ANNALS ANNALES - Academia Oamenilor de Stiinta din Romania

ACADEMY OF ROMANIAN SCIENTISTS
ACADÉMIE DES SCIENTIFIQUES DE ROUMANIE
Volume 1 (new series)
ISSN 2066 - 6004
A n n i v e r s a r y v o l u m e / V o l u m e a n n i v e r s a i r e
Editors/Éditeurs
A N N A L S
2 0 0 6
A N N A L E S
Gen.(r), Prof. univ., M.D., Ph.D., Dr. H.C. VASILE CÂNDEA
Prof. univ., Ph.D. Eng. ŞTEFAN IANCU
Editur a
ACA DEMIEI OAMENI LO R DE ȘTII NȚĂ DI N ROM ÂN IA
București

A N N A L S O F T H E A C A D E M Y
O F R O M A N I A N S C I E N T I S TS
A N N I V E R S A R Y V O L U M E / V O L U M E A N N I V E R S A I R E
Founding Editor-in-Chief
Gen. (r) Prof. univ., M.D. Ph.D., Dr. H.C. Vasile CÂNDEA
Founding, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
President of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
Co-Editor
Prof. univ., Ph.D. Eng. Ștefan IANCU
Founding, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
Scientific Secretary of the Information Science and Technology of the Romanian Academy
Series Editor
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Doru Sabin DELION
Full Member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
Scientific Secretary of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House
Address: 54 Splaiul Independentei, Sector 5, 050094 Bucharest, Romania.
Chief of Department: Liviu Mihai SIMA, eng., Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania
Redactor: Andrei D. PETRESCU, Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House, prof. National College “Gheorghe Lazăr”,
Ph.D. (A.B.D.), University „Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania
Text processing: Mariana BĂLAN, Ph.D., secretary of Mathematical Sciencies of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
Mihai SINDILE, eng., secretary of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
This volume contains 352 pages.

A n n i v e r s a r y v o l u m e
1936
1956
1996
2006
V o l u m e a n n i v e r s a i r e

C O N T E N T S
Foreword ............................................................................................................... 7
Gen. (r), Prof. univ., M.D., Ph.D., Dr. H.C. Vasile Cândea,
Prof. univ., Ph.D., Eng. Ştefan Iancu
L‟Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie/Academy of Romanian Scientists ... 8
1. Mărgărit Pavelescu
PART ONE
SECTION OF MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES ......... 37
International Year of Physics: Albert Einstein - a Century from
the Theory of Relativity: 1905-2005 ....................................................................... 39
2. Mărgărit Pavelescu, Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Ioan Ursu
Characterization of the Ideal Repository Concept................................................... 47
3. Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Radio Toxicity of CANDU in Terms of Clearance Potential Index and Biological
Ingestion and Inhalation Hazard Factors................................................................ 53
4. Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu
Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation................. 83
PART TWO
SECTION OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES ........................... 105
5. Iosif Tripșa, Radu Ștefănoiu, Daniela Mihaela Mihăilescu
Mass, Low Cost, Hydrogen Production by Atomic Decomposition of Gaseous
Molecules in Metallic Eutectic Bath ………………………………………………….. 107
6. Dorel Zugrăvescu, Cristian Şuţeanu
PART THREE
SECTION OF GEONOMICAL SCIENCES ........................ 115
La Géodynamique à l'Échelle Planétaire .……………………………………………. 117
7. Ion N. Chiuţă
PART FOUR
SECTION OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES .......................... 129
Applications of Electromagnetic Compatibility in Military Sciences........................ 131
8. Adrian Badea
Valorisation Énergétique de la Biomasse …………………………………………… 143

9. D. Şchiopu, T. Schiopu
PART FIVE
SECTION OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,
SILVICULTURE AND VETERINARY MEDICINE ................... 157
La Conception du Professeur G. Ionescu-Șișeşti concernant la Mise en Valeur
de la Zone Inondable du Danube …………………………………………………….. 159
10. P. G. Ploaie
Isolation and Serological Detection of Apple Proliferation Phytoplasma Group
in Romania ............................................................................................................ 163
11. Constantin Bândiu
Silvocaly, a New Direction in Silvology .................................................................. 169
12. Agatha Popescu
The Evolution of the Romanian Animal Husbandry during the last 50 Years and its
Perspective on the Background of Romania‟s Entry into the European Union ...... 173
14. Vasile Cândea, Alexandru Vasilescu
PART SIX
SECTION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES ............................. 181
Les Disponibilités d‟Organes pour le Transplant Cardiaque
en Utilisant des Listes Alternatives......................................................................... 183
15. Vasile Cândea, Luminita Iliuță, Camelia Săvulescu,
C. Macarie, H. Moldovan, D.P. Gherghiceanu, R. Vasile
The Cost-Benefit Report of Performing Intraoperative Echocardiography
in Mitral Valve Surgery .......................................................................................... 189
PART SEVEN
SECTION OF ECONOMICAL SCIENCES,
16. Marius Bǎcescu, Angelica Băcescu-Cărbunaru
LAW AND SOCIOLOGY ...................................... 207
Improving the Cybernetic System of National Economy......................................... 209
17. Marta-Christina Suciu
The Emergence of Intellectual Capital in a Knowledge-based Society Investment
in People and Skills ............................................................................................... 219
18. Dinu Săraru
PART EIGHT
SECTION OF PHILOSOFICAL AND HISTORYCAL SCIENCES ..... 239
Plaidoirie pour « Des Paysans » ..…………………………………………………… 241

PART NINE
SECTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF INFORMATION .... 247
19. Mihai Drăgănescu
Broadband Internet and the Knowledge Society …………………………………… 249
20. Doina Banciu
Unitary Retrieval of Library Information……………………………………………….. 265
21. Andrei Danchiv, Mircea Bodea, Claudius Dan
Chopper Technique Overview Focused on Base Amplifier Optimisation ............. 273
22. Ștefan Iancu
Social Impact of the Technology of Information and Communications ………….. 287
23. Neculai Andrei
Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms
for Unconstrained Optimization ............................................................................ 293
24. Eugen Bădălan
PART TEN
SECTION OF MILITARY SCIENCES ............................ 315
The Romanian Armed Forces - Present and Future................................................ 317
25. H.C. Tudor Cearapin
La Démocratie Constitutionnelle et l‟Ordre Public…………………………………… 323
26. Sorin Ioan
Land Forces and the Collective Defence of the National Territory
within the Alliance ................................................................................................ 345
27. Mircea Mureșan
Romanian Military University Education. Transformation-Modernization ………… 349

Annals of the AR S – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 7
FOREWARD
The Academy of Romanian Scientists, ARS is the continuator and the unique
heir of the Romanian Academy for Sciences (1936-1948) and of the Romanian
Scientists Association – founded based on the Ministry’s Council Decision
1012/30.05.1956, which changed its name in 1996 into Academy of Romanian
Scientists.
During the meeting from 07.03.2006, the ARS Board has decided that 2006 to
be the celebrating year for the 70 th anniversary of the Romanian Academy
for Sciences; 50 th anniversary of the Romanian Scientists Association and 10
years of the existence of the Academy of Romanian Scientists.
During 1935-1948 the Romanian Academy of Sciences has developed a
valuable scientific activity (even though during July 1938 – November 1940 it
worked under the name of the Romanian Institute of Sciences), which was
concretized in 754 original scientific papers, published in 8 volumes of
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences de Roumanie:
Vol. I 1936-1937 6 issues 432 pages
Vol. II 1937-1938 6 issues 716 pages
Vol. III 1939 6 issues 716 pages
Vol. IV 1940 6 issues 446 pages
Vol. V 1941 6 issues 462 pages
Vol. VI 1942 6 issues 362 pages
Vol. VII 1943-1945 1 issue 392 pages
Vol. VIII 1945-1946 1 issue 186 pages
Copies of these volumes were obtained for the ARS’s Library.
The Board meeting from 7th of March has also decided that starting with
this celebrating year and based on the experience of the Washington Branch
of the ARS (who published 7 yearly volumes of the “Proceedings of the
Academy of Romanian Scientists”), to re-instate the practice of the
Romanian Academy for Sciences to publish on a yearly basis a volume of
scientific papers.
In this respect, we kindly asked each one of the 12 scientific sections of the
ARS to submit us 2-3 papers in the English and/or French languages,
amounting to a total of 30-35 pages for each section.
All received papers are published in the first volume of the new series of the
Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists.
We do hope this new series will assist us in making known the scientific work
of our Academy members.
The Editors

1. Introduction
Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 8
L‟ACADÉMIE DES SCIENTIFIQUES DE ROUMANIE
Vasile CÂNDEA 1 , Ştefan IANCU 2
L‘histoire du développement de la science, de la technique, de la culture modèle
l‘histoire générale de l‘humanité, le développement de la science étant conditionné
par l‘existence de certaines formes et moyens de transmission et d‘assimilation des
connaissances. L‘histoire du développement de la technique réfléchit l‘évolution de
l‘esprit créateur, épanoui pour répondre à certaines demandes vitales du système
économique. Sur la terre roumaine il y a beaucoup de preuves en date depuis plus
de deux millénaires, qui attestent que la population autochtone avait tant des
connaissances en médecine, en astronomie, en mathématiques, que des
connaissances techniques en constructions, dans l‘exploitation des mines, dans la
meunerie, etc. Platon, depuis plus de deux millénaires, a créé, à travers son école
philosophique Academia, le cadre favorable aux discussions entre les érudits de
l‘époque sur certains problèmes fondamentaux et surtout sur le droit aux débats
publiques. La Renaissance a libéré l‘esprit et a créé les conditions favorables à la
formation de nouvelles académies ou les savants et les lettrés de l‘époque se sont
groupés et a mis en évidence en quelle mesure s‘était imposée dans la société
respective l‘exigence de l‘organisation des sociétés scientifiques.
L‘espace roumain a lui aussi été saisi dans les procès de la spiritualité européenne,
fait significatif dans ce sens étant le désir éprouvé par Despot Voda, aventurier doué,
monté sur le trône de la Moldavie, de fonder tant un collège de rang académique à
Cotnari (Schola latina) qu‘une Académie des érudits à sa cour de Suceava, projets
non réalisés d‘ailleurs. Deux décennies plus tard, Petru Cercel, réunissant à sa
résidence de Târgoviste, aux côtés des hommes de culture roumains, les hommes
de culture italiens, français et grecs aussi, les débats desquels il présidait, a réussi à
passer à l‘organisation effective d‘une Académie.
Les Académies et les collèges organisés aux XVIe-XVIIIe siècles sur le territoire
roumain- dans le Pays Roumain, en Moldavie et en Transylvanie - ont été non
seulement des institutions d‘enseignement supérieur mais aussi des endroits de
débats, au niveau des sciences de l‘époque et, ainsi, les connaissances accumulées
ont été développées et appliquées en s‘obtenant des réalisations techniques
particulières, dans le domaine des constructions surtout (la voute moldave- sans égal
au monde- utilisée dans l‘architecture ecclésiastique des XVe-XVIIe siècles) ou bien
dans le domaine de la technique mécanique (moulins d‘eau à bras, qui utilisaient
,depuis des siècles, le principe moderne de la turbine Pelton, ou l‘aiguille en bois,
imaginée dans les années 1600 par les miniers des Monts Apuseni).
Après avoir visité, au milieu du XVIIe siècle, « les fondeurs » de cuivre de la Bain de
Cuivre, l‘archidiacre Pavel d‘Alep les a décrits avec admiration. Les plus anciens
« moulins de papier » apparaissent dans les pays roumains au XVI ème siècle, les
premières « verreries » produisent des objets de verre dans la Munténie au XVIIe
siècle, la production industrielle du fer est initiée par la construction des premiers
fourneaux (au charbon de bois) à Oravita (1718) et à Bocsa (1719) et dans la
1
Gen.(r), Prof. univ., Dr. Med., Dr. H.C., Membre titulaire, fondateur et Président de l‟Académie des
Scientifique de Roumanie.
2
Prof. univ., Dr. Ing., Membre titulaire, fondateur et Secrétaire Scientifique de l‟Académie des
Scientifique de Roumanie.

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 9
deuxième moitié du XVIII ème siècle apparaît une série d‘entreprises manufacturières
de drap à Chiperesti (1764), à Pociovalistea (1766) etc.
Au XIX ème siècle, en même temps que l‘intensification du mouvement général
d‘émancipation sociale et nationale, les pays roumains s‘engagent dans un courant
général de rénovation politique, économique et technico-scientifique. Le progrès
technique, partie intégrante de ce courant, est mis en évidence surtout par
l‘introduction de la machine aux vapeurs (Munténie et Transylvanie, 1838, Moldavie,
1841), la mise en place de la première fonderie à Bucarest (1844), l‘introduction du
laminage (1845), l‘intensification de l‘exploitation du bassin carbonifère de la Vallée
du Jiu, la construction des premiers grands fourneaux de grande capacité (1857-
1861) et l‘installation des premiers convertisseurs Bessemer (1868).
En 1857, dans les statistiques internationales les Pays Roumains sont présentés
comme les premiers et seuls au monde ayant eu une production industrielle de
pétrole (275 tonnes), obtenue à partir des 18 localités appartenant aux actuels
départements de Prahova, de Dâmboviţa, de Buzau et de Bacău. La même année,
1857, à Râfov, près Ploiești, a commencé à fonctionner la raffinerie Lumina, la
première raffinerie sur le territoire roumain et la troisième au monde. « Une usine à
gaz » pareille a commencé à fonctionner depuis 1858, en Moldavie aussi.
2. Les premières sociétés scientifiques roumaines
L‘unification des Principautés Roumaines (1859), l‘obtention de l‘indépendance
nationale (1877-1878) ont favorisé le progrès économique, ont accentué la nécessité
de la valorisation des richesses naturelles, en créant les conditions favorables à la
mobilisation du potentiel matériel et humain, et ont stimulé le progrès de la science et
de la technique nationales.
Ces objectifs ne pouvaient être réalisés que par l‘approfondissement de la recherche
scientifique systématique et par une spécialisation toujours plus avancée, fait qui
s‘est concrétisé dans la formation, dans la dernière partie du XIX ème siècle, des
premières écoles scientifiques roumaines.
Les institutions universitaires et académiques apparaissent: les universités de Iași
(1860) et de Bucarest (1864) et l‘Académie Roumaine (1866), qui, depuis 1879, à
part la section historique et philologique, a aussi une section scientifique. Sont
constituées des sociétés et des associations scientifiques puissantes, comme l‘Astra
(l‘Association de la Transylvanie pour la littérature roumaine et la culture du peuple
roumain- Sibiu,1861); Junimea (la Jeunesse) (Iași, 1863); la Société des sciences
naturelles (Bucarest,1864); la Société l‘Athénée Roumain (Bucarest,1865), qui avait
trois sections: a) sciences morales et politiques, b) sciences naturelles, physiques et
mathématiques et c) littérature et beaux art ; la Société royale roumaine de
géographie (1875), qui avait 5 sections: a) mathématiques et astronomie, b) sciences
physiques (c‘est-à-dire géographie physique, observations et recherches météorologiques
et climatologiques), c) sciences zoologiques, botaniques et minéralogiques,
d) ethnologie et e) archéologie; la Société polytechnique de Roumanie (1881)
reconnue par le décret royal du 25 janvier 1882 comme société d‘utilité publique, et
par la loi du 9 mars 1893 elle est devenue personne morale et juridique et autres.
Dans la période 2-5 juin 1902, à Iași, avec la participation des professeurs et des
conférenciers des Universités de Bucarest et de Iași, a lieu à Iași le congrès de
constitution de « l‘Association roumaine pour le progrès et la propagation des
sciences », association qui réunissait l‘activité de tous les roumains qui activaient
dans le domaine des sciences pures et appliquées et qui a organisé à Bucarest, au
mois de septembre 1903, le deuxième congrès et la première exposition scientifique
de notre pays.

10 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
3. Le milieu scientifique roumain ou l‟Académie des Sciences de Roumanie a
apparu
En affranchissant les énergies créatrices, l‘Union de 1918, ainsi que la politique de
l‘état roumain, ont permis, malgré certaines obstructions et frustrations, une solidarité
entre les provinces et une participation à la vie culturelle de tous les citoyens,
indifféremment d‘ethnie, de langue et de religion. L‘accélération du procès de
modernité du pays a eu pour effet la croissance du rôle de l‘enseignement, de la
science, de la culture et de l‘art.
La participation active de la Roumanie à la vie internationale, la libre circulation des
valeurs ont assuré la présence active des hommes de science roumains aux grands
congrès et conférences internationaux, à l‘obtention des brevets et à la traduction de
certains travaux dans des langues de circulation internationale, qui ont ainsi pu
entrer dans le patrimoine intellectuel de l‘Europe et du monde.
La jeune Grande Roumanie avait besoin de l‘apport de la science et de la technique,
mais les fonds nécessaires à la constitution d‘une base matérielle adéquate
(laboratoires, appareillage, bibliothèques, etc.) étaient pauvrement alloués vu que,
d‘une part, les moyens matériels disponibles étaient limités par les conséquences
néfastes de la guerre, et d‘autre part, une entente sur les besoins spécifiques de la
science ne s‘était pas encore formée.
Le grand chimiste Petru Poni dans ses « Mémoires » illustre de manière plastique la
situation générée par les difficultés existantes après 1918 devant la promotion de la
science: « Tout nous manquait. Pas de collections, pas d‘appareillage ou de matériel
le plus élémentaire d‘expérimentation, pas de livres ou de revues, d‘ou on pouvait
apprendre ce que les autres, plus favorisés que nous travaillent dans d‘autres
pays ».
L‘Académie Roumaine, par l‘activité de ses membres, mais aussi par l‘effet
catalyseur manifesté dans la vie scientifique roumaine, s‘est imposée comme le plus
grand forum national de confirmation scientifique et culturelle du pays. Le premier
juin 1920 l‘Académie Roumaine a approuvé la sollicitation de la Section scientifique
d‘adhérer au Comité International de Recherche de Bruxelles, et le 29 mai 1937 est
votée la formation du Conseil National pour la recherche « organe dirigeant et
consultatif de l‘état dans tous les problèmes ou le mot de la science pure ou
appliquée doit être suivi selon l‘exemple des institutions similaires des pays de
l‘Europe occidentale et transocéanique ».
Le 11 mars 1938 l‘Académie Roumaine a annoncé la création de la collection « La
monographie scientifique » en précisant que « chaque volume va former un tout,
fournissant les éléments de rédaction classique aux actuelles recherches, quatre
volumes au maximum étant prévus à paraître chaque année ».
Les Fondations Royales (« Le Prince Carol »-1921, « Le Roi Ferdinand I »-1925,
« La Fondation pour la Littérature et pour l‘Art Carol le II ème »-1933) ont contribué à
l‘essor de la culture, inclusivement à la propagation de la science. Des preuves sur
l‘implication des Fondations royales à la vie scientifique du pays sont la publication
de la « Revue des Fondations Royales »(1934-1938), qui a offert une perspective
diversifiée des plans de la culture représentés par: l‘économie, la sociologie, la
science et la linguistique, la philosophie et l‘esthétique, la musique et l‘histoire
littéraire et la constitution de la « Bibliothèque Encyclopédique », collection de
publications publiée par la « Fondation pour la Littérature et pour l‘Art Carol le II ème »,
qui a intentionné à mettre à la disposition de tous des connaissances et informations
de haute promotion de la science.

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 11
Le 11 mars 1935, sur l‘initiative de 26 hommes de science 1/, a été fondée « de
facto », l‘association scientifique l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie. La Ière
Section du Tribunal Ilfov, par la sentence no. 44/29 mars 1935 a donné cours à la
sollicitation de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie (ASR) et lui a accordée le 29
mars 1935 une personnalité juridique. La liste des membres de l‘Académie des
Scientifiques de Roumanie est présente dans l‘Annexe 1.
Comme suite de la fondation de l‘ASR, l‘Académie Roumaine a véhémentement
protesté. Le président de l‘Académie Roumaine, Ludovic Mrazec, signalait, le 29
mars, que tant la dénomination de l‘Académie des Sciences que le rôle de cette
association avait causé une confusion dans l‘Académie Roumaine. Plus
catégoriquement, le secrétaire général Lapedatu a remarqué que, par la titulature
adoptée, on préjudice un droit légal, on usurpe un patrimoine moral et on apporte de
graves et dommageables préjudices à notre institution, car l‘Académie Roumaine
détient un précieux patrimoine moral, qu‘elle devait et avait l‘obligation de garder
avec grand soin et défendre contre n‘importe qui puisse lui porter préjudice. A l‘appui
des deux, seuls « dix membres et six membres correspondants ont exprimé leur
proteste. ». Le 14 février 1936, a eu lieu une assemblée générale extraordinaire sur
le même problème, en s‘adressant des mémoires au Roi et au Gouvernement et, en
même temps, en se diffusant une brochure pour l‘information de l‘opinion publique.
Le 19 décembre 1936, la Ière Section de la Cour d‘Appel s‘est prononcée tant sur la
demande d‘intervention de l‘Académie Roumaine, déposée dans la séance du 24
juin 1935, que sur l‘appel fait par le Premier Procureur du Tribunal Ilfov contre la
sentence no.44/29 mars 1935 de la Ière Section du Tribunal Ilfov. Les principales
objections mises par l‘appel fait par le premier Procureur, ainsi que par la sollicitation
d‘intervention faite par l‘Académie Roumaine portaient sur le fait qu‘à la date de la
déposition de la sollicitation, « l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie » ne disposait
pas d‘un comité de direction, n‘avait pas un Statut et un Règlement de
fonctionnement et n‘avait pas un compte ouvert.
Considérant le fait que, le 20 janvier 1936, dans la séance plénière des membres
fondateurs de « l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie » et le 25 janvier 1936, dans
la séance de l‘Assemblée Générale de la même association, on a approuvé le Statut
et le Règlement de fonctionnement de cette Académie et que par l‘acte de
constitution du 11 mars 1935, on a élu « de facto » une direction de l‘Académie,
complétée ultérieurement, le 19 décembre 1936, la Ière Section de la Cour d‘Appel a
rejeté à base de manque de fond tant l‘appel fait par le Premier Procureur du
Tribunal Ilfov contre la sentence no.44/29 mars 1935 de la Ière Section du Tribunal
Ilfov, que la sollicitation d‘intervention faite par l‘Académie Roumaine dans la séance
du 24 juin 1935 et de cette manière la sentence no.44 de la Ière Section du Tribunal
Ilfov par laquelle on a accordé, le 29 mars 1935, la personnalité juridique à
« l‗Académie des Sciences de Roumanie » est restée définitive.
Dans l‘article de fond du Bulletin no.1 de l‘ASR, publié en 1936, on précise que ―le
rôle de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie n‘est pas tant de créer, mais surtout
d‘aider à la création scientifique, de l‘encourager, de la guider et de la coordonner.
Donc, son existence n‘exclue pas, mais, au contraire, implique l‘existence des
associations par spécialités. Egalement, sa coexistence avec l‘Académie Roumaine
ne constitue aucun obstacle pour quelqu‘une des deux institutions. La section
scientifique de l‘Académie Roumaine, formée d‘un nombre restreint de membres,
pourra continuer à l‘avenir son rôle de coordonner l‘activité scientifique avec celle qui
se déroule dans le domaine littéraire et historique, dans le cadre général des efforts
pour une culture nationale du peuple roumain‖.

12 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
Par le Décret-loi no. 2.418/7 juillet 1938, publié dans le Journal Officiel no.154/8
juillet 1938, on a défendu à l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie la dénomination
d‘Académie, considérée en tant que droit de monopole d‘une autre institution plus
ancienne. Comme suite, l‘Assemblée Générale de l‘Académie des Sciences de
Roumanie, le 24 septembre 1938, a décidé de changer le nom « d‘Académie des
Sciences de Roumanie » en « l‘Institut des Sciences de Roumanie ». La déclaration
concernant ce changement a été authentifiée par le tribunal Ilfov, section du notariat,
sous le numéro 34801/1 octobre 1938. Par le Journal no. 222/18.01.1939 a été jugé
le recours de l‘Académie Roumaine et on a constaté que l‘Académie des Sciences
de Roumanie a changé sa titulature en « l‘Institut des Sciences de Roumanie ».
Le 7 novembre 1940, le Journal Officiel no. 261, Ière Partie, a publié le Décret Loi
3714/6 novembre 1940, par lequel on a décidé que l‘Institut des Sciences de
Roumanie, personne juridique avec le siège à Bucarest, reprenne la dénomination
d‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie.
L‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie a déployé dans la période 1935-1948 une
activité scientifique de grande valeur (dans la période 8 juillet 1938-7 novembre
1940, sous la titulature de l‘Institut des Sciences de Roumanie, sans modifier le
contenu de l‘activité scientifique) et, dans la période 1936-1947, elle a publié 8
volumes de « Comptes rendus de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie », 754
communications scientifiques, originales, présentées dans les 10 sections (Vol. I,
1936-1937, 5 numéros avec 432 pages; Vol. II, 1937-1938, 6 numéros avec 716
pages; Vol.III, 1939, 6 numéros avec 716 pages; Vol. IV, 1940, 6 numéros avec 446
pages; Vol. V, 1941, 6 numéros avec 462 pages; Vol.VI, 1942, 6 numéros avec 362
pages; Vol.VII, 1943-1945, 1 numéro avec 392 pages; Vol. VIII, 1945-1946, un
numéro avec 186 pages).
Dans la période 1936-1946, l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie a aussi publié 14
numéros du « Bulletin de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie » (les numéros 1-9,
1936-1941; le numéro 10, 1942; les numéros 11-12, 1943; le numéro 13, 1944-1945;
le numéro 14, 1945-1946) ou sont publiés des rapports annuels à caractère
administratif, le sommaire des séances, ainsi que de courts résumés des
communications et des conférences non publiées dans les « Comptes rendus de
l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie ».
Par la Résolution no.432/9 avril 1947, le Conseil des Ministres décide « pour des
raisons supérieures d‘état » à supprimer la VII ème section « Génie militaire » de
l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie. En répondant à cette décision, le 29 avril
1947, l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie s‘adresse au Ministère de la Justice
par un mémoire qui informe sur l‘activité de la section VII « Génie militaire » et
sollicite la réévaluation de la situation créée à l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie
par la résolution du Conseil des Ministres no.432/9 avril 1947.
En vertu de l‘art.22 de la Loi no.11/14.01.1944, un sous-inspecteur général de
contrôle du Ministère de la Justice, a été autorisé à effectuer une vérification de
l‘activité économique et financière de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie, en tant
que personne juridique soumise à la surveillance et au contrôle. Comme résultat de
la dernière vérification effectuée dans la période 6 mai-1er juin 1948, le Sousinspecteur
Général a tiré la conclusion dans un procès verbal, signé le 1er juin 1948
et déposé au Ministère de la Justice, et le 24 juin 1948, déposé au Ministère de
l‘Enseignement Publique aussi, que, dans la période 1935-1947, l‘Académie des
Sciences de Roumanie, malgré les difficultés causées par l‘état de guerre et les
conséquences de cet état « a eu une activité fructueuse et assidue les 5 dernières
années » et, prenant en considération le passé et l‘activité de cette Académie

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 13
recommandait « la continuation des études et des recherches scientifiques non
seulement sur le plan théorique, mais pratique aussi, tout comme l‘Académie des
Sciences s‘était manifestée jusqu‘à présent ».
Par le Décret Présidentiel no.76 visant la transformation de l‘Académie Roumaine
dans l‘Académie de la République Populaire Roumaine, publié dans le Journal
Officiel no.132 bis/9 juin 1948, l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie a été intégrée
à l‘Académie de la République Populaire Roumaine, toutes ses valeurs mobiles et
immobiles étant englobées dans le patrimoine de la nouvelle Académie (Annexa 2).
Le dernier acte existent dans le dossier de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie,
se trouvant aux Archives Nationales, est la Décision no.1432/19 octobre 1956, par
laquelle le Tribunal Suprême de la RPR avait repoussé le recours de l‘Académie
Roumaine fait contre la Décision civile no.458/1936, déposé le 18 janvier 1939.
4. Le cadre sociopolitique et scientifique roumain dans lequel a pris naissance
l‟Association des Scientifiques de Roumanie
La proclamation de la République Populaire Roumaine, le 30 décembre 1947,la
nationalisation des principales entreprises industrielles, minières, bancaires,
d‘assurance et de transport, le 11 juin 1948, la réforme de l‘enseignement de tous
degrés, ont mis les bases des transformations profondes dans la structure
économique, sociale et politique dans notre pays.
Comme suite à la transformation de l‘Académie Roumaine dans l‘Académie de la
République Populaire Roumaine en 1948, dans la période 1949-1968, les sociétés et
les associations scientifiques du corps enseignant, des médecins, des ingénieurs
,des architectes ont adopté de nouveaux statuts d‘organisation et de fonctionnement.
Par l‘article 7 de la Résolution CC du Parti des Ouvriers Roumains et du Conseil des
Ministres de 1951, le Ministère de l‘Instruction Publique recevait la responsabilité ―de
prendre les mesures nécessaires pour le renforcement des sociétés scientifiques‖.
Entre les années 1952-1972, l‘activité des sociétés et des associations scientifiques
a été subventionnée à partir des fonds du Ministère de l‘Enseignement, et depuis
1974, conformément aux stipulations HCM no.425/15 mai 1973, les sociétés et les
associations scientifiques ont pris des mesures d‘autofinancement de l‘activité
provenu des ressources propres, obtenues de l‘encaissement des cotisations et des
bénéfices réalisés par la vente des publications.
Prenant comme point de départ la réalité créée par l‘intégration de l‘Académie des
Sciences de Roumanie dans l‘Académie de la République Populaire Roumaine et
tenant compte du fait que dans les pays développés des points de vue scientifique et
industriel, l‘existence de plusieurs académies ou sociétés scientifiques des hommes
de science soit considérée naturelle et normale dans un état, le président de
l‘Académie Roumaine de l‘époque, l‘académicien Traian Savulescu, le 23 mars
1956, a organisé une séance de constitution de l‘Association des Scientifiques de
Roumanie [AOS].
L‘Association des Scientifiques de Roumanie a été constituée comme personne
juridique par HCM no.1012/30 mai 1956, ayant pour but l‘appui de la coordination du
travail scientifique sur le plan national et la représentation de cette recherche sur le
plan international et était formée des membres collectifs – organisations à caractère
scientifique – et des membres individuels – des hommes de science de mérite (pas
de l‘entière masse des chercheurs), qui ont adhéré au statut de l‘association.
L‘organe suprême de direction de l‘AOS était l‘assemblée générale des délégués à
droit de vote, et l‘organe de direction dans l‘intervalle entre les assemblées générales
était le comité de direction.

14 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
Après la séance de constitution a été élu le comité de direction de l‘AOS formé de
l‘académicien Traian Savulescu, président, des académiciens Stefan Balan et Mihail
Ralea, vice-présidents et des académiciens Gheorghe Macovei, Grigore Moisil,
Gheorghe Murgeanu et Constantin Budeanu, membres.
L‘Association des Scientifiques de Roumanie a eu comme premier objectif de
l‘activité la représentation des hommes de science, de tous les chercheurs
scientifiques roumains dans toutes les organisations internationales non
gouvernementales (l‘UNESCO, le mouvement Pugwash, la Fédération Mondiale des
Scientifiques, etc.).
En 1968, dans la fonction de président a été élu l‘académicien Athanasie Joja (1968-
1973), et depuis 1973 jusqu‘au décembre 1994, le président de l‘AOS a été
l‘académicien Nicolae Teodorescu.
Dans les années 80‘ du XX ème siècle, sous la directive du Parti Communiste
Roumain, l‘AOS a aspiré à acquérir un caractère de masse, pareil à un syndicat des
chercheurs. L‘Association des Scientifiques de Roumanie a organisé des
conférences, des débats, des expositions, des visites de documentation dans le pays
et à l‘extérieur et a participé à travers ses membres collectifs ou individuels aux
manifestations scientifiques internes et internationales. Par la manière dont l‘AOS a
accompli cet objectif par la participation aux actions visant la vie scientifique et les
relations de la science avec la société contemporaine déroulées par ces
organisations internationales, la Roumanie a été appréciée pour la valeur des
délégations et les contributions de celles ci.
5. L‟Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie
En accord avec les nouvelles conditions politico-économiques et socioculturelles
d‘après 1989, l‘Association des Scientifiques de Roumanie a profondément
réorganisé son activité, et après l‘assemblée générale d‘octobre 1990, la direction de
l‘AOS a commencé un minutieux et constant travail de reconstitution, une nouvelle
organisation des objectifs scientifiques d‘intérêt général avec lesquels elle se
confrontait.
A l‘occasion de l‘assemblée générale du 9 décembre 1994, l‘académicien Nicolae
Teodorescu est devenu président d‘honneur et président de l‘AOS a été élu G-ral
Prof. Univ. Dr. Vasile Cândea, membre titulaire de l‘Académie des Sciences
Médicales. A l‘avenir, l‘activité propre de l‘AOS a connu de nouvelles valeurs dans la
lignée tracée après 1989.
Au premier congrès de l‘AOS de mai 1996, organisé à l‘occasion du 40 ème
anniversaire depuis la fondation de l‘Association des Scientifiques de Roumanie,
avec le sujet ―La science à la fin du millénaire‖, le G-ral Prof. Univ. Dr. Vasile Cândea
a proposé la reprise de la titulature de l‘institution des années 1935-1948
d‘ACADÉMIE, avec le maintien de certains éléments de la dénomination de
l‘association et ainsi le titre est devenu ―L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie‖,
nommée par le titre abrégé ASR. Par la décision judiciaire du 3 octobre 1996,
adoptée par le tribunal civil du secteur 1, Bucarest (Dossier 231/P.J./1996), cette
modification est restée définitive. Ce n‘était pas un simple changement de titulature,
mais on a poursuivi en même temps tant un changement d‘attitude scientifique,
vraiment souhaité ACADÉMIQUE, qu‘un changement des critères scientifiques
d‘élection des membres de l‘ASR. A partir de l‘année 1996, on a agi dans ce sens et
la déposition, cette année, du projet de la loi de réorganisation de l‘Académie des
Scientifiques de Roumanie, a imposé aux membres de l‘ASR qu‘ils se manifestent en
véritables hommes de science.

