decrease decrease in 

in 

the the number number of of consonantal consonantal phonemes phonemes phonemes and and an an increase increase in in the the number number of of vowel vowel phonemes phonemes. phonemes phonemes. 

. Short 

Short 

vowels vowels remain remain only only in in closed closed unstres unstressed unstres sed syllables. syllables. Vowel Vowel length length non non-phonological 

non phonological 

phonological, phonological consonant consonant 

gemination gemination gemination carries carries light light phonemic phonemic load load. load . Vowel Vowel and and consonant consonant quality quality and word stress stress 

phonological. 

phonological. 

phonological. 

As As described described in in Khan Khan 1987 1987 (pp. (pp. 24 24-25) 24 25) - 

"Although the Tiberian vocalization system marks all the the major major qualitative qualitative distinctions 

distinctions 

between between the the vowels, vowels, it it gives gives only only partial partial indication indication indication of of relative relative vowel vowel quantity. quantity. The The The reason 

reason 

for for for this this is is is that that ... ... vowel vowel vowel qua quantity qua ntity was not phonemic. The vocalization system was 

concerned concerned primarily primarily with with the the phonemic phonemic quality quality oppositions. oppositions. The The The few few indications indications indications of of 

of 

12





allophonic allophonic allophonic distinctions distinctions of of both both quality quality and and quantity quantity were were made made by by the the Masoretes Masoretes Masoretes out out of 

of 

their their desire desire to to preserve preserve correctly correctly the the phonetic phonetic phonetic details details of the reading tradition." 

/TH TH TH/ TH + In order to include include the the full range of word word-level word 

level information information information provided provided by by MT MT this 

this 

includes: 

includes: 

• the the phonemic honemic transcriptio transcription transcriptio n of of TH TH TH (/TH TH TH/) 

/); /) 

• the the occasionally occasionally occasionally phonemic phonemic placement placement of of primary primary primary word word stress stress; stress 

• the the non non-phonemic non phonemic placement placement of of secondary secondary word word word stress stress; stress ; and, 


• the largely partly partly or or largely largely allophonic allophonic - 

• vocal šwa and ḥḥḥḥaaaaṭṭṭṭaaaaffff////ḥḥḥḥatep atep atep atep vowels 

13 

vowels 56 

• spirantization pirantization of of the the bgdkpt bgdkpt bgdkpt bgdkpt consonants onsonants (dageš qal (Hebrew) or dagesh lene 

(Latin) - b/b, g/g, d/d, k/k, p/p, t/t. 

[TH TH TH] TH 57 Phonetic transcription transcription of of reconstructed reconstructed TH assuming that vowels that the were ere as as 

as 

in in in the the table table Tiberian Tiberian Tiberian Tiberian Vowel Vowel Vowel Vowel System. System System System 

c) ) Other Other Written Written Traditions of of Reading Biblical Biblical Hebrew 58 

BH BHQum BH 

Qum - Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew as as re reflected re flected in in the the the orthography orthography of of biblical biblical biblical Dead Dead Dead Dead Sea Sea Sea Sea Scrolls Scrolls Scrolls Scrolls (2nd 

(2nd 

c. c. BCE BCE-1st BCE 1st c. c. CE) CE) CE) 59. . 

BH BHPal BH 

Pal - Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew pointed pointed with with Pal Palestinian Pal estinian Vocalization Vocalization (from (from c. c. 7th 7th c. c. CE) CE) CE) 60. 

BH BHBab BH 

Bab - Biblical Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew pointed pointed with with Babylonian Babylonian Vocalization Vocalization (from late c. 9th 9th c. c. c. CE) CE) 61. 

BH 

BHGk Gk Gk-Lat Gk Lat 

Lat - Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew as as reflected reflected in in Greek Greek62 

and and and Latin Latin63 

transcriptions transcriptions (mainly (mainly 3rd 3rd c. 

c. 

BCE BCE-4th BCE 4th c. c. c. CE) CE) 64. 

BH 

BHSa Sa Sam-nik Sa nik 

nik - Biblical Biblical Hebrew Hebrew pointed pointed with with Samaritan Samaritan Vocalization Vocalization (from c. 10th 10th c. c. CE) CE). CE) 

d) Modern Pronunciation Traditions Used in Read Reading Read 

ing BH 

BH 

1. BH BHSAM BH 

SAM 65 - Modern Modern Samaritan Samaritan tradition radition raditional radition al pronunciation 

pronunciation pronunciation used used in in reading reading reading the the (unpointed) (unpointed) 

(unpointed) 

Samaritan Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch 

Pentateuch. Pentateuch 

Pentateuch There There are fou four fou 

r vowel vowel lengths lengths maintained maintained in in in the the Samaritan 

Samaritan 

tradition tradition of Torah reading but vowel length is is not phonological 

phonological phonological66. 

2. BH BHIH BH 

IH = = [ [BH [ BH 

BHIH IH IH] IH = 

= = [IH IH IH] IH - The he reading reading of of the the MT MT using Israeli Hebrew pronunciation. 

pronunciation. Stress 

mainly ainly ainly follows ollows TH accents accents and and the the phonemic phonemic structure structure is is is set set by by the the TH graphemes graphemes. 

graphemes 

Influe Influence Influe nce of of European European Languages Languages. Languages No long consonants or vowels, no emphatic emphatic 

consonants 

consonants, 

consonants 

consonants , no no no gutt gutturals gutt gutt rals rals except except except occasional occasional occasional [h [h]. [h For For For the the the sound sound sound system system of of of Israeli Israeli Hebrew Hebrew 

Hebrew 

see see Glinert Glinert p. p. 9 9 see also Berman Berman. Berman 

3. BH BHAH BH 

AH = = [ [BH [ BH 

BHAH AH AH] AH 

] - TThe 

T he reading reading of of the the MT MT using using traditional traditional Ashkenazi Ashkenazi Ashkenazi Hebrew Hebrew pronunciation. 

pronunciation. 

Stress Stress penultimate and and the the phonemic phonemic phonemic structure structure structure is is is set set bby 

bb 

y the the the TH TH graphemes graphemes graphemes thus thus thus any any 

any





variations variations in in vowel vowel vowel length length are are non non-phonological 


phonological. phonological Influence Influence Influence of of European European Languages Languages. Languages No 

long long consonants consonants or or vowel vowels, vowel vowel s, no no emphatic consonants 

consonants, 

consonants 

, no no gutt gutturals gutt rals except except [h [h]. [h 

4. BH BHMIZ BH 

MIZ = = [ [BH [ BH 

BHMIZ MIZ MIZ] MIZ 

] - The he reading reading of of the the the MT MT using using traditional traditional Mizrahi Mizrahi (Arabic (Arabic speaking 

speaking 

excluding excluding Yementie) Yementie) Yementie) Hebrew Hebrew pronunciation. pronunciation. Stress mainly ainly follows ollows TH accents accents accents and and the 

the 

phonemic phonemic structure structure is is set set by by the the TH TH graphemes graphemes thus thus any any variations variations in in in vowel vowel length length are 

are 

non non-phonological 


phonological. phonological Somewhat Somewhat variable variable due due to to the the iinfluence 

ii 

nfluence of of of different different Arabic Arabic dialects dialects. dialects 

Pronunciation Pronunciation includes includes llong 

l ong consonants consonants and and vowels, vowels, emphatic emphatic emphatic consonants 

consonants, 

consonants , gutt gutturals gutt 

rals rals. rals 

5. BH BHSEP BH 

SEP = = [ [BH [ BH 

BHSEP SEP SEP] SEP 

] - TThe 

T he reading reading of of the the MT MT using using traditional traditional Sephardi Sephardi Hebrew 

Hebrew 

pronunciation. 

pronunciation. pronunciation. maintained in the Ladino Ladino speaking communities 

communities. communities 

Stress mainly ainly follows ollows TH 

accents accents and and the the phonemic phonemic phonemic structure structure is is set set by by the the TH TH graphemes graphemes thus thus any any variations variations in 

in 

vowel vowel length length are are non non-phonological 


phonological. phonological Influence Influence of of European European Languages Languages. Languages No long long 

consonants consonants or or vowels, vowels, no no emphatic consonants 

consonants, 

consonants 

, no no no gutt gutturals gutt rals except except occasional occasional [h [h]. [h 