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 15
L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie est le successeur et l‘unique légataire de
l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie (1936-1948) et de l‘Association des
Scientifiques de Roumanie, fondée par HCM no.1012/30 mai 1956 et qui, en 1996, a
changé sa titulature de l‘Association des Scientifiques de Roumanie en l‘Académie
des Scientifiques de Roumanie (décision judiciaire du 3 octobre 1996, adoptée par le
tribunal du secteur 1, Bucarest, Dossier 231/P.J./1996).
A présent, l‘ASR est formée de 197 membres titulaires, 83 membres correspondants
et 35 membres d‘honneur du pays, ainsi que de 8 membres associés et 5 membres
collectifs. Parmi les membres titulaires et correspondants 15 sont aussi membres de
l‘Académie Roumaine, et 14 membres de l‘Académie des Sciences Techniques, 12
membres de l‘Académie des Sciences Médicales et 18 membres de l‘Académie des
Sciences Agricoles et Sylviques. Egalement, parmi les membres de l‘ASR se
trouvent 43 personnalités scientifiques en tant que membres d‘honneur des Etats
Unis d‘Amérique, du Canada, de la France, de l‘Allemagne, de l‘Autriche, de la
Suisse, de l‘Italie, du Luxembourg, de la Hongrie, de la Bulgarie, de la Chine, de
l‘Afrique du Sud, de l‘Australie, etc. dont 10 sont des hommes de science roumains
établis à l‘étranger comme Prof. Dr. Emil Palade, lauréat du prix Nobel, Prof. Dr.
Anghel Rugina, Prof. Irinel Dagan-USA, Prof. Ilie Gilbert-le Brésil et autres (Annexa
2).
6. Objectifs et réalisations de l‟Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie
A. L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie a pour principaux objectifs de l‘activité
déployée:
a. la participation au développement de la science;
b. la promotion sur le plan national des recherches interdisciplinaires dans les
sciences naturelles, économiques, de l‘ingénierie et appliquées, dans les
disciplines médicales, humanistes, etc.;
c. la participation à l‘activité des organisations scientifiques internationales, les
objectifs desquelles coïncident avec ceux de l‘ASR, inclusivement avec ceux liés à
l‘UNESCO;
d. la promotion des contacts internationaux par la réalisation des contacts avec
des organismes similaires de l‘étranger, avec les hommes de science roumains qui
vivent à l‘extérieur du pays et étranges et par l‘invitation de certains spécialistes de
l‘étranger en Roumanie;
e. l‘assurance d‘un cadre adéquat à la rencontre entre les hommes de science
des différents domaines, en contribuant ainsi – par une information directe – à la
formation d‘équipes interdisciplinaires pour solutionner des thèmes complexes;
f. la stimulation des contacts entre les spécialistes des différents domaines afin
de consolider le caractère interdisciplinaire de la communauté intellectuelle;
g. la promotion des résultats du travail de la recherche et de l‘expérience des
membres de l‘ASR dans le pays et hors du pays;
h. l‘initiation et la réalisation de collaborations, d‘échanges d‘informations, etc.
avec des institutions académiques, de recherche, d‘enseignement ou avec des
unions de création du pays et de l‘étranger, afin d‘assurer l‘échange d‘information
dans les domaines de la vie scientifique nationale et internationale;
i. l‘appui des institutions, des unités économiques, des organisations sociales,
dans des conditions à base de contrat, dans la solution des problèmes de
recherche scientifique, d‘expertise, de pro gnose, de consultance, revues, etc.

16 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
j. la promotion des jeunes chercheurs en appuyant la participation de ceux ci aux
manifestations à caractère scientifique dans le pays et à l‘étranger et par l‘appui
accordé à l‘obtention des bourses d‘études, etc.
k. l‘initiation et la réalisation de collaborations, de voyages d‘études, etc., avec
des institutions de recherche, d‘enseignement ou avec des unions de création
scientifique afin d‘assurer l‘échange d‘information dans les domaines de la vie
scientifique nationale et internationale;
l. l‘assurance d‘un flux informationnel continu, autant que possible, entre les
spécialistes d‘origine roumaine de l‘étranger et les personnalités scientifiques du
pays.
Dans l‘accomplissement de ses objectifs et attributions, l‘ASR reconnaît l‘Académie
Roumaine comme le plus haut forum national de confirmation scientifique et
culturelle et collabore avec les ministères compétents, les académies de profil, les
institutions et les organisations scientifiques et académiques, de recherche et
d‘enseignement du pays et de l‘étranger.
B. Afin d‘accomplir les objectifs de son activité, l‘ASR:
a. peut fonder des filiales, dans le pays et à l‘étranger, des sections par
spécialités, des départements, des comités nationaux, des commissions et des
groupes de travail, ainsi que des instituts et des centres de recherche scientifique
pluri et interdisciplinaire;
b. recommande aux institutions d‘enseignement supérieur du pays des
personnalités scientifiques roumaines ou étrangères du pays ou de l‘étranger, des
membres titulaires ou d‘honneur de l‘ASR pour le décernement du titre DOCTOR
HONORIS CAUSA;
c. recommande les membres de l‘ASR en vue de l‘obtention de titres
scientifiques, d‘ordres et/ou médailles, et les membres titulaires de l‘ASR peuvent
être recommandés pour qu‘ils deviennent des membres correspondants de
l‘Académie Roumaine aussi;
d. réalise à base contractuelle, par ses structures spécialisées, des travaux de
recherche scientifique, participe aux programmes de recherche scientifique
gouvernementaux ou non gouvernementaux, ainsi qu‘aux programmes
internationaux de recherche, rédige des œuvres dérivées (traductions, recueils
d‘œuvres scientifiques, encyclopédies, collections ou compilations des matériaux,
synthèses bibliographies), revues et bibliographies;
e. participe, par ses représentants, à la rédaction des projets d‘actes législatifs
concernant l‘organisation et le déroulement des activités d‘enseignement et de
recherche scientifique;
f. stimule la réalisation de certains travaux scientifiques de mérite, à caractère
interdisciplinaire, par l‘accord des prix annuels, respectivement la gratification sous
une forme ou autre, inclusivement matérielle, de l‘activité scientifique ;
g. publie un Bulletin informatif périodique, ainsi que d‘autres publications liées à
ses objectifs;
h. réalise des échanges de publications avec les organisations similaires du pays
et de l‘étranger;
i. organise des congrès, symposiums, conférences, sessions scientifiques, séminaires,
colloques et tables rondes avec participation locale, nationale et internationale;

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 17
j. organise, de manière permanente ou temporaire, des cours et/ou des
séminaires sur des sujets divers;
k. fonde, dans le cadre du siège central ou dans les filiales, des bibliothèques et
des centres de documentation;
l. organise une maison d‘édition propre pour la publication des travaux
scientifiques élaborés par ses membres, ainsi que par d‘autres personnalités
scientifiques;
m. promeut par la media les activités scientifiques organisées dans le pays et à
l‘étranger;
n. accorde à certaines personnalités scientifiques du pays et de l‘étranger, pour
des réalisations d‘exception, des titres scientifiques, des prix, des diplômes, des
distinctions.
C. Jusqu‘à présent l‘activité de l‘ASR s‘est concrétisée par:
a. L‘organisation de manifestations scientifiques:
Dans son entière existence de 50 années (initialement sous la dénomination de
l‘Association des Scientifiques) et dans les 10 dernières années surtout, l‘Académie
des Scientifiques de Roumanie a organisé de nombreuses manifestations
scientifiques de prestige: congrès, conférences, symposiums, expositions,
séminaires, tables rondes, débats, etc. Ces manifestations ont joui de l‘attention de
la communauté des hommes de science de la Roumanie et des principaux pays
développés et ont contribué à la hausse du prestige de notre pays dans le monde
ayant été consacrées aux débats de certains problèmes scientifiques de grande
actualité, conduisant nombre de fois à la découverte de solutions au développement
de la science et de l‘enseignement supérieur avec impact positif sur différentes
branches et sous-branches de l‘économie.
Les propositions concrètes qui en résultaient ont été évaluées par les facteurs de
décision au niveau central et local dans la prise des décisions importantes pour le
développement du pays. Par conséquent, les manifestations scientifiques organisées
par l‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie ont eu un impact apprécié sur le
développement économique, scientifique et culturel de la Roumanie, à travers les
résultats promus et valorisés, inclusivement par l‘inauguration ou le développement
de nouvelles directions de la recherche, par l‘établissement de nouvelles
collaborations avec les hommes de science des autres pays.
L‘ASR est impliquée dans la société civile par les congrès, les sessions scientifiques
biannuelles, les symposiums organisés par les organes centraux ou dans le cadre
des filiales, qui mettent en discussion des thèmes avec applicabilité pratique dans la
société roumaine, en collaboration avec les facteurs décisionnels de la Roumanie,
qui appuissent au développement durable dans notre pays. Cette communauté
scientifique roumaine désire surmonter l‘état présent et devenir une force stimulatrice
dans l‘élaboration des projets d‘utilité maximale, modernité et efficience, qui offre de
nombreuses propositions et solutions aux facteurs de décision.
Outre les manifestations avec participation nationale et internationale, chaque filiale
et section de l‘ASR organise, en conformité avec le plan propre d‘activités, des
symposiums et sessions de communications scientifiques dans le domaine
spécifique d‘activité.

18 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
En même temps, la filiale de New York organise chaque année un symposium, dont
les travaux sont publiés sous le titre ―Proceedings of the Symposium‖ dans les
langues roumaine et anglaise.
Depuis 1996, l‘ASR a organisé les suivants congrès scientifiques avec participation
internationale:
• A l‘occasion du 40 ème anniversaire de la fondation, l‘Association des Scientifiques
de Roumanie a organisé, sous le haut patronage du Président de la Roumanie, dans
la période 22-24 mai 1996, au siège du Parlement LE PREMIER CONGRES
SCIENTIFIQUE, avec le thème ―La science à la fin du millénaire‖, avec les 5
suivantes sections:
- Ière Section: Les hommes de science et la société informationnelle - 17
communications
- II ème Section: La Science et les sociétés en transition - 23 communications;
- III ème Section: La Science, la démocratie et l‘initiative libre - 12 communications;
- IV ème Section: L‘invention roumaine dans le monde - 16 communications;
- V ème Section: La science à la fin du millénaire - 20 communications.
Au premier congrès scientifique de l‘ASR ont participé des hommes de science de 14
pays et y ont été présentées 4 communications plénières et 88 communications dans
les sections.
A ce congrès, à la proposition du président de l‘ASR, G-ral Prof. Univ. Dr. Vasile
Cândea, on a décidé sur la reprise de la titulature de l‘institution des années 1935-
1948 d‘Académie, en gardant certains éléments de la dénomination de l‘association
et de cette manière le titre est devenu ―L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie‖,
ayant comme titre abrégé ASR.
Le volume des travaux du Premier Congrès de l‘ASR a été publié sous la rédaction
de monsieur le président de l‘ASR, G-ral (r) Prof. univ. Dr. Med. Vasile Cândea,
grâce à la sponsorisation faite par monsieur Iosif Constantin Dragan et la Fondation
Européenne Dragan.
• Dans la période 27-29 septembre 1998, on a organisé, sous le haut patronage du
Président de la Roumanie, au Cercle Militaire National, Le II- ème CONGRES
SCIENTIFIQUE avec le thème ―Le développement au début du IIIe millénaire‖ avec
les 5 suivantes sections:
- 1ère Section: Le développement économique- 24 communications;
- 2 ème Section: Le développement local et régional- 18 communications;
- 3 ème Section: Le développement social – 24 communications;
- 4 ème Section: Le développement durable – 18 communications;
- 5 ème Section: Le développement rural- 12 communications;
Au II ème congrès scientifique de l‘ASR ont participé 120 personnes et y ont été
présentées 4 communications plénières et 96 communications dans les sections.
Le volume des travaux du II ème Congrès de l‘ASR a été publié sous la rédaction de
monsieur le président de l‘ASR, G-ral (r) Prof. Univ. Dr .Vasile Cândea, grâce à la
sponsorisation faite par monsieur Iosif Constantin Dragan et la Fondation
Européenne Dragan. A la rédaction du volume a aussi participé monsieur le colonel
(r), docteur en histoire Cristache Gheorghe, membre titulaire de l‘ASR.
• Dans la période 2-4 juin 2004, a été organisé, à l‘Université ―Ovidius‖ de
Constantza, avec la participation de 24 institutions roumaines et sous le haut
patronage du Président de la Roumanie, le III ème CONGRES SCIENTIFIQUE, avec le
thème « L‘eau - un miracle » avec les 4 suivantes sections:

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 19
- 1 ère section: L‟eau douce, ressource épuisable - 26 communications;
- 2 ème section: Technologies de valorisation et la dépollution de l‟eau - 20
communications;
- 3 ème section: La mémoire de l‟eau – 22 communications;
- 4 ème section: Les eaux marines - sources potentielles du développement durable
- 10 communications;
Au IIIème congrès scientifique de l‘ASR ont été présentées 78 communications dans
les sections, ainsi qu‘une communication d‘exception de monsieur le professeur univ.
dr. Gh. Benga « Une priorité mondiale de la science roumaine: depuis la découverte
de la première protéine – canal pour l‘eau (ultérieurement nommée Aquaporine 1) à
Cluj-Napoca, en 1985 au Prix Nobel pour 2003 dans la chimie et les implications
médicales des Aquaporines ».
Le volume des travaux du III ème Congrès de l‘ASR a été publié sous la rédaction de:
monsieur le président de l‘ASR, G-ral (r) prof. univ. dr. Vasile Cândea, prof. univ. dr.
Marioara Godeanu et prof. univ. dr. doc. ing. Iosif Tripsa, grâce à la sponsorisation
faite par madame le Dr. Daniela Veronica Gusa de Dragan, monsieur Iosif
Constantin Dragan et la Fondation Européenne Dragan.
L‘ASR, conséquente à sa mission en tant que forum scientifique de haute
appartenance de la société civile, se basant sur la qualité de ses membres et leur
activité scientifique dans la communauté scientifique roumaine, s‘est imposée par
l‘initiative, le sérieux et les efforts, offrant l‘occasion à ceux connus et reconnus par
ce qu‘ils connaissent et font, d‘être producteurs de science, non seulement des
consommateurs de science produite par les autres, poursuivant à offrir à la société
roumaine et à l‘état de droit des études impartiales et compétentes sur des
problèmes d‘intérêt national et international.
Sous l‘égide de l‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie, au mois de mai 2006, à
l‘Université Polytechnique de Bucarest, on a constitué le Centre pour le
Développement de la Créativité, ayant comme objectif principal la dissémination
parmi les étudiants du Centre Universitaire de Bucarest, tant des techniques de
stimulation du procès de création et des prévoyances légales de protection des droits
de propriété intellectuelle, que du management de la stimulation de la valorisation de
la création intellectuelle.
Dans la première décade du mois de septembre 2006, à Slatioara, Département de
Valcea, la Fondation pour la Civilisation Rurale ―Niste Tarani‖ a organisé, sous
l‘égide du Conseil de l‘Europe, de l‘ASR et de la Commission Nationale UNESCO
pour la Roumanie, le Symposium International ―Les Associations locales et
l‘architecture rurale au début du III ème millénaire.
L‘ASR a initié l‘organisation de certaines actions nationales comme: ―Le
développement durable, exigence de première dimension du monde contemporain‖,
―Les avantages stratégiques de la technologie informationnelle et le transfert de
technologies dans l‘économie roumaine‖, ―La compétitivité de la production
industrielle et les perspectives de l‘intégration de la Roumanie aux structures de
l‘Union Européenne‖, ―Air pur dans toutes les villes de la Roumanie‖ etc., avec le
désir de contribuer ainsi à la mobilisation de l‘entière société civile et de
l‘administration centrale et locale aux activités concrètes qui assurent dans un avenir
prochain le développement durable, l‘intégration européenne, un milieu écologique,
l‘utilisation des carburants alternatifs, pouvant ouvrir le chemin vers l‘obtention de
l‘autonomie énergétique du pays.

20 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
b. Solution des programmes de recherche scientifique
En bénéficiant d‘un bon potentiel scientifique et d‘une compétence professionnelle de
valeur des membres titulaires et correspondants, l‘ASR a assumé en son propre nom
- étant reconnue comme partenaire croyable dans l‘abord et la solution des
programmes de recherche scientifique par le Ministère de l‘Education et la
Recherche- la réalisation des thèmes de grand intérêt et d‘importance nationale.
De cette manière, les dernières années, l‘ASR a participé aux compétitions
organisées par le Ministère de l‘Education et la Recherche, par les institutions
spécialisées et a réussi de promouvoir des thèmes interdisciplinaires et
multidisciplinaires, financés du budget d‘état, notamment:
La réalisation aux bons résultats de ces programmes de recherche conduits- en tant
que directeurs de programme- par les spécialistes du Comité Directeur de l‘ASR, à
part la reconnaissance du potentiel de recherche de l‘Académie, a aussi permis
l‘accumulation des fonds affectés au financement des activités courantes.
Tant au développement et à la réalisation des programmes de recherche, que pour
le développement des activités scientifiques spécifiques de l‘ASR (SYMPOSIUMS,
ATELIERS, SESSIONS SCIENTIFIQUES, CONGRÈS), l‘Académie a collaboré avec
des institutions de recherche et d‘enseignement, des sociétés académiques et
entreprises de l‘économie, etc., parmi lesquelles nous mentionnons:
• l‘Institut de Géodynamique ―Sabba Stefanescu‖
• l‘Université de Bucarest
• S.C.ROMARM S.A. Le programme de recherche RELANSIN, sous-programme
Défense
• AMCSIT Polytechnique, 1434/31.04.2001
• l‘Académie des Sciences techniques
• l‘Académie des Sciences Agricoles et Médecine Vétérinaire
• l‘Université ―Titu Maiorescu‖
• l‘Association Générale des Ingénieurs de Roumanie
• l‘Académie d‘Etudes Militaires Supérieures
• l‘Académie Navale ―Mircea cel Batrân‖
• l‘Université ―Ovidius‖ de Constanța
• l‘Institut d‘Ecologie Appliquée, Bucarest
• l‘Univesrité ―Valahia‖ de Târgoviște
• CHIMINFORM DATA S.A.
• La Base de Recherches aux Utilisateurs Multiples dans la cadre de l‘Université
―1 Decembrie 1918‖ d‘Alba Iulia
• l‘Association ECOFOREST, sous l‘égide de la Filiale ASR de Neamț
• la Société Nationale de Biologie Cellulaire- Filiale de Iași
• S.C. ROMARM S.A. de Bucarest
et autres.
c. L‘attribution de distinctions ASR

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 21
A partir de l‘année 1996, l‘ASR a annuellement accordé (dans le IV ème trimestre pour
l‘année antérieure) des titres scientifiques, des prix, des diplômes et des distinctions
à certaines personnalités scientifiques du pays et de l‘étranger pour des réalisations
exceptionnelles.
7. Les critères du développement de la recherche-développement et de
l‟innovation sur le plan international
Actuellement, une nouvelle économie est ,de manière évidente, en cours
d‘apparition, une économie basée sur des connaissances et des idées, une
économie de la connaissance, ou le facteur-clef de la prospérité et de la création des
places de travail est formé du degré d‘implémentation des nouveaux concepts, des
idées de l‘innovation et de la technologie dans tous les secteurs de l‘économie et la
protection du milieu environnant en égale mesure.
La nouvelle économie, basée sur la connaissance, qui va se réaliser dans la future
Société de la Connaissance, englobe les objectifs du développement durable, basés
sur la justice sociale et l‘égalité des chances, la protection écologique, la liberté, la
diversité culturelle et le développement de l‘innovation, la restructuration de
l‘industrie et du milieu des affaires, en représentant une nouvelle étape de la
civilisation humaine permettant l‘accès large à l‘information, un nouveau mode de
travail et de connaissance, qui amplifie la possibilité de la globalité économique et la
croissance de la cohésion sociale.
Entre les Etats Unis d‘Amérique, l‘Europe et le Japon il y a dans le domaine de la
recherche-développement et de l‘innovation (C&D&I) aussi une compétition en plein
déroulement.
Dans le contexte de l‘Union Européenne, le caractère international de l‘activité de
C&D&I s‘est accentué après 1990, fait qui a stimulé l‘activité des compagnies
multinationales. Les déséquilibres régionaux et l‘incapacité de générer le nouveau
dans certains pays de l‘Europe Centrale et de l‘Est mettent leur empreinte sur les
procès de globalité et d‘intégration européenne.
Une analyse comparée de la situation existante dans l‘Union Européenne, les Etats
Unis d‘Amérique et le Japon, souligne que l‘accent réduit des entités dépourvues de
C&D&I dans l‘effort général de financement de la recherche-innovation dans l‘UE se
réfléchit de manière négative sur le potentiel d‘innovation de celle ci. La Commission
Européenne a estimé que l‘effort de l‘UE représente 60% seulement par rapport au
niveau de celui des USA.
Dans la politique de l‘UE de développement de C&D&I l‘appui publique de la
recherche et de l‘innovation reste encore l‘un des piliers importants et, pour cela, on
met un accent particulier sur le perfectionnement des liaisons entre l‘industrie et la
recherche publique, déployée dans les instituts de recherche et les universités.
Les modifications majeures survenues dans le Programme Cadre FP6 (2002-2006)
se sont concrétisées dans une concentration des efforts et dans la constitution d‘une
masse critique de C&D&I, tout comme dans une collaboration plus marquée entre
différents participants, collaboration due à faciliter l‘intégration de la recherche, de
l‘industrie et du travail à l‘entreprise, en tant que facteurs déterminants du procès
d‘innovation.
En ce qui concerne les directions pour FP7 on a indiqué la nécessité du
perfectionnement de l‘infrastructure de recherche-innovation, de la coordination des
politiques et des programmes de recherche régionaux et nationaux, de la constitution
de réseaux de recherche. Comme nouveauté, on a montré que dans le FP7, sera

22 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
possible, pour la première fois, la formation d‘un partenariat publique privé, et
l‘admission à la recherche fondamentale des équipes individuelles de recherche.
L‘Union Européenne accorde une attention particulière au développement et à la
monitorisation du Procès C&D&I. Dès la réunion spéciale des 23,24 mars 2000 de
Lisbonne, les premiers ministres et les chefs d‘état de l'UE ont élaboré et approuvé la
stratégie européenne de C&D&I et ont décidé d'inclure la recherche et l'innovation
dans leurs préoccupations, en mettant l‘accent sur la création de la société de la
connaissance et de l‘économie fondée sur la connaissance, et le Conseil de l‘Europe
de Barcelone, de 2002, a approuvé, ensemble avec les gouvernements européens,
la décision de faire croître les dépenses totales pour C&D&I de 1,9% du PIB, en
1990, à 3% du PIB, en 2010, dont 2/3 vont résulter du secteur privé.
Les conclusions du Conseil Européen extraordinaire de Lisbonne a attiré l‘attention
sur la nécessité de déduire de l‘effort de la recherche un maximum de bénéfice pour
l‘innovation, aux niveaux national et communautaire et de créer un milieu favorable
au commencement et au développement des affaires innovatrices.
L‘atteinte de la cote de 3% du PIB en 2010 va assurer à l‘industrie et aux services
européens une croissance de la compétition sur le plan international, ainsi qu‘une
croissance du pouvoir d‘attraction, sur le plan global, des capitaux étrangers et du
personnel de la recherche.
L‘importance de C&D&I en tant que pierre angulaire en matière d‘augmentation de la
compétition en Europe a été soulignée dans le rapport de la Commission
Européenne, intitulé ―La politique industrielle dans une Europe élargie‖, qui a aussi
inclus ―Le livre de Bord de l‘Innovation Européenne‖, dans la quatrième édition, qui
présente les indices et les tendances concernant l‘innovation au niveau de l‘année
2003 des 15 pays membres de l‘UE, 10 pays en cours d‘adhésion et 3 pays qui ont
posé leurs candidatures, ainsi que du Japon et des Etats Unis d‘Amérique.
La coordination européenne va faciliter le déroulement optimal du procès
d‘enseignement de la meilleure pratique des états membres, dans leurs actions de
faire monter l‘investissement et l‘efficience dans le domaine de la recherche.
Egalement, elle va appuyer les actions effectives des états membres, en améliorant
la cohérence des actions réalisées par un état par rapport aux autres états et la
solidité des mesures adoptées par ceux ci par rapport aux actions prises au niveau
communautaire.
Les formes de collaboration européenne avec les mécanismes d‘initiation et de
développement des partenariats publiques-privés, ou s‘impliquent l‘industrie, la
recherche publique, les autorités, les institutions financières et les utilisateurs,
constituent des plateformes technologiques européennes, qui vont impulsionner
l‘effort de recherche et d‘innovation et vont faciliter l‘apparition et le développement
des marchés dominants en Europe.
8. L‟évaluation de la recherche, du développement et de l‟innovation en
Roumanie
Dans la perspective de l‘intégration européenne, dans notre pays, il s‘impose que la
compétition des unités économiques par l‘innovation s‘intensifie, ce qui suppose la
croissance de l‘efficience, de l‘utilité et de l‘application des résultats de l‘activité de
C&D&I. En Roumanie, C&D&I a été la première victime de la transition et la plus
affligée: la production a brusquement baissé, les investissements ont baissé plus
rapidement que la production et les dépenses pour C&D&I ont baissé plus rapide
encore que les investissements. Dans la Constitution de la Roumanie il n‘y a aucune
mention se référant à la science et à la recherche, dans les conditions ou la

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 23
constitution de l‘Union Européenne, signée en 2004, à Rome et soumise ensuite à la
ratification des 25 états de l‘UE, il y a une section concernant la recherche et le
développement technologique.
Le facteur politique de notre pays, qui aurait du jouir un rôle intégrant, celui ci étant
une de ses missions, a été ancré culturellement dans le développement unilatéral de
la culture humaniste aux conséquences néfastes sur la promotion de la science, du
savoir et du professionnalisme, fait pour lequel se manifeste aussi la diminution de la
valeur de la contribution de la science roumaine tant au développement de l‘industrie
qu‘au volume des publications scientifiques à l‘échelle mondiale. Bien
qu‘antérieurement la recherche scientifique roumaine ait été compétitionnelle, en
spécial, dans les domaines théoriques, ou l‘évaluation des résultats est faite par
seule la publication, actuellement, cette compétition elle aussi est toujours en
diminution. Si l‘on considère le nombre de travaux/ un million d‘habitants, publiés
dans des revues scientifiques sur le plan international, deux ans seulement avant
l‘adhésion de notre pays à l‘Union Européenne, la Roumanie occupe la plus basse
position dans l‘espace de l‘UE.
Parmi les données de la prestigieuse institution Thomson ISI (l‘Institut de
l‘Information Scientifique), qui publie un Indice de Citation Scientifique, il en résulte
que la Roumanie, en 2004, s‘est située sur la place 66 des 150 pays, ayant
seulement 771,57 travaux publiés sur le plan international dans les revues
scientifiques pour un million d‘habitants. A retenir que les mêmes données, pour
l‘année 1995, situaient la Roumanie sur la 44 ème place parmi le même nombre de 150
pays.
De manière comparée, la Hongrie, la République Chèque, la Pologne et la Bulgarie
occupaient en 2004 les positions 31, 32, 41 et 44 respectivement. Sur les premières
places au monde en 2004, au nombre de travaux scientifiques publiés rapporté au
nombre de la population, se sont situés l‘Ecosse, la Suisse, la Suède et l‘Israël qui
ont eu 32.200, 18.857, 17.207 et respectivement 15.910 travaux publiés sur le plan
international dans des revues scientifiques pour un million d‘habitants.
La recherche roumaine orientée et appliquée, qui donne naissance à la richesse, se
fait affirmer plus difficilement dans notre pays, car le marché interne n‘absorbe pas
les résultats de la recherche.
La non implémentation des créations roumaines dans l‘économie indigène peut être
produite tant par les actuelles clauses juridiques à caractère général portant sur les
droits de valorisation des biens intangibles créés, que par le fait que parmi les
créateurs, les chercheurs, les ingénieurs, ne s‘est pas encore formé un courant
d‘opinion de négociateur.
Une autre cause est qu‘en Roumanie l‘activité de recherche-développement est
presque exclusivement jugée par le prisme de l‘offre de C&D&I, des partenariats
prépondérants entre des sociétés privées et des unités de recherche pour le
développement des thèmes de recherche commandés par les premières à base de
contrat ne se sont pas encore développés.
Dans le rapport du pays du mois de juin 2005, on tire la conclusion qu‘en Roumanie
à l‘heure actuelle, l‘activité de C&D&I est réduite et pour cette raison elle ne peut pas
constituer une source majeure d‘innovation dans les conditions présentes ou le cadre
sociopolitique constitué au niveau européen et mondial encourage le procès de
l‘innovation et l‘application de la technologie assimilés au bien-être socioéconomique
et le procès d‘innovation peut être engendré par la recherche-le
développement propres ou par le transfert de technologie d‘un autre pays sous

24 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
formes diverses (import de licence, know-how, outillages, formation de sociétés
mixtes ou de sociétés internationales, coopération dans la recherche, mobilité des
chercheurs, transfert gratuit, etc.).
Le nouveau programme gouvernemental roumain approuvé pour la période 2005-
2008 donne une importance accrue au secteur de recherche-développement et
innovation et vient d‘énoncer que le principal but de l‘activité de ce secteur est
d‘appuyer l‘économie roumaine à obtenir un avantage compétitif durable et à réduire
les différences existantes entre les variées régions du pays.
On soutient dans le programme que dans la période 2005-2008, le Gouvernement de
la Roumanie a les suivants objectifs stratégiques:
l‘élaboration et le règlement d‘un mécanisme qui assure le transfert technologique
vers l‘industrie et qui établisse des liens à long terme entre C&D&I et les secteurs
économiques
l‘augmentation des dépenses publiques pour le secteur de C&D&I et l‘innovation
de jusqu‘à 1% en 2007, en accord avec les objectifs fixés par le chapitre 17
Science et Recherche négocié avec l‘UE;
la stimulation de la participation du secteur privé à l‘activité de C&D&I;
le renforcement de la capacité institutionnelle pour la restructuration du secteur
de C&D&I;
L‘intensification de la capacité institutionnelle de l‘autorité publique d‘élaborer et
d‘implémenter des politiques de C&DC&D&I.
Il devrait que l‘innovation, la science et la recherche-développement soient à
l‘attention des plus hauts forums d‘état en vue de la constitution d‘un système
national d‘innovation et à cette fin il est impérieux que le rôle des sociétés
scientifiques du pays augmente, des académies de science en particulier.
9. L‟Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie et la recherche - le développement
et l‟innovation dans notre pays par rapport aux normes de développement
de ce domaine sur le plan international
La Commission Européenne a souligné que beaucoup de compagnies considèrent
encore la recherche publique un simple générateur de connaissances fondamentales
et de formation qualifiée des étudiants, en se maintenant ainsi la perception
conformément à laquelle il y a une brèche entre les résultats performants de la
recherche publique et le problème de l‘innovation de la technologie. La commission a
recommandé aux états membres d‘initier des réformes et des règlements
administratifs qui permettent aux institutions publiques de recherche, en gardant la
mission publique de recherche fondamentale, à développer de manière efficace des
liens avec l‘industrie, avec les petites et moyennes entreprises surtout, par
l‘organisation d‘incubateurs, de parcs scientifiques, la promotion de nouveaux types
de partenariats publiques-privés et l‘évaluation des performances des recherches.
Egalement, la Commission a recommandé la croissance de la contribution de
l‘industrie et des autres domaines et institutions intéressées à la détermination des
priorités pour la recherche publique et sollicite, en égale mesure, la rédaction des
guides qui aident les états membres dans la promotion et l‘organisation des
partenariats publiques-privés, ainsi que dans l‘administration, l‘obtention des licences
et l‘exploitation des brevets d‘invention et des droits de propriété intellectuelle
provenus de la recherche financée des fonds publiques. Les universités et les
instituts de recherche financés de manière publique sont encore préoccupés, en

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 25
premier lieu, du côté scientifique et moins de celui appliqué, d‘implémentation à base
contractuelle des résultats de la recherche.
La dichotomie entre la stimulation de C&D&I et l‘implémentation dans la production
des résultats obtenus pourrait être écartée si la politique économique initiait une
autre approche, passant de la politique axée sur la stimulation de l‘offre à la politique
axée sur la stimulation de la demande, ce qui impliquerait la croissance du rôle du
secteur privé sous un double aspect: d‘entité sensible aux besoins du marché de
C&D&I et d‘utilisateur des résultats de la recherche. Dans les nouvelles conditions
européennes, ou le secteur privé va financer C&D&I en pourcent de 2/3, on devra
passer du système actuel de sponsorisation ou d‘engagement contractuel, par lequel
les firmes privées participent au financement des recherches publiques afin de
résoudre certains problèmes technico-scientifiques propres, au système de
partenariats ou d‘associations, conclus à long terme. Le partenariat constitue un
instrument puissant pour le financement de la recherche, en conditions de beaucoup
meilleures, dont peuvent bénéficier tant l‘industrie que la recherche publique.
L‘expérience des pays développés du point de vue industriel a démontré d‘ailleurs
que pour le développement réussi d‘un procès de C&D&I, au niveau
macroéconomique, il n‘est pas suffisant de disposer de la science seule. Il s‘impose
d‘intensifier l‘efficacité et l‘utilité, l‘applicabilité de cette science.
Le partenariat industrie-recherche, les actions dans le réseau, apportent ensemble
les principaux acteurs autour des résultats clef de C&D&I et forment les liens
essentiels de la conversion des résultats C&D&I en nouveaux produits et services,
en nouvelles voies de distribution et en nouveaux procédés d‘utilisation de ceux ci.
Le milieu de C&D&I peut être amélioré si l‘on adopte des mesures d‘intensification de
la protection et de valorisation des droits de propriété intellectuelle, ainsi que
d‘élaboration des standards de qualité. Dans la réalisation de ces objectifs le rôle des
sociétés scientifiques inclusivement de l‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie va
croître, dans la représentation des intérêts des instituts de recherche. Conformément
au art.1 de la Loi concernant l‘organisation et le fonctionnement de l‘Académie
Roumaine, no.752/27 décembre 2001 « L‘Académie Roumaine est le plus haut
forum national de confirmation scientifique ». Par conséquent, il s‘ensuit
implicitement la reconnaissance du fait qu‘en Roumanie il y a une structure de
reconnaissance de la confirmation scientifique qui, présentement, inclut, à part
l‘Académie Roumaine aux 14 sections de spécialités, l‘Académie des Scientifiques
de Roumanie aux 12 sections de spécialité et les académies de branche,
respectivement: l‘Académie des sciences Techniques, l‘Académie des Sciences
Médicales et l‘Académie des Sciences Agricoles et Sylviques.
Toutes ces structures forment en ensemble, un système de reconnaissance des
valeurs (à part les autres attributions qui leur reviennent), qui doit fonctionner à
l‘avenir, d‘autant plus que le monde entier, inclusivement la Roumanie, se dirige vers
une société de la connaissance. A présent, dans notre pays, le Département de la
recherche du Ministère de l‘Education et de la recherche coordonne l‘entière activité
de C&D&I; l‘Académie Roumaine coordonne et représente sur le plan international la
recherche fondamentale et partiellement celle orientée; le Conseil National pour la
Recherche Scientifique de l‘Enseignement Supérieur (CNCSIS) coordonne et
représente sur le plan international la recherche fondamentale ainsi que la recherche
de développement et appliquée déployées dans le cadre de l‘enseignement
supérieur, mais la recherche scientifique orientée, de développement et appliquée
qui se déroule dans plus de 450 instituts de recherche dans le pays, n‘est
coordonnée et représentée sur le plan international par aucune organisation
scientifique spécifique.