6. BH BHYEM BH 

YEM 67 = [BH BH BHYEM BHYEM 

YEM] YEM - The he he reading reading of of the the MT MT using using the the traditional traditional Yemeni Yemeni Hebrew 

Hebrew 

pronunciation 

pronunciations pronunciation s for for scriptural scriptural reading reading and and recitation recitation. recitation recitation Stress mainly follows TH accents and 

the phonemic structure is set by the TH graphemes thus variations in vowel length are 

non-phonological (There are four vowel lengths maintained in the Yemenite tradition of 

reading the MT. 68) Somewhat variable due to the influence of different Yemeni Arabic 

dialects. 

7. TH THCST TH 

CST CST = /TH TH THCST THCST 

CST/ CST Conventional Conventional Scholarly Scholarly Transcription Transcription of of of TH TH. TH TH Stress mainly follows TH 

accents and the phonemic structure, including stress, is set by the TH graphemes. The 

most widely used standard for THCST is TH THSBL TH 

BL BL - Society Society of of Biblical Biblical Literature Literature (SBL) 

(SBL) 

Academic Academic Academic Academic Translation Translation Translation Translation Style Style Style Style69 

. 

[TH 

[TH 

[THCSP CSP IS IS-ENG IS ENG 

ENG] - This represents the way English English-speaking English 

speaking scholars, scholars, familiar familiar with with the 

the 

pronunciation pronunciation of of IH, tend to pronounce TH. TH. Frequently, in writing scholars use TH 

TH 

transcription, they ignore the transcription substituting BH BHIH BH 

IH in in oral oral pronunciation 

pronunciation 

14 

THCST CST for 

modified modified, modified in some cases cases, cases 

where English speaking habits are closer to *[TH] [TH] than than to 

to 

[IH] [IH]/BH [IH] BH 

BHIH IH IH. IH So 

So Some So me examples 70 - 

(a) (a) ṢṢṢṢēēēērrrrêêêê in in [TH 

[TH 


ENG] is usually pronounced with its its historic historic Tiberian 

pronunciation pronunciation ẹẹẹẹ (IPA (IPA [e]) ) not as in IH [ [ɛ] [ 

] ] - cf. the English contrast bet:bait; 

(b) (b) ר in in [TH 

[TH 

BH BHIH BH 

IH IH/IH IH IH [ [ʁ̞ [ 

ʁ̞ʁ̞ ʁ̞]; ]; 


for 

ENG] is usually actualized as [ [ɾ] [ 

] ] as as in in English English and and *[TH] [TH] not not as as in 

in 

(c) (c) consonantal ה in in BH BHIH BH 

IH IH/IH IH /IH is usually silent or a glottal stop while while in in [TH 

[TH 

[THCSP CSP IS IS- IS 

ENG ENG] ENG English speakers tend to realize it, in positions positions in which consonantal [ [h] [ 

] 

appears appears appears in in English, English, as as the the original original [h] [h] - cf. the English contrast hat:at. Some 

examples - 

- "the door" ת ֶלדֶּ ה 

ַ





/TH/ /had.ˈdɛ.lɛt/ [TH] *[hɐd.ˈdɛː.lɛθ] 

BH BHIH BH 

IH IH/IH IH /IH [ɐ.ˈdɛ.lɛt] 

TH 

THCSP CSP IS IS-ENG IS ENG ENG [hɐ.ˈdɛ.lɛt] 

- BUT, Eng English Eng 

lish not not being being comfortable comfortable comfortable with with a a consonantal consonantal [h] [h] following a 

vowel vowel at at the the the end end of of a a syllable syllable הָּ֨י 

וּל ְלה ֥ ַ 

/TH/ /hal.lu.ˈyåh/ [TH] *[hɐl.luː.ˈyɔːh] 

BH BHIH BH 

IH IH/IH IH /IH [ɐ.lə.lu.ˈyɐ] 

TH 

THCSP CSP IS IS-ENG IS ENG [hɐ.lə.lu.ˈyɐ] 

- Perhaps Perhaps the the most most important important example example of of English English pronun pronunciation pronun ciation rules 

rules 

distorting distorting a a key key word word is is הוהי הוהי EBHP EBHP *yahˈˈˈˈwê wê wê wê TH 

15 

THCSP CSP CSP IS IS-ENG IS ENG ENG [yaˈwẹ] 

(d) (d) in IH yod yod yod yod quiesces quiesces quiesces when when followed followed by by a a ḥḥḥḥîîîîrrrreeeeqqqq at at the the beginning beginning of of words words thus 

לא ֵ רָ 

ְשׂ ִי is [yɪsrɐˈẹl] in [THCSP IS-ENG] but [ɪsʁɐˈɛl] in BHIH/IH. Similarly, ר חַ ְבִי is 

[yɪvˈxɐr] in THCSP IS-ENG but [ɪvˈxɐr] in BHIH/IH. 

It must be stressed, stressed, stressed, that this this practice, practice, practice, of of modeling modeling pronunciation pronunciation on on on [IH], [IH], [IH], completely 

completely 

obscures obscures obscures important important Anc Ancient Anc ient Hebrew Hebrew distinctions distinctions distinctions - vowel vowel and and consonantal consonantal length, 

length, 

emphatic emphatic vs. unemphatic consonants, the range of gutturals. This This This is is in in addition addition to 

to 

changes changes between between EBHP EBHP and and TH TH (see The Pronunciation of Hebrew Changed 

Substantially Between EBHP and the Time of the 8 th-11 th CE Masoretes Who Vocalized 

the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible). 

1 See Blau 2010 §4.3.3.3. For range of meanings of PC see Joϋon-Muraoka 1991 § 113 and van der Merwe et al. 

§ 19. 

2 Nb. In /EBHP/ PCcoh was distinguished from PCimp and PCpret_sim, in forms, not carrying object suffixes, by the 

unstressed suffix a(ːːːː), and usually from PCpret_sim by placement of stress. 

3 A good outline of the meanings and use of the cohortative is in Joϋon-Muraoka 1991 §45, 114, 116. "Orlinsky 

recognized that once the syntagma was understood as requiring the cohortative for the first person and the 

jussive for second and third, then all verb forms in such a chain of purpose clauses after an imperative or an 

exclamation were by definition cohortative/jussive whether or not they exhibited any morphological distinction. 

(Rainey 1985 p. 10.) 

4 From Joϋon-Muraoka 1991 §45b.





5 Nb. In /EBHP/ PCpret_sim/PCjus were distinguished from PCimp in some forms, when not carrying object suffixes, by 

placement of stress. 

6 Williams 1976:32. 

7 Rainey 1985 p. 8. 



9 A good outline of the meanings and use of the cohortative is in Joϋon-Muraoka 1991 §46, 114, 116. 

10 Joϋon-Muraoka 1991 §114h. 



12 Nb. In /EBHP/ PCpretWC was distinguished from PCimp and PCjus by the germination of the prefix consonant. 

Additionally, PCpretWC was distinguished from PCimp in some forms, when not carrying object suffixes, by 

placement of stress.... 

13 Rainey 1985 pp. 5-6. 

14 "long vowels were shortened in closed syllables in Proto-Semitic and Proto-Hebrew." Blau 2010 §4.3.3.3.2. 

"...in Proto-Semitic (and in Pre-Hebrew) no long vowels were tolerated in closed syllables." Blau 2010 

§3.5.12.2.14n. 