26 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
La réalisation de la future société informationnelle - société de la connaissance, la
prochaine intégration européenne de la Roumanie, le placement de notre pays dans
l‘économie basée sur le savoir, suppose une intensification de l‘activité de recherche
et, afin de mettre en valeur, de manière aussi efficiente que possible son potentiel de
recherche et son expérience, dont elle dispose dans le management de cette
activité, l‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie intentionné à devenir une
institution réellement académique et en conséquence elle se réorganise afin d‘élever
son niveau de prestation des services, pour lesquels elle a la qualification et le
potentiel.
L‘ASR en tant qu‘organisation scientifique compétente et avec l‘expérience du
management scientifique, qui déroule son activité dans le domaine de la promotion
du savoir, de l‘innovation, de la recherche-développement et de la stimulation de la
protection et la valorisation de la propriété intellectuelle, en poursuivant la réalisation
des propres objectifs d‘activité, peut participer activement à l‘avenir à la solution du
problème ci haut mentionné et s‘assume la responsabilité de la coordination du
secteur roumain de recherche, qui, à présent, n‘est coordonné et représenté sur le
plan international par aucune institution centrale spécifique, en stimulant de la sorte,
la recherche scientifique orientée, de développement et appliquée dans notre pays et
en promouvant dans le pays et à l‘étranger les recherches scientifiques des unités de
recherche, qui ne sont coordonnées ni par l‘Académie Roumaine, ni par le CNCSIS.
Nous nous sommes proposé dans ce sens de réaliser dans le proche avenir les
suivants:
1. L‘intensification de l‘activité propre de promotion du savoir, du développement
de la recherche-développement et de la stimulation de la protection et la valorisation
de la propriété intellectuelle et, à cette fin, nous avons sollicité l‘appui des facteurs de
décision en vue de la promotion d‘un projet de loi pour la réorganisation de
l‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie. En accord avec les stipulations du projet
de loi déposé au Parlement de la Roumanie et avec le statut propre, qui sera
approuvé par une Décision du Gouvernement de la Roumanie, après l‘adoption du
projet de loi, l‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie, par une sélection de ses
membres faite dans le cadre du procès de réorganisation, se transformera dans une
institution académique véritable, devenant ainsi le successeur de droit de l‘Académie
des Sciences de Roumanie, qui a fonctionné dans la période 1935-1948. L‘ASR a
accumulé de l‘expérience dans la direction des programmes de recherche en
2006,en déposant sept nouveaux programmes de recherche, dont nous avons
assumé la responsabilité de la direction des travaux de la recherche dans deux
programmes.
2. L‘ASR va reprendre les contacts avec les organisations scientifiques
internationales non gouvernementales (l‘UNESCO, le Mouvement Pugwash, la
Fédération Mondiale des Hommes de Science, etc) pour la représentation des
hommes de science, de tous les chercheurs scientifiques roumains dans ces
organisations et va développer les relations bilatérales avec les organisations
scientifiques similaires des autres pays. L‘ASR se propose de participer aux actions
concernant la vie scientifique et les relations de la science avec la société
contemporaine déployées par ces organisations internationales, ainsi que
d‘organiser dans le pays des manifestations scientifiques avec participation
internationale, à la sollicitation de ces organisations.
3. En 2006, l‘Académie des Scientifique de Roumanie célèbre le 70èmè
anniversaire depuis la fondation de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie, le 50 ème
anniversaire depuis la fondation de l‘Association des Scientifiques de Roumanie et le
10 ème anniversaire depuis la fondation de l‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie

L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie 27
par le changement du titre d‘Association. Dans le cadre du programme anniversaire,
l‘ASR se propose les suivants:
• Continuer l‘activité de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie, qui, dans la
période 1936-1947, a publié dans 8 volumes de ―Comptes rendus de l‘Académie
des Sciences de Roumanie‖ 754 communications scientifiques, originales,
présentées dans ses 10 sections et, dans ce sens, l‘Académie des Scientifiques de
Roumanie se propose de publier chaque année un volume de ―Comptes rendus de
l‘Académie des Scientifique de Roumanie‖, en commençant avec 2006 par la
publication du 1er volume;
• Continuer l‘activité de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie, qui déroulait une
fructueuse et assidue activité au niveau de ses 10 sections scientifiques. Il est
grand temps que les sections de l‘ASR, elles aussi ,deviennent de véritables
institutions scientifiques qui exercent, de manière autonome et responsable, tant
une activité de recherche propre qu‘une participation efficiente à la coordination et
à la représentation de l‘activité des chercheurs scientifiques du domaine de
spécialité.
• Continuer l‘activité de l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie qui, dans la période
1936-1947, a publié 14 numéros du ―Bulletin de l‘Académie des Sciences de
Roumanie‖, ou ont été publiés des rapports annuels à caractère administratif, le
sommaire des séances, ainsi que de courts résumés des communications et des
conférences non publiées dans ―les Comptes rendus de l‘Académie des Sciences
de Roumanie‖. L‘ASR va continuer à publier le Bulletin Informationnel trimestriel qui
va présenter les activités déroulées par l‘ASR, tant au siège central que dans les
sections scientifiques ou les filiales de l‘ASR pendant le trimestre respectif.
• l‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie disposait d‘une excellente bibliothèque
scientifique. L‘ASR, malgré ses efforts de collecter des volumes, ne dispose pas,
après 10 années, d‘une bibliothèque, n‘ayant ni l‘espace ni les moyens financiers
pour l‘achat de livres, la réalisation d‘abonnements, la rétribution d‘un
bibliothécaire, etc. Nous sommes préoccupés de trouver les moyens financiers
nécessaires pour la constitution d‘une bibliothèque scientifique de notre Académie;
4. L‘édition périodique de ―Comptes rendus de l‘Académie des Scientifiques de
Roumanie‖, du Bulletin Informationnel trimestriel, du volume d‘ allocutions de
réception présentées, ainsi que de volumes écrits par les membres de l‘ASR,
justifient pleinement l‘organisation d‘une maison d‘édition propre. L‘édition, le
développement du site www.aos.ro, la reprise des relations avec les organisations
internationales, ainsi que l‘intensification de l‘activité de recherche supposent que le
secrétariat scientifique de l‘ASR dispose tant de personnel engagé, que d‘ordinateurs
modernes, de prints de performance, de copiateurs et d‘un ordinateur puissant qui
puisse prendre la fonction de server d‘un réseau local. Comme vous savez, le niveau
actuel de dotation du secrétariat de l‘ASR par des ordinateurs est très modeste (on
dispose de deux ordinateurs plus anciens de 10 ans avec un soft dépassé par les
demandes actuelles) et les ressources financières disponibles de l‘ASR pour le
développement de ces dotations sont pratiquement inexistantes.
5. Nous sommes convaincus que si l‘on disposera tant du personnel qualifié
engagé que des moyens techniques nécessaires, nous allons contribuer au
développement de la connaissance, sur les plans national et international, par la
promotion des communications scientifiques originales présentées au niveau des
sections scientifiques de l‘ASR ou dans le cadre des manifestations scientifiques
organisées par les sections et les filiales de l‘ASR. Nous allons contribuer de cette

28 Vasile Cândea, Ștefan Iancu
manière à la direction et à la stimulation du développement et la valorisation de la
création intellectuelle par:
• la mise en connexion des recherches des différents domaines scientifiques purs
et appliqués, par des communications, des publications, d‘expositions, en stimulant
ainsi le développement des recherches interdisciplinaires et pluridisciplinaires;
• la stimulation de la recherche scientifique, par la remise de prix, provenus des
subventions, pour les travaux de valeur. L‘Académie des Sciences de Roumanie
accorde des prix, dont la valeur, subventionnée par les personnes généreuses qui
apprécient la science, a contribué au développement de la recherche scientifique.
6. L‘Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie, par l‘amplification de l‘activité
après la réorganisation, pourra aussi accomplir le rôle d‘organe consultatif auprès les
autorités gouvernementales et dirigeant auprès les institutions de recherche
scientifique.
7. La réalisation d‘une activité soutenue au niveau du siège central et au niveau
des sections scientifiques présume que l‘ASR dispose d‘un bâtiment fonctionnel.
La direction de l‘ASR s‘efforce à trouver les moyens nécessaires afin d‘accomplir les
objectifs proposés. Nous nous exprimons la conviction que tous les membres de
l‘ASR vont participer aux côtés de nous à la réalisation de ces accomplissements.

DELEGAŢIA PERMANENTĂ
COMITETUL DE DIRECŢIE
I. Comitetul Central
II. Preşedinţii de secţiuni:
Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 29
ACADEMIA DE ŞTIINŢE DIN ROMANIA
Preşedinte: Dr. C. Angelescu
Vicepreşedinte delegat: Dragomir Hurmuzescu
Secretar general: Const. Kiriţescu
Casier: Al. Ionescu - Matiu
I. Victor Vâlcovici
II. Horia Hulubei
III. Negoiţă Dănăilă
IV. Constantin Motaş
V. Dr. Dem. Paulian
VI. I. P.Voiteşti
VII. G-ral Gh. Potopeanu
VIII. Const. Narly
IX. Dionisie Germani
X. Gh. N. Leon
COMITETUL DE REDACŢIE:
CONSILIUL CENSORILOR:
C. Kiriţescu, secretar general;
CC. Teodorescu, A. Popovici-Bâznoşanu, Th. Ionescu, Miron
Nicolescu,
delegaţi de Comitetul de direcţie.
G. G. Demetrescu, Eugen Macovschi, Ilie C. Purcaru.
Annexe 1

30 Annexes
LISTA MEMBRILOR
ACADEMIEI DE ŞTIINŢE DIN ROMÂNIA,
MEMBRI ŞI AI ACADEMIEI ROMÂNE
Secţia I - Matematică şi Astronomie
ASR AR
mt 07.06.1942 Angheluţă Theodor (1882-1964) matematician mo
r
mt 20.12.1936 Barbilian Dan (1895-1961)
matematician şi
poet
mc 21.12.1935 Călugăreanu Gheorghe (1902-1976) matematician mc
mt
mc 21.12.1935
mt 03.06.1941
mc 21.12.1935
mt 28.05.1938
Demetrescu Gheorghe (1885-1969)
matematician şi
seismolog
04.06.1948
11.05.1994
mpm 31.01.1991
mc
mt
Ghika Alexandru (1902-1964) matematician mc
mt
mc 03.06.1941 Iacob Caius (1912-1992) matematician mc
mt
mc 21.12.1935
mt 04.06.1937
02.07.1955
21.03.1963
02.11.1948
02.07.1955
02.11.1948
21.03.1963
02.07.1955
21.03.1963
Mayer Octav (1895-1966) matematician mt 02.07.1955
mc 0.12.1938 Mihoc Gheorghe (1906-1981) matematician mc
mt
mc 21.12.1935
mt 03.06.1941
02.07.1955
21.03.1963
Moisil Grigore (1906-1973) matematician mtac 02.11.1948
mt 21.12.1935 Myller Alexandru (1879-1965) matematician mo
mto
mc 21.12.1935
mt 28.05.1938
Nicolescu Miron (1903-1975) matematician* mc
mt
mt 05.06.1943 Pompeiu Dimitrie (1873-1954) matematician
mt 28.05.1938 Popovici Constantin (1878-1956)
matematician şi
astronom
mc
mt
mtac
mo
mto
rmo
mc 04.06.1937 Popoviciu Tiberiu (1906-1975) matematician mc
mt
mc 21.12.1937
Teodorescu Nicolae-Victor
(1908-2000)
matematician
mc 21.12.1935 Vâlcovici Victor (1885-1970) matematician mc
mt
mt 07.06.1942 Vrânceanu Gheorghe (1900-1979) matematician mc
mt
mc
mt
27.05.1938
12.08.1948
02.11.1948
02.07.1955
03.06.1916
24.05.1936
12.08.1948
24.05.1946
12.08.1948
03.07.1990
02.11.1948
21.03.1963
02.07.1955
21.03.1963
25.05.1936
03.02.1965
01.06.1948
02.07.1955
mt/c/o/pm: membru titular/corespondent/de onoare/ post mortem;
r: membru repus în titulatura din care a fost scos in 1948;
mtac: membru titular activ, ales înainte de 1948, confirmat in 1948, prin numire de către organele de
conducere, ca membru titular.

Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 31
Secţia II - Fizică
mc 21.12.1935
Atanasiu S. Gheorghe (1893-1972)
mt 07.06.1942
fizician
geofizician
mc
mt
02.11.1948
21.03.1963
mc 21.12.1935 Cişman Alexandru (1897-1967) fizician mc 21.03.1963
mc 21.12.1935 Gheorghiu Traian (1887-1968) fizician mc 02.11.1948
mc 21.12.1935
Hulubei Horia (1897-1972) fizician
mt 03.06.1941
mt 21.12.1935 Ionescu Theodor (1899-1988) fizician
mc
mt
mc
mt
26.05.1937
27.05.1946
02.07.1955
21.03.1963
mc 04.06.1937 Proca Alexandru (1897-1955) fizician mpm 03.11.1990
mt 20.12.1936 Procopiu Ştefan (1890-1972) fizician
mc 21.12.1935 Ştefanescu Sabba (1902-1994) geofizician mc
mt
mc
mt
01.06.1948
02.07.1955
27.05.1946
21.03.1963
mc 20.12.1936 Vencov Ştefan (1899-1955) fizician mc 02.11.1948
Secţia III - Chimie
mc 21.12.1935 Cernătescu Radu (1894-1958) chimist
mc
mtac
23.05.1940
12.08.1948
mc 21.12.1935
Gheorghiu Constantin (1894-1956) chimist 02.07.1955
mt 03.06.1943
mc 20.12.1936 Isăcescu A. Dumitru (1904-1977) chimist 02.07.1955
mt 07.06.1942 Macovschi Eugen (1906-1985)
biochimist
biolog
mc
mtac
02.06.1948
12.08.1948
mc 28.05.1938 Matei Ilie (1895-1969) chimist mc 02.07.1955
mc 21.12.1935
Neniţescu Costin (1902-1970) chimist
mt 20.12.1936
mt 21.12.1935 Spacu Gheorghe (1883-1955) chimist
mc 21.12.1935
Tănăsescu Ion (1892-1959) chimist
mt 12.06.1943
mc
mt
mc
mt
mtac
mc
mt
26.05.1945
02.07.1955
07.06.1927
25.05.1936
12.08.1948
02.11.1948
02.07.1955
mt 07.06.1942 Vasiliu Haralamb (1880-1953) agrochimist mpm 13.11.1990
Secţia IV- Biologia (Zoologie, Botanică, Fiziologie)
mc 03.06.1941 Băcescu C. Mihai (1908-1999)
mc 20.12.1936 Buşniţă Theodor (1900-1977)
zoolog,
oceanolog
hidrobiolog,
ihtiolog,
histolog
mt 03.06.1943 Danielopol Daniel (1884-1955) medic
mc
mt
21.03.1963
22.01.1990
mc 02.07.1955
mo
mtac
31.05.1938
12.08.1948
mc 05.06.1943 Eliescu Grigore (1898-1975) entomolog mc 01.11.1948

32 Annexes
mc 21.12.1937
Georgescu Constantin (1898-1968)
mt 05.06.1943
inginer silvic,
zooentomolog,
fitopatolog
mt 21.12.1935 Guşuleac Mihail (1887-1960) botanist
mc 01.11.1948
mc
r
26.05.1937
03.07.1990
mc 21.12.1935 Ionescu A. Mihail (1900-1988) entomolog mc 02.07.1955
mc 28.05.1938 Manolache Constantin (1906-1977) entomolog mc 02.07.1955
mt 21.12.1955 Motaş Constantin (1891-1980) zoolog
mt 21.12.1935 Nyarady Erasmus Iulius (1881-1966)
botanist de naţ.
maghiară
mc
mt
mtac
26.05.1937
24.05.1948
01.11.1948
mtac 01.11.1948
mc 21.12.1935 Pop Emil (1897-1974) botanist mt 02.07.1955
mc 28.05.1938
Pora A. Eugen
(1909-1981)
zoolog,
ecofiziolog,
oceanograf
mc
mt
01.11.1948
21.03.1948
mc 21.12.1935 Radu Gh. Vasile (1903-1982) zoolog mc 01.11.1948
mt 05.06.1943 Râşcanu Vasile (1885-1980) medic mt 02.07.1955
Secţia VI - Geologie, Mineralogie, Geografie
mt 03.06.1941 Atanasiu S. Ion (1892-1949)
geolog şi
seismolog
mc 20.12.1936 Băncilă N. Ion (1901-2001) geolog
mc
r
mc
mt
23.05.1940
03.07.1990
13.11.1990
18.12.1991
mt 21.12.1935 Brătescu Constantin (1882-1945) geograf mc 05.06.1919
mc 21.12.1935 Codarcea Alexandru (1900-1974) geolog
mt 21.12.1935 David Mihail (1886-1954)
geograf şi
geolog
mc 21.12.1935 Filipescu Miltiade (1901-1993) paleontolog mc
mt
mc 21.12.1935 Giuşcă Dan (1904-1988) geolog
mc 21.12.1935 Ianovici Virgil (1900-1990) geolog
mt 06.06.1939 Mihăilescu Vintilă (1890-1978) geograf
mc 20.12.1936 Murgeanu Gheorghe (1901-1984) geolog
Secţia VII - Geniu militar
mc 21.12.1935
Teodorescu Paul (1888-1981) general
mt 20.12.1936
mc
mt
mc
r
mc
mt
mc
mt
mc
mt
mc
mt
mc
r
30.10.1948
02.07.1955
31.05.1935
03.07.1990
02.07.1955
21.03.1963
21.03.1963
01.03.1974
21.03.1963
22.01.1990
20.05.1939
02.07.1955
01.11.1948
02.07.1955
22.05.1938
03.07.1990
mc 05.06.1943 Stan Aurelian (1910-1993) căpitan, ing. mo 23.03.1993

Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 33
Secţia VIII - Istoria şi filosofia ştiinţei, organizare, învăţământ, popularizare
mc 06.06.1939 Bagdasar Nicolae (1896-1971) filosof
mt 05.06.1943 Sergescu Petre (1893-1954) matematician mc
r
mt 21.12.1935 Voiculescu Vasile (1884-1963)
Secţia IX - Tehnica
medic
şi scriitor
mc 31.05.1940 Avramescu Aurel (1903-1985) inginer
mc 31.05.1940 Beleş Aurel (1891-1986) inginer
mc
r
28.05.1943
02.07.1990
26.05.1937
03.07.1990
mpm 21.04.1993
mc
mt
mc
mt
02.07.1955
21.03.1963
02.07.1955
21.03.1963
mt 21.12.1937 Carafoli Elie (1901-1983) inginer mtac 12.08.1948
mc 21.12.1935
mt 20.12.1936
Germani Dionisie (1877-1948) inginer
mt 03.06.1941 Gheorghiu S. Ion (1885-1968) inginer
mo
r
mc
mt
04.06.1945
03.07.1990
01.11.1948
23.03.1952
mt 21.12.1937 Marinescu Matei (1903-1983) inginer mc 01.11.1948
mt 21.12.1935 Nicolau I. Gheorghe (1886-1950) inginer
mc
mtac
02.06.1948
12.08.1948
mc 03.06.1941 Solacolu Şerban (1905-1980) inginer chimist mc 21.03.1963
mc 03.06.1941 Tănăsescu Tudor (1901-1961) inginer mc 23.03.1952
Secţia X – Ştiinţe sociale şi economice
Mt 28.05.1938 Bădulescu Victor (1892-1953(1954?) economist mc
r
Mc 28.05.1938 Kiriţescu Costin (1908-2000) economist mc
mt
Mt Madgearu Virgil (1887-1940)
Mc 04.06.1937
mt 03.06.1941
Manuilă Sabin (1894-1964)
Mt 28.05.1938 Slăvescu Victor (1891-1977)
economist,
sociolog şi om
politic
medic,
statistician şi
demograf
economist şi
om politic
Mt 20.12.1936 Taşcă Gheorghe (1875-1951) economist mc
r
24.05.1945
03.07.1990
18.12.1991
10.11.1992
mpm 13.11.1990
mc
r
mc
mt
r
01.06.1938
03.07.1990
23.05.1936
20.05.1939
22.07.1990
04.06.1926
02.07.1990

34 Annexes
LISTA MEMBRILOR DE ONOARE ŞI A MEMBRILOR FONDATORI AI ACADEMIEI
DE ŞTIINŢE DIN ROMÂNIA, MEMBRI ŞI AI ACADEMIEI ROMÂNE
mf Angelescu Constantin (1869-1948) medic
mf Angelescu Eugen (1896-1968) chimist
mo
r
mc
mt
24.05.1934
03.07.1990
24.05.1939
21.03.1963
mf Bădărău Eugen (1887-1975) fizician mtac 12.08.1948
mf Borcea Ion (1879-1936) zoolog mc 05.06.1919
mf Borza Alexandru (1887-1971) botanist mpm 13.11.1990
mo Bujor Paul (1862-1952) zoolog
mo 28.05.1938 Cancicov Mircea (1885-1951) om politic
mo Caradja Aristide (1861-1955) entomolog
mf Călugăreanu Dimitrie (1868-1937)
medic şi
naturalist
mo
mto
mo
r
mo
mto
04.06.1948
12.08.1948
22.06.1937
03.07.1990
28.05.1930
12.08.1948
mc 10.06.1920
mf Condeescu N. Nicolae (1880-1939) general, scriitor mo 01.06.1939
mf Dănăilă Negoiţă (1878-1953)
mo Drăghiceanu Matei (1844-1939)
matematician
şi chimist
inginer şi
geolog
mo Hurmuzache Constantin (1863-1937) entomolog
mf Hurmuzescu Dragomir (1865-1954)
Fizician
chimist
mc
Mo
r
25.05.1936
29.05.1939
03.07.1990
mo 23.05.1933
mo 07.06.1919
mc
r
03.06.1916
03.07.1990
mf Minovici Ştefan (1867-1935) mc 08.06.1925
mo 03.06.1941 Mironescu Gh. Gh. (1874-1949)
mo Petrovici Ion (1882-1972)
jurist şi
om politic
filosof scriitor
şi om politic
mo
r
mc
mt
r
31.05.1939
03.07.1990
07.06.1927
24.05.1934
03.07.1990
mo Prezan Constantin (1861-1943) mareşal mo 07.06.1923
mo Prodan luliu (1875-1959) botanist * mc 02.07.1955

Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 35
LISTA MEMBRILOR DE ONOARE STRĂINI AI ACADEMIEI DE ŞTIINŢE DIN
ROMÂNIA MEMBRI DE ONOARE ŞI Al ACADEMIEI ROMÂNE
04.06.1937 Broglie, Louis de (1892-1987) fizician francez 18.01.1957
04.06.1937 Coton, Aimé Auguste (1869-1951) fizician francez 31.05.1938
04.06.1937 Heisenberg, Werner-Karl (1901-1976) fizician german
rmo 31.05.1938
03.02.1965
04.06.1937 Janet, Paul (1863-1937) Inginer francez 11.06.1919
04.06.1937 Montel, Paul-Antoine (1876-1975)
28.05.1938 Pende, Nicola (1880-1970)
matematician
francez
medic şi om
politic Italian
27.05.1932
rrr 03.02.1965
31.05.1935
28.05.1938 Perrin, Jean (1870-1942) fizician francez 28.05.1930
04.06.1937 Picone, Mauro (1885-1977)
matematician
Italian
03.02.1965
04.06.1937 Sabatier, Paul (1854-1941) chimist francez 11.06.1925
04.06.1937 Sergent, Emile (1867-1943) medic francez 28.05.1930
04.06.1937 Urbain, Georges (1872-1938) chimist francez 01.06.1938
LISTA MEMBRILOR DE ONOARE STRĂINI AI ACADEMIEI DE ŞTIINŢE DIN
ROMÂNIA MEMBRI CORESPONDENŢI AI ACADEMIEI ROMÂNE
21.12.1937 DenjoyArnaud (1884-1974) matematician francez 08.01.1957
20.12.1938 Fourmarier Paul (1877-1970) geolog belgian 08.06.1925
03.06.1941 Gamillscheg Ernst (1887-1971) filolog german 29.05.1929
07.06.1942 Guiard Jules (1870-1965) medic francez 12.06.1924
05.06.1943 Jeannel Rene (1879-1965) zoolog francez, entomolog 26.05.1928
04.06.1937 Montel Paul-Antoine (1876-1975) matematician francez 22.05.1929
07.06.1942 Pittard Eugene (1867-1962) antropolog elveţian 07.06.1919
LISTA MEMBRILOR ACADEMIEI DE ŞTIINŢE DIN ROMÂNIA
Secţia I:
1. Abramescu Nicolae Prof. Fac. Şt. Cluj-Timişoara mt 05.06.1943
2. Angelescu Aurel Prof. Fac. Şt. Bucureşti mt 21.12.1935
3. Bratu Gheorghe Prof. Fac. Şt. Cluj-Timişoara
4. Coculescu Nicolae Prof. univ. onorar Bucureşti mf
5. Davidoglu Anton Prof. univ. onorar Bucureşti mf
mc
mt
21.12.1935
6. Hulubei Dan Prof. Fac. Şt. Bucureşti mc 21.12.1935
7. Ionescu V. Dumitru Prof. Fac. Şt. Cluj-Timişoara mt 21.12.1935
8. Pantazi Alexandru Prof. Politehnica Bucureşti mc 21.12.1935
9. Sudan Gabriel Prof. Politehnica Bucureşti mc 04.06.1937
Secţia II:
1. Bărbulescu Nicolae Conf. Fac. Medic. Bucureşti mc 21.12.1935
2. Bedreag Constantin Prof. univ. onorar Iaşi mt 20.12.1938
3. Bianu Vasile Prof. Politehnica Bucureşti mt 21.12.1935

36 Annexes
MINISTERUL JUSTIŢIEI
DECRET Nr. 76
Annexe 2
pentru transformarea Academiei Române în Academia Republicii Populare
Române
Decretul Nr. 1.091 din 9 Iunie 1948
Monitorul Oficial Nr. 132 bis din 9 Iunie 1948
Art. I. Academia Română, cel mai înalt for ştiinţific şi cultural, se transformă într'o
instituţie de Stat. Ea va purta denumirea: Academia Republicii Populare Române.
DECRETUL Nr. 70 din 9 Iunie 1948
Art. II. Academia Republicii Populare Române îşi va desfăşura activitatea potrivit cu
nevoile de întărire şi desvoltare a Republicii Populare Române, în care scop:
a) va promova ştiinţa şi cultura în toate domeniile, în vederea ridicării nivelului
material şi cultural al poporului;
b) va promova oameni de ştiinţă şi cultură de valoare etică şi democratica.
Art. III. Nu pot fi membri ai Academiei Republicii Populare Române, persoane care,
prin activitatea lor, s'au pus în slujba fascismului şi reacţiunei, dăunând prin aceasta
intereselor ţării şi ale poporului.
Art. IV. Actuala Academie de Medicină şi actuala Academie de Ştiinţe se integrează
în Academia Republicii Populare Române, pe baza principiilor prevăzute în art. II şi
III.
Art. V. Toate bunurile mobile şi imobile ale Academiei Române, Academiei de
Medicină şi Academiei de Ştiinţe trec în patrimoniul Academiei Republicii Populare
Române.
Art. VI. Pentru elaborarea Statutului de organizare şi funcţionare a Academiei
Republicii Populare Române, precum şi pentru preluarea şi administrarea bunurilor,
se constituie un comitet provizoriu, alcătuit din următoarele persoane:
Profesor dr. C. I. Parhon, Andrei Rădulescu, Mihail Sadoveanu, prof. Traian Săvulescu,
prof. Iorgu Iordan, prof. Emanoil Teodorescu, prof. D. Pompei, prof. S. Stoilov, prof. dr.
Ştefan Nicolau, prof. Emil Petrovici, prof. dr. D. Danielopolu, prof. dr. N. Gh. Lupu, prof.
ing. Gh. Nicolau şi prof. Eugen Bădărău.
Supleanţi: prof. Constantin Balmuş, Gall Gabor şi dr. A. Kreindler.
Art. VII. În termen de cel mult 45 de zile de la data publicării prezentului decret,
Comitetul provizoriu va depune Preşedinţiei Consiliului de Miniştri, spre aprobare,
Statutul de organizare şi funcţionare al Academiei Republicii Populare Române.
Art. VIII. Ministrul Justiţiei este împuternicit cu aducerea la îndeplinire a acestui
decret.

PART ONE
SECTION OF MATHEMATICAL
AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Mărgărit Pavelescu
C O N T E N T S
International year of physics: Albert Einstein - a century from theory of
relativity - 1905-2005 39
Mărgărit Pavelescu, Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Ioan Ursu
Characterization of the ideal repository concept 47
Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Radio toxicity of CANDU in terms of clearance potential index and
biological ingestion and inhalation hazard factors 53
Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu
Master equation of the matter-field dynamics with energy dissipation 83

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 39
INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF PHYSICS:
ALBERT EINSTEIN – A CENTURY FROM
THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY: 1905-2005
Mărgărit PAVELESCU 1
Abstract. Year 2005 was declared the international year of physics because one
accomplishes 100 years from the launching of relativity theory by Albert EINSTEIN (AE). AE
(1879-1955), German-born American physicist and Nobel laureate, best known as the
creator of the special and general theories of relativity and for his bold hypothesis concerning
the particle nature of light, is perhaps the most well-known scientist of the 20th century. The
paper was presented in the autumn of 2005 in the meeting of section of mathematics and
physics of the AOS-R. The paper is destined to pay homage to scientific personality of AE,
making a short presentation of his biography and of initial publications. Further, it discusses
the Einstein‟s special theory of relativity from 1905 and early reactions to it. After that, the
central ideas of the general theory of relativity and the modifications of it are exposed.
Further, are enumerated the performances of AE in social plan. Finally, the conclusions
concerning his scientific opera are presented.
1. SHORT BIOGRAPHY
AE was born in Ulm on March 14, 1879, and spent his youth in Munich, where his
family owned a small shop that manufactured electric machinery. He did not talk until
the age of three, but even as a youth he showed a brilliant curiosity about nature and
an ability to understand difficult mathematical concepts. At the age of 12 he taught
himself Euclidean geometry.
AE hated the dull regimentation and unimaginative spirit of school in Munich. When
repeated business failure led the family to leave Germany for Milan, Italy, AE, who
was then 15 years old, used the opportunity to withdraw from the school. He spent a
year with his parents in Milan, and when it became clear that he would have to make
his own way in the world, he finished secondary school in Arrau, Switzerland, and
entered the Swiss National Polytechnic in Zürich.
AE did not enjoy the methods of instruction there. He often cut classes and used the
time to study physics on his own or to play his beloved violin. He passed his
examinations and graduated in 1900 by studying the notes of a classmate. His
professors did not think highly of him and would not recommend him for a university
position.
For two years AE worked as a tutor and substitute teacher. In 1902 he secured a
position as an examiner in the Swiss patent office in Bern. In 1903 he married Mileva
Marić, who had been his classmate at the polytechnic. They had two sons but later
have divorced. AE later remarried with his cousin.
2. EARLY SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS
In 1905 AE received his doctorate from the University of Zürich for a theoretical
dissertation on the dimensions of molecules, and he also published three theoretical
papers of central importance to the development of 20 th -century physics. In the first
1 Founding, full member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, Splaiul Independentei nr. 54, sect. 5,
050094, Bucharest, Romania, e mail: mpavelescu2002@yahoo.com.

40 Mărgărit Pavelescu
of these papers, on Brownian motion, he made significant predictions about the
motion of particles that are randomly distributed in a fluid. These predictions were
later confirmed by experiment [1].
The second paper, on the photoelectric effect, contained a revolutionary hypothesis
concerning the nature of light.
AE not only proposed that under certain circumstances light can be considered as
consisting of particles, but he also hypothesized that the energy carried by any light
particle, called a photon, is proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
The formula for this is E = h., where E is the energy of the radiation, h is a universal
constant known as Planck's constant, and is the frequency of the radiation.
This proposal—that the energy contained within a light beam is transferred in
individual units, or quanta—contradicted a hundred-year-old tradition of considering
light energy a manifestation of continuous processes.
Virtually no one accepted AE‘s proposal. In fact, when the American physicist Robert
Andrews Millikan experimentally confirmed the theory almost a decade later, he was
surprised and somewhat disquieted by the outcome [1].
AE, whose prime concern was to understand the nature of electromagnetic radiation,
subsequently urged the development of a theory that would be a fusion of the wave
and particle models for light. Again, very few physicists understood or were
sympathetic to these ideas.
3. AE'S SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
AE‘s third major paper in 1905, ―On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies‖,
contained what became known as the special theory of relativity. Since the time of
the English mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton, natural philosophers (as
physicists and chemists were known) had been trying to understand the nature of
matter and radiation, and how they interacted in some unified world picture.
The position that mechanical laws are fundamental has become known as the
mechanical world view, and the position that electrical laws are fundamental has
become known as the electromagnetic world view. Neither approach, however, is
capable of providing a consistent explanation for the way radiation (light, for
example) and matter interact when viewed from different inertial frames of reference,
that is, an interaction viewed simultaneously by an observer at rest and an observer
moving at uniform speed. In the spring of 1905, after considering these problems for
ten years, AE realized that the crux of the problem lay not in a theory of matter but in
a theory of measurement. At the heart of his special theory of relativity was the
realization that all measurements of time and space depend on judgments as to
whether two distant events occur simultaneously.
This led him to develop a theory based on two postulates:
1) the principle of relativity, that physical laws are the same in all inertial
reference systems, and
2) the principle of the invariance of the speed of light, that the speed of light in
a vacuum is a universal constant [2].
He was thus able to provide a consistent and correct description of physical events in
different inertial frames of reference without making special assumptions about the
nature of matter or radiation, or how they interact. Virtually no one understood AE's
argument.

Albert Einstein - A Century from theTheory of Relativity: 1905-2005 41
The theory was called the special theory of relativity because only the mechanical
and radiation laws were imbedded. As it was said before this paper generated a
tempest in the scientific world which at the beginning did not understand anything
from the new theory.
These difficulties in understanding did not disappeared fro a long time, such that in
1921 when AE has got the Nobel Prize for physics for the paper concerning the
photo electric effect (minor after the AE standards) the special theory was not at all
mentioned because of polemics that sill existed.But nowadays the special theory was
full accepted and its previsions have been checked by numerous experiments.
A very important consequence of the special theory was the relation between mass
and energy. From AE postulate concerning the fact that the light speed has to be the
same for any observer, it results that nothing can move faster than the light. If one
uses the energy for acceleration of a body, the mass of body is increasing, such that
is more difficult to accelerate it in continuation. The acceleration till the speed of light
it impossible because would demand an infinite quantity of energy.
The mass and energy of a body are equivalent, as it results from the famous
equation of AE, E=mc 2 , that is probable the most known equation from the world.
Among its consequences, it is the understanding of the fact that if the nuclei of the
atom fissions in two nuclei of mass less than the initial one (on the account of the
defect of mass), then this process leads to the emission of a huge quantity of energy.
This fact was responsible for the atomic bomb at the beginning and after that led to
nuclear energy from the nowadays nuclear reactors.
4. EARLY REACTIONS TO AE
The difficulty that others had with AE‘s work was not because it was too
mathematically complex or technically obscure; the problem resulted, rather, from
AE's beliefs about the nature of good theories and the relationship between
experiment and theory.
Although he maintained that the only source of knowledge is experience, he also
believed that scientific theories are the free creations of a finely tuned physical
intuition and that the premises on which theories are based cannot be connected
logically to experiment.
A good theory, therefore, is one in which a minimum number of postulates is required
to account for the physical evidence [2].
This sparseness of postulates, a feature of all AE's work, was what made his work so
difficult for colleagues to comprehend, let alone support.
AE did have important supporters, however. His chief early patron was the German
physicist Max Planck.
AE remained at the patent office for four years after his star began to rise within the
physics community.
He then moved rapidly upward in the German-speaking academic world; his first
academic appointment was in 1909 at the University of Zürich.
In 1911 he moved to the German-speaking University at Prague, and in 1912 he
returned to the Swiss National Polytechnic in Zürich.
Finally, in 1913, he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics
in Berlin.