15 For range of meanings of SC see Joϋon-Muraoka 1991 §112 and van der Merwe et al. § 19.2. 

16 Van der Merwe et al. § 19.2.1.c.iii. Note the following "... יִמ with the perfect (Gn 21:7, Nu 23:10, I S 26:9, Is 

53:1, & etc.) or participle ... expresses a rhetorical question ...." GK §151.a.1 

17 See van der Merwe et al. § 19.2.1. 

18 From van der Merwe et al. § 19.2.3. 

19 See van der Merwe et al. § 19.2.5i. 

20 See van der Merwe et al. § 19.2.5ii. 



23 See Blau 2010 §4.4.3.2. 

24 See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPA#Suprasegmentals. 

25 See Blau 2010 §3.4.5.5n, 3.4.2.6, 3.5.7.1.5, 3.5.7.4.2n. 

16





26 An unsusual case is ־לע ֽ ַ [ˌcaːl] (Ex. 4:20 see Khan 1994 p. 133). 

27 Egs. 

the second vowel of ל ל ַט ַט קָ 

- /qåˈṭal al al/ al [qɔːˈṭɐːl] 

constr. form דַי 'hand of-' - /ˌyad/ [ˌyɐːð] 

Note Blau 2010 §3.5.7.1.2. 

28 Order follows the natural scale of vowel qualities (see. Joϋon-Muraoka 1991 §6b). 

29 Quite rare but found, for example, in /'mēt/ 'dead' (see Gibson 1965 p. 37). 

30 See Did the Proto-Semitic Long Vowel ā Persist into Pre-Exilic Biblical Hebrew (BH)?.... 

31 Resulting from Canaanite Shift 

32 See Blau 2010 §3.5.7.2.1. 

33 I use ɐ, ɪ , ʊ when placed beside /EBHP/ transliterations which clearly mark the restored vowels. Where this is 

not the case I use ɐ̣, ɪ̣, ʊ̣. 

34 See Blau 1976 p. 10. 

35 For gemination see Lipinski 1997 pp. 179-184; Joϋon-Muraoka 1991 §18; and Hoffman 2004 pp. 99-101. The 

symbol for gemination is either the consonant written twice e.g. dibber or written to indicate that the consonant is 

long e.g. dib:er. Also Wikipeia. 

T. F. Mitchell, in Colloquial Arabic: the Living Language of Egypt, describes gemination in Egyptian Arabic – “Any 

Arabic consonant may be doubled. Except when final, a doubled consonant must be pronounced at least 

twice as long as its single counterpart and is characterized by greater muscular tension in the articulating 

organs… Consonants which are pronounced long occur in English at the junction of words or of affixes and 

words ; for example, black king (contrast blacking), misspelt, unnecessary, but, of course, the double letters 

of English spelling in such words as better and butter are pronounced as single sounds. The single-double 

distinction is a very important feature of Arabic and the ss of kassar he smashed, for example, must always be 

pronounced considerably longer than s in kasar he broke…. Doubled consonants are usually pronounced 

shorter when final.” 

36 In transliterating consonantal phonemes I use the Society of Biblical Literature (SBL) Academic Translation 

Style (THSBL). I generally to use the IPA system to transliterate consonantal phones. 

37 "Outside of closed unstressed syllables, which excluded long vowels, Ancient Hebrew had a contrast between 

long and short vowels. However, between the Tannaitic period (c. 73-200 CE) and the time of the Masoretes, 

short vowels in stressed syllables lengthened, erasing the contrast in those syllables.." Steiner 1997 p. 149. 

38 See Schniedewind-Sivan 1997 p. 304 footnote. 

17





39 See Archaic or Archaizing Poetic Texts. 

40 See Young, Rezetko, Ehrensvärd 2008 chapt. 12; Vern 2008. 

41 See Sáenz-Badillos §3.3; Kutscher 1982 p. 79 ff. 

42 From Young, Rezetko, Ehrensvärd 2008 p. 57. 

(W)e agree with Hurvitz that it is impossible to discern linguistic development within EBH (my CBH) or 

within LBH (my PCBH).... For example, on the basis of language, we cannot date alleged preexilic EBH 

texts to the tenth as opposed to the seventh century, nor can we date possible sources within supposed 

preexilic books, such as Genesis or Samuel, to particular points in time. More explicitly, alleged preexilic 

EBH texts written over a potential span of hundreds of years (eg. 1000-600 BCE) do not reflect any 

discernible chronological linguistic variations. 

43 See Ehrenbsvärd 2004. . . The following is quoted from Kofoed 2006 pp. 98-99 - 

If there is ever any truly sharp division between two historical stages of a language over a relatively short 

time period, then it is an accident. Catastrophic change in language is not the norm. Current theory 

rebuts, therefore, the argument (often stated ex silentio) that only one kind of Hebrew was being used at 

any one time, and Davies is therefore right in arguing that one cannot automatically convert linguistic 

typology into linguistic chronology. A range of synchronic factors must be taken into consideration before 

a diachronic explanation can be settled: dialect, colloquial language, idiolect, sociolect, archaizing 

language, etc. This is also true for periods where such differing grammars are unattested in the written 

sources. Since writing is secondary to speech, vernaculars and dialects must by necessity have existed 

alongside the written Hochsprache. Before jumping to diachronic explanations of linguistic difference one 

must acknowledge, therefore, that the dark side of the moon is just as real as the visible, and that the 

existence of additional contemporary grammars may account better for the linguistic differences than 

diachronic ones. 

Furthermore, since language change is influenced by a number of unpredictable factors (time, society, 

and the individual) no linear development can be ascribed automatically to any language. Modern 

linguistic theory has, for the same reason, dismissed the idea that language change is governed by an 

internal "biological clock" that makes it possible for the historical linguist to reconstruct prior stages and to 

predict future developments of a given language.... 

44 From Kofoed 2006 p. 103 - 

The obvious choice of a comparative case study would of course be to pick a well-documented 

contemporary linguistic case in the same literary genre and from the same cultural stream. The closest 

match in that regard is probably the Babylonian "literary" language or "Standard Babylonian," which 

remained so stable that even distinguished scholars erroneously dated compositions late that later were 

proved to stem from Old Babylonian times. 

18





45 See Phones and Phonemes - http://www.houseofdavid.ca/anc_heb_6.htm#phone_phonym.. 

46 Note, in reconstructed [EBHP] transliterations and sound files - 

1.there is no spirantization of the bgdkpt consonants - http://www.houseofdavid.ca/anc_heb_tequ.htm#bgdpt; 

2. vowel qualities are outlined here - http://www.houseofdavid.ca/anc_heb_6.htm#ebhp_vow_qual; 

3. I use the most probable form. Where no one form stands out as most probable, I select the one closest 

to the MT vocalization. 

4. when multiple forms are possible, the form used is underlined. 

47 See Young, Rezetko, Ehrensvärd 2008 chapt.5. 

48 From Young, Rezetko, Ehrensvärd 2008 p. 50 "Polzin minimises the influence of Aramaic on LBH emphasising 

instead the inner development or natural evolution of BH (Polzin 1976: 2; cf. 13-14)." 

49 See Ehrenbsvärd 2004. 

50 From Young, Rezetko, Ehrensvärd 2008 p. 48. 

First it has been recognized for a long time that the relative homogeneity of BH may be explained by its 

function as a standard literary language (e.g. Chomsky 1957: 30-31, 46-49; W. Weinberg 1993: 13). In 

other words BH was an artificial construct, a Bildungssprache or 'language of education', that was written 

by many scribes at many times and places, and whose linguistic differences may be due to proficiency 

and/or style. Ehrenbsvärd's reference to Arabic present is some respects a fair analogy. It shows that it is 

possible for a language to stay the same for many centuries. Also, Blau points out that 'there were Arabic 

authors who wrote in a late period in a purely classical style and succeeded in avoiding not only neo- 

Arabic forms, but also post-classical forms (Blau 1997: 28). In the same article he refers to the twelfth- 

century scholar Usama bin Munqidh who wrote his memoirs in Middle Arabic, i.e. heavily influenced by 

vernacular Arabic, but also wrote poetry in perfect Classical Arabic (Blau 1997: 26 n.30). 

51 It seems likely that in LBHP: /ṭ/ was pronounced as [tʼ] (pronunciation); /ṣ/ as [sʼ]; ; and, /q/ as [kʼ] (see What was 

the Nature of the "Emphatic Consonants" in EBHP?). However, for simplicity's sake, I will use the following 

equivalences in my [EBHP] transcriptions: 

/ṭ/ = [ṭ]; /ṣ/ = [ṣ]; and, /q/ = [q]. 