42 Mărgărit Pavelescu
5. THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Even before he left the patent office in 1907, AE began work on extending and
generalizing the theory of relativity by trying to imbed the gravitation theory. The
special theory of relativity is consistent with the laws of electricity and magnetism, but
it is not compatible with the Newtonian law of gravitation.
This law says that if distribution of matter in a space region is changing, this change
has to be felt instantaneously in the universe. It results no only that it would be
possible to radiate signals faster than speed of light (fact not allowed by special
theory of relativity), but in order to understand what does it mean ―instantaneously‖ it
would be need to appeal to the concept of absolute or universal time at which the
special theory of relativity renounced in the favour of the personal time AE was aware
of it still from 1907 but only in the 1911 arrived to think seriously to it. He began by
enunciating the principle of equivalence, a postulate that gravitational fields are
equivalent to accelerations of the frame of reference.
For example, people in a moving elevator cannot, in principle, decide whether the
force that acts on them is caused by gravitation or by a constant acceleration of the
elevator. When he came back to Zurich in 1912 he has had an inspiration moment
when he understood that this equivalence could be valid of the space-time geometry
would be curve not plate how it was considered till then!
His extraordinary idea was that mass and energy would contort the space-time in a
way that must be determined [2], [3]. Together with Grossman [2], AE studied the
theory of curve surfaces that was developed by mathematician Riemann. But this did
not think at a space more than three dimensions.
AE understood that space-time has to be curved and this is a system with four
dimensions. AE and Grossmman have written a paper from which come out that the
gravitational forces are the expression of the fact the space-time is curve. But owing
to en error of AE they could not find the equations that make the connection between
the curve of space-time and the mass and energy.
AE continued his work to Berlin and in 1915 after a long discussion with David
Hilbert, he could find the right equations. Interesting is the fact that David Hilbert
himself came off to find the correct equations a few days ago than AE, but he
recognized that the paternity of idea belongs to AE [3].
The new theory of space-time has received the name of general theory of relativity in
order to make it different of special theory of relativity that did not imbed the effects of
gravitation.
It is incomparable more difficult than previous one, owing to the mathematical
complexity introduced by tensorial algebra and Riemannian geometry. There is belief
that in époque only 10 scientists have understood the new theory.
By the contrary, the special theory of relativity can be understood by any student
from the Physics Faculty with an adequate education. It has to be said that before to
have success, the general theory of relativity was strong denied by scientific
community from Germany.
Such, at a moment it appeared a book signed by 100 authors in which the theory was
complete negated. When AE has heard about it, he declared: ―I am right, because if
not, it would be sufficient only one author!‖.
The full general theory of relativity was not published until 1916.

Albert Einstein - A Century from theTheory of Relativity: 1905-2005 43
In this theory the interactions of bodies, which heretofore had been ascribed to
gravitational forces, are explained as the influence of bodies on the geometry of
space-time (four-dimensional space, a mathematical abstraction, having the three
dimensions from Euclidean space and time as the fourth dimension).
The general Theory of the relativity transformed the space and time from a passive
frame in which have place the events into active participants to the dynamic of
universe. This theory has put an important problem which remains open in face of
physics from twenty century, namely: the universe is full of matter and energy which
curves the space-time, thus that all the corps fall down one to another, equivalent
with a contraction [3], [4].
Just AE has discovered that the solutions of his equations suggested a dynamic
universe not static one, how it was believed then.
Because this belief of a static universe was extremely spread and AE himself
believed in it, he decided to introduce in his equations a cosmological constant in
order to allow a static solution for universe [2], [3]. But in 1920 systematic
observations made by Hubble to Mount Wilson observatory have shown that the
universe is expanding. In this way AE lost the unique occasion to anticipate on the
basis of his theory, without cosmological constant, that the universe either is
contracting either is expanding (as it happens now) and how it was shown by the
Russian mathematician Friedman in 1922 [2].
According to him, the universe is expanding sufficient slowly that the gravitational
attraction between galaxies to provoke the slowing down and finally the stopping the
expansion. This is then followed by a contraction that can go to a greater density of
the universe, as the volume is diminishing.
AE himself considered the introducing of cosmological constant the greatest error
from his life [3], [4]!
The theory of general relativity has changed complete the discussion about the origin
and future of the universe. A static universe could exist from every time, without a
beginning or an end. But if the galaxies are in expansion in present it means that in
the past they have been closed together. 15 billions of years ago the galaxies were a
point with infinite density of matter.
First who studied the origin of universe, just before Friedman, was the catholic priest
Lemaitre, man with solid knowledge in physics and mathematics. He was the person
who introduced the concept of great explosion (Big Bang), calling this special state
the ―prime atom‖.
However, AE did never take in serious this possibility thinking that the simple model
of universe in expansion cannot lead to the conclusion that in the past it could start
from an explosion. He believed that the galaxies instead would flow some ones
through the others.
Other scientists as Friedman or Penrose and Hawking, later, [3], [4] have shown that
the Big Bang could stay at the origin of universe and the Big Crunch or, the great
implosion, could be the end of it. Afterwards it was shown that still could exist two
models of the universe in which the contraction could be escaped.
AE remained in Germany till December 1932 when it became clearly the Hitler will
get the power. Therefore in a travel in USA he decided to remain there, renouncing to
the German citizenship in the favour of the American one. In the moment when this
news became public, the German media announced with huge satisfaction: ―Good
news about AE, he does not return from US!‖

44 Mărgărit Pavelescu
He passed the last twenty years to the Institute of Advanced Studies, from Princeton,
New Jersey, where it has had again only a research norm [1].
On the basis of the general theory of relativity, AE accounted for the previously
unexplained variations in the orbital motion of the planets and predicted the bending
of starlight in the vicinity of a massive body such as the sun. The confirmation of this
latter phenomenon during an eclipse of the sun in 1919 became a media event and
AE's fame spread worldwide.
For the rest of his life AE devoted considerable time to generalizing his theory even
more. His last effort, the unified field theory, which was not entirely successful, was
an attempt to understand all physical interactions—including electromagnetic
interactions and weak and strong interactions—in terms of the modification of the
geometry of space-time between interacting entities.
Most of AE's colleagues felt that these efforts were misguided. Between 1915 and
1930 the mainstream of physics was in developing a new conception of the
fundamental character of matter, known as quantum theory.
This theory contained the feature of wave-particle duality (light exhibits the properties
of a particle, as well as of a wave) that AE had earlier urged as necessary, as well as
the uncertainty principle, which states that precision in measuring processes is
limited. Additionally, it contained a novel rejection, at a fundamental level, of the
notion of strict causality. AE, however, did not accept such notions and remained
critic of these developments until the end of his life.
―God,‖ Einstein once said, ―does not play dice with the world.‖
This seams to show that AE reached, probably, his level of competence, which could
not be overtaken!
The direction in which one goes with the theory of AE is based on the idea that space
and time may form a closed surface, therefore finite, without boundaries and limits in
which is imbedded the incertitude principle for the early phases of the universe [3],
[4]. This idea has deep implication concerning the role of the God in universe
problems.
Owing to the success of scientific theories in events describing, some philosophers
arrived at the conclusion that the God allowed to the universe to evolve accordingly
with a set of laws and does not intervene in universe in order to disestablish these
laws. As long as the universe has had a beginning, the Big Bang therefore, we could
say that it was a Creator!
But if the universe is without limits in space and time, therefore completely
independent, it has not a beginning or an end; simply it exists from ever. In this case
however, it does not justify the concept of God, especially because it eliminated the
answer to the question: who created the God and what he did before to the origin
moment of the universe [4]?!
Connected by this debate may be signalized the interest of the Catholic Church for
the new scientific theories. So, the Vatican in 1981 organized to Rome an
international conference at which attended high prelates and scientists in order to
make efficacious consulting in matter of cosmology.
In order to escape a potential conflict of opinions, as it happened on Galileo time, the
Church, in face of evidence, made known that accepts the idea that the universe has
an oldest of 15 billions of years instead of 6000 years from Bible and, generally, are
acceptable all explanations connected by its genesis.

Albert Einstein - A Century from theTheory of Relativity: 1905-2005 45
However, in the audience to the Papa, this told the scientists that the Big Bang has to
be let in peace, because it is the moment of Creation, therefore the opera of God
who created the universe with the aim to not intervene in it! So, quite naturally for its
role, the Church does not go till the abolition of the concept of God!
6. WORLD CITIZEN
After 1919, AE became internationally renowned. He accrued honours and awards,
including the Nobel Prize in physics in 1921, from various world scientific societies.
His visit to any part of the world became a national event; photographers and
reporters followed him everywhere.
While regretting his loss of privacy, AE capitalized on his fame to further his own
political and social views. The two social movements that received his full support
were pacifism and Zionism.
During World War I he was one of a handful of German academics willing to publicly
decry Germany's involvement in the war.
After the war his continued public support of pacifist and Zionist goals made him the
target of vicious attacks by anti-Semitic and right-wing elements in Germany. Even
his scientific theories were publicly ridiculed, especially the theory of relativity.
When Hitler came to power, AE immediately decided to leave Germany for the United
States. He took a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New
Jersey. While continuing his efforts on behalf of world Zionism, AE renounced his
former pacifist stand in the face of the awesome threat to humankind posed by the
Nazi regime in Germany.
In 1939 AE collaborated with several other physicists in writing a letter to President
Franklin D. Roosevelt, pointing out the possibility of making an atomic bomb and the
likelihood that the German government was embarking on such a course. The letter,
which bore only AE's signature, helped lend urgency to efforts in the U.S. to build the
atomic bomb, but AE himself played no role in the work and knew nothing about it at
the time.
After the war, AE was active in the cause of international disarmament and world
government. He continued his active support of Zionism but declined the offer made
by leaders of the state of Israel to become president of that country.
In the U.S. during the late 1940s and early '50s he spoke out on the need for the
nation's intellectuals to make any sacrifice necessary to preserve political freedom.
AE died in Princeton on April 18, 1955.
AE's efforts in behalf of social causes have sometimes been viewed as unrealistic. In
fact, his proposals were always carefully thought out. Like his scientific theories, they
were motivated by sound intuition based on a shrewd and careful assessment of
evidence and observation. Although AE gave much of himself to political and social
causes, science always came first, because, he often said, only the discovery of the
nature of the universe would have lasting meaning. His writings include Relativity:
The Special and General Theory (1916); About Zionism (1931); Builders of the
Universe (1932); Why War? (1933), with Sigmund Freud; The World as I See It
(1934); The Evolution of Physics (1938), with the Polish physicist Leopold Infeld; and
Out of My Later Years (1950).
Einstein's collected papers are being published in a multivolume work, beginning in
1987.

46 Mărgărit Pavelescu
CONCLUSIONS
The theory of relativity developed in the twenty century was initially an attempt to
account for certain anomalies in the concept of relative motion, but which in its
ramifications has developed into one of the most important basic concepts in physical
science. The theory of the relativity, developed primarily by AE, is the basis for later
demonstration by physicists of the essential unity of matter and energy, of space and
time and of the forced of gravity and acceleration.
The actual stage at 50 years after the death of AE, on the way toward a complete
theory, is much advanced (systems with 11 dimensions instead of 4), although it was
not arrived to the end of way.
However, if it will be discovered indeed a complete theory, this has to be understood
in time and in principle by everybody, not only of few scientists! Then, we all,
scientists, philosophers, theologians and common people have to take part to a
debate concerning why do we and the universe exist? If we would find the answer to
this question, this could represent the supreme triumph of human ration.
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Samuel Glastone, ―Relativity‖, Microsoft Encarta 96 Encyclopedia, Funk&Vagnallis Corporation,
1993-1995.
[2] Lawrence A Bornstein, George Gamow, ―Special and General Theory of Relativity‖, Microsoft
Encarta 05 Encyclopedia, Funk&Vagnallis Corporation, 2004.
[3] Stephen Hawking, ―Universul intr-o coaja de nuca‖, Ed. Humanitas, Bucuresti, 2005.
[4] Stephen Hawking, ― Scurta istorie a timpului‖, Ed. Humanitas, Bucuresti, 2001.

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 47
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE IDEAL REPOSITORY CONCEPT
Mărgărit PAVELESCU 1 , Alexandru Octavian PAVELESCU 2 , Ioan URSU
Abstract. The problem of safe management and response of radioactive waste is an urgent
concern in many countries around the world. High radioactivity and long life components (but
not only) of these wastes are known to ask them to deposit geological disposal - an
approach that is expensive and depends on the arrangement of sites with suitable geological
features. Consequently, there is an increased interest in developing the concept of ideal
storage (IRC), which could be used by nations and operated to the highest international
standards. The objective of the paper is to identify the characteristics of IRC considered as a
site of high insulation (HIS) which could be intrinsically safe and extremely favorable for the
deep geological disposal of nuclear waste. The objective comprises of the following
components: a) general analysis of the concept of conventional storage and b)
characteristics of the IRC. Based on the differences, it shows the advantage of IRC to be
able to provide more natural insulation waste than for CRC. However in the world there are
only a few HIS, so that the interests of many countries is directed to sites which are the
closest IRC. Further on, the interest in Romania for a research field, together with similar
institutes in Germany is presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
All developed countries are faced with the task of long-term disposal of radioactive
waste. Even countries with no nuclear power production use radioactive isotopes for
medical and industrial purposes and these must be safely isolated until their levels of
radioactivity no longer represent a significant hazard.
Countries that have nuclear energy face a greater challenge because their nuclear
reactors produce wastes which have very high initials levels of radioactivity. Although
many radio-nuclides decay completely with centuries, however some need to be
safely isolated for extremely long times, if the highest standards of radiation safety
are to be satisfied. In addition, those countries that have produced nuclear weapons
must deal not only with reactor wastes, but also with plutonium in surplus as a result
of nuclear arms reductions treaties.
The majority of the waste identified for disposal in the repository has been generated
in over 400 nuclear power plants and other nuclear facilities through the world. These
materials contain long-lived radio-nuclides and fall into four main types: 1) spent
nuclear fuel (SNF); 2) high-level waste (HLW); 3) low and intermediate level waste
(LILW); 4) nuclear weapons waste (NWW).
SNF is nuclear fuel that has produced energy in a power plant reactor for several
years until it become inefficient through the build up of the waste products within the
fuel. HLW is the unusable material extracted when spent nuclear fuel is reprocessed
to recover-usable uranium and plutonium. The HLW is converted to a stable glass
like form by a process called vitrification. LILW is the product of a large variety of
nuclear operation. It is far less radioactive than HLW. It is made up of a variety of
forms, including fuel assembly cladding, treatment process material and general
operation waste.
It is classified according to whether it requires remote handling – RH-LILW or contact
handling – CH-LILW. The final form for RH-LILW is produced by encapsulating the
waste in cements stable solid blocks.
1 Founding, full member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, Str. Splaiul Independentei nr. 54,
sector 5, 050094, Bucharest, Romania, e mail: mpavelescu2002@yahoo.com.
2 University “Politehnica” of Bucharest.

Mărgărit Pavelescu, Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Ioan Ursu 48
NWW is the redundant material from nuclear weapons programs. This has to be
converted into the waste forms that meet the stringent standards required by the
safety case. If it has in view the plutonium, there are two sound options for disposing:
use it in existing reactors as mixed oxide fuel, or convert it into a stable waste form.
The last one consists from highly insoluble glass or ceramic waste form that can be
emplaced into a secure deep geological facility.
2. CONVENTIONAL REPOSITORY CONCEPT
For all waste types to be emplaced in the conventional repository concept as an
underground mine in geological stable formations, a safety case must be performed
(Brian Looney, 2000).
This must demonstrate that their disposal will be safe for present and future
generation. Although the need for a safe disposal of nuclear waste has been
universally acknowledged for a number of years, the discussion on how the long-term
safety of the disposal practice should be assessed is still proceeding. Indeed, on one
hand, option feasibility studies as well as sites investigations and selections activities
must be implemented today in order to achieve operating repository systems in the
coming years, and this involves considerable assessment work.
On the other hand, due to the complex task that the analysts working in this field are
facing, new methodologies and techniques are being developed in order to give the
best answers to the questions raised by the safety evaluation of the underground
disposal.
A few remarkable characteristics may be identified that make the safety assessment
task unique for nuclear waste disposal practice, namely:
1) the complex nature of the multibarrier system to be described;
2) the very long time span to be covered by the analysis;
3) the uncertainties affecting some of the input parameters and model
assumptions;
4) the fact that a complete repository system does not exist, yet;
5) the public concern for the safety aspects.
There are two primary functions for a normal geological repository:
1) to physically isolate the waste from environment and
2) to prevent or minimize processes that could result in the transport of the
radioactive materials from the repository back to the biosphere.
Physical isolation is readily achieved for geological repositories situated at sufficient
depth to avoid erosion by rivers or glaciers, even for the long time frames required by
the repository.
The primary issue of concern at a most potential repository sites is to ensure that
there will be minimal groundwater flow in the repository vicinity. It could be shown
that even a small amount of groundwater is capable over long periods of time of
dissolving and transporting radioactivity to the biosphere.
A central concept for repository design is the use of multiple barriers against the
release of radioactivity to the biosphere. This makes that if one barrier fails to perform
as expected, the others still operate.
Because they are quite different, it is common to divide release barriers into
engineered barriers and natural ones. Indeed, the consensus of the scientists and

Characterization of The Ideal Repository Concept 49
engineers involved in this program is that the technology and methodology exist to
safely dispose of nuclear wastes and to demonstrate that the disposal is safe and the
disposal concept itself rests on a firm ethical and environmental basis.
Despite these efforts, however, no repository for disposal of SNF or HLW has yet
been constructed. Even of it did, its performance in the very long-term could not be
tested. Also, there are many input parameters insufficient known and this creates an
unquiet state.
Therefore, many members of the public do not believe that the problems of disposing
radioactive wastes have been solved and they feel that radioactive wastes represent
a serious threat to the environmental. More than this, there is the global impression
that nuclear energy itself is dangerous and must be stopped.
The question is why is there such discrepancy between the opinions of the informed
scientists and those of the public? One reason for the lack of public confidence lies in
distrust of the novel scientific and technical solutions that are being proposed for the
different disposal programs.
The question is often raised whether we have sufficient knowledge today to proceed
with disposal of wastes? Also, as we have learned more about specific sites, it has
become evident that many are more complex than was expected and, therefore, it
will be more difficult than was initially to convincingly demonstrate their capability for
retaining radioactive wastes.
This has tended to lead to more reliance on sophisticated multi-component
engineered barriers systems, which has further increased system complexity and
eroded public confidence. The public would like to be reassured that scientists are
seeking the best available sites for nuclear waste disposal.
However, all countries planning for national radioactive waste repositories have some
limitations in the choices of the geological systems in which they could emplace the
wastes.
Some countries are geologically active, with complex and unstable geological
structures. Others have older, more stable geology, but have to deal with ground
water flowing in complicated fracture systems within the rock and so, there are risks
that the water could eventually start to dissolve the wastes and transport the
radionuclides to the biosphere.
Geologically complex site considered as conventional repository concept -CRC- can
be perfect safe, but they me be difficult to characterize and they may require highly
effective underground-engineered barriers. Also, many countries experience periods
of marked climatic changes leading to episodes of glaciating, which can profoundly
affect the flow of surface and subsurface waters and erosions.
In the light of all these facts, the following problem appeared: if the public is skeptical
of high-tech solutions, why not seek out simpler sites whose favorable geological
properties would provide reliable containment of the wastes without the need for
sophisticated engineered barriers?
It is recommendable to look for superior sites, which can be clearly shown to have
favorable characteristics for disposal. If such sites can be found in locations that
satisfy the other requirements as transportation, engineering feasibility, etc, they
could be a key to solving the world‘s radioactive waste problem. Such ideas have
been discussed to Berkeley Workshop, Apr., 01 and to The International High Level
Radioactive Waste Management Conference in Las Vegas, Nevada, 4.30-5.03.01 in
special panels dedicated to the subject (McCombie, 2001).

Mărgărit Pavelescu, Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Ioan Ursu 50
The suggested approach was to identify the characteristics of the IRC of a type of a
high isolation site -HIS- that would be intrinsically safe and to then look for its
characteristics signature worldwide (McCombie , 2001).
3. IDEAL REPOSITORY CONCEPT
There is one way to substitute the sophisticated engineered barriers, namely to take
into account a site with simple geological structure and minimal groundwater
movement. Indeed, in this case the geological conditions in these regions would give
high assurance that the wastes are isolated from the environment and provide the
main component of a safety case, thus avoiding the requirement for complex
engineered solutions.
Therefore, in such cases it is much easier and not consuming time to fully
characterize the site. The following characteristics of the IRC might be identified:
1) simple and stable geology;
2) arid climate stable over hundreds of thousands of years with minimal
infiltration water to the rock;
3) minimal movements of groundwater and no direct groundwater pathways from
the repository level to the surface;
4) absence of ice cover in recent or future glaciating;
5) extremely low recorded seismic activity and negligible uplift or erosion rates;
6) low population density;
7) absence of significant of mineral or water resources;
8) minimal potential for inadvertent future human intrusion.
The performance assessment of the IRC may be much simpler that of the CRC. This
is because much of the safety case for high isolation site which is IRC will consists of
demonstrating that the conventional processes of transport by moving groundwater,
which must be quantified at conventional sites, will not significantly affect the performance
of the IRC.
The demonstration will be based on quantitative interpretations of the measured data
sets, but also on the consideration of the fundamental physics and chemistry of
transport processes and on direct determination of the age of the site groundwater.
Fundamental characteristics of high isolation site -HIS- that will simplify the safety
assessment are the spatial homogeneity resulting from the simpler geological
structure and their extrapolation in time resulting from the geological stability.
However, there will be important technical issues to resolve.
One is that at IRC the impacts of the repository itself cannot initiate any significant
transport of radioactive waste. The repository generates heat for the first few
thousand years and it will have to demonstrate that this heat will not cause damage
to any of the barriers, nor cause groundwater convections cells, which could
transport radioactivity to the biosphere.
Finally, another great advantage of the IRC is the retreavability. This implies
implementing a repository that allows for the possibility that a future society might
want to recover the disposed wastes.
One possible explanation for such an intention could be, for instance, to recover the
unburned energy in once through nuclear power systems where less than 10% of the
potential energy is extracted from the fuel.

Characterization of The Ideal Repository Concept 51
The IRC allows for a flexible approach to the issue because the host rock type is
inherently stable. Therefore, is no need to explicitly design repository for easy
retrivability.
From the above it is obvious that IRC is much more convenient that CRC. However,
there are only a few sites in the world which accomplish the specific characteristics
for IRC. So, if the problem of the internationalizing of such sites will be difficult to be
negotiated, the most countries will be forced to look for repositories on national
territory that can be developed using more widely available disposal environmental.
This may be done probably less economically and requiring more complex
technologies to achieve the required level of safety.
So, the problem number one is to find the sites that are closest to IRC. There are
several elements that are to be followed in this case, namely:
1) limiting the amount released;
2) long travel time;
3) high dilution of the radioactivity in the biosphere;
4) minimum biosphere exposure.
Due to their low permeability, salts and an un frustrated clay/shale host rocks may
have effectively no groundwater flow at all, so the primary release mechanism is
limited to the diffusion of dissolved species through their pores. In this way such host
rocks could be a very effective natural barriers from the point of view of limiting the
amount released.
Because of radioactivity decay, the sites where the processes of the radionuclides
transport are very slow will have lower release into environment, as many species will
decay before reaching the atmosphere.
Long travel times can be achieved by having a very low groundwater seepage
velocity, by emplacing wastes in formation which retard the movements of
radionuclides and by selecting sites with longer distances to groundwater discharge
areas or aquifers.
The harmful effects of exposure to radioactivity increase with the intensity of
radiation. Accordingly, there would be less risk to the individuals from a site with a
low groundwater flow rate which discharged directly into a major water body, so that
very small release rates were immediately diluted to negligible concentrations.
Minimum biosphere exposure could be met in the sites which have had groundwater
pathways that could carry dissolved radioactivity to the surface and the discharged
points would be in areas unattractive for human habitation and which do not provide
a significant source of water to a food chain.
CONCLUSIONS
The IRC is a highly valid approach because is an effective high isolation system-HIS.
However, there are only a few sites like this in the world, namely; Australia, South
Africa.
So the attention of countries which do not have access to such emplacements is
directed to sites with best natural barriers that are in this way closest to the IRC and
better than CRC.
Both in Romania and Germany there are potential sites with salt and granite rocks
that are very close to the characteristics of the IRC.

Mărgărit Pavelescu, Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Ioan Ursu 52
A cooperation concerning the salt as host rock for SNF from CANDU‘s and LWR‘s
has been accomplished a few years ago under auspices of NATO contract
(Buhmann D., 2000).
The granite is also a potential suitable rock for disposal of SNF from CANDU and
LWR because the permeability of the rock is very low as long as it is not exceedingly
fracturated.
In both countries large and stable granite formations exist, showing very slow
groundwater movement and long pathways to the biosphere.
So, there is a potential of cooperation between the countries in this field, and just it
was exploited by another NATO contract (Storck R. 2001).
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Buhmann D., A. Ionescu, M. Pavelescu, R. Storck, Comparison of Safety Assessment of
Final Repository with Direct Disposal in Rock Salt, Grs-168/200, Braunschweig, Institute of
Nuclear Research Pitesti, SCN-NT-250/2000.
[2] Looney Brian B, Ronald W Falta, Vadose Zone: Science and Technology Solutions, Battele
Press, 2000.
[3] McCombie C., International Repositories: A Necessary Complements to National Facilities,
Workshop Berkeley, California, USA, April, 2001.
[4] McComby C., International Solutions to Waste Management, Radioactive Waste
Management Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada, UDS, 4.30-5.03.01.
[5] Storck R., M. Pavelescu, D. Buhmann, A. Ionescu, Long-Term Safety Assessment of Spent
Nuclear Fuel in Granite Formation: Comparison of LWR and CANDU SNF, NATO Contract
CLG (EST) 977.810/2001.

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 53
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX
AND INGESTION HAZARD
Alexandru Octavian PAVELESCU 1 , Dan Gabriel CEPRAGA 2
Abstract. In radioactive waste management, radio-toxicity can be characterized by two
types of approach: 1) the concept of clearance (cleaning), IAEA, 2004 RS-G-1.7 and 2)
guide concentration of radioactivity, U.S., 10CFR20, in terms of biological hazard of
ingestion/ inhalation, expressed in cubic meters of water/air. In the paper is performed a
comparison between the two concepts of security. Case is molded at a range of CANDU fuel
burn of 37 fuel elements with reference to a degree of combustion of 685 GJ / kgU (7928.24
MWD / tu). In the paper are calculated radio-toxicity light nuclei, the actinides and fission
products. The calculation was performed using the code Origen-S in conjunction with library
activation-burning and data library updated with the disintegration of clearance as Origen
produced with the code WIMS-AECL/SCALENEA-1. Were evaluated both radioactivity
concentration expressed in Curie, Bequerel or extra clearance index and biological risk
factors for ingestion/ inhalation for radio nucleuses in a CANDU kg of fuel burned to
download and cooling times of 1, 50, 1500 years.
1. INTRODUCTION
The environmental and safety assessment of the concept of geological disposal of
used CANDU‘UO, fuel waste in plutonic rock involves a detailed analysis of the
pathways for radionuclides released from used fuel into groundwaters present in the
disposal vault, as well as the transport of these nuclides through the geosphere to
the biosphere.
These analyses provide the information required to estimate the radiological dose
consequences and risks to man and the environment from such a disposal facility.
To perform this safety assessment it is necessary to have a detailed knowledge of
the radionuclide content in the used fuel.
The radionuclide inventories have been calculated using the radionuclide generation
and depletion code ORIGEN-S for a Bruce-A reactor fuel 1 Canada Deuterium
Uranium.
These calculated inventories can provide the source-term data for other safety
assessment code, such us the German GRS code, EMOS, or the Canadian SYVAC
(Systems Variability Analysis Code) ORIGEN-S code was publicly released as part of
the SCALE (Standardized Computer Analyses for Licensing Evaluation) modular
code system that was developed at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL).
Knowing the detailed radionuclide content in the used fuel, it is possible to have a
broader vision regarding the radiotoxicity of the spent fuel. In this context, there are
two major approaches:
- IAEA clearance index concept and
- US radioactivity concentration guides (in terms of ingestion hazard in m 3
of water, respectively inhalation hazard in m 3 of air)
2. CONCEPTS DESCRIPTION
In this field it is very useful to make a comparison between the two existing safety
concepts, which are based on different approaches:
1 University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania, alexandru.pavelescu@gmail.com.
2 ENEA FIS-MET, Bologna, Italy, dangabriel.cepraga@bologna.enea.it.

54 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
The AIEA approach related on Safety Guide RS-G-1.7 - 2004 [1] that uses the
concept of ―clearance‖.
The clearance is intended to indicate which material under regulatory control can
be removed from this control. Clearance is defined as the removal of radioactive
materials or radioactive objects within authorized practices from any further
regulatory control by the regulatory body.
In summary the International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against
Ionizing Radiation an for the Safety of Radiation Sources (BSS) provided
radiological criteria to serve as a basis for the derivation of the clearance levels
but did not provide any definitive quantitative guidance on clearance levels.
Activity concentration values in Becquerel/g or Becquerel/kg (or clearance levels)
were developed for use in making decisions on the exemption of bulk radioactive
materials.
The US approach, described in the Code of Federal Regulations. The code
provides in Part 10, Title 20 (10CFR20 - 1991) [2] the radioactivity concentration
guides (RCG) for continuous ingestion (from water) and inhalation (from air) in
unrestricted areas, in units of curies per cubic meter (Ci/m 3 ). The RCG values
specify the maximum permissible concentrations of an isotope in soluble and
insoluble forms, for both ingestion and inhalation, and for occupational and
unrestricted exposure. When the activity (in curies) of a given isotope is divided
by the radioactivity concentration guides for that isotope, the result is the volume
of water (or air) required to dilute that quantity of the isotope to its maximum
permissible concentration. The dilution volume is a measure of the radioactive
toxicity of the nuclide for cases of direct ingestion or inhalation.
The safety assessment for the transport and disposal of used CANDU UO2 fuel
requires the calculation of radionuclide inventories in the fuel to provide source terms
for radionuclide release.
In this paper the radiotoxicity of the light elements inventories, the actinide, and
fission-products is presented, calculated using the ORIGEN-S in conjunction with the
activation-burn-up library and an updated decay data library with clearance levels
data in ORIGEN format produced by WIMS-AECL/SCALENEA-1 code system [3].
3. SPENT FUEL DESCRIPTION
Both the total radioactivity (TR) expressed in Curie and Becquerel, and the
clearance index (CI) and ingestion /inhalation hazard (I/IH) [4], [5], [6] were
calculated for the radionuclides contained in 1 kg of irradiated fuel element CANDU
natural uranium 37-element fuel bundle with a reference burn-up of 685 GJ/kgU
(7928.24 MWd/MTU) [7],[8] at shutdown and for 1, 50, 1500 years cooling time.
However for convenience, only ingestion hazard (IH) are given in paper.
Modelling Conditions:
- Initial charge = 1 kg (0.0054%U234+0.711%U235+99.2836%U238) & 134 g
Oxy & 1kg Zircaoy-4
- Irradiation power = 3.500E-02 MW/kg U in 5 cycles of 45.3 days each,
- Burn-up = 7.9274E+03 MWd/tU,
- Total Neutron Flux = 1.41E+14 n/cm 2 *sec
Fuel geometry and proprieties are shown in Table 3.1

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 55
Table 3.1. Fuel Geometry and proprieties: [4]
Data for CANDU 685GJ/kgU, Bruce NPP are given in Table 3.2.
4. CALCULATIONAL METHOD
Table 3.2. Data for CANDU 685 GJ/kgU, Bruce NPP [7]
ORIGEN-S requires as input the initial fuel composition, the bundle burn-up, and the
linear power rating (or the neutron fluence) as a function of the irradiation time. The
code then solves the coupled set of differential equations that describe the

56 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
generation and depletion of all isotopes involved to produce the final isotopic fuel
composition. A decay database is used to determine the activity and decay heat from
isotopic concentrations. ORIGEN-S determines the reaction rate, R, for each nuclear
reaction in the data library, using:
where N is the atomic density of the target nucleus (b -1 cm -1 ); , the effective
reaction cross section (b); and , the absolute thermal neutron flux, with energy E
Ef, the fast
energy cutoff (1.0 MeV).
The three neutron flux weighting factors, THERM, RES and FAST, used to describe
the flux spectral shape, are calculated by the SCALE system and are contained in
the working library. This allows a three energy-group equivalent specification of the
cross sections.
The activation and fission processes were modelled with the specific power in fixedpower
mode.
In this paper, the final discharge composition of the fuel was calculated using a series
of burn-up steps derived from the detailed power history of the fuel. An outer element
was chosen from a Bruce-A fuel bundle. The modelling of the burn-up was broken
into five irradiation time segments, using an averaged power over each time
segment.
The initial isotopic fuel composition was that of natural U (99.2836% U-238, 0.711%
U-235 0.0054% U-234) [7]. In order to obtain an accurate value for the recoverable
energy per fission in the fuel element, it was necessary to account for the presence
of the zirconium cladding as well as the oxygen in the fuel, coolant and moderator in
this calculation [8]. Inclusion of this material is required to account for the energy
release due to neutron capture in the light elements outside the fuel region, which
accounts for a small fraction of the bundle power. Inclusion of the light elements
affects the calculation of the neutron flux level, which is derived by ORIGEN-S from
the power specified in the input and the calculated time-dependent fuel compositions.
Resonance calculations were first performed using the SCALE multigroup cross
section library, and a lattice calculation was performed using the WIMS-AECL code
to determine the neutron flux distribution in the outer element region of the fuel
bundle. Isotopic cross sections were then calculated that were specific to this outer
fuel element. The multigroup cross sections were collapsed, using the neutron flux
spectrum from WIMS-AECL, into a three-group structure used by ORIGEN-S. These
two cross section libraries were then merged and subsequently used by the COUPLE
code to update the standard ORIGEN-S cross-section library with the calculated
application-specific cross sections. The ORIGEN-S data libraries were preferentially
updated using the WIMS-AECL data; if the equivalent WIMS-AECL data did not exist,
the SCALE data were retained for that isotope. The three-group flux weighting
factors, THERM, RES and FAST were calculated in COUPLE using the WIMS-AECL
flux spectrum and were applied to all remaining ORIGEN-S isotopes that were not
updated with multigroup cross sections [3], [4], [5].