52 From Morag 1988 - 

In describing General Qumran Hebrew (GQH) as essentially a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew (LBH), 

one would not do justice to this type of Hebrew. Although some of the features examined in this article 

constitute a continuation of LBH ... GQH as a whole possesses a number of prominent grammatical traits 

that are not related to the fabric of LBH. These traits probably represent a continuation of an old dialectal 

variation.... To our mind, the impact of stress variation is evident... It is thus clear that the proposition that 

19





GQH was a literary continuation of LBH can hardly be sustained. Literary continuation as well as 

archaization are to be found in the level of style-but typologically a language cannot be defined on the 

basis of stylistic evidence. As observed above, in a number of its features GQH does indeed continue 

LBH, but such a continuation need not necessarily be literary. However, what we have attempted to 

stress is the weight that must be assigned in defining the nature of GQH to those features that disclose no 

continuation of LBH. These features of GQH are too numerous and to grammatically salient to be 

assigned a secondary standing. Such phenomena as the contraction of the final diphthong aw (feature 

no. 2), the dissimilation CC>nC (feature no. 3), or the morphophonemic and morphological structures 

created by variations in the stress patterns (features nos 5 and 6), are all to be ascribed to phonological 

processes. Processes of this kind must, needless to say, come into being in a living, spoken, language. It 

would be difficult to envisage their coming into existence in a language whose character is literary. The 

same holds good for the morphological features dealt with above: the long forms of the pronouns (hw'h, 

hy'h: feature no. 7; the -mh ending of the second person masculine plural in the perfect and in the suffixed 

pronouns: feature no. 9). Such features, as well as several others that have not been dealt with here, can 

in no way be regarded as having been originated in a literary, archaizing, language, which had BH as its 

model of writing, or as indicating a linear development of LBH. They are part and parcel of the 

morphological structure of certain Hebrew dialects of the Qumran period. 

53 See Yadin et. al. 2002; ; ; Kutscher 1971a col. 1590; Encyclopaedia Judaica, IV, 237-238, 1971.. 

54 A case can be made that the PTH reflex of the TH vocal šwa /ә/ is not phonemic (cf. Gibson 1965 pp. 41-42). 

However, for clarity I will assume its phonemic status in PTH. 

55 It seems likely that in PTH: /ṭ/ was pronounced as [tʼ] (pronunciation); /ṣ/ as [sʼ]; ; and, /q/ as [kʼ] (see What was 

the Nature of the "Emphatic Consonants" in EBHP?). However, for simplicity's sake, I will use the following 

equivalences in my [EBHP] transcriptions: 


56 Blau 2010 §3.5.6.5.3. states - 

It is clear that ḥaṭaf qamaṣ stands in phonemic opposition to ḥaṭaf pataḥ/mobile šwa (which, according to 

Tiberian tradition, were pronounced identically) 

See also Blau 1976/93 §3.5. 

57 It seems likely that in TH: /ṭ/ was pronounced as [tʼ] (pronunciation); /ṣ/ as [sʼ]; ; ; and, /q/ as [kʼ] (see What was the 

Nature of the "Emphatic Consonants" in EBHP?). However, for simplicity's sake, I willoccasionally use the 

following equivalences in my [EBHP] transcriptions: 


58 See A Note on the Use of Post-Exilic Evidence Regarding the pronunciation of BH 

59 See Qimron 1986; ; ; Kutscher 1971, , , Kutscher 1979, , , Sáenz-Badillos pp. 86-94; Manuel 1995 pp. 130-146. 

20





60 See Revell 1970 and 1970a; Morag 1972; Sáenz-Badillos pp. 86-94; Manuel 1995 pp. 168-198; Harviainen 

1977. In most features this tradition is fairly close to the Tiberian - see Ben-Ḥayyim 1954. In the words of Sáenz- 

Badillos (p. 90) 

Revell ... argues that the Palestinian tradition represents a more developed and, therefore, later form of 

language than the Tiberian, although they share a common origin. In his view, the consistent (TH) use of 

different graphemes for the a and e vowels is a feature of an earlier period, which tended to disappear 

later on. Vowel changes within the Palestinian system, according to Revell, correspond to processes 

known from a less developed stage of the Tiberian tradition, and some times represent the endpoint of a 

process begun there. The Tiberian tradition has adopted a well-preserved, archaic, pronunciation, 

whereas the Palestinian is based on 'vulgar' biblical texts and expresses a less well-preserved form of the 

language that has been more affected by outside influences and colloquialisms. As a system of pointing, 

the Palestinian must have been created before, or in isolation from, the Tiberian. 