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 57
The updated nuclear database used by ORIGEN-S was then used to generate a new
fuel composition following the first short irradiation time step. From this, a new
material composition file was produced for WIMS-AECL and new input interfaces
were produced for SCALE-based codes. This produced a new set of starting data for
the next irradiation step, and the cycle was repeated six times until the desired burnup
was achieved. Thus, a set of time-dependent cross section libraries was produced
and saved for subsequent applications [6]. Following the completion of the burn-up
calculation, the ORIGEN-S code depleted the isotopic inventories in the fuel to the
desired time periods.
5. NUMERICAL RESULTS
The obtained results, as radiotoxicity of CANDU –CI and IH-, for light elements at
discharge from reactor, at 1 year, 50 years and 1500 years are shown in Table 5.1.1
respectively Table 5.1.2, Table 5.1.3 and Table 5.1.4.
The Figures 5.1.1.1, 5.1.2.2 are graphics based on Table 5.1.1, the Figures 5.1.2.1,
5.1.2.2 are graphics based on Table 5.1.2, the Figures 5.1.3.1, 5.1.3.2 are graphics
based on Table 5.1.3 and the Figures 5.1.4.1, 5.1.4.2 are graphics based on Table
5.1.4. All figures reflect the TR, CI and IH for the light elements composition..
The obtained results, as radiotoxicity of CANDU –CI and IH-, for actinides at
discharge from reactor, at 1 year, 50 years and 1500 years are shown in Table 5.2.1
respectively Table 5.2.2, Table 5.2.3 and Table 5.2.4.
The Figures 5.2.1.1, 5.2.1.2 are graphics based on Table 5.2.1, the Figures 5.2.2.1,
5.2.2.2 are graphics based on Table 5.2.2, the Figures 5.2.3.1, 5.2.3.2 are graphics
based on Table 5.2.3 and the Figures 5.2.4.1, 5.2.4.2 are graphics based on Table
5.2.4. TR, CI and IH for the actinides composition are shown in the figures.
The obtained results, as radiotoxicity of CANDU –CI and IH- for fission products at
discharge from reactor, at 1 year, 50 years and 1500 years are shown in Table 5.3.1
respectively Table 5.3.2, Table 5.3.3 and Table 5.3.4.
The Figures 5.3.1.1, 5.3.1.2 are graphics based on Table 5.3.1, the Figures 5.3.2.1,
5.3.2.2 are graphics based on Table 5.3.2, the Figures 5.3.3.1, 5.3.3.2 are graphics
based on Table 5.3.3 and the Figures 5.3.4.1 and 5.3.4.2 are graphics based on
Table 5.3.4. The figures represent the values of TR, CI and IH for the fission products
composition.
Table 5.1.1 Radiotoxicity of CANDU: clearance index and ingestion hazard (m 3 water)
LIGHT ELEMENTS AT DISCHARGE
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 1.32E+03 4.88E+13 8.28E+06 1.99E+10 2.82E+07
Zr 95 2.70E+02 9.99E+12 1.00E+03 9.99E+09 4.50E+06
Nb 95 2.39E+02 8.84E+12 1.00E+03 8.84E+09 2.39E+06
Sn 117m 2.69E+01 9.95E+11 5.80E+03 1.72E+08 8.98E+06
Cr 51 2.14E+01 7.92E+11 1.00E+05 7.92E+06 1.07E+04
Sn 121 1.72E+01 6.36E+11 8.70E+04 7.31E+06 5.73E+06
Sn 119m 1.23E+01 4.55E+11 5.20E+04 8.75E+06 4.09E+06
Y 90 6.75E+00 2.50E+11 1.00E+06 2.50E+05 3.38E+05
In 113m 6.29E+00 2.33E+11 1.00E+05 2.33E+06 6.29E+03

58 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Sn 113 6.29E+00 2.33E+11 1.00E+03 2.33E+08 7.86E+04
Hf 181 5.71E+00 2.11E+11 1.00E+03 2.11E+08 8.16E+04
Nb 95m 2.97E+00 1.10E+11 1.10E+04 9.99E+06 9.91E+05
Sn 123 1.55E+00 5.74E+10 1.70E+04 3.37E+06 5.18E+05
Fe 55 1.17E+00 4.33E+10 1.00E+06 4.33E+04 1.47E+03
Sb 125 9.36E-01 3.46E+10 1.00E+02 3.46E+08 9.36E+03
Sb 122 5.14E-01 1.90E+10 1.00E+04 1.90E+06 1.71E+04
Y 91 4.19E-01 1.55E+10 1.00E+05 1.55E+05 1.40E+04
Ta 183 4.01E-01 1.48E+10 3.10E+03 4.79E+06 1.34E+05
W 183m 4.01E-01 1.48E+10 7.00E+03 2.12E+06 4.01E-01
Nb 96 3.55E-01 1.31E+10 4.10E+02 3.20E+07 1.18E+05
Hf 175 3.26E-01 1.21E+10 2.70E+03 4.47E+06 1.09E+05
Fe 59 2.20E-01 8.14E+09 1.00E+03 8.14E+06 4.40E+03
Sn 125 2.05E-01 7.59E+09 1.00E+04 7.59E+05 1.03E+04
Sr 89 1.69E-01 6.25E+09 1.00E+06 6.25E+03 5.63E+04
In 114 1.42E-01 5.25E+09 1.20E+04 4.38E+05 1.42E-01
Te 125m 1.41E-01 5.22E+09 1.00E+06 5.22E+03 1.41E+03
In 114m 7.70E-02 2.85E+09 1.00E+04 2.85E+05 3.85E+03
Mn 54 7.09E-02 2.62E+09 1.00E+02 2.62E+07 7.09E+02
Ta 182 3.64E-02 1.35E+09 1.00E+02 1.35E+07 9.09E+02
Sb 126 1.54E-02 5.70E+08 3.60E+02 1.58E+06 5.14E+03
Sb 124 1.00E-02 3.70E+08 1.00E+03 3.70E+05 5.01E+02
Lu 177 8.01E-03 2.96E+08 1.00E+05 2.96E+03 8.01E+01
Sn 121m 9.07E-04 3.36E+07 1.20E+05 2.80E+02 3.02E+02
Mo 99 8.62E-04 3.19E+07 1.00E+04 3.19E+03 2.16E+01
Te 123m 4.32E-04 1.60E+07 1.00E+03 1.60E+04 1.44E+02
Co 60 3.96E-04 1.47E+07 1.00E+02 1.47E+05 1.32E+01
Zr 93 2.83E-04 1.05E+07 1.00E+04 1.05E+03 3.54E-01
C 14 9.13E-05 3.38E+06 1.00E+03 3.38E+03 1.14E-01
Te 127 4.60E-05 1.70E+06 1.00E+06 1.70E+00 2.30E-01
Y 89m 1.57E-05 5.81E+05 1.10E+03 5.28E+02 1.57E-05
Cd 115 1.47E-05 5.44E+05 1.00E+04 5.44E+01 4.91E-01
Lu 177m 8.09E-06 2.99E+05 5.70E+03 5.25E+01 2.70E+00
W 185 3.94E-06 1.46E+05 1.00E+06 1.46E-01 3.94E-02
Nb 93m 3.71E-06 1.37E+05 1.00E+04 1.37E+01 9.29E-03
Te 127m 2.11E-06 7.81E+04 1.00E+04 7.81E+00 4.22E-02
Sr 90 1.08E-06 4.00E+04 1.00E+03 4.00E+01 3.61E+00
Cd 115m 4.40E-07 1.63E+04 1.00E+05 1.63E-01 1.47E-02
Re 186 2.36E-07 8.73E+03 1.00E+06 8.73E-03 4.72E-03
Yb 175 2.03E-07 7.51E+03 1.00E+05 7.51E-02 2.03E-03
W 181 1.66E-07 6.14E+03 1.00E+04 6.14E-01 5.55E-04
Sc 47 2.57E-08 9.51E+02 1.00E+05 9.51E-03 2.86E-04
Co 58 9.36E-09 3.46E+02 1.00E+03 3.46E-01 1.04E-04
Cd 113m 4.78E-09 1.77E+02 5.40E+04 3.28E-03 1.59E-03
Hf 182 3.89E-09 1.44E+02 4.60E+03 3.13E-02 1.30E-03
H 3 1.51E-09 5.59E+01 1.00E+05 5.59E-04 5.04E-07

sn117m,
1.72E+08,
1%
nb 95,
8.84E+09,
44%
Sn119m,
4.09E+06,
15%
Sn121,
5.73E+06,
20%
Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 59
Light Elements Clearance Index at Discharge
Total Clearence Index 1.99E+10
Total Radioactivity 4.88E+13 Bq
sn113,
2.33E+08,
1%
hf181,
2.11E+08,
1%
Figure 5.1.1.1
Figure 5.1.1.2
sb125,
3.46E+08,
2%
Light Elements Ingestion Hazard at Discharge (m 3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 2.82E+07 m
Total Radioactivity 1.32E+03 Ci
Nb 95m,
9.91E+05,
4%
Sn123,
5.18E+05,
2%
Zr 95,
4.50E+06,
3
zr 95,
9.99E+09,
50%
16% nb 95,
Sn117m,
8.98E+06,
32%
2.39E+06,
8%

60 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Table 5.1.2. Radiotoxicity of CANDU: clearance index and ingestion hazard (m 3 water)
LIGHT ELEMENTS AT 1 YEAR COOLING TIME
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity
Clearance
Level
Clearance
Index
Ingestion
Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 2.50E+01 9.25E+11 6.83E+06 9.16E+08 2.03E+06
Nb 95 1.11E+01 4.11E+11 1.00E+03 4.11E+08 1.11E+05
Zr 95 5.17E+00 1.91E+11 1.00E+03 1.91E+08 8.62E+04
Sn 119m 5.17E+00 1.91E+11 5.20E+04 3.68E+06 1.72E+06
Fe 55 9.10E-01 3.37E+10 1.00E+06 3.37E+04 1.14E+03
Sb 125 7.28E-01 2.69E+10 1.00E+02 2.69E+08 7.28E+03
In 113m 6.97E-01 2.58E+10 1.00E+05 2.58E+05 6.97E+02
Sn 113 6.97E-01 2.58E+10 1.00E+03 2.58E+07 8.71E+03
Sn 123 2.19E-01 8.10E+09 1.70E+04 4.77E+05 7.29E+04
Te 125m 1.77E-01 6.55E+09 1.00E+06 6.55E+03 1.77E+03
Nb 95m 6.08E-02 2.25E+09 1.10E+04 2.05E+05 2.03E+04
Mn 54 3.15E-02 1.17E+09 1.00E+02 1.17E+07 3.15E+02
Hf 181 1.45E-02 5.37E+08 1.00E+03 5.37E+05 2.08E+02
Hf 175 8.77E-03 3.24E+08 2.70E+03 1.20E+05 2.92E+03
Y 91 5.53E-03 2.05E+08 1.00E+05 2.05E+03 1.84E+02
Ta 182 4.02E-03 1.49E+08 1.00E+02 1.49E+06 1.01E+02
Cr 51 2.30E-03 8.51E+07 1.00E+05 8.51E+02 1.15E+00
Sr 89 1.13E-03 4.18E+07 1.00E+06 4.18E+01 3.77E+02
Sn 121m 8.96E-04 3.32E+07 1.20E+05 2.76E+02 2.99E+02
Fe 59 7.43E-04 2.75E+07 1.00E+03 2.75E+04 1.49E+01
Sn 121 6.95E-04 2.57E+07 8.70E+04 2.96E+02 2.32E+02
In 114m 4.63E-04 1.71E+07 1.00E+04 1.71E+03 2.32E+01
In 114 4.43E-04 1.64E+07 1.20E+04 1.37E+03 4.43E-04
Co 60 3.47E-04 1.28E+07 1.00E+02 1.28E+05 1.16E+01
Zr 93 2.83E-04 1.05E+07 1.00E+04 1.05E+03 3.54E-01
Sb 124 1.49E-04 5.51E+06 1.00E+03 5.51E+03 7.47E+00
C 14 9.13E-05 3.38E+06 1.00E+03 3.38E+03 1.14E-01
Te 123m 5.21E-05 1.93E+06 1.00E+03 1.93E+03 1.74E+01
Nb 93m 1.55E-05 5.74E+05 1.00E+04 5.74E+01 3.86E-02
Lu 177m 1.68E-06 6.22E+04 5.70E+03 1.09E+01 5.59E-01
Sr 90 1.06E-06 3.92E+04 1.00E+03 3.92E+01 3.53E+00
Y 90 1.06E-06 3.92E+04 1.00E+06 3.92E-02 5.29E-02
Lu 177 3.68E-07 1.36E+04 1.00E+05 1.36E-01 3.68E-03
Sn 117m 2.21E-07 8.18E+03 5.80E+03 1.41E+00 7.37E-02
Te 127m 2.07E-07 7.66E+03 1.00E+04 7.66E-01 4.14E-03
Te 127 2.03E-07 7.51E+03 1.00E+06 7.51E-03 1.01E-03
W 185 1.35E-07 5.00E+03 1.00E+06 5.00E-03 1.35E-03
Y 89m 1.05E-07 3.89E+03 1.10E+03 3.53E+00 1.05E-07
W 181 2.06E-08 7.62E+02 1.00E+04 7.62E-02 6.87E-05
Cd 113m 4.55E-09 1.68E+02 5.40E+04 3.12E-03 1.52E-03
Hf 182 3.89E-09 1.44E+02 4.60E+03 3.13E-02 1.30E-03

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 61
Light Elements Clearance Index at 1 Year Cooling Time
Total Clearance Index 9.16E+08
Total Radioactivity 9.25E+11 Bq
sb125,
2.69E+08,
29%
sn113,
2.58E+07,
3%
Figure 5.1.2.1
mn 54,
1.17E+07,
1%
nb 95,
4.11E+08,
45%
zr 95,
1.91E+08,
Light Elements 21% Ingestion Hazard at 1 Year Cooling
Time (m 3 Water)
Light Elements Ingestion Hazard at 1 Year Cooling
Time (m 3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 2.03E+06 m 3
Total Ingestion Hazard 2.03E+06 m
Total Radioactivity 2.50E+01 Ci
3
Total Radioactivity 2.50E+01 Ci
Figure 5.1.2.2
Table 5.1.3
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 nb 95m, nb 95,
sn123, 2.03E+04, 1.11E+05,
7.29E+04, 1% 5%
nb 95m, nb 95,
zr 95,
4%
2.03E+04, 1.11E+05,
8.62E+04,
sn123,
7.29E+04, 1% 5%
4%
zr 95,
4%
8.62E+04,
4%
sn119m,
1.72E+06,
85%
sn119m,
1.72E+06,
85%
water)
LIGHT ELEMENTS AT 50 YEARS COOLING TIME
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 1.48E-03 5.48E+07 3.23E+06 6.66E+03 2.85E+02
Sn 121m 4.77E-04 1.76E+07 1.20E+05 1.47E+02 1.59E+02
Sn 121 3.70E-04 1.37E+07 8.70E+04 1.57E+02 1.23E+02
Zr 93 2.83E-04 1.05E+07 1.00E+04 1.05E+03 3.53E-01
Nb 93m 2.52E-04 9.32E+06 1.00E+04 9.32E+02 6.29E-01
C 14 9.07E-05 3.36E+06 1.00E+03 3.36E+03 1.13E-01

62 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Fe 55 2.79E-06 1.03E+05 1.00E+06 1.03E-01 3.48E-03
Sb 125 2.23E-06 8.25E+04 1.00E+02 8.25E+02 2.23E-02
Te 125m 5.44E-07 2.01E+04 1.00E+06 2.01E-02 5.44E-03
Co 60 4.83E-07 1.79E+04 1.00E+02 1.79E+02 1.61E-02
Sr 90 3.09E-07 1.14E+04 1.00E+03 1.14E+01 1.03E+00
Y 90 3.09E-07 1.14E+04 1.00E+06 1.14E-02 1.54E-02
Hf 182 3.89E-09 1.44E+02 4.60E+03 3.13E-02 1.30E-03
Ta 182 3.89E-09 1.44E+02 1.00E+02 1.44E+00 9.71E-05
Light Elements Clearance Index at 50 Years Cooling
Time
Total Clearance Index 6.66E+03
Total Radioactivity 5.48E+07 Bq
co 60,
1.79E+02,
sb125, 3%
8.25E+02,
12%
c 14,
3.36E+03,
51%
sn121m,
1.47E+02,
2%
Figure 5.1.3.1
Figure 5.1.3.2
sn121,
1.57E+02,
2% zr 93,
1.05E+03,
16%
nb 93m,
9.32E+02,
14%
Light Elemets Ingestion Hazard at 50 Years Cooling Time
sn121,
1.23E+02,
43%
(m 3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 2.85E+02 m 3
Total Radioactivity 1.48E-03 Ci
sn121m,
1.59E+02,
57%

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 63
Table 5.1.4
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 water)
LIGHT ELEMENTS AT 1500 YEARS COOLING TIME
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 6.41E-04 2.37E+07 2.57E+04 4.91E+03 1.16E+00
Zr 93 2.83E-04 1.05E+07 1.00E+04 1.05E+03 3.53E-01
Nb 93m 2.83E-04 1.05E+07 1.00E+04 1.05E+03 7.07E-01
C 14 7.61E-05 2.82E+06 1.00E+03 2.82E+03 9.51E-02
Hf 182 3.89E-09 1.44E+02 4.60E+03 3.13E-02 1.30E-03
Ta 182 3.89E-09 1.44E+02 1.00E+02 1.44E+00 9.71E-05
Light Elements Clearance Index at 1500 Years
Cooling Time
Total Clearance Index 4.91E+03
Total Radioactivity 2.37E+07 Bq
c 14,
2.82E+03,
58%
Figure 5.1.4.1
Light Elemets Ingestion Hazard at 1500 Years
Cooling Time (m3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 1.16E+00 m 3
Total Radioactivity 6.41E-04 Ci
nb 93m,
7.07E-01,
61%
c 14, 9.51E-
02, 8%
Figure 5.1.4.2
zr 93,
1.05E+03,
21%
nb 93m,
1.05E+03,
21%
zr 93,
3.53E-01,
31%

64 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Table 5.2.1
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 water)
ACTINIDES AT DISCHARGE
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 5.39E+04 1.99E+15 1.49E+06 1.12E+10 2.70E+08
np239 2.67E+04 9.88E+14 1.00E+05 9.88E+09 2.67E+08
u237 1.59E+02 5.88E+12 1.00E+05 5.88E+07 1.59E+06
np238 4.04E+01 1.49E+12 1.50E+03 9.97E+08 8.09E+05
pu241 2.61E+01 9.66E+11 1.00E+04 9.66E+07 1.30E+05
am242 8.84E+00 3.27E+11 1.00E+06 3.27E+05 8.84E+04
cm242 1.60E+00 5.92E+10 1.00E+04 5.92E+06 7.99E+04
pu240 2.32E-01 8.58E+09 1.00E+02 8.58E+07 4.64E+04
pu239 1.55E-01 5.74E+09 1.00E+02 5.74E+07 3.10E+04
pu238 6.57E-02 2.43E+09 1.00E+02 2.43E+07 1.31E+04
cm244 2.26E-02 8.36E+08 1.00E+03 8.36E+05 3.23E+03
am241 7.04E-03 2.60E+08 1.00E+02 2.60E+06 1.76E+03
am243 7.48E-04 2.77E+07 1.00E+02 2.77E+05 1.87E+02
th234 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 1.66E+01
pa234m 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 1.66E-02
u238 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 8.28E+00
pu242 3.09E-04 1.14E+07 1.00E+02 1.14E+05 6.17E+01
am242m 2.92E-04 1.08E+07 1.00E+02 1.08E+05 7.30E+01
cm243 2.87E-04 1.06E+07 1.00E+03 1.06E+04 5.74E+01
u234 2.69E-04 9.95E+06 1.00E+03 9.95E+03 8.97E+00
pu237 9.25E-05 3.42E+06 1.00E+05 3.42E+01 3.08E+03
th231 8.24E-05 3.05E+06 1.00E+03 3.05E+03 4.12E-01
u236 4.96E-05 1.84E+06 1.00E+04 1.84E+02 1.65E+00
np237 1.88E-05 6.96E+05 1.00E+03 6.96E+02 6.27E+00
pa233 1.52E-05 5.62E+05 1.00E+04 5.62E+01 1.52E-01
am240 5.64E-06 2.09E+05 9.60E+02 2.17E+02 1.88E+02
u235 4.46E-06 1.65E+05 1.00E+03 1.65E+02 1.49E-01
pu236 3.28E-06 1.21E+05 1.00E+03 1.21E+02 1.09E-01
pa234 6.06E-07 2.24E+04 1.00E+03 2.24E+01 6.06E-03
cm245 3.02E-07 1.12E+04 1.00E+02 1.12E+02 7.55E-02
np235 2.77E-07 1.02E+04 1.30E+05 7.88E-02 9.25E+00
u232 7.39E-08 2.73E+03 1.00E+02 2.73E+01 2.46E-03
cm246 5.83E-08 2.16E+03 1.00E+02 2.16E+01 1.46E-02
th228 5.50E-09 2.04E+02 1.00E+03 2.04E-01 7.86E-04
pb212 5.18E-09 1.92E+02 1.00E+03 1.92E-01 2.59E-04
bi212 5.18E-09 1.92E+02 1.00E+03 1.92E-01 1.30E-05
po216 5.18E-09 1.92E+02 1.00E+03 1.92E-01 7.40E-10
rn220 5.18E-09 1.92E+02 1.00E+03 1.92E-01 5.18E-09
ra224 5.18E-09 1.92E+02 1.00E+03 1.92E-01 2.59E-03
po212 3.32E-09 1.23E+02 1.00E+03 1.23E-01 8.30E-16
tl208 1.86E-09 6.88E+01 1.00E+03 6.88E-02 3.72E-07
th230 1.49E-09 5.51E+01 1.00E+03 5.51E-02 7.44E-04

Table 5.2.2
Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 65
Actinides Clearance Index at Discharge
Total Clearance Index 1.12E+10
Total Radioactivity 1.99E+15 Bq
pu241,
9.66E+07,
np238, 1%
9.97E+08,
9%
pu240,
8.58E+07,
1%
Figure 5.2.1.1
Figure 5.2.1.2
pu239,
5.74E+07,
1%
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 water)
ACTINIDES AT 1 YEAR COOLING TIME
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
np239,
9.88E+09,
88%
Actinides Ingestion Hazard at Discharge
(m 3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 2.70E+08 m3
Total Radioactivity 5.39E+04 Ci
u237,
1.59E+06,
1%
np239,
2.67E+08,
99%
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 2.57E+01 9.51E+11 1.49E+06 2.85E+08 2.51E+05
Pu 241 2.48E+01 9.18E+11 1.00E+04 9.18E+07 1.24E+05
Cm 242 3.44E-01 1.27E+10 1.00E+04 1.27E+06 1.72E+04
Pu 240 2.32E-01 8.58E+09 1.00E+02 8.58E+07 4.64E+04
Pu 239 1.62E-01 5.99E+09 1.00E+02 5.99E+07 3.25E+04

66 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Pu 238 7.43E-02 2.75E+09 1.00E+02 2.75E+07 1.49E+04
Am 241 4.78E-02 1.77E+09 1.00E+02 1.77E+07 1.19E+04
Cm 244 2.21E-02 8.18E+08 1.00E+03 8.18E+05 3.15E+03
Np 239 7.52E-04 2.78E+07 1.00E+05 2.78E+02 7.52E+00
Am 243 7.52E-04 2.78E+07 1.00E+02 2.78E+05 1.88E+02
U 237 5.94E-04 2.20E+07 1.00E+05 2.20E+02 5.94E+00
Th 234 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 1.66E+01
Pa 234m 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 1.66E-02
U 238 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 8.28E+00
Pu 242 3.09E-04 1.14E+07 1.00E+02 1.14E+05 6.17E+01
Am 242m 2.90E-04 1.07E+07 1.00E+02 1.07E+05 7.26E+01
Am 242 2.89E-04 1.07E+07 1.00E+06 1.07E+01 2.89E+00
Cm 243 2.80E-04 1.04E+07 1.00E+03 1.04E+04 5.60E+01
U 234 2.69E-04 9.95E+06 1.00E+03 9.95E+03 8.98E+00
U 236 4.96E-05 1.84E+06 1.00E+04 1.84E+02 1.65E+00
Pa 233 2.02E-05 7.47E+05 1.00E+04 7.47E+01 2.02E-01
Np 237 2.02E-05 7.47E+05 1.00E+03 7.47E+02 6.73E+00
Th 231 4.46E-06 1.65E+05 1.00E+03 1.65E+02 2.23E-02
U 235 4.46E-06 1.65E+05 1.00E+03 1.65E+02 1.49E-01
Pu 236 2.62E-06 9.69E+04 1.00E+03 9.69E+01 8.74E-02
Np 238 1.31E-06 4.85E+04 1.50E+03 3.23E+01 2.61E-02
Pa 234 4.31E-07 1.59E+04 1.00E+03 1.59E+01 4.31E-03
Pu 237 3.40E-07 1.26E+04 1.00E+05 1.26E-01 1.13E+01
Cm 245 3.02E-07 1.12E+04 1.00E+02 1.12E+02 7.55E-02
Np 235 1.46E-07 5.40E+03 1.30E+05 4.16E-02 4.88E+00
U 232 1.03E-07 3.81E+03 1.00E+02 3.81E+01 3.45E-03
Cm 246 5.83E-08 2.16E+03 1.00E+02 2.16E+01 1.46E-02
Pb 212 3.15E-08 1.17E+03 1.00E+03 1.17E+00 1.58E-03
Bi 212 3.15E-08 1.17E+03 1.00E+03 1.17E+00 7.88E-05
Po 216 3.15E-08 1.17E+03 1.00E+03 1.17E+00 4.50E-09
Rn 220 3.15E-08 1.17E+03 1.00E+03 1.17E+00 3.15E-08
Ra 224 3.15E-08 1.17E+03 1.00E+03 1.17E+00 1.58E-02
Th 228 3.14E-08 1.16E+03 1.00E+03 1.16E+00 4.48E-03
Po 212 2.02E-08 7.47E+02 1.00E+03 7.47E-01 5.05E-15
Tl 208 1.13E-08 4.18E+02 1.00E+03 4.18E-01 2.27E-06
Th 230 3.96E-09 1.47E+02 1.00E+03 1.47E-01 1.98E-03
U 233 7.35E-10 2.72E+01 1.00E+03 2.72E-02 2.45E-05
Pa 231 6.37E-10 2.36E+01 1.00E+03 2.36E-02 7.07E-04

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 67
Actinides Clearance Index at 1 Year Cooling Time
Total Clearance Index 2.85E+08
Total Radioactivity 9.51E+11 Bq
pu239,
5.99E+07,
21%
pu238,
2.75E+07,
10%
am241,
1.77E+07,
6%
pu240,
8.58E+07,
30%
Figure 5.2.2.1
Figure 5.2.2.2
pu241,
9.18E+07,
32%
Actinides Ingestion Hazard at 1 Year Cooling Time
pu240,
4.64E+04,
19%
(m 3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 2.51E+05 m 3
Total Radioactivity 2.57E+01 Ci
pu238, am241,
1.49E+04, 1.19E+04,
pu239, 6% 5%
3.25E+04,
13%
cm242,
1.72E+04,
7%
cm244,
3.15E+03,
1%
pu241,
1.24E+05,
50%

68 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Table 5.2.3
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 water)
ACTINIDES AT 50 YEARS COOLING TIME
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide
Radioactivit
y
Radioactivit
y
Clearance
Level
Clearance
Index
Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 3.42E+00 1.27E+11 1.31E+06 4.52E+08 2.89E+05
Pu 241 2.22E+00 8.21E+10 1.00E+04 8.21E+06 1.11E+04
Am 241 7.54E-01 2.79E+10 1.00E+02 2.79E+08 1.89E+05
Pu 240 2.31E-01 8.55E+09 1.00E+02 8.55E+07 4.62E+04
Pu 239 1.62E-01 5.99E+09 1.00E+02 5.99E+07 3.24E+04
Pu 238 5.13E-02 1.90E+09 1.00E+02 1.90E+07 1.03E+04
Cm 244 3.25E-03 1.20E+08 1.00E+03 1.20E+05 4.65E+02
Np 239 7.49E-04 2.77E+07 1.00E+05 2.77E+02 7.49E+00
Am 243 7.49E-04 2.77E+07 1.00E+02 2.77E+05 1.87E+02
Th 234 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 1.66E+01
Pa 234m 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 1.66E-02
U 238 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 8.28E+00
Pu 242 3.09E-04 1.14E+07 1.00E+02 1.14E+05 6.17E+01
U 234 2.78E-04 1.03E+07 1.00E+03 1.03E+04 9.27E+00
Am 242m 2.27E-04 8.40E+06 1.00E+02 8.40E+04 5.68E+01
Am 242 2.26E-04 8.36E+06 1.00E+06 8.36E+00 2.26E+00
Cm 242 1.87E-04 6.92E+06 1.00E+04 6.92E+02 9.35E+00
Cm 243 8.30E-05 3.07E+06 1.00E+03 3.07E+03 1.66E+01
U 237 5.31E-05 1.96E+06 1.00E+05 1.96E+01 5.31E-01
U 236 5.00E-05 1.85E+06 1.00E+04 1.85E+02 1.67E+00
Pa 233 2.90E-05 1.07E+06 1.00E+04 1.07E+02 2.90E-01
Np 237 2.90E-05 1.07E+06 1.00E+03 1.07E+03 9.66E+00
Th 231 4.47E-06 1.65E+05 1.00E+03 1.65E+02 2.23E-02
U 235 4.47E-06 1.65E+05 1.00E+03 1.65E+02 1.49E-01
Np 238 1.02E-06 3.77E+04 1.50E+03 2.52E+01 2.04E-02
Pa 234 4.31E-07 1.59E+04 1.00E+03 1.59E+01 4.31E-03
Cm 245 3.01E-07 1.11E+04 1.00E+02 1.11E+02 7.52E-02
Pb 212 1.36E-07 5.03E+03 1.00E+03 5.03E+00 6.80E-03
Bi 212 1.36E-07 5.03E+03 1.00E+03 5.03E+00 3.40E-04
Po 216 1.36E-07 5.03E+03 1.00E+03 5.03E+00 1.94E-08
Rn 220 1.36E-07 5.03E+03 1.00E+03 5.03E+00 1.36E-07
Ra 224 1.36E-07 5.03E+03 1.00E+03 5.03E+00 6.80E-02
Th 228 1.36E-07 5.03E+03 1.00E+03 5.03E+00 1.94E-02
U 232 1.32E-07 4.88E+03 1.00E+02 4.88E+01 4.41E-03
Th 230 1.30E-07 4.81E+03 1.00E+03 4.81E+00 6.50E-02
Po 212 8.71E-08 3.22E+03 1.00E+03 3.22E+00 2.18E-14
Cm 246 5.79E-08 2.14E+03 1.00E+02 2.14E+01 1.45E-02
Tl 208 4.89E-08 1.81E+03 1.00E+03 1.81E+00 9.78E-06
U 233 5.90E-09 2.18E+02 1.00E+03 2.18E-01 1.97E-04
Pa 231 5.36E-09 1.98E+02 1.00E+03 1.98E-01 5.95E-03
Tl 207 2.87E-09 1.06E+02 1.90E+04 5.59E-03 3.58E-07
Pb 211 2.87E-09 1.06E+02 8.80E+03 1.21E-02 7.18E-06
Bi 211 2.87E-09 1.06E+02 1.00E+03 1.06E-01 4.10E-07
Po 215 2.87E-09 1.06E+02 1.00E+03 1.06E-01 9.58E-12
Rn 219 2.87E-09 1.06E+02 1.00E+03 1.06E-01 9.58E-02
Ra 223 2.87E-09 1.06E+02 1.00E+03 1.06E-01 4.10E-03

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 69
Ac 227 2.87E-09 1.06E+02 1.00E+03 1.06E-01 1.44E-03
Th 227 2.83E-09 1.05E+02 1.00E+03 1.05E-01 1.42E-04
Pb 214 1.43E-09 5.29E+01 1.00E+03 5.29E-02 2.87E-06
Bi 214 1.43E-09 5.29E+01 1.00E+03 5.29E-02 2.39E-06
Po 214 1.43E-09 5.29E+01 1.00E+03 5.29E-02 2.05E-13
Po 218 1.43E-09 5.29E+01 1.00E+03 5.29E-02 3.58E-07
Rn 222 1.43E-09 5.29E+01 1.00E+03 5.29E-02 1.43E-09
Ra 226 1.43E-09 5.29E+01 1.00E+03 5.29E-02 4.78E-02
Pb 210 5.36E-10 1.98E+01 1.00E+03 1.98E-02 5.36E-03
Bi 210 5.36E-10 1.98E+01 1.00E+03 1.98E-02 1.34E-05
Po 210 5.36E-10 1.98E+01 1.00E+03 1.98E-02 7.65E-04
Actinides Clearance Index at 50 Years Cooling Time
Total Clearance Index 4.52E+08
Total Radioactivity 1.27E+11 Bq
pu240,
8.55E+07,
19%
pu239,
5.99E+07,
13%
pu238,
1.90E+07,
4%
Figure 5.2.3.1
Figure 5.2.3.2
pu241,
8.21E+06,
2%
am241,
2.79E+08,
62%
Actinides Ingestion Hazard at 50 Years Cooling Time
pu239,
3.24E+04,
11%
pu240,
4.62E+04,
16%
(m 3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 2.89E+05 m 3
Total Radioactivity 3.42E+00 Ci
pu238,
1.03E+04,
4%
pu241,
1.11E+04,
4%
am241,
1.89E+05,
65%

70 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Table 5.2.4
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 water)
ACTINIDES AT 1500 YEARS COOLING TIME
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 4.38E-01 1.62E+10 1.19E+06 1.61E+08 9.14E+04
Pu 240 1.98E-01 7.33E+09 1.00E+02 7.33E+07 3.96E+04
Pu 239 1.55E-01 5.74E+09 1.00E+02 5.74E+07 3.11E+04
Am 241 8.13E-02 3.01E+09 1.00E+02 3.01E+07 2.03E+04
Np 239 6.53E-04 2.42E+07 1.00E+05 2.42E+02 6.53E+00
Am 243 6.53E-04 2.42E+07 1.00E+02 2.42E+05 1.63E+02
Th 234 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 1.66E+01
Pa 234m 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 1.66E-02
U 238 3.31E-04 1.22E+07 1.00E+03 1.22E+04 8.28E+00
Pu 242 3.08E-04 1.14E+07 1.00E+02 1.14E+05 6.16E+01
U 234 2.97E-04 1.10E+07 1.00E+03 1.10E+04 9.89E+00
Pa 233 1.80E-04 6.66E+06 1.00E+04 6.66E+02 1.80E+00
Np 237 1.80E-04 6.66E+06 1.00E+03 6.66E+03 6.00E+01
U 236 5.92E-05 2.19E+06 1.00E+04 2.19E+02 1.97E+00
Th 231 4.70E-06 1.74E+05 1.00E+03 1.74E+02 2.35E-02
U 235 4.70E-06 1.74E+05 1.00E+03 1.74E+02 1.57E-01
Th 230 4.04E-06 1.49E+05 1.00E+03 1.49E+02 2.02E+00
Pb 214 1.07E-06 3.96E+04 1.00E+03 3.96E+01 2.13E-03
Bi 214 1.07E-06 3.96E+04 1.00E+03 3.96E+01 1.78E-03
Po 218 1.07E-06 3.96E+04 1.00E+03 3.96E+01 2.66E-04
Rn 222 1.07E-06 3.96E+04 1.00E+03 3.96E+01 1.07E-06
Ra 226 1.07E-06 3.96E+04 1.00E+03 3.96E+01 3.55E+01
Pb 210 1.06E-06 3.92E+04 1.00E+03 3.92E+01 1.06E+01
Bi 210 1.06E-06 3.92E+04 1.00E+03 3.92E+01 2.66E-02
Po 210 1.06E-06 3.92E+04 1.00E+03 3.92E+01 1.52E+00
Po 214 1.06E-06 3.92E+04 1.00E+03 3.92E+01 1.52E-10
Pu 238 9.35E-07 3.46E+04 1.00E+02 3.46E+02 1.87E-01
U 233 8.32E-07 3.08E+04 1.00E+03 3.08E+01 2.77E-02
Pa 234 4.31E-07 1.59E+04 1.00E+03 1.59E+01 4.31E-03
Pu 241 2.68E-07 9.92E+03 1.00E+04 9.92E-01 1.34E-03
Cm 245 2.67E-07 9.88E+03 1.00E+02 9.88E+01 6.68E-02
Am 242m 1.82E-07 6.73E+03 1.00E+02 6.73E+01 4.56E-02
Am 242 1.81E-07 6.70E+03 1.00E+06 6.70E-03 1.81E-03
Cm 242 1.50E-07 5.55E+03 1.00E+04 5.55E-01 7.50E-03
Pb 211 1.44E-07 5.33E+03 8.80E+03 6.05E-01 3.59E-04
Bi 211 1.44E-07 5.33E+03 1.00E+03 5.33E+00 2.05E-05
Po 215 1.44E-07 5.33E+03 1.00E+03 5.33E+00 4.79E-10
Rn 219 1.44E-07 5.33E+03 1.00E+03 5.33E+00 4.79E+00
Ra 223 1.44E-07 5.33E+03 1.00E+03 5.33E+00 2.05E-01
Ac 227 1.44E-07 5.33E+03 1.00E+03 5.33E+00 7.19E-02
Pa 231 1.44E-07 5.33E+03 1.00E+03 5.33E+00 1.60E-01
Tl 207 1.43E-07 5.29E+03 1.90E+04 2.78E-01 1.79E-05
Th 227 1.42E-07 5.25E+03 1.00E+03 5.25E+00 7.09E-03
Cm 246 4.68E-08 1.73E+03 1.00E+02 1.73E+01 1.17E-02

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 71
Actinides Clearance Index at 1500 Years Cooling Time
Total Clearance Index 1.61E+08
Total Radioactivity 1.62E+10 Bq
am241,
3.01E+07,
19%
pu239,
5.74E+07,
36%
Figure 5.2.4.1
Figure 5.2.4.2
pu240,
7.33E+07,
45%
Actinides Ingestion Hazard at 1500 Years Cooling Time
(m3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 9.14E+04 m3
Total Radioactivity 4.38E-01 Ci
am241,
2.03E+04,
22% pu240,
3.96E+04,
43%
pu239,
3.11E+04,
34%

72 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Table 5.3.1
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 water)
FISSION PRODUCTS AT DISCHARGE
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 1.56E+05 5.77E+15 2.52E+07 4.95E+11 2.81E+11
I 133 1.93E+03 7.14E+13 1.00E+04 7.14E+09 1.93E+09
Xe 133 1.83E+03 6.77E+13 1.70E+04 3.98E+09 1.83E+03
Mo 99 1.74E+03 6.44E+13 1.00E+04 6.44E+09 4.34E+07
La 140 1.69E+03 6.25E+13 1.00E+03 6.25E+10 8.46E+07
Ba 140 1.66E+03 6.14E+13 1.00E+03 6.14E+10 8.28E+07
Tc 99m 1.54E+03 5.70E+13 1.00E+05 5.70E+08 5.12E+05
Ce 141 1.52E+03 5.62E+13 1.00E+05 5.62E+08 1.69E+07
Ru 103 1.51E+03 5.59E+13 1.00E+03 5.59E+10 1.88E+07
Rh 103m 1.50E+03 5.55E+13 1.00E+07 5.55E+06 1.50E+05
Zr 95 1.44E+03 5.33E+13 1.00E+03 5.33E+10 2.41E+07
I 132 1.41E+03 5.22E+13 1.00E+04 5.22E+09 1.77E+08
Te 132 1.38E+03 5.11E+13 1.00E+03 5.11E+10 6.88E+07
Ce 143 1.38E+03 5.11E+13 1.00E+04 5.11E+09 3.45E+07
Pr 143 1.38E+03 5.11E+13 1.00E+06 5.11E+07 2.75E+11
Nb 95 1.34E+03 4.96E+13 1.00E+03 4.96E+10 1.34E+07
Y 91 1.05E+03 3.89E+13 1.00E+05 3.89E+08 3.52E+07
I 131 9.78E+02 3.62E+13 1.00E+04 3.62E+09 3.26E+09
Rh 105 9.50E+02 3.52E+13 1.00E+05 3.52E+08 9.50E+06
Sr 89 8.20E+02 3.03E+13 1.00E+06 3.03E+07 2.73E+08
Te 131 8.03E+02 2.97E+13 1.00E+05 2.97E+08 8.03E+02
Pr 144 5.89E+02 2.18E+13 6.50E+03 3.35E+09 5.89E+02
Nd 147 5.78E+02 2.14E+13 1.00E+05 2.14E+08 9.63E+06
Ce 144 5.66E+02 2.09E+13 1.00E+04 2.09E+09 5.66E+07
Pm 149 4.54E+02 1.68E+13 1.00E+06 1.68E+07 1.14E+07
Ag 109m 3.80E+02 1.41E+13 5.30E+04 2.65E+08 3.80E+02
Rh 106 3.54E+02 1.31E+13 2.80E+03 4.68E+09 3.54E+02
Te 129 3.15E+02 1.17E+13 1.00E+05 1.17E+08 3.94E+05
Sm 153 2.41E+02 8.92E+12 1.00E+05 8.92E+07 3.01E+06
Ru 106 2.25E+02 8.33E+12 1.00E+02 8.33E+10 2.25E+07
Te 131m 2.20E+02 8.14E+12 1.00E+04 8.14E+08 5.49E+06
Pm 151 1.93E+02 7.14E+12 2.80E+03 2.55E+09 6.42E+07
Sb 127 9.71E+01 3.59E+12 1.40E+03 2.57E+09 3.24E+07
Te 127 9.19E+01 3.40E+12 1.00E+06 3.40E+06 4.60E+05
Eu 156 9.07E+01 3.36E+12 7.50E+02 4.47E+09 3.02E+07
Pm 148 8.59E+01 3.18E+12 1.50E+03 2.12E+09 2.86E+07
Pm 147 6.70E+01 2.48E+12 1.00E+06 2.48E+06 3.35E+05
Ag 110 6.37E+01 2.36E+12 6.60E+03 3.57E+08 6.37E+01
Ag 111 6.33E+01 2.34E+12 1.00E+05 2.34E+07 1.58E+06
Te 129m 6.19E+01 2.29E+12 1.00E+04 2.29E+08 3.09E+06
Xe 133m 5.74E+01 2.12E+12 1.70E+04 1.25E+08 5.74E+01
Ag 112 2.94E+01 1.09E+12 1.20E+03 9.07E+08 9.81E+06
Pd 112 2.93E+01 1.08E+12 7.00E+04 1.55E+07 9.77E+06
Cs 137 2.64E+01 9.77E+11 1.00E+02 9.77E+09 1.32E+06
Ba 137m 2.58E+01 9.55E+11 1.70E+03 5.62E+08 2.58E+01

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 73
Y 90 1.97E+01 7.29E+11 1.00E+06 7.29E+05 9.83E+05
Sr 90 1.80E+01 6.66E+11 1.00E+03 6.66E+08 6.01E+07
Cs 136 1.67E+01 6.18E+11 1.00E+03 6.18E+08 2.79E+05
Nb 95m 1.60E+01 5.92E+11 1.10E+04 5.38E+07 5.34E+06
Cs 134 1.43E+01 5.29E+11 1.00E+02 5.29E+09 1.59E+06
Te 127m 1.09E+01 4.03E+11 1.00E+04 4.03E+07 2.18E+05
Xe 131m 1.07E+01 3.96E+11 2.80E+04 1.41E+07 1.07E+01
Sn 121 8.49E+00 3.14E+11 8.70E+04 3.61E+06 2.83E+06
In 115m 8.19E+00 3.03E+11 1.00E+05 3.03E+06 2.05E+04
Cd 115 8.17E+00 3.02E+11 1.00E+04 3.02E+07 2.72E+05
Pr 144m 7.99E+00 2.96E+11 5.40E+04 5.47E+06 7.99E+00
Pm 148m 5.73E+00 2.12E+11 5.00E+02 4.24E+08 1.91E+06
Sn 125 5.31E+00 1.96E+11 1.00E+04 1.96E+07 2.66E+05
Nb 96 2.91E+00 1.08E+11 4.10E+02 2.63E+08 9.70E+05
Sb 125 2.60E+00 9.62E+10 1.00E+02 9.62E+08 2.60E+04
Kr 85 2.23E+00 8.25E+10 3.70E+04 2.23E+06 2.23E+00
As 77 1.95E+00 7.22E+10 1.00E+06 7.22E+04 6.49E+05
Ba 136m 1.87E+00 6.92E+10 5.20E+02 1.33E+08 1.87E+00
Br 82 1.18E+00 4.37E+10 1.00E+03 4.37E+07 2.95E+04
Tb 161 1.06E+00 3.92E+10 1.90E+04 2.06E+06 3.52E+05
Eu 154 6.30E-01 2.33E+10 1.00E+02 2.33E+08 3.15E+04
Eu 155 6.18E-01 2.29E+10 1.00E+03 2.29E+07 3.09E+03
Ag 110m 5.20E-01 1.92E+10 1.00E+02 1.92E+08 1.73E+04
Sb 126m 4.80E-01 1.78E+10 6.10E+02 2.91E+07 4.80E-01
Sn 123 4.62E-01 1.71E+10 1.70E+04 1.01E+06 1.54E+05
Rb 86 3.97E-01 1.47E+10 1.00E+05 1.47E+05 1.98E+04
Te 125m 3.70E-01 1.37E+10 1.00E+06 1.37E+04 3.70E+03
Sb 126 3.53E-01 1.31E+10 3.60E+02 3.63E+07 1.18E+05
Cd 115m 3.18E-01 1.18E+10 1.00E+05 1.18E+05 1.06E+04
Sb 122 2.22E-01 8.21E+09 1.00E+04 8.21E+05 7.39E+03
Tb 160 1.32E-01 4.88E+09 1.00E+03 4.88E+06 3.30E+03
H 3 1.23E-01 4.55E+09 1.00E+05 4.55E+04 4.10E+01
Sb 124 1.04E-01 3.85E+09 1.00E+03 3.85E+06 5.20E+03
Y 89m 7.68E-02 2.84E+09 1.10E+03 2.58E+06 7.68E-02
Sm 151 6.61E-02 2.45E+09 1.00E+06 2.45E+03 1.65E+02
Sn 117m 2.38E-02 8.81E+08 5.80E+03 1.52E+05 7.93E+03
Ga 72 1.90E-02 7.03E+08 1.00E+04 7.03E+04 4.76E+02
Ho 166 1.89E-02 6.99E+08 1.00E+05 6.99E+03 6.30E+02
Zn 72 1.88E-02 6.96E+08 6.10E+03 1.14E+05 6.28E+03
Sn119m 1.33E-02 4.92E+08 5.20E+04 9.46E+03 4.45E+03
Se 77m 6.35E-03 2.35E+08 1.10E+04 2.14E+04 6.35E-03
Cd 113m 6.31E-03 2.33E+08 1.00E+03 2.33E+05 2.10E+03
Dy 166 4.69E-03 1.74E+08 1.00E+05 1.74E+03 1.17E+02
Xe 129m 4.37E-03 1.62E+08 1.40E+04 1.15E+04 1.46E+03
Tc 99 3.49E-03 1.29E+08 1.00E+03 1.29E+05 1.74E+01
Cs 132 1.23E-03 4.55E+07 1.00E+04 4.55E+03 4.09E+02
Gd 153 7.42E-04 2.75E+07 1.00E+04 2.75E+03 3.71E+00
Sn121m 6.51E-04 2.41E+07 1.20E+05 2.01E+02 2.17E+02
Zr 93 2.79E-04 1.03E+07 1.00E+04 1.03E+03 3.49E-01
Se 79 1.63E-04 6.03E+06 1.90E+05 3.17E+01 5.44E+01
Sn 126 1.50E-04 5.55E+06 1.50E+04 3.70E+02 5.02E+01
Te 123m 1.39E-04 5.14E+06 1.00E+03 5.14E+03 4.65E+01
Pm 146 1.39E-04 5.14E+06 1.30E+03 3.96E+03 4.62E+01

74 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
In 114 8.51E-05 3.15E+06 1.20E+04 2.62E+02 8.51E-05
Eu 152 7.05E-05 2.61E+06 1.00E+02 2.61E+04 8.81E-01
In 114m 5.06E-05 1.87E+06 1.00E+04 1.87E+02 2.53E+00
Ce 139 4.37E-05 1.62E+06 1.00E+03 1.62E+03 1.46E+01
Ag 108 4.20E-05 1.55E+06 1.20E+04 1.30E+02 4.20E-05
Pd 107 3.02E-05 1.12E+06 1.10E+06 1.02E+00 1.01E+01
Cs 135 2.49E-05 9.21E+05 1.00E+05 9.21E+00 2.49E-01
Sm 145 1.21E-05 4.48E+05 1.50E+04 2.98E+01 4.03E+00
I 129 7.74E-06 2.86E+05 1.00E+01 2.86E+04 1.29E+02
Rh 102 6.99E-06 2.59E+05 4.70E+02 5.50E+02 2.33E+00
Er 169 6.71E-06 2.48E+05 1.00E+06 2.48E-01 7.46E-02
Tm 172 5.98E-06 2.21E+05 1.90E+03 1.16E+02 1.99E+00
Nb 93m 4.06E-06 1.50E+05 1.00E+04 1.50E+01 1.01E-02
Tm 171 1.32E-06 4.88E+04 1.00E+06 4.88E-02 2.63E-03
Pm 145 2.61E-07 9.66E+03 3.10E+04 3.12E-01 8.70E-02
Xe 127 4.64E-08 1.72E+03 3.50E+03 4.91E-01 1.55E-02
Ho 166m 3.79E-08 1.40E+03 5.80E+02 2.42E+00 1.26E-02
C 14 2.80E-08 1.04E+03 1.00E+03 1.04E+00 3.50E-05
Nb 94 2.57E-08 9.51E+02 1.00E+02 9.51E+00 8.57E-03
Tm 170 2.29E-08 8.47E+02 1.00E+05 8.47E-03 4.57E-04
Cd 109 1.50E-08 5.55E+02 1.00E+03 5.55E-01 3.75E-04
Ag 108m 1.25E-08 4.63E+02 6.10E+02 7.58E-01 4.18E-03
Ba 133 8.57E-09 3.17E+02 2.50E+03 1.27E-01 2.86E-03
Ce 142 6.46E-09 2.39E+02 2.60E+05 9.19E-04 2.15E-01
Rb 87 4.73E-09 1.75E+02 1.00E+03 1.75E-01 4.73E-05
Fission Products Clearance Index at Discharge
Total Clearance Index 4.95E+11
Total Radioactivity 5.77 E+15 Bq
ru106,
8.33E+10,
17%
nb 95,
4.96E+10,
10% te132,
5.11E+10,
10%
cs137,
9.77E+09,
2%
i132,
5.22E+09,
1%
Figure 5.3.1.1
mo 99,
6.44E+09,
1%
zr 95,
5.33E+10,
11%
la140,
6.25E+10,
13%
6.14E+10,
12%
ru103,
5.59E+10,
11%

Table 5.3.2
Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 75
Fission Products Ingestion Hazard at Discharge
(m 3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 2.81E+11 m 3
Total Radioactivity 1.56E+05 Ci
i131,
3.26E+09,
1%
pr143,
2.75E+11,
98%
Figure 5.3.1.2
i133,
1.93E+09,
1%
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 water)
FISSION PRODUCTS AT 1 YEAR COOLING TIME
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 9.70E+02 3.59E+13 2.12E+07 6.48E+10 1.01E+08
Ce144 2.33E+02 8.62E+12 1.00E+04 8.62E+08 2.33E+07
Pr144 2.33E+02 8.62E+12 6.50E+03 1.33E+09 2.33E+02
Ru106 1.14E+02 4.22E+12 1.00E+02 4.22E+10 1.14E+07
Rh106 1.14E+02 4.22E+12 2.80E+03 1.51E+09 1.14E+02
Nb 95 5.96E+01 2.21E+12 1.00E+03 2.21E+09 5.96E+05
Pm147 5.66E+01 2.09E+12 1.00E+06 2.09E+06 2.83E+05
Zr 95 2.77E+01 1.02E+12 1.00E+03 1.02E+09 4.61E+05
Cs137 2.58E+01 9.55E+11 1.00E+02 9.55E+09 1.29E+06
Ba137m 2.44E+01 9.03E+11 1.70E+03 5.31E+08 2.44E+01
Sr 90 1.76E+01 6.51E+11 1.00E+03 6.51E+08 5.86E+07
Y 90 1.76E+01 6.51E+11 1.00E+06 6.51E+05 8.80E+05
Y 91 1.40E+01 5.18E+11 1.00E+05 5.18E+06 4.67E+05
Cs134 1.02E+01 3.77E+11 1.00E+02 3.77E+09 1.14E+06
Sr 89 5.48E+00 2.03E+11 1.00E+06 2.03E+05 1.83E+06
Pr144m 3.26E+00 1.21E+11 5.40E+04 2.23E+06 3.26E+00
Ru103 2.38E+00 8.81E+10 1.00E+03 8.81E+07 2.98E+04
Rh103m 2.38E+00 8.81E+10 1.00E+07 8.81E+03 2.38E+02
Kr 85 2.09E+00 7.73E+10 3.70E+04 2.09E+06 2.09E+00
Sb125 2.06E+00 7.62E+10 1.00E+02 7.62E+08 2.06E+04
Te127m 1.13E+00 4.18E+10 1.00E+04 4.18E+06 2.26E+04

76 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Te127 1.10E+00 4.07E+10 1.00E+06 4.07E+04 5.52E+03
Ce141 6.31E-01 2.33E+10 1.00E+05 2.33E+05 7.01E+03
Eu154 5.82E-01 2.15E+10 1.00E+02 2.15E+08 2.91E+04
Eu155 5.34E-01 1.98E+10 1.00E+03 1.98E+07 2.67E+03
Te125m 5.00E-01 1.85E+10 1.00E+06 1.85E+04 5.00E+03
Nb 95m 3.25E-01 1.20E+10 1.10E+04 1.09E+06 1.08E+05
Ag110m 1.89E-01 6.99E+09 1.00E+02 6.99E+07 6.29E+03
H 3 1.16E-01 4.29E+09 1.00E+05 4.29E+04 3.88E+01
Sm151 7.25E-02 2.68E+09 1.00E+06 2.68E+03 1.81E+02
Sn123 6.51E-02 2.41E+09 1.70E+04 1.42E+05 2.17E+04
Te129m 3.32E-02 1.23E+09 1.00E+04 1.23E+05 1.66E+03
Te129 2.13E-02 7.88E+08 1.00E+05 7.88E+03 2.66E+01
Pm148m 1.25E-02 4.63E+08 5.00E+02 9.25E+05 4.15E+03
Cd113m 6.02E-03 2.23E+08 1.00E+03 2.23E+05 1.04E-17
Sn119m 5.62E-03 2.08E+08 5.20E+04 4.00E+03 1.87E+03
Tb160 3.98E-03 1.47E+08 1.00E+03 1.47E+05 9.96E+01
Tc 99 3.55E-03 1.31E+08 1.00E+03 1.31E+05 1.78E+01
Ag110 2.57E-03 9.51E+07 6.60E+03 1.44E+04 2.57E-03
Sb124 1.55E-03 5.74E+07 1.00E+03 5.74E+04 7.76E+01
Cd115m 1.09E-03 4.03E+07 1.00E+05 4.03E+02 3.62E+01
Pm148 6.59E-04 2.44E+07 1.50E+03 1.63E+04 2.20E+02
Sn121m 6.43E-04 2.38E+07 1.20E+05 1.98E+02 2.14E+02
Y 89m 5.09E-04 1.88E+07 1.10E+03 1.71E+04 5.09E-04
Sn121 4.99E-04 1.85E+07 8.70E+04 2.12E+02 1.66E+02
Zr 93 2.80E-04 1.04E+07 1.00E+04 1.04E+03 3.50E-01
Gd153 2.60E-04 9.62E+06 1.00E+04 9.62E+02 1.30E+00
Se 79 1.63E-04 6.03E+06 1.90E+05 3.17E+01 5.44E+01
Sn126 1.50E-04 5.55E+06 1.50E+04 3.70E+02 5.02E+01
Sb126m 1.50E-04 5.55E+06 6.10E+02 9.10E+03 1.50E-04
Pm146 1.22E-04 4.51E+06 1.30E+03 3.47E+03 4.08E+01
Eu152 6.69E-05 2.48E+06 1.00E+02 2.48E+04 8.36E-01
Pd107 3.02E-05 1.12E+06 1.10E+06 1.02E+00 1.01E+01
Cs135 2.56E-05 9.47E+05 1.00E+05 9.47E+00 2.56E-01
Sb126 2.11E-05 7.81E+05 3.60E+02 2.17E+03 7.02E+00
Te123m 1.68E-05 6.22E+05 1.00E+03 6.22E+02 5.60E+00
Nb 93m 1.57E-05 5.81E+05 1.00E+04 5.81E+01 3.91E-02
Pr143 1.20E-05 4.44E+05 1.00E+06 4.44E-01 2.40E+03
I129 8.11E-06 3.00E+05 1.00E+01 3.00E+04 1.35E+02
Ce139 6.94E-06 2.57E+05 1.00E+03 2.57E+02 2.31E+00
Sm145 5.73E-06 2.12E+05 1.50E+04 1.41E+01 1.91E+00
Rh102 5.50E-06 2.04E+05 4.70E+02 4.33E+02 1.83E+00
Eu156 5.24E-06 1.94E+05 7.50E+02 2.59E+02 1.75E+00
La140 4.56E-06 1.69E+05 1.00E+03 1.69E+02 2.28E-01
Ba140 3.96E-06 1.47E+05 1.00E+03 1.47E+02 1.98E-01
Tm171 9.20E-07 3.40E+04 1.00E+06 3.40E-02 1.84E-03
Pm145 5.77E-07 2.13E+04 3.10E+04 6.89E-01 1.92E-01
Rb 86 4.98E-07 1.84E+04 1.00E+05 1.84E-01 2.49E-02
In114m 3.05E-07 1.13E+04 1.00E+04 1.13E+00 1.52E-02
In114 2.91E-07 1.08E+04 1.20E+04 8.97E-01 2.91E-07
In115m 1.20E-07 4.44E+03 1.00E+05 4.44E-02 5.44E-11
Cs136 7.37E-08 2.73E+03 1.00E+03 2.73E+00 1.23E-03
Nd147 5.59E-08 2.07E+03 1.00E+05 2.07E-02 9.32E-04
Ho 166m 3.79E-08 1.40E+03 5.80E+02 2.42E+00 1.26E-02

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 77
C 14 2.80E-08 1.04E+03 1.00E+03 1.04E+00 3.50E-05
Nb 94 2.57E-08 9.51E+02 1.00E+02 9.51E+00 8.57E-03
Xe131m 1.94E-08 7.18E+02 2.80E+04 2.56E-02 1.94E-08
Ag108m 1.25E-08 4.63E+02 6.10E+02 7.58E-01 4.16E-03
Ag109m 8.67E-09 3.21E+02 5.30E+04 6.05E-03 8.67E-09
Cd109 8.67E-09 3.21E+02 1.00E+03 3.21E-01 2.17E-04
Ba136m 8.26E-09 3.06E+02 5.20E+02 5.88E-01 8.26E-09
Ba133 8.02E-09 2.97E+02 2.50E+03 1.19E-01 2.67E-03
Ce142 6.46E-09 2.39E+02 2.60E+05 9.19E-04 2.15E-01
Rb 87 4.73E-09 1.75E+02 1.00E+03 1.75E-01 4.73E-05
Tm170 3.19E-09 1.18E+02 1.00E+05 1.18E-03 6.38E-05
Ag108 1.09E-09 4.03E+01 1.20E+04 3.36E-03 1.09E-09
Fission Products Clearance Index at 1 Year Cooling
cs137,
9.55E+09,
15%
rh106,
1.51E+09,
2%
Time
Total Clearance Index 6.48E+10
Total Radioactivity 3.59E+13 Bq
cs134,
3.77E+09,
6%
Figure 5.3.2.1
Figure 5.3.2.2
pr144,
1.33E+09,
2%
Fission Products Ingestion Hazard at 1 Year Cooling
3
Time (m Water)
sr 90,
5.86E+07,
58%
Total Ingestion Hazard 1.01E+08 m
Total Radioactivity 9.70E+02 Ci
y 90,
8.80E+05,
1%
sr 89,
1.83E+06,
2%
3
ce144,
2.33E+07,
23%
ru106,
4.22E+10,
65%
ru106,
1.14E+07,
cs137, 11%
1.29E+06,
1%

78 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Table 5.3.3
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 water)
FISSION PRODUCTS AT 50 YEARS COOLING TIME
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 2.62E+01 9.69E+11 6.23E+06 3.37E+09 1.78E+07
Cs 137 8.13E+00 3.01E+11 1.00E+02 3.01E+09 4.07E+05
Ba 137m 7.68E+00 2.84E+11 1.70E+03 1.67E+08 7.68E+00
Y 90 5.14E+00 1.90E+11 1.00E+06 1.90E+05 2.57E+05
Sr 90 5.13E+00 1.90E+11 1.00E+03 1.90E+08 1.71E+07
Kr 85 8.24E-02 3.05E+09 3.70E+04 8.24E+04 8.24E-02
Sm 151 4.93E-02 1.82E+09 1.00E+06 1.82E+03 1.23E+02
Eu 154 1.03E-02 3.81E+08 1.00E+02 3.81E+06 5.14E+02
H 3 6.99E-03 2.59E+08 1.00E+05 2.59E+03 2.33E+00
Tc 99 3.55E-03 1.31E+08 1.00E+03 1.31E+05 1.78E+01
Cd 113m 5.15E-04 1.91E+07 1.00E+03 1.91E+04 1.72E+02
Sn 121m 3.42E-04 1.27E+07 1.20E+05 1.05E+02 1.14E+02
Eu 155 3.24E-04 1.20E+07 1.00E+03 1.20E+04 1.62E+00
Zr 93 2.80E-04 1.04E+07 1.00E+04 1.04E+03 3.50E-01
Sn 121 2.66E-04 9.84E+06 8.70E+04 1.13E+02 8.85E+01
Nb 93m 2.49E-04 9.21E+06 1.00E+04 9.21E+02 6.22E-01
Se 79 1.63E-04 6.03E+06 1.90E+05 3.17E+01 5.44E+01
Sn 126 1.50E-04 5.55E+06 1.50E+04 3.70E+02 5.01E+01
Sb 126m 1.50E-04 5.55E+06 6.10E+02 9.10E+03 1.50E-04
Pm 147 1.03E-04 3.81E+06 1.00E+06 3.81E+00 5.17E-01
Pd 107 3.02E-05 1.12E+06 1.10E+06 1.02E+00 1.01E+01
Cs 135 2.56E-05 9.47E+05 1.00E+05 9.47E+00 2.56E-01
Sb 126 2.11E-05 7.81E+05 3.60E+02 2.17E+03 7.02E+00
I 129 8.11E-06 3.00E+05 1.00E+01 3.00E+04 1.35E+02
Sb 125 6.31E-06 2.33E+05 1.00E+02 2.33E+03 6.31E-02
Eu 152 4.97E-06 1.84E+05 1.00E+02 1.84E+03 6.21E-02
Te 125m 1.54E-06 5.70E+04 1.00E+06 5.70E-02 1.54E-02
Cs 134 5.12E-07 1.89E+04 1.00E+02 1.89E+02 5.69E-02
Pm 146 2.32E-07 8.58E+03 1.30E+03 6.60E+00 7.73E-02
Pm 145 1.26E-07 4.66E+03 3.10E+04 1.50E-01 4.21E-02
Ho 166m 3.68E-08 1.36E+03 1.00E+05 1.36E-02 1.23E-02
C 14 2.78E-08 1.03E+03 1.00E+03 1.03E+00 3.48E-05
Nb 94 2.57E-08 9.51E+02 1.00E+02 9.51E+00 8.56E-03
Ag 108m 9.50E-09 3.52E+02 6.10E+02 5.76E-01 3.17E-03
Ce 142 6.46E-09 2.39E+02 2.60E+05 9.19E-04 2.15E-01
Rb 87 4.73E-09 1.75E+02 1.00E+03 1.75E-01 4.73E-05
Sm 147 1.96E-09 7.25E+01 1.00E+03 7.25E-02 3.26E-05
Ag 108 8.26E-10 3.06E+01 1.20E+04 2.55E-03 8.26E-10
Be 10 6.94E-10 2.57E+01 4.00E+04 6.42E-04 2.31E-04
Ba 133 2.97E-10 1.10E+01 2.50E+03 4.40E-03 9.92E-05

Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 79
Fission Products Clearance Index at 50 Years Cooling
Time
Total Clearance Index 3.37E+09
Total Radioactivity 9.69E+11 Bq
ba137m,
1.67E+08,
5%
sr 90,
1.90E+08,
6%
Figure 5.3.3.1
Figure 5. 3.3.2
cs137,
3.01E+09,
89%
Fission Products Ingestion Hazard at 50 Years Cooling
Time (m 3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 1.78E+07 m 3
Total Radioactivity 2.62E+01 Ci
cs137,
4.07E+05,
2%
sr 90,
1.71E+07,
96%
y 90,
2.57E+05,
1%

80 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
Table 5.3.4
RADIOTOXICITY OF CANDU: CLEARANCE INDEX AND INGESTION HAZARD (m 3 water)
FISSION PRODUCTS AT 1500 YEARS COOLING TIME
Selected Radionuclide Inventory
Nuclide Radioactivity Radioactivity Clearance Level Clearance Index Ingestion Hazard
Ci Bq Bq/kg m 3 H2O
Total 4.63E-03 1.71E+08 2.83E+06 1.74E+05 2.74E+02
Tc 99 3.53E-03 1.31E+08 1.00E+03 1.31E+05 1.77E+01
Zr 93 2.79E-04 1.03E+07 1.00E+04 1.03E+03 3.49E-01
Nb 93m 2.79E-04 1.03E+07 1.00E+04 1.03E+03 6.99E-01
Se 79 1.58E-04 5.85E+06 1.90E+05 3.08E+01 5.27E+01
Sn 126 1.49E-04 5.51E+06 1.50E+04 3.68E+02 4.96E+01
Sb 126m 1.49E-04 5.51E+06 6.10E+02 9.04E+03 1.49E-04
Pd 107 3.02E-05 1.12E+06 1.10E+06 1.02E+00 1.01E+01
Cs 135 2.56E-05 9.47E+05 1.00E+05 9.47E+00 2.56E-01
Sb 126 2.08E-05 7.70E+05 3.60E+02 2.14E+03 6.95E+00
I 129 8.11E-06 3.00E+05 1.00E+01 3.00E+04 1.35E+02
Sm 151 6.95E-07 2.57E+04 1.00E+06 2.57E-02 1.74E-03
Nb 94 2.44E-08 9.03E+02 1.00E+02 9.03E+00 8.14E-03
C 14 2.33E-08 8.62E+02 1.00E+03 8.62E-01 2.92E-05
Ho 166m 1.59E-08 5.88E+02 1.00E+05 5.88E-03 0.00E+00
Ce 142 6.46E-09 2.39E+02 2.60E+05 9.19E-04 2.15E-01
Rb 87 4.73E-09 1.75E+02 1.00E+03 1.75E-01 4.73E-05
Sm 147 1.96E-09 7.25E+01 1.00E+03 7.25E-02 3.26E-05
Be 10 6.94E-10 2.57E+01 4.00E+04 6.42E-04 2.31E-04
Tc 98 6.21E-11 2.30E+00 7.00E+02 3.28E-03 2.07E-05
Fission Products Clearance Index at 1500 Years Cooling Time
Total Clearance Index 2.83E+06
Total Radioactivity 1.71E+08 Bq
i129,
3.00E+04,
sb126m, 17%
9.04E+03,
5%
zr 93,
1.03E+03,
1%
Figure 5.3.4.1
tc 99,
1.31E+05,
75%

CONCLUSION
Radiotoxicity of CANDU: Clearance Index and Ingestion Hazard 81
Fission Products Ingestion Hazard at 1500 Years Cooling
Time (m3 Water)
Total Ingestion Hazard 2.74E+02 m3
Total Radioactivity 4.63E-03 Ci
I129,
1.35E+02,
49%
Sb126,
6.95E+00,
3%
Figure 5.3.4.2
The safety assessment for the concept of deep geological disposal of used CANDU
fuel requires the calculation of radionuclide inventories in the fuel to provide source
terms for radionuclide release in the geosphere field towards the earth surface. The
obtained results prove the fact that, not only actinides and fission products need a
final disposal underground system, but also the light elements which are considered
to be low and medium radioactive wastes. The clearance levels remain very high
above the new 2004 IAEA Safety Guide Limits even after 1500 years for all the 3
categories. The inhalation hazard in m 3 of air is constantly greater than the ingestion
hazard m 3 of water, therefore maintaining a water cooling especially for the first stage
of interim storage before final disposal is very important.
A general summary of the results regarding the biological hazard factors and
clearance potential is shown in following table:
Radiotoxicity of CANDU in terms of clearance and biological hazard factors
Specific Clearance Ingestion Inhalation
Radioactivity Index Hazard Hazard
Dominant Dominant All
Nuclides
Tc 99,
1.77E+01,
Se 79,
5.27E+01,
Nuclide Nuclide Total Total Total Total
Name Bq Bq m 3 water m 3 air
Light shutdown zr 95 9.99E+12 4.88E+13 1.99E+10 2.82E+07 1.07E+12
Elements 1 year nb 95 4.11E+11 9.25E+11 9.16E+08 2.03E+06 6.48E+10
100 year zr 93 1.05E+07 4.07E+07 5.58E+03 1.52E+02 4.66E+06
1500 year zr 93 1.05E+07 2.37E+07 4.91E+03 1.16E+00 1.42E+05
Actinides shutdown np239 9.88E+14 1.99E+15 1.12E+10 2.70E+08 1.80E+13
6%
Pd 107,
1.01E+01,
4%
19%
Sn126,
4.96E+01,
18%

82 Alexandru Octavian Pavelescu, Dan Gabriel Cepraga
1 year pu241 9.18E+11 9.51E+11 2.85E+08 2.51E+05 1.63E+13
100 year am241 2.81E+10 5.14E+10 4.40E+08 2.77E+05 1.09E+13
1500 year pu240 7.33E+09 1.62E+10 1.61E+08 9.14E+04 6.31E+12
Fission shutdown i133 7.14E+13 5.77E+15 4.95E+11 2.81E+11 7.36E+13
Products 1 year ce144 8.62E+12 3.59E+13 6.48E+10 1.01E+08 2.54E+12
100 year cs137 9.47E+10 2.97E+11 1.06E+09 5.20E+06 5.57E+10
1500 year tc 99 1.31E+08 1.71E+08 1.74E+05 2.74E+02 6.23E+06
Initial charge =1 kg(0.0054%U234+0.711%U235+99.2836%U238) & 134gOxy & 1kgZircaoy-4
Irradiation data: power= 3.500E-02Mw, burn-up=7.9274E+03Mwd/t, flux= 1.41E+14n/cm2*sec
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank Prof. Dan Gabriel Cepraga from ENEA, Bologna, Italy
for his invaluable help provided during his fellowship stage there.
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] D.G. Cepraga, G. Cambi, M. Frisoni, G.C Panini, ANITA-2000 Activation Code Package. Part I -
Manual, ENEA ERG FUS TN SIC 16/2000, November 2000.
[2] D.G. Cepraga, G. Cambi, M. Frisoni, G.C Panini, ANITA-2000, NEA Data Bank Program NEA
Data Bank Program, NEA-1638, OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, 22 November 2000, RSICC
Code Package CCC-693, January 2002.
[3] D.G. Cepraga, G. Cambi, M. Frisoni, Clearance Potential of ITER Vacuum Vessel Activated
Materials, International Conference on Issues and Trends in Radioactive Waste Management,
Vienna, 9 - 13 December 2002, IAEA-CN-90, IAEA-EC-NEA Editors, IAEA-CN-90/65, .pp. 333-
339, Vienna 2002.
[4] D.G. Cepraga, G. Cambi, M. Frisoni, The SCALENEA-1 multipurpose Sn calculation sequence
for application in fusion field: main features and its validation based on experimental data from a
low-level waste repository, Proc. of the 20th Symposium on Fusion Engineering SOFE, Bahia
Resort Hotel, San Diego, CA, USA, October 14 -17, 2003, pp. 152-155, IEEE Catalog No.
03CH37469, ISBN 0-7803-7908-X, Library of Congress 85-653749, IEEE Service Center,
Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A. 2004.
[5] M. Frisoni, D.G. Cepraga, G. Cambi, VITENEA-J, AMPX 175-N,42-gamma multigroup X-sect.
library for nuclear fusion applications, NEA Data Bank Program, NEA-1703, OECD Nuclear
Energy Agency, May 25, 2004, Paris, France.
[6] R.A. Forrest, The European Activation File EASY-2003: EASY-2003 overview, FISPACT-2003
User manual, EAF-2003 cross section library, EAF-2003 decay data library, EAF-2003
biological, clearance and transport libraries, UKAEA Fusion Reports FUS-484 to FUS-488, UK,
December 2002.
[7] Validation of the ORIGEN-S code for predicting radionuclide inventories in used CANDU fuel,
J.C. Tait, I. Gauld, A.H. Kerr AECL Research, Whiteshell Laboratories, Pinawa, Canada ROE
IL0 Received 18 October 1994; accepted 16 November 1994
[8] Verification and Validation of the ORIGEN-S Code and Nuclear Data Libraries, I.C. Gauld, K.A.
Litwin

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 83
MASTER EQUATION OF THE MATTER-FIELD DYNAMICS
WITH ENERGY DISSIPATION
Eliade ȘTEFĂNESCU 1 , Aureliu-Emil SĂNDULESCU 2
Abstract. In this paper, the dissipative dynamics of a system of matter particles, that from quantum
point of view are Fermions, is described in the framework of a physical model. We show that
dissipation consists in two-body correlations of the system with the environment particles. We obtain
a quantum master equation with microscopic coefficients depending on the exactly known two-body
potentials. We discuss this equation in comparison with other master equations, obtained on
axiomatic grounds, or derived from a coupling with an environment of harmonic oscillators without
altering the quantum conditions. Our master equation is in full accordance with the quantummechanical
principles, with the detailed balance principle, and with other generally accepted
conditions during the whole time-evolution: Pauli master equations for the diagonal elements of the
density matrix, and damped Bloch-Feynman equations for the non-diagonal ones, that we call
dynamical detailed balance. We show that the damping of a harmonic oscillator is not exponential as
is generally accepted, but at lower energies, due to the decrease of the dipole moment, is slowing
down. As applications, we study the super radiance of a semiconductor p-i-n structure with quantum
dots, and the decay of a quantum logic gate.
1 Founding, full member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, e-mail: eliadestefanescu@yahoo.com.
2 Full member of the Romanian Academy, founding, full member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists.