I tend to agree with Revell on this. However, Sáenz-Badillos argues for the Palestinian pointing preceding the 

Tiberian Masoretic with presumably shared origins at some point in the past. 

61 See Yeivin; Sáenz-Badillos pp. 94-105; Manuel 1995 pp. 199-225. In most features this tradition is fairly close 

to the Tiberian - see Ben-Ḥayyim 1954. The pronunciation on which it is based must, of course, have originated in 

Palestine but have undergone a long period of semi-isolated development in southern Babylonia in a totally 

Eastern Aramaic speaking environment. 

62 See most importantly Janssens 1994 (re. Secunda) and Knobloch 1995 (re. LXX), and their bibliographic 

references. See also Brønno 1968 (re. Secunda). 

63 See Barr 1967 and the references in his footnotes; Harviainen 1977. 

64 Sáenz-Badillos pp. 80-86; ; Manuel 1995 pp. 130-167; ; Hoffman pp. 85-117; Ben-Ḥayyim 1954. As noted by 

Sáenz-Badillos (p. 80) - (n.b. (n.b. bolding bolding my my own) 

own) 

The numerous Greek and Latin transcriptions of Hebrew names and other expressions, which which date date from 

from 

the third third third century century BCE BCE BCE to the fourth century CE, undoubtedly provide first-hand information.... Because we 

know far more about the phonology and pronunciation of Greek and Latin than of the Semitic languages, 

these transcriptions represent an invaluable witness to the Hebrew of this period. On the other hand, it 

has to be recognized as well that there are considerable difficulties involved. In the first place, the 

phonology of Greek and Latin is very different from that of Hebrew, and these languages do not possess 

graphemes that can exactly represent the sounds of Hebrew. And although we do not know what 

judgements were actually made when transcribing so different a language, the authors of the 

transcriptions would certainly have approached Hebrew from the phonological perspective of their own 

language. The variation of place and time is also a problem, as we cannot simply accept that BH, which 

had already ceased to be a living language, underwent a unified development in places as diverse as 

21





Alexandria and Palestine. Neither Neither do do we we know know if if the the data afforded by the transcriptions transcriptions transcriptions correspond correspond to to the 

standard, standard, more more or or less less official, official, official, pronunciation pronunciation of of Hebrew Hebrew in in this this period period or or to to to dialect dialect or or substandard substandard substandard forms forms. forms 

On top of all these difficulties is the fact that the transcriptions have to be studied in manuscripts that are 

frequently late and deffective, presenting many variants ard corruptions in names that the copyists found 

completely alien. 

65 For details on the Samaritan traditions of Hebrew see Ben-Hayyim 2000. . . For examples of the use of BHSAM for 

the understanding of BH see Ben-Ḥayyim 1954. . Short description Sáenz-Badillos §5.3. See also Brønno 1968. 

66 See Ben-Hayyim 2000 sect. 1.2. 

67 For details on the Yemenite traditions of Hebrew see Morag 1963. 

68 See Morag 1963 chapt. 20. 

69 From The SBL Handbook of Style For Ancient Near Eastern, Biblical, and Early Christian Studies by Patrick H. 

Alexander, Hendrickson Publishers, 1999 sect. 5.1.1. 

70 Interestingly, in the cases of ד (no dagesh) and ת (no dagesh) scholars do not use the MT sounds ( ð and θ 

respectively) even though these sounds are wide-spread in English. It is also doubtful if many, familiar with Israeli 

Hebrew, pronounce the waw accordint to TH [w] rathedr than IH [v]. 

22

terms, abbreviations, and linguistic symbols - David Steinberg's ...

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