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 84

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 85

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 86

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 87

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 88

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 89

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 90

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 91

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 92

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 93

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 94

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 95

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 96

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 97

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 98

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 99

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 100

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 101

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 102

Master Equation of the Matter-Field Dynamics with Energy Dissipation 103

Eliade Ștefănescu, Aureliu-Emil Săndulescu 104

PART TWO
SECTION OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES

C O N T E N T S
Iosif Tripșa, Radu Ștefănoiu, Daniela Mihaela Mihăilescu
Mass, low cost, hydrogen production by atomic decomposition of gaseous
molecules in metallic eutectic bath 107

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 107
MASS, LOW COST, HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
BY ATOMIC DECOMPOSITION OF GASEOUS MOLECULES
IN METALLIC EUTECTIC BATH
Iosif TRIPŞA 1 , Radu ŞTEFĂNOIU 2 , Daniela–Mihaela MIHĂILESCU 3
Abstract. To ensure a mass production of hydrogen, the area of the metal – gas interface
must be very large and may be ensured by stirring metallic bath with methane gas very fine
bubbles. Gas stirring of liquid steel is a habitual practice in industry. The logic conclusion of
all four scientific basis‟s is feasibility of the new hydrogen production route by atomic
decomposition of methane molecules inside the quaternary eutectic metallic bath, stirred
with methane gas fine bubbles, which permits the black carbon sequestration, without any
CO2 emission. Most of the elements of technology and equipment are known and usual in
metallurgical industry.
Keywords: atomic decomposition of gaseous molecules, Sivert‘s law, chemisorption, desorbtion,
quaternary eutectics, stirring of metallic bath
1. Theoretical aspects
In the metal industry, we are using now small quantities of hydrogen, but in the future
we need to produce and use very large amounts of hydrogen. How? The last
Brussels Annual Meeting of the European Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Platforms
expressed the necessity of a focused, ten year research, development and
demonstration program to bring into operation new hydrogen production routes for
ensuring a reduction of its costs by a factor 3 or more. In the same time, this new H2
production routes should be sure, with small carbon dioxide emission or, even,
without such emission and on at very large (mass) industrial scale.
How can the scientists find the wanted new H2 production routes in very short (ten
years) period of time and with minimal expenses? In his chairman‘s message for the
14th European Conference and Exhibition on Biomass for Energy, Industry and
Climate Protection (Paris, 17 – 21 October 2004), Prof. Lars Sjunnesson wrote an
interesting answer: ―Biomass is a wonderful energy carrier, where the sun energy is
storage by the photosynthesis process. Part of this process can be imitated and used
to produce hydrogen …‖ (our underlining).
In the ―Basic Research Needs for the Hydrogen Economy‖ [10], American
department gives a more concrete indication: for more than 4 billions of years in the
solid crust and in the Earth‘s hydrosphere, there are producing large quantities of
hydrogen (estimated between 250 – 1200 millions tons a year) by microorganism
with or without chlorophyll by ―biological decomposition of water and / or
hydrocarbons‖ (our underlining). These natural hydrogen quantities are many times
larger than present industrial H2 production worldwide. It is however impossible to
collect and used this natural hydrogen. Therefore, we have only two other
possibilities to act:
a) the bioengineers must find the proper technology to use such microorganisms to
mass produce hydrogen;
b) the materials engineers must find new artificial/industrial technology to imitate the
natural process of H2 production [1-9].
1
Prof. Dr. Sc. Eng., Faculty of Material Science and Engineering, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest,
Romania, honorary member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, tripsa_iosif@yahoo.com.
2
Dr. Eng., Faculty of Material Science and Engineering, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest,
Romania radus@sim.pub.ro.
3
Eng., CHIMINFORM DATA, Bucharest, Romania, mihailescu@asticontrol.ro.

Iosif Tripşa, Radu Ştefănoiu, Daniela–Mihaela Mihăilescu 108
How? Now, we have only one possibility: to study the scientific known phenomena of
splitting water and / or hydrocarbons molecules, to learn how splitting process occurs
and try to create new technological means to enhance this process into new
industrial proceeding. The present H2 production technologies, including methane
catalytic reforming, are also based on such scientific known phenomena.
Electrons Ionic nucleuses
Figure. 1. Free electrons in a metal
All solid state researchers and especially the metallurgists know very well the
phenomenon of gaseous molecules splitting in the moment of their chemisorption on
the metallic surfaces (uncovered by rust or other maters, so called ―with metallic
glisten‖). This atomic decomposition of gaseous molecules (H2, N2, CO, H2O, SO2,
H2S, CH4 and so on) respect ―Sievert‘s law‖.
Valence‘s electrons
Figure 2. The bonds formed by common valence electrons orbitals
For instance, the Turkdogan‘s, E.T., handbook, ―Fundamentals of Steelmaking‖ (The
Institute of Materials, London, 1996, page 96 – 126), presents Sievert‘s law for the
atomic decomposition of diatomic molecules of H2, N2, O2, S2, CO, a.s.o. in the
moment of their chemisorptions on solid and liquid steel surfaces, according to this
reaction:

Mass, Low Cost, Hydrogen Production ... 109
X X
solution
Whose equilibrium constancy, KX is expressed:
1
2 2 gas in
(1)
K
From this formula, the content [%X] will be:
X
% X
2
1
p
% X K X pX
2
In Turkdogan‘s Handbook there are the following equilibrium constancies formulas
for temperatures near 1600 o C, the steel making temperature:
So:
Figure 3. Gaseous molecules of water, methane and hydrogen
(O = oxygen atom, C = carbon atom, H = hydrogen atom)
1
2
H log K 2,
423
1
2
H 2
H
X
2
1900
T
188
T
N log K 2,
73
N 2
N
CO C O
K
CO
% C
ppmO
p atm CO
20
CO
4
CO CO O K ppmO 1,
110
2
CO C 2O
2
H O
2H
O 2
SO S 2O
2
K
K
CO
'
CO2
H2O
K
2
SO2
p
p
CO
2
% C
ppmO
p atm CO2
2 ppmH ppmO p atm
H2O
2
2 % S%
O
p atm SO2
22 10
4
6
1,
77 10
1558
H2
6
H S
S 2H
K ppmS 4,
310
2
H2S
p
p
H 2S
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)

2. Experiment
Iosif Tripşa, Radu Ştefănoiu, Daniela–Mihaela Mihăilescu 110
All these formulas have a very laborious experimental basis, as is known by the
specialists. In chemisorption, the hydrocarbons molecules are broken in atoms,
according to the general formula:
C H mC
nH
m
n
K
For methane gas chemisorption, this formula will be:
CH C H
C
m
H
n
4 K
CH
4
m n % C
H
p atm C H
Fig. 4. Decomposition of methane molecules chemisorbed on metallic net
(M – metallic atom)
4
m
4 % CH
p atm How can we explain the atomic decompositions of gaseous molecules in the moment
of their chemisorption? We know that in solid and liquid metals and alloys (which are
first degree conductors of electricity) valence electrons form so called ―common
electronic gas‖, because their bonds (with the ionic nucleuses) are broken by atomic
CH
4
n
(12)
(13)

Mass, Low Cost, Hydrogen Production ... 111
forces existing in the crystalline net. This existing in metals and alloys ―common
electronic gas‖ can be proved by everybody by very simple experiment of the electric
conduction.
The same atomic forces break the bonds between valence electrons and ionic
nucleuses in the moment of chemisorption of water or methane molecules (for
instance). Thus valence electrons enter in the ―common gas‖ and ionic nucleuses are
dissolved in the crystalline net.
Fig. 5. Decomposition of water molecules chemisorbed on metallic net
(M – metallic atom)
Thanks to this atomic decomposition phenomenon, inside of the crystalline net of the
used metal or alloy, there are dissoluted more atomic species (hydrogen, carbon,
oxygen a.s.o.). To obtain hydrogen we have to make possible the other very known
phenomenon: the desorbtion of hydrogen molecules. For this aim, the hydrogen
atoms must catch their electrons, combine their selves by pairs, and leave the
metallic surface into gaseous phase.
Secondly, we must separate all other species of atoms, existing inside of metallic net.
Carbon atoms have the most convenient behavior because they can form nodules
(like in the nodular or modified cast irons) and leave the metal as black carbon
particulates. Oxygen atoms must be tied by very strong deoxidisers (Ca, Si, Mg, etc.)
into different solid and liquid oxides, to be easy separated from gaseous hydrogen.

Iosif Tripşa, Radu Ştefănoiu, Daniela–Mihaela Mihăilescu 112
Figure 6. Vertical sections of stirred metallic bath
Now, we – the metallurgists - are obtaining hydrogen from water and/or
hydrocarbons, but we have not yet an industrial technology for hydrogen production,
because the atomic decomposition of gaseous molecules is a very slow
phenomenon, which can not have any industrial significance.
We must therefore enhance hydrogen productivity to industrial performance. How?
By using very important metallurgist knowledge to change solid state of metallic
support to liquid (molten) state, thus, we magnify by hundred times the mobility of
atoms in the metallic support. Secondly, we can use a very known and versatile
metallurgical technology: the stirring of metallic bath by very fine methane or steam
bubbles, introduced through the bottom of containing metallic bath vessel.
We – the metallurgist - know very exactly that the area of interphasic surface
between metal and gas is in this case, hundred thousand times larger than the area
of the quiet bath, thus the hydrogen productivity will be hundred thousand times
bigger, because the chemisorption and desorbtion are surface phenomena.
To diminish the working temperature we will use one of many quaternary eutectic
alloys, because the specialists know that such alloys unsure the lowest melting point,
low energy input, low cost of hydrogen production and high its security (no
explosions and ignitions).
Most of the technological elements and the needed equipment are widespread used
in metallurgical industry and thus this technology is very versatile.
The new hydrogen production route seems (for outsiders) enough complicated
because they are not familiar with our in metallurgical schools received knowledge. In
this case we have the privilege to refer to a similar, but widespread known
phenomenon: the bactericide properties of glisten metallic surfaces.

Mass, Low Cost, Hydrogen Production ... 113
Nowaday many of surgical operation rooms in the hospitals have all walls (even the
ceiling) covered by stainless steel plates to destroy bacteria through the breaking of
their cells, by a similar process with atomic decomposition of gaseous molecules in
the moment of their chemisorption on the same metallic surfaces.
The similitude of this both phenomena helps us to convince the people they know
that in the officers‘ gourds was introduced, for years, a silver wire, which was killing
all microorganisms contained in the marshy water in the war times. This is our last
convincing argument to assert the necessity to research and implement our new
hydrogen production technology, which is alike as the bactericide phenomenon.
Conclusions
1 – stirred metallic
bath;
2 – induction coil;
3 – graphite crucible;
4 – porous plug;
5 – well block;
6 – acoustic hooter;
7 – thermal insulation;
8 – refractory grate;
9 – refractory lining;
10 – pre-heater;
11 – safety valve;
12 – column for sonic
coagulation of the
carbon black dust;
13 – carbon black
collector;
14 – carbon black lock
chamber.
Most of the elements
are known and usual
in metallurgical
industry.
Figure 7. New technology and equipment for sure mass production of low-cost
hydrogen by atomic decomposition of methane gas molecules inside the
quaternary eutectic metallic bath, stirred with methane gas. Proven black
carbon sequestration = No CO2 Emissions
There are large perspectives for further developments of new metallurgical H2
production route:
Our new route has many possibilities to be developed for other raw materials
such as hydrocarbons, biomass, organic wastes a.s.o. with minor changes in
technology and equipment. Preferable are those, whose molecules contain only
hydrogen and carbon atoms (they permit black carbon sequestration, without CO2
emissions).
The most attention must be given to water, whose molecules do not contain
carbon. Instead, the ties between atoms are very strong and technological energy
input will be higher.

Iosif Tripşa, Radu Ştefănoiu, Daniela–Mihaela Mihăilescu 114
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Steinberg, M. and Cheng, H.C., Modern and Prospective Technologies for Hydrogen Production
from Fossil Fuels, J. Hydrogen Energy 14 No. 1 797-820 (1989).
[2] Steinberg, M., The Hy-C Process (Thermal Decomposition of Natural Gas) Potentially the Lowest
Cost Source of Hydrogen with the Least CO2 Emission, BNL 61364, Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Upton, NY (December 1994).
[3] Steinberg, M., Production of Hydrogen and Methanol from Natural Gas with Reduced CO2
Emission, Proceedings of the 11th World Hydrogen Energy Conference (WHEC), Stuttgart,
Germany, Vol. 1 499-510 (June 23-28, 1996).
[4] Pohleny J.B. and Scott, N.H., Method of Hydrogen Production by Catalytic Decomposition of a
Gaseous Hydrogen Stream, U.S. Patent 3, 284, 161 assigned to Universal Oil Products Co
(November 8, 1966) and Chemical Engineering 69, 90-1 (1962).
[5] Gaudermack, B. And Lynum, S., Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas Without Release of CO2
to the Atmosphere, Proceedings of the 11th World Hydrogen Energy Conference, 511-523, Coco
Beach, Florida (June 1996).
[6] Weimer Alan W., Dahl Jaimee, Buechler Karen, Thermal dissociation of methane using a solar
coupled aerosol flow reactor, University of Colorado, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Boulder, CO 80309-0424 (2001).
[7] Hirsch David, Decarbonization of Fossil Fuels Hydrogen Production by the Solar Thermal
Decomposition of Natural Gas Using a Vortex-Flow Solar Reactor, Swiss Federal Institute Of
Technology Zurich, Doctor of Sciences Dissertation, (2003).
[8] Forsberg Charles, Hydrogen Production And The Advanced High-Temperature Reactor,
American Nuclear Society Washington, D.C. (2002)
[9] Iosif Tripșa, Radu Ștefănoiu, Daniela M. Mihăilescu*, A new hydrogen production route,
University ―Politehnica‖ of Bucharest, *CHIMINFORM DATA Bucharest, Proceedings International
Hydrogen Energy Congress and Exhibition IHEC 2005, Istanbul, Turkey, 13-15 July.
[10] *** Basic Research Needs for the Hydrogen Economy, May 13- 15, 2003, http://domain.eu.
www.sc.doe.gov/bes/hydrogen.pdf.

PART THREE
SECTION OF GEONOMICAL SCIENCES

Dorel Zugrăvescu, Cristian Şuţeanu
C O N T E N T S
La géodynamique à l'échelle planétaire 117

Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 117
LA GÉODYNAMIQUE À L'ÉCHELLE PLANÉTAIRE *
Dorel ZUGRĂVESCU 1 , Cristian ŞUŢEANU 2
Résumé. L'article se concentre sur le scénario de l'évolution de la planète Terre, à la fois à
la lumière Tectonique mondial (tel que décrit dans des travaux récents géodynamique) et
non-linear science. Le document met en évidence les différents types de grande instabilité
(situé à l'interface qui marque les grandes planètes) et de leur rôle pour la dynamique de
grande échelle. Soulignant l'importance particulière de la dynamique du manteau, le
document examine les interactions complexes qui ont lieu entre les différentes parties de la
planète, de la surface au noyau solide. Les processus d'auto-organisation joue un rôle
important dans le nouveau cycle de Wilson, qui ne se limite plus à la dynamique de la
lithosphère, mais se réfère à l'ensemble de la planète.
Mots-clé: tectonique du globe entier, tectonique des panaches, cycle de Wilson, instabilités, autoorganisation
1. INTRODUCTION
La Tectonique du Globe Entier (TGE, Maruyama et Kumazawa, 1994) présente un
cadre cohérent pour le traitement des phénomènes géodynamiques, comprenant la
structure planétaire dans sa totalité. Cette théorie – qui rassemble des résultats
obtenus dans plusieurs domaines géoscientifiques – arrive à continuer les progrès
réalisés par la tectonique des plaques, répondant à des questions restées sans
solution auparavant: la source du matériel apporté dans les zones d'expansion, les
forces qui sont à l'origine des mouvements des plaques, le sort du matériel qui a subi
la subduction et son rôle pour la dynamique planétaire.
Conformément au scénario TGE, le matériel descendu par subduction s'accumule
dans le manteau, à la limite de 670 km, où il continue à stagner et à former une
«dalle froide» qui grossit pendant une accumulation de 100-400 Ma, liée à la nature
endothermique de la transformation de phase. Quand une dimension critique est
atteinte, la dalle commence une descente gravitationnelle lente dans le manteau,
comme «panache froid», jusqu'à la limite noyau-manteau. A ce niveau, elle
déclenche un «panache chaud» ascendant par la perturbation de la couche
thermique limite, comme réponse passive à la descente du corps froid. En même
temps, le contact entre le panache froid et le noyau liquide chaud mène à une
perturbation majeure dans le noyau interne et à la formation des cristaux de Ni-Fe
qui descendent vers le noyau interne, pour s'y déposer et augmenter le noyau solide,
tandis que le noyau liquide décroît. Les panaches chauds produisent les
phénomènes de rifting, le déplacement relatif des plaques, comme l'apparition des
points chauds à la surface de la planète. Ainsi, les phénomènes décisifs pour la
dynamique planétaire ont lieu dans des régions d'interface et sont dominés par des
instabilités. Le nouveau «cycle de Wilson» comprend donc une phase de
* Presenté dans le cadre de la Session Scientifique Études géophysiques complexes dans des zones
géodynamiquement actives, organisée par L‟Académie Roumaine, Institut de Géodynamique Sabba
S.Ştefănescu, L‟Académie de Sciences Techniques de Roumanie, Département du Petrole, des Mines et de la
Géonomie, L‟Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie, Département des Sciences Géonomiques, le 9 janvier
1999. Paru en Studii şi Cercetări de GEOFIZICĂ, 37, 1999, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti et dans
Géodynamique: Contours d'un Domaine, Editura Academiei Române, 2004.
1 Institut de Géodynamique ”Sabba S. Ştefănescu” de l'Académie Roumaine, Membre titulaire,
fondateur de l'Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie.
2 Institut de Géodynamique ”Sabba S. Ştefănescu” de l'Académie Roumaine, 19-21 rue J.L.Calderon,
Bucarest 37, R 70201, Roumanie.

Dorel Zugrăvescu, Cristian Şuţeanu 118
fragmentation et de dispersion d'un «super-continent», tandis que le déplacement
relatif des fragments provoque des processus de subduction, donc des
accumulations des panaches froids dans le manteau. Une nouvelle phase s'installe
lorsque les panaches froids commencent à descendre dans le manteau, générant les
conditions d'un rassemblement des masses fragmentées auparavant, la formation
d'un nouveau super-continent, mais aussi de la naissance de nouveaux panaches
chauds qui disperseront à leur tour, le super-continent qui vient de se former.
Le moteur de la dynamique planétaire reste donc la lithosphère qui subit la
subduction et qui entraîne les phénomènes ultérieurs décrits. Nos recherches
concernant les propriétés générales des phénomènes de fragmentation mènent à la
conclusion que la «structuration par fragmentation», mise en évidence de façon
quantitative, joue un rôle significatif dans le nouveau scénario correspondant au
cycle de Wilson, favorisant la formation des dalles froides concentrées du point de
vue spatial et leur augmentation jusqu'aux dimensions nécessaires au
déclenchement de l'instabilité.
Les phénomènes de rifting et de dispersion, d'un côté, et de collision, de l'autre,
ressentis à la surface, sont donc directement liés aux processus décrits qui dominent
une partie majeure de la planète. De ce point de vue, le domaine Téthyen se trouve
dans une situation spéciale, car il est dominé par des panaches froids encore
présentes à la limite de l'instabilité dans le manteau, comme des témoins précieux
des processus de collision continentale.
La corrélation des mécanismes impliqués dans le scénario de la TGE, les résultats
obtenus dans nos études concernant le processus qui domine divers domaines
d'échelle comme les informations apportées par la géologie, la géomorphologie,
l'exploration géophysique, les études gravimétriques, géodésiques, etc. offrent des
perspectives nouvelles pour une meilleure compréhension de la structure et la
dynamique de la zone sismogène de Vrancea.
2. ÉTATS CRITIQUES ET STRUCTURES HIÉRARCHISÉES ATTACHÉES À LA
DYNAMIQUE DU MANTEAU
Les processus qui ont lieu dans le manteau sont essentiels pour la dynamique à
grande échelle qui domine la planète. Entre autres, cette dynamique se voit
marquée, dans le domaine du manteau, par des phénomènes critiques liés à des
instabilités aux interfaces.
Les éléments les plus importants de la «tectonique des panaches» attachée à la
dynamique dans le manteau sont, d'un côté, les «panaches froids», de l'autre, les
«panaches chauds».
2.1. Les panaches froids
2.1.1. Positionnement des panaches froids
Tandis que les simulations sur ordinateur avaient suggéré l'existence des structures
du type «rideau» du matériel lithosphérique descendant dans le manteau, la
tomographie sismique de profondeur n'a pas confirmé des telles formations.
La tomographie sismique dans les ondes P de l'entier manteau (Fukao, 1992; Fukao
et al., 1994) a apporté des informations importantes concernant la structure de
profondeur du manteau.
Les panaches froids correspondent aux dalles lithosphériques descendues dans le
manteau comme une conséquence des processus de subduction.

La Géodynamique à l'Échelle Planétaire 119
Les données apportées par la tomographie sismique et la géologie régionale nous
montrent que les zones où ces panaches sont les plus importants se trouvent:
– au long des bords de l'Océan Pacifique, à l'exception de son bord sud; tandis
que le mouvement actuel des plaques tectoniques ne contribue plus à une
cumulation lithosphérique sur le côté ouest de l'Amérique du Nord, le panache froid
accumulé dans cette région nous parle d'un processus de subduction important dans
le passé; l'Amérique du Sud est fortement marquée par des structures géantes du
type panache froid, structures encore alimentées par des processus actuels; de
même, les bords estiques de l'Asie sont actifs en ce qui concerne un processus de
subduction productif, qui continue à contribuer à la croissance des panaches froids;
– au long du domaine Téthyen, en suivant la ligne: Mer Méditerrannée–Moyen
Orient–Himalaya–Java; la tomographie met en évidence des corps lithosphériques
tout au long de ce domaine, les dalles stagnantes à la limite de 670 km étant encore
en contact, en plusieurs endroits, avec des zones superficielles, témoins des
processus de subduction;
– dans deux zones mineures aux bords de l'Océan Atlantique.
Ils sont situés, dans leur majorité, à la limite de 670 km qui sépare le manteau
supérieur de celui inférieur.
Par tomographie sismique on a mis en évidence des anomalies de vitesse
correspondant aux panaches froids aussi dans d'autres profondeurs que celles de la
limite de 670 km. Une des zones les plus importantes est celle de la couche D". A ce
niveau, une dalle de très grandes dimensions est présente sous le continent de
l'Asie, témoignant d'un événement de grande ampleur de descente dans le manteau.
De même, des structures correspondant à des panaches froids se trouvent à la limite
de 670 km, marquant le continent asiatique d'une façon remarquable avec des traces
d'une activité de subduction très importante, qui semble avoir influencé la dynamique
du manteau à l'échelle planétaire.
2.1.2. Dynamique des panaches froids
La stagnation et l'accumulation des panaches froids à la limite de 670 km comprend
un ensemble de phénomènes complexes intercorrélés (Maruyama, 1994; Kumazawa
et Maruyama, 1994). Les facteurs les plus importants sont:
– l'augmentation de la viscosité dans le manteau inférieur;
– la nature endothermique de la transition de phase: Olivine gamma → Pérovskite
et Magnésiowustite, la pente Clapeyron positive jouant un rôle essentiel pour la
flottabilité du panache;
– la présence de la couche de Granatite qui sépare les deux divisions du
manteau.
C'est donc seulement au moment où une dalle atteint des dimensions critiques
qu'elle peut commencer la descente dans le manteau.
Le temps nécessaire à une telle accumulation dépend des processus de subduction
qui alimentent le panache froid, d'un ou de plusieurs endroits. Il est évalué
généralement à 100-400 millions d'années. Notons que les processus de subduction
ne sont pas uniformes, leur dynamique connaissant souvent des changements
abruptes, du point de vue de la direction et de la vitesse, et même des arrêts
temporaires ou apparemment définitifs.
Cette vitesse de subduction variable dépend à son tour de la dynamique qui se
déroule dans le manteau, comme un segment des boucles de feedback complexes

Dorel Zugrăvescu, Cristian Şuţeanu 120
gouvernant des systèmes non linéaires, dont on sait qu'elles conduisent souvent à
un comportement chaotique (Moon, 1992). D'ailleurs, l'empreinte chaotique a été
confirmée dans le cadre des modèles réalisés sur ordinateur, concernant la
dynamique à grande échelle comprenant les phénomènes dans le manteau (Honda
et al., 1993). Une fois qu'une dalle de grandes dimensions a commencé la descente
dans le manteau, la dynamique de l'ensemble change: elle est dominée par
l'événement de descente, et les autres dalles voisines en état d'instabilité sont
attirées à suivre cette descente. La grande dalle descendante représente le pivot
autour duquel se déroulent, dans l'étape suivante, les processus qui affectent la
lithosphère de même que le manteau. Les plaques lithosphériques de la surface
auront donc une tendance de mouvement convergent vers la zone où la dalle froide
est descendue. La continuation de la descente du matériel froid est encouragée à
avoir lieu dans le même endroit, qui devient donc une zone importante pour la
dynamique planétaire à grande et très grande échelle.
Le mouvement des panaches froids représente donc le moteur de l'entier scénario
de la tectonique à l'échelle planétaire. Dans ce mouvement, la descente
gravitationnelle est essentielle et constitue plus que 90% de la force motrice qui
gouverne la dynamique convergente au niveau de la lithosphère (Lithgow-Bertelloni
et Richards, 1998).
2.2. Les panaches chauds
2.2.1. Positionnement des panaches chauds
On a distingué deux catégories de panaches chauds, correspondant, d'un côté, à
des structures de grandes dimensions, appelées «superpanaches», respectivement
à des panaches beaucoup plus minces, bien que profonds, appelés «panaches
faibles», (Maruyama et Kumazawa, 1994).
Les superpanaches ont une forme de champignon, ayant une base large placée sur
la limite noyau-manteau, un tronc ascendant (avec un diamètre de milliers de
kilomètres) qui aboutit dans une formation qui diverge vers la limite manteau
inférieur–manteau supérieur dans une forme de parapluie ellipsoïdal. Cette tendance
des panaches chauds de former des structures du type champignon, avec
d'importants effets de dispersion dans leur zone supérieure, avait été constatée
expérimentalement avant ces explorations (Elder, 1976). Un aspect nouveau
découvert par les travaux de tomographie sismique est représenté cependant par le
caractère hiérarchisé des panaches chauds: on a constaté une structure complexe
de ramifications successives des branches montantes des panaches.
Dans le manteau inférieur, on a reconnu deux structures du type superpanache.
L'une se trouve dans la région du Pacifique du Sud, l'autre se trouve sous le
continent africain, allant de l'Océan Indien au sud-est jusqu'à l'Océan Atlantique vers
le nord-ouest de l'Afrique. La présence de ces structures géantes et de leurs
ramifications vers la surface de la planète a pu être corrélée avec l'activité des points
chauds, tant dans l'Océan Pacifique que dans le continent africain et dans les
régions océaniques voisines (un des plus actifs et des plus intéressants de ce point
de vue étant celui qui mène à l'activité du volcan Piton de la Fournaise dans l'Île de la
Réunion, dans l'Océan Indien, Dubois et Cheminée, 1993; Grasso et Bachelery,
1995).
Les panaches faibles ont une section transversale de moins de 500 km. Des
panaches faibles profonds, ayant une origine dans la couche D", ont été détectés au
long de la Dorsale Médio-Atlantique, comme un ensemble de points ancrant celle-ci
à la limite noyau-manteau (Maruyama, 1994).

La Géodynamique à l'Échelle Planétaire 121
Des panaches faibles à racines profondes sont connus dans la zone du Pôle Nord,
de l'Islande, des Açores, de l'Île Sainte-Hélène, du Tristan, du Kerguelen. Tous ces
panaches originaires dans la zone profonde D" sont liés aux instabilités de la couche
thermique limite à l'interface noyau extérieur–manteau.
Une autre catégorie de panaches chauds est différente de celle mentionnée par le
fait que ses racines sont moins profondes, leur source étant estimée à
approximativement 400 km. C'est le cas d'un grand nombre de manifestations du
type panache chaud liées aux processus de subduction, comme on trouve, surtout,
au long de la ceinture circumpacifique.
Des travaux récents ont abouti à proposer une nouvelle possibilité de faire la
distinction entre points chauds ayant l'origine profonde – couche D" – et ceux avec
une origine dans la zone correspondant à une profondeur plus petite (400 km). La
méthode (Brandon et al., 1998) est basée sur la détermination des rapports des
isotopes d'Osmium, 186 Os/ 188 Os, respectivement 187 Os/ 188 Os, ces rapports étant
accrus dans le cas des sources profondes, les isotopes 186 Os et 187 Os étant
spécifiques pour l'interface entre le manteau et le noyau liquide.
2.2.2. Dynamique des panaches chauds
La génération des panaches chauds est déclenchée par la perturbation de la couche
thermique limite attachée à l'interface manteau–noyau, dans les conditions de
l'instabilité de celui-ci (Turcotte et Schubert, 1982), perturbation produite par la
descente des dalles froides dans le manteau inférieur (Maruyama, 1994).
Cette perturbation est la source des fluctuations qui peuvent s'amplifier, représentant
des germes locaux des panaches chauds. Au fur et à mesure que les panaches se
développent, les structures les plus grandes engloutissent les plus petites, ce qui fait
que leur nombre décroît, tandis qu'ils s'agrandissent en direction verticale. Ces
mécanismes ont été détectées expérimentalement et aussi confirmés par des
simulations sur ordinateur (Olson et al., 1987). Au niveau de la lithosphère, les
panaches chauds manifestent un important effet de dispersion, qui mène aux
phénomènes de génération des rifts, de fragmentation et de mouvement divergent
des compartiments lithosphériques.
En ce qui concerne la dynamique du riftage, la façon dont la rupture avance a
constitué un problème resté longtemps un sujet de débat. Deux scénarios étaient
proposés: la nucléation simultanée de la rupture sur un entier segment («rupture
parallèle») et la nucléation progressive, par propagation de la rupture («mécanisme
du type fermoir»).
Récemment on a constaté pour la première fois par observation dans le terrain (dans
la région de Papouasie–Nouvelle-Guinée) que les deux mécanismes sont actifs:
tandis qu'une rupture progressive est plus fréquente, il y a des conditions
(lithosphère épaisse, chaude, moins résistante) où la rupture parallèle se développe
sur certains segments (Taylor et al., 1995).
3. LA GÉODYNAMIQUE À L'ÉCHELLE PLANÉTAIRE. NOUVEAUX ASPECTS DU
CYCLE DE WILSON
3.1. Les étapes du cycle
Les informations sur les structures et la dynamique à l'échelle planétaires ont mené à
une nouvelle vision sur la géodynamique et à la construction d'une nouvelle forme de
cycle de Wilson (Maruyama, 1994). Comme celui de la tectonique des plaques, le
cycle correspondant à la Tectonique du Globe Entier est marqué par certaines

Dorel Zugrăvescu, Cristian Şuţeanu 122
étapes distinctes, qui se succèdent et qui sont reconnaissables aussi par différentes
traces dans le milieu. Malgré ces ressemblances, il y a tout de même des différences
de principe entre les deux types de cycle, qu'on discutera dans une section séparée
(sect. 4). On peut commencer la délimitation des étapes du cycle par celle de la
fragmentation d'un «super-continent» unique. Cette fragmentation a lieu sous l'action
d'un superpanache chaud ascendant. Les fragments qui en résultent sont dispersés
d'une façon aléatoire sur la surface d'un «super-océan». Pendant ce processus de
dispersion, il résulte des mouvements relatifs entre les compartiments, qui
conduisent à des processus de subduction. On s'attend donc à la présence des
zones de subduction placées aussi d'une façon aléatoire. Nous verrons que ces
prémisses – qui peuvent introduire des difficultés dans l'explication du scénario – ne
sont pas nécessairement les plus réalistes: nous allons proposer plus loin un autre
ensemble de prémisses, en partant de nos résultats concernant les processus de
fragmentation.
Les processus de subduction apportent du matériel lithosphérique froid qui descend
dans le manteau, pour s'accumuler comme dalles horizontales au long de la limite de
670 km. Ces dalles – après une accumulation d'un volume critique – sont le sujet des
mouvements de descente dans le manteau, ces événements étant distribués aussi
d'une façon aléatoire dans l'espace et dans le temps. Mais si dans un certain endroit
les dalles froides arrivent à former un panache froid de très grandes dimensions, sa
descente entraîne un entier ensemble de dalles froides de sa proximité à le suivre
dans sa descente: conformément au principe de l'esclavage (Haken, 1983), la dalle
géante contrôle le mouvement des panaches froids qui l'entourent. Le résultat est
une descente stable, de grandes proportions, de matériel froid dans le manteau. De
plus, ce phénomène exerce une influence évidente sur la dynamique au niveau de la
lithosphère, où les autres compartiments commencent un mouvement convergent
vers l'endroit de la descente. Ce courant convergent qui, dans le cas d'une descente
d'ampleur, est ressenti sur la planète entière, mène à l'amalgamation des
compartiments continentaux et à la formation d'un nouveau super-continent.
Dans cette étape, la subduction qui accompagne le phénomène d'amalgamation à
déjà mené à la formation de dalles froides stagnantes à la limite de 670 km, des
futures panaches froids capables de redémarrer le cycle, par descente dans le
manteau: en arrivant à la limite manteau – noyau liquide, elle provoque la génération
des panaches chauds, lesquels accompliront, plus tard, la fragmentation du supercontinent.
Dans le cadre de la nouvelle forme du cycle de Wilson, on distingue donc
deux étapes principales:
(a) une première étape, dans laquelle un super-continent est fragmenté et les
fragments résultés sont dispersés sur la surface du super-océan; cette étape est
caractérisée par une distribution aléatoire des panaches froids dans le manteau;
(b) une deuxième étape, pendant laquelle les continents commencent
soudainement à s'amalgamer, sur un côté de la terre, pendant que sur l'autre le vieux
super-continent est toujours en cours de riftage; cette étape este marquée par la
présence d'un superpanache froid dans le manteau inférieur, superpanache vers
lequel se déplacent toutes les dalles froides descendantes.
3.2. Corrélations entre des aspects de la dynamique planétaire
Les phénomènes impliqués dans ce scénario sont marqués par des corrélations
entre des aspects différents de la dynamique planétaires. Certaines de ces corrélations
peuvent être suivies maintenant afin de vérifier divers aspects de la théorie.
Ainsi, au long du cycle de Wilson, le niveau des eaux des océans est variable. Le
niveau est minimum dans l'étape de supercontinent.

La Géodynamique à l'Échelle Planétaire 123
Au contraire, pendant la formation d'une dalle froide et l'amalgamation des fragments
dans le processus de formation d'un super-continent, des bassins sédimentaires de
grandes dimensions se développent grâce à la montée des niveaux des eaux.
La transgression (quand l'eau de la mer avance sur la croûte continentale) et la
régression (quand elle se retire) ont lieu en fonction de la vitesse de l'expansion des
fonds océaniques: la croissance du volume des dorsales médio-océaniques (quand
les vitesses sont plus hautes) et sa diminution (quand l'expansion subit un
ralentissement) provoque la variation des niveaux des mers (Maruyama, 1994).
D'autre côté, l'émanation de dioxyde de carbonne dans les zones de rift médioocéaniques
est la plus forte quand le processus d'expansion est le plus actif. Ceci a
une influence directe sur la composition de l'atmosphère. L'effet de serre est
accentué pendant ces périodes.
Au contraire, pendant les périodes dominées par l'amalgamation, à la fin du cycle de
Wilson, la vitesse de l'expansion est minimale, comme le rythme d'émanation de
dioxyde de carbonne.
Les variations de la concentration du dioxyde de carbonne ont pu être corrélées avec
les ères glaciales, ce qui a montré que les glaciations à l'échelle planétaire ont lieu à
la fin du cycle de Wilson (Maruyama, 1994).
Un autre aspect est constitué par les variations dans la durée du jour. Au delà de la
tendance de croissance de cette durée (de 19.5 heures il y a un milliard d'années), il
y a d'autres fluctuations de la vitesse de rotation de la planète.
Comme un mouvement de descente dans le manteau d'une dalle dense, de grandes
dimensions, affecte le moment cinétique de la terre, on fait des corrélations entre les
variations dans la vitesse de rotation de la terre et les événements épisodiques
correspondant aux mouvements à grande échelle dans le manteau (Maruyama,
1994).
Ces aspects ont ouvert la possibilité vers des corrélations inattendues entre divers
phénomènes dont l'évolution est connue de mieux en mieux, en donnant la
possibilité de vérifier les boucles de connexion de très grande complexité comprises
par le modèle proposé.
3.3. Application à la configuration contemporaine de la terre
En suivant le scénario proposé dans le cadre de la théorie de la TGE dans le cas
concret des configurations présentes et passées des masses continentales de notre
planète, on arrive aux conclusions suivantes (Hoffman, 1991; Maruyama, 1994;
Kumazawa et Maruyama, 1994). Il est probable que la dalle massive qui se trouve au
dessous du continent asiatique ait joué un rôle essentiel dans la formation de la
structure à grande échelle dans le manteau, telle que nous la constatons aujourd'hui.
Sa descente a dû avoir eu le poids décisif dans la dynamique de la génération des
panaches chauds, qui sont actifs maintenant (voir plus haut), comme dans le
mouvement contemporain convergent des masses continentales vers le continent
asiatique, mouvement estimé à nous approcher, dans les 250 millions d'années
suivantes, de la formation d'un super-continent autour de l'Asie. C'est donc important
de comprendre la formation et la dynamique de ce super-panache froid.
L'histoire de l'évolution continentale a été étudiée dans ce but d'une façon
interdisciplinaire par Maruyama (1994).
On doit remarquer, avant de l'esquisser que, dans ce cadre, une telle histoire ne
représente plus un détail local, d'intérêt limité: elle se trouve sur le fil même de

Dorel Zugrăvescu, Cristian Şuţeanu 124
l'histoire planétaire qui a mené à l'aspect actuel de la terre. On constate donc que,
encore plus qu'avant, dans le cadre de la TGE on ne parle plus d'évolutions isolées,
locales, négligeables pour l'évolution d'autres sous-systèmes. Tous les soussystèmes
se trouvent dans une telle interdépendance qu'ils arrivent à influencer
l'évolution de l'ensemble d'une façon déterminante, et, à grande échelle d'espace et
de temps, chacun participe à l'histoire des autres.
Pendant le début et le milieu du Permien l'Asie ne s'était pas encore formée comme
continent unique (Maruyama et al., 1989; Maruyama, 1994). Une série de
microcontinents étaient dispersés dans la zone de l'Asie d'aujourd'hui: le craton de la
Russie, le craton de la Sibérie, le bloc Kazakhstan, le craton Chinois du Nord, le
craton Chinois du Sud, le craton Tarim, le bloc de l'Indochine, etc. Entre ceux-ci il y
avait une série de zones de rencontre où la croûte océanique était consommée par
subduction.
Ces zones de subduction étaient distribuées d'une façon aléatoire pendant le
Permien. La formation de dalles de plus en plus grosses à la limite de 670 km a
mené à leur rencontre et à l'apparition de dalles plus grandes par fusion. Une fois
que c'est formé un superpanache froid, qui dépasse l'état critique à la limite qui
sépare le manteau inférieur de celui supérieur, il commence sa descente dans le
manteau, générant un courant de grandes proportions dans le manteau. Ce courant
est devenu l'élément dominant de la dynamique en ce qui concerne le déplacement
des microcontinents qui se trouvent sur la surface.
Ainsi, à la fin du Permien, les microcontinents nommés se sont déplacés de telle
façon qu'ils se sont rapprochés et entrés en collision, menant à la formation de
Laurasia.
On peut dire donc que la fin du Permien a représenté un point nodal pour la
réorganisation de la configuration continentale de la terre. À partir de cette étape,
tous les continents ont commencé à se déplacer vers l'Asie, comme ils le font encore
aujourd'hui.
On peut donc parler de la génération et de la destruction successive de plusieurs
super-continents de la terre. Pendant que Laurasia se formait sur l'hémisphère
nordique par l'amalgamation continentale à la fin du Permien, Gondwana était en
train d'être riftée dans l'hémisphère sudique. C'est pourquois Maruyama (1994) ou
Kumazawa et Maruyama (1994) expriment l'opinion que Pangéa n'a pas représenté
un super-continent authentique, mais une structure transitoire, formée de continents
qui se rassemblaient au nord, pendant que d'autres se fragmentaient déjà au sud.
Ces auteurs considèrent que dans le passé de la planète ont existé de vrais supercontinents,
comme Rodinia.
Etant donnée notre expérience en ce qui concerne les processus de fragmentation
(voir section 4) et la dynamique planétaire dans les termes de la théorie de la
tectonique du globe entier, nous considérons que les étapes dans lesquelles se
déroulent des processus de fragmentation, pendant que des amalgamations sont
aussi actives, représentent la règle plutôt que l'exception.
Nous suggérons donc un scénario qui ne demande pas d'une façon rigide que dans
chaque cycle se distingue un seul super-continent: au contraire, des boucles de
feedback de complexité avancée comme celles discutées plus haut vont former
plutôt des structures mixtes, pour lesquelles, même si les phénomènes spécifiques
aux étapes (a) et (b) attribuées au cycle de Wilson dominent, d'une manière
successive, la planète, ils sont, à de rares exceptions près, tous présents
simultanément.

La Géodynamique à l'Échelle Planétaire 125
4. PHÉNOMÈNES D'AGGRÉGATION/FRAGMENTATION ET L'ÉVOLUTION DE
LA CONFIGURATION CONTINENTALE. LE RÔLE DE LA STRUCTURATION PAR
FRAGMENTATION
4.1. Résultats des études concernant la structuration par fragmentation
L'émergence spontanée des corrélations à longue portée, typique pour l'autoorganisation
(Nicolis and Prigogine, 1977; Merry, 1995), est évidente aussi dans le
cas des processus de fragmentation (Şuţeanu et al., 1993; Şuţeanu, 1994, 1996;
Zugrăvescu et al. 1996). Au-delà d'une empreinte fractale des structures
fragmentées, nous avons détecté et caractérisé d'une manière quantitative des
aspects importants des corrélations émergentes, qui semblent être d'une grande
généralité en ce qui concerne les phénomènes de fragmentation. Pendant que de
nombreux chercheurs montrent que dans le cas des fragments obtenus par différents
procédés on obtient des distributions fractales (sans échelle propre, Turcotte, 1993),
d'autres chercheurs rapportent la détection des «dimensions privilégiées» en ce qui
concerne les dimensions des fragments (Sadovskii, 1983). Nous avons réalisé un
grand nombre d'expérimentations et d'études sur des structures naturelles
fragmentées (Şuţeanu et al., 1993, 1995, 1996a, 1998, 1999; Şuţeanu, 1994, 1996,
1997; Zugrăvescu et al. 1996): elles se réfèrent à la fragmentation des échantillons
de matériaux naturels et artificiels par choque dans diverses conditions, la
fragmentation des pellicules de suspension par séchage, la fissuration du sol par
déhydratation, la fragmentation du terrain suite aux processus tectoniques à
différentes échelles, y compris l'analyse de la surface de glace fracturée dans des
conditions extraterrestres (le satellite Europa).
Nos études montrent des corrélations d'une grande généralité qui sont attachées à la
structuration par fragmentation et qui visent différents aspects, dont les plus
importants pour cette étude sont les suivants.
La distribution des fragments d'après leurs dimensions est marquée par des
domaines de dimensions dominantes, corrélées:
mn
+ 1 - mn
= k
mn
- mn
- 1
où mi représentent les valeurs des maximums successifs des distributions. Cela veut
dire que dans chaque ensemble de fragments il y a des intervalles corrélés
comprenant un grand nombre de pièces, tandis que les intervalles voisins en
manquent. Les mêmes fragments, représentés d'une façon cumulée et logarithmée,
montrent une distribution fractale, tandis que les maximums mentionnés plus haut
sont engloutis dans les structures log-log linéaires des distributions et semblent des
bruits aléatoires. De même, on a étudié les relations entre les dimensions des
fragments et leurs positions spatiales réciproques. On a constaté dans tous les cas
une tendance des fragments adjacents d'avoir des dimensions comparables, cela
veut dire qu'on est dans la situation de découvrir dans tous les cas étudiés des amas
spatiaux des fragments aux dimensions comparables. Ces corrélations ont été
exprimés quantitativement soit par la distribution des rapports des masses
appartenant à des fragments adjacents, soit par la distribution des distances entre
les centres de masse des fragments appartenant à certains intervalles de masse
(Şuţeanu et al., 1996a, 1999; Şuţeanu, 1996, 1997; Zugrăvescu et al. 1996).
La confirmation de ces aspects pour des structures qui correspondent à différents
matériels, mécanismes de fragmentation, échelles d'espace, échelles de temps,
énergie etc. suggère que les propriétés mises en évidence caractérisent la
structuration par fragmentation même, réalisée dans les conditions les plus variées.

Dorel Zugrăvescu, Cristian Şuţeanu 126
C'est pour quoi nous considérons utile de regarder le scénario correspondant au
cycle de Wilson aussi du point de vue des résultats concernant la structuration par
fragmentation.
4.2. La phase problématique du cycle de Wilson conformément à la TGE et
l'argument concernant la structuration par fragmentation
Dans le cadre complexe et cohérent proposé par la TGE pour le cycle de Wilson, il y
a quand même une phase qui s'avère problématique. Comme on a vu plus haut, on
exige que la distribution aléatoire des dimensions des fragments, leurs positions
aléatoires, etc., mènent par hasard, à un certain moment, à la situation favorable où
un superpanache froid peut naître des processus de subduction cumulés. Cela
voudrait dire qu'en l'absence d'une situation favorable le cycle aurait de la peine à
redémarer et pourrait rester attaché dans une phase où plusieurs processus
modestes de subduction seraient dispersés çà et là, sans pouvoir mener à un
superpanache froid qui fera recommencer l'entier cycle (Şuţeanu et al., 1996b).
Nos résultats montrent qu'il n'est pas nécessaire de ce baser sur un contexte
favorable généré par la chance. Si les lois générales de la structuration par
fragmentation sont valables aussi dans le cas de la fragmentation continentale, ni la
distribution des fragments d'après leurs dimensions, ni leurs positions ne sont
aléatoires. Au contraire, il y a une tendance des fragments de s'agglomérer sur
certains intervalles de dimensions, cela veut dire qu'on aura des groupes de
fragments de dimensions comparables. De plus, ces fragments de dimensions
comparables sont aussi situés dans des zones adjacentes.
Ceci voudrait dire que des amas spatiaux de fragments de dimensions petites ou
moyennes seraient encouragés et ils apporteraient du matériel froid par des
subductions qui se dérouleraient dans des régions pas très lointaines entre elles,
pour former une grande dalle. Les fragments très petits contribuiraient avec moins de
matériel, même si leurs bords sont plus proches les uns des autres: leur petite inertie
les transforme dans des producteurs peu efficaces de matériel lithosphérique destiné
aux dalles froides. Les fragments de grandes dimensions imposent, à leur tour, de
très grandes distances entre leurs bords et donc entre les zones actives.
Au contraire, les fragments moyens et petits – qui sont très nombreux – ont la
tendance de former des amas qui remplissent les conditions de bons furnisseurs de
matériel froid pour former une dalle froide destinée à devenir «superpanache». Ainsi,
rien que des lois générales de la structuration par fragmentation, on peut envisager
que les conditions favorables à la continuation du cycle de Wilson sont réunies par
les phénomènes de fragmentation mêmes et qu'il n'est pas besoin d'un contexte
heureux généré par le hasard pour redémarer le scénario. Ainsi, nos recherches ne
font que soutenir le scénario proposé par la TGE, en reprenant un point qui était
insuffisamment argumenté par la théorie initiale.
5. NOUVEAUX ÉLÉMENTS DANS LA VISION SUR LA GÉODYNAMIQUE
PLANÉTAIRE
La théorie de la Tectonique du Globe Entier est, à son tour, évidemment loin d'être
complète. Son mérite important réside dans les nouveaux points de vue qu'elle a
rendus possibles concernant le caractère de la dynamique attachée aux systèmes
complexes intercorrélés qui composent la planète.
Elle montre que des corrélations spatiales de longue portée sont actives et
responsables des aspects dont on peut dire maintenant qu'ils sont loin d'être
indépendants, offrant une image cohérente sur l'évolution des systèmes traités
auparavant séparément.

La Géodynamique à l'Échelle Planétaire 127
La TGE montre que les événements les plus importants se déroulent aux principales
interfaces de la planète (manteau supérieur – manteau inférieur, manteau – noyau,
noyau externe – noyau interne) comme conséquences de la résolution d'une série
des instabillités. Elle nous éloigne de l'image des cycles uniformes, en les
remplaçant par des évolutions épisodiques, marqués d'événements individuels, qui
mettent leur empreinte sur l'entière dynamique planétaire.
D'ailleurs, on peut difficilement parler d'évolutions séparées, locales, qui
manqueraient de l'importance pour l'ensemble des sous-systèmes impliqués. Les
événements sont intimement liés et se conditionnent d'une façon complexe, faisant
partie, comme on a vu plus haut, de plusieurs boucles de réaction de natures
différentes.
Le nouveau point de vue, devenu possible seulement grâce à une approche
interdisciplinaire de grande ampleur, jette une lumière fraîche sur les phénomènes
complexes qui dominent la planète et exige une reconsidération de la géodynamique
du point de vue méthodologique qui bénéficiera des avantages des instruments
capables de traiter de structures complexes et de leur dynamique intercorrelée,
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Zugrăvescu et al. 1996).
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Environment, abstr. 1393, vol. 3, 170.

PART FOUR
SECTION OF TEHNICAL SCIENCES

Ion N. Chiuţă
C O N T E N T S
Applications of electromagnetic compatibility in military sciences 131
Adrian Badea
Valorisation énergétique de la biomasse 143

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 131
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY
IN MILITARY SCIENCES
Ion N. CHIUŢĂ 1
Abstract. This paper represents a synthesis of the scientific developments of the past ten
years in the Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) field. The brief introduction to the basic
concepts mentioned, is followed by the presentation of national and international
organizations that set standards and guidelines for EMC, and a list of titles of the most
important standards. The main military applications EMC developed in recent years are
presented in a separate chapter: electromagnetic pulse (EMP), electromagnetic pump (Ebomb)
weapons using energy radio waves of high frequency (HERF), the accumulation of
energy to generate a pulse energy (used for the new generation of weapons), devices that
generate energy from controlled explosions (EPFCG) or emitting electromagnetic radiation
(TED) pulses, the use of electromagnets for propulsion of electromagnetic reverberation
chamber, electromagnetic spectroscopy. Finally, the risks associated with the use of
electromagnetic radiation and conclusions are presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the branch of electrical sciences which
studies the unintentional generation, propagation and reception of electromagnetic
energy with reference to the unwanted effects that such energy may induce. In
particular, the aim of EMC is the correct operation of different equipments which
involve electromagnetic phenomena in their operation. In order to achieve such an
objective, EMC pursues different issues:
emission issues, in particular, are related to the reduction of unintentional
generation of electromagnetical energy and to the countermeasures which should be
taken in order to avoid the propagation of such an energy towards the external
environment,
susceptibility issues, however, refer to the correct operation of electrical
equipments in the presence of electromagnetic disturbances.
When the propagation of electromagnetic disturbances in guiding structures (i.e.
wires, cables, printed circuit board (PCB) traces) is taken into account, conducted
emission and susceptibility issues are considered. When the open-space propagation
of electromagnetic disturbances is taken into account, radiated emission and
susceptibility issues are considered.
2. EMC STANDARDS AND DIRECTIVES
In the past, a relaxed EMC regime existed apart from in the military field, and
equipment manufacturers did not care much about EMC issues. However, because
of increases of clock speeds used in modern digital equipment coupled with the lower
signal voltages these systems used, EMC became more and more of an issue. Many
nations became aware of this growing problem and issued directives to the
manufacturers of this kind of equipment, which set out the essential requirements
which must be satisfied before such equipment may be sold. Organizations in each
nation were set up to draw up and safeguard these directives. Some of the most
known national organizations are:
The FCC for the United States
CEN, CENELEC and ETSI for Europe and
BSI for Great Britain.
1 Prof., PhD, Eng., University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania, Full member of the Academy of
Romanian Scientists.

132 Ion N. Chiuţă
There are also several international organizations which try "to promote international
co-operation on matters regarding standardization" (harmonisation), including EMC
standards.
The most important international organisation is the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC), which has several committees working full time on EMC issues.
These are "TC77" working on "electromagnetic compatibility between equipment
including networks", and the International Special Committee on Radio Interference
(CISPR).
Co-ordination of the IEC's work on EMC between these committees is the
responsibility of the ACEC, the advisory committee on EMC.
The following list outlines a number of EMC standards and directives which are
known to be either available or have been made available for public comment. These
directives attempt to standardize product safety and performance, in respect to radio
interference for electrical equipment.
2.1. CISPR standards
CISPR 12, Vehicles, boats and internal combustion engine driven devices -
Radio disturbance characteristics - Limits and methods of measurement for the
protection of receivers except those installed in the vehicle/boat/device itself or in
adjacent vehicles/boats/devices.
CISPR 16-1, Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measurement
devices and methods - Part 1: Radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus
CISPR 16-2, Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measurement
devices and methods - Part 2: Methods of measurement of disturbances and immunity
CISPR 16-3, Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measurement
apparatus and methods - Part 3: Reports and recommendations of CISPR
CISPR 22, Information technology equipment - Radio disturbance
characteristics - Limits and methods of measurement
2.2. IEC standards
The IEC standards on EMC are mostly part of the IEC 61000 family. Here are some
examples:
IEC/TR 61000-1-1, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 1: General -
Section 1: Application and interpretation of fundamental definitions and terms
IEC/TR 61000-2-1, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 2: Environment
- Section 1: Description of the environment - Electromagnetic environment for lowfrequency
conducted disturbances and signaling in public power supply systems
IEC/TR 61000-2-3, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 2: Environment
- Section 3: Description of the environment - Radiated and non-network-frequencyrelated
conducted phenomena
IEC 61000-3-2, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-2 - Limits - Limits
for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current ≤ 16 A per phase)
IEC 61000-3-4, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-4: Limits -
Limitation of emission of harmonic currents in low-voltage power supply systems for
equipment with rated current greater than 16 A

Applications of Electromagnetic Compatibility in Military Sciences 133
IEC/TS 61000-3-5 , Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3: Limits -
Section 5: Limitation of voltage fluctuations and flicker in low-voltage power supply
systems for equipment with rated current greater than 16 A
IEC 61000-4-2, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)- Part 4-2: Testing and
measurement techniques - Electrostatic discharge immunity test
IEC 61000-3-4, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)- Part 4-4: Testing and
measurement techniques - Radiated, radio-frequency, electromagnetic field immunity
test
2.3. ISO standards
The following are ISO standards on automotive EMC issues:
ISO 11451-1, Road vehicles - Vehicle test methods for electrical disturbances
from narrowband radiated electromagnetic energy - Part 1: General and definitions
ISO 11451-2, Road vehicles - Vehicle test methods for electrical disturbances
from narrowband radiated electromagnetic energy - Part 2: Off-vehicle radiation
source
ISO 11541-3, Road vehicles - Vehicle test methods for electrical disturbances
from narrowband radiated electromagnetic energy - Part 3: On-board transmitter
simulation
ISO 11451-5, Road vehicles - Vehicle test methods for electrical disturbances
from narrowband radiated electromagnetic energy - Part 5: Bulk current injection
(BCI)
ISO 11452, Road vehicles - Electrical disturbances by narrowband radiated
electromagnetic energy - Component test methods
2.4. European standards
European standards concerning unwanted electrical emissions:
EN 50 081 part1 European Generic emission standard, part1: Domestic,
commercial and light industry environment, replaced by EN 61000-6-3
EN 50 081 part2 European Generic emission standard, part2: industrial
environment
EN 55 011 European limits and methods of measurement of radio disturbance
characteristics for scientific and medical equipment
EN 55 013 European limits and methods of measurement of radio disturbance
characteristics of broadcast receivers
EN 55 014 European limits and methods of measurement of radio disturbance
characteristics of household appliances and power tools, replaced by EN 55014-1,
and immunity part is covered by EN 55014-2
EN 55 015 European limits and methods of measurement of radio disturbance
characteristics of fluorescent lamps
EN 55 022 European limits and methods of measurement of radio disturbance
characteristics of information technology equipment
EN 60 555 part 2 and 3 Disturbances of power supply network (part 2) and
power fluctuations (part 3) caused by of household appliances and power tools,
replaced by EN 61000-3-2 and EN 61000-3-3

134 Ion N. Chiuţă
VDE 0875 German EMC directive for broadband interference generated by
household appliances
VDE 0871 German EMC directive for broadband and narrowband interference
generated by information technology equipment
European standards concerning immunity to electrical emissions:
EN 50 082 part1 European immunity standard, part1: Domestic, commercial
and light industry environment, replaced by EN 61000-6-1
EN 50 082 part2 European immunity standard, part2: industrial environment
EN 50 093 European, immunity to short dips in the power supply (brownouts)
EN 55 020 European, immunity from radio interference of broadcast receivers
EN 55 024 European immunity requirements for information technology
equipment
EN 55 101 older draft of immunity requirements for information technology
equipment, replaced by EN 55 024
EN 50 081 part1 European Generic emission standard, part1: Domestic,
commercial and light industry environment
EN 50 081 part2 European immunity requirements for information technology
equipment.
2.5. American standards
FCC Part 15 Subpart B US limits and methods of measurement of radio
disturbance
3. MILITARY APPLICATIONS
The electromagnetic field is a physical influence (a field) that permeates through all
space and which arises from charged objects and describes one of the four
fundamental forces of nature - electromagnetism. It can be viewed as the
combination of an electric field and a magnetic field.
The electric field is produced by non-moving charges and the magnetic field by
moving charges (currents); these two are often described as the sources of the field.
As velocities are observer-dependent, so is the distinction between electric and
magnetic field.
The way in which charges and currents interact with the electromagnetic field is
dictated by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz Force Law.
Properties of the electromagnetic field are exploited in many areas of industry. The
use of electromagnetic radiation is seen in various disciplines. For example, X-rays
are high frequency electromagnetic radiation and are used in radio astronomy,
radiography in medicine and radiometry in telecommunications.
Other medical applications include laser therapy, which is an example of
photomedicine. Applications of lasers are found in military devices such as laserguided
bombs, as well as more down to earth devices such as barcode readers and
CD players. Something as simple as a relay in any electrical device uses an
electromagnetic field to engage or to disengage the two different states of output (ie,
when electricity is not applied, the metal strip will connect output A and B, but if
electricity is applied, a electromagnetic field will be created and the metal strip will
connect output A and C).

Applications of Electromagnetic Compatibility in Military Sciences 135
3.1. Electromagnetic pulse
In telecommunications and warfare, the term electromagnetic pulse (EMP) has the
following meanings:
a) Nuclear electromagnetic pulse
The electromagnetic radiation from an explosion (especially nuclear explosions) or
an intensely fluctuating magnetic field caused by Compton-recoil electrons and
photoelectrons from photons scattered in the materials of the electronic or explosive
device or in a surrounding medium.
The resulting electric and magnetic fields may couple with electrical/electronic
systems to produce damaging current and voltage surges. See the section about the
electromagnetic bomb for details on the damages resulting in electronic devices. The
effects are usually not noticeable beyond the blast radius unless the device is nuclear
or specifically designed to produce an electromagnetic shockwave.
A broadband, high-intensity, short-duration burst of electromagnetic energy.
In the case of a nuclear detonation or a meteor impact, the electromagnetic pulse
consists of a continuous frequency spectrum. Most of the energy is distributed
throughout the lower frequencies between 3 Hz and 30 kHz. (Source: from Federal
Standard 1037C in support of MIL-STD-188 and from the Department of Defense
Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms)
b) Non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse
The non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NNEMP) is an electromagnetic pulse
generated without use of nuclear weapons. There is a number of devices used to
achieve this objective, ranging from a large low-inductance capacitor bank
discharged into a single-loop antenna or a microwave generator to an explosively
pumped flux compression generator.
To achieve the frequency characteristics of the pulse needed for optimal coupling
into the target, wave-shaping circuits and/or microwave generators are added
between the pulse source and the antenna. NNEMP generators can be carried as a
payload of bombs and cruise missiles, allowing construction of electromagnetic
bombs with diminished mechanical, thermal and ionizing radiation effects and without
the political consequences of deploying nuclear weapons.
c) Electromagnetic bomb
An electromagnetic bomb or E-bomb is a weapon designed to disable electronics on
a wide scale with an electromagnetic pulse. The electromagnetic pulse was first
observed during high altitude nuclear weapon detonations. An electrometric pulse
lasts for less than a nanosecond, and travels outward in every direction as an
electromagnetic shock wave. This shock wave will induce heavy currents in all
electronic gadgets that mainly contain semiconducting and conducting materials.
This produces immense heat that simply fries the circuitry inside and destroys them.
As such, while not being directly responsible for the loss of lives, these weapons are
capable of disabling electronic systems on which industrialized nations are highly
dependent. The resistance to EMP by device is listed below, from most to least
vulnerable:
1. Integrated circuits (ICs), CPUs, silicon chips.
2. Transistors.
3. Vacuum Tubes (also known as thermionic valves).
4. Inductors, motors.

136 Ion N. Chiuţă
Transistor technology is likely to fail and old vacuum equipment survives. To protect
sensitive electronics, a Faraday cage must be produced around the item. This can be
done by wrapping the item, such as a radio in foil (any external connections should
not touch foil) without any holes. This will shield the item from EMI fields.
Electromagnetic weapons are still mostly classified and their research is highly
secretive. Military speculators and experts generally think that E-bombs use
explosively pumped flux compression generator technology as their power source.
According to some reports, the U.S. Navy used experimental E-bombs during the
1991 Gulf War. These bombs utilized warheads that converted the energy of
conventional explosives into a pulse of radio energy. CBS News also reported that
the U.S. dropped an E-bomb on Iraqi TV during the 2003 invasion, but this has not
been confirmed. The former Soviet Union conducted significant research into
producing nuclear weapons specially designed for upper atmospheric detonations, a
decision that was later followed by the United States and the United Kingdom.
3.2. High-energy radio-frequency weapons
High Energy Radio Frequency weapons (HERF) or High Power Radio Frequency
weapons (HPRF) are weapons that use high intensity radio waves to disrupt
electronics. They operate similarly to EMP devices, by inducing destructive voltage
within electronic wiring. They are usually directional and can be focused on a specific
target using a parabolic dish. Faraday cages may be used to provide protection from
some HERF and EMP effects.
3.3. Pulsed power
Pulsed power is the term used to describe the science and technology of
accumulating energy over a relatively long period of time and releasing it very quickly
thus increasing the instantaneous power.
Steady accumulation of energy followed by its rapid release can result in the delivery
of a larger amount of instantaneous power over a shorter period of time (although the
total energy is the same). Energy is typically stored within electrostatic fields
(capacitors), magnetic fields (inductor), as mechanical energy (using large flywheels
connected to special purpose high current alternators), or as chemical energy (highcurrent
lead-acid batteries, or explosives). By releasing the stored energy over a very
short interval (a process that is called energy compression), a huge amount of peak
power can be delivered to a load. For example, if one joule of energy is stored within
a capacitor and then evenly released to a load over one second, the peak power
delivered to the load would only be 1 watt. However, if all of the stored energy was
released within one microsecond, the peak power would be one megawatt, a million
times greater. Examples where pulsed power technology is commonly used include
radar, particle accelerators, ultra strong magnetic fields, fusion research,
electromagnetic pulses, and high power pulsed lasers.
3.4. Directed-energy weapon
A directed-energy weapon is a type of energy weapon that directs energy in a
particular direction by means other than a projectile. It transfers energy to a target for
a desired effect. Some of these weapons are real or practicable; some are science
fiction. The energy is in various forms:
electromagnetic radiation (typically lasers or masers),
particles with mass (particle beam weapons).

Applications of Electromagnetic Compatibility in Military Sciences 137
Some of these weapons are known as death rays or ray guns and are usually
portrayed as projecting energy at a person or object in order to kill or destroy. Some
lethal directed-energy weapons are under active research and development, but
most examples of such weapons appear in science fiction.
Types of directed-energy weapons are:
Ordinary light
Lasers
Electric beam in a vacuum
Particle beam weapons
Plasma weapons
Sonic and ultrasonic beam weapons
Energy devices which may be confused with directed-energy weapons
3.5. Non-directional energy weapons
An energy weapon can describe many types of real and fictional weapon which emit
energy, rather than a physical projectile, and fire in one direction. On these grounds,
they can be classified as guns (see Directed-energy weapon for a more extensive
description). Among omni-directional energy weapons are:
Explosives, e.g. grenades, bombs.
Reported, electromagnetic bombs, which deliver a wide-area electromagnetic
pulse.
Another example of commonly used energy weapons are the stun-gun and
taser, although the latter has a kinetic component.
Less common energy weapons are the lasers developed to shoot down
ICBMs and satellites in the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) program.
For more information, see the following Patents:
U.S. Patent 8843 - Electric whaling apparatus - Albert Sonnenburg and Philipp
Rechten
U.S. Patent 2805067 - Electric weapon - Thomas D. Ryan
3.6. Explosively pumped flux compression generator
An explosively pumped flux compression generator is a pulsed power supply that
magnetically derives its energy from an explosion. Explosively pumped flux
compression generators (hereafter referred to as an "EPFCG") are popular as power
sources for electronic warfare devices known as transient electromagnetic devices
that generate an electromagnetic pulse without the costs and side effects of a
nuclear weapon, a form of cyber war. Other uses:
EPFCGs could be used to drive pulsed lasers for military applications, and for
such interesting possibilities as portable nuclear magnetic resonance analysers.
The EPFCG being used to provide energy for the powerful magnetic field
required, and maybe the radio pulse used to test the sample (using a single pulse for
FTNMR), thus avoiding the need for large superconducting storage magnets.
It may be also used as a fast rise time power surge source for the EBW and
slapper detonators in advanced nuclear weapons.

138 Ion N. Chiuţă
3.7. Transient electromagnetic device
A transient electromagnetic device (TED) is a device that emits a transient pulse of
electromagnetic radiation of a few picoseconds in length. TEDs generally use spark
gap switches, in oil or in pressurized gas pulse storage lines, or explosively pumped
flux compression generators.
TEDs have been examined by the US military for their threat potential as a weapon
that harms computer systems, as presented in the Joint Economic Committee
Hearing, Radio Frequency Weapons and Proliferation: Potential Impact on the
Economy, Wednesday, February 25, 1998.
3.8. Electromagnetic propulsion
Electromagnetic propulsion uses the concepts and applications of electromagnets.
Technologies that make use of such applications include magnetic levitation
technologies, including maglev trains, rail guns, and even electromagnetic motors to
some degree (though more use is made of the motor principle derived from
electromagnets).
The concept of electromagnetic propulsion is no simpler than in a simple coil gun: a
(preferably soft) iron core is inserted into a coil. When a diamagnetic metallic torus is
placed around the core, because it cannot be magnetized, its atoms become
agitated, current is produced in it (thereby producing a magnetic field), and the
electromagnet produces an opposing field (in accordance with Lenz's law and the law
of the conservation of energy). Because of this opposition, the ring is fired off of the
electromagnet, propelling it away.
Note that if the torus (or ring) is prevented from escaping the magnetic field, due to
the induced current, it will become very hot. This is how induction cookers work.
3.9. Electromagnetic Reverberation Chamber
An Electromagnetic Reverberation Chamber (Reverb Chamber, RVC, Mode-Stirred
Chamber, MSC) is an environment for Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) testing
and other electromagnetic investigations.
Electromagnetic Reverberation Chambers have been introduced first by H.A.
Mendes in 1968 (Mendes 1968).
A reverberation chamber is screened room with a minimum of absorption of
electromagnetic energy.
Due to the low absorption very high field strength can be achieved with moderate
input power.
A reverberation chamber is a cavity resonator with a high Q factor.
Thus, the spacial distribution of the electrical and magnetical field strength is strongly
inhomogeneous (standing waves).
To reduce this inhomogenity, one or more tuners (stirrers) are used.
A tuner is a construction with large metallic reflectors that can be moved to different
orientations in order to achieve different boundary conditions.
The Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF) of a reverberation chamber depends on the
size of the chamber and the design of the tuner.
Small chambers have a higher LUF as large chambers.
The concept of a reverberation chambers is comparable to a microwave oven.

Applications of Electromagnetic Compatibility in Military Sciences 139
3.10. Electromagnetic spectroscopy
Electromagnetic spectroscopy a.k.a. spectrophotometry is the spectroscopy of
electromagnetic spectra which arise out of atoms absorbing and emitting quanta of
electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic spectroscopy involves the use of a spectrophotometer.
The electromagnetic radiation measured can be in any range of wavelengths: radio
waves, microwaves, infrared light (see infrared spectroscopy), visible light (see
UV/visible spectroscopy), ultraviolet light (see UV/visible spectroscopy), X-rays.
Electromagnetic spectroscopy can be classified into narrower fields, though in some
spectroscopic techniques, several processes may be happening at the same time:
a) Emission spectroscopy
Emission spectroscopy is the study of electromagnetic radiation spectra given off by
atoms or molecules that undergo a transition to a lower energy level. Such a process
is called fluorescence or, under certain conditions, phosphorescence. Generally,
emission spectroscopy deals with visible light and shorter wavelengths, since
fluorescence is less likely to happen with long wavelengths.
Examples: fluorescence spectroscopy, flame emission spectroscopy, X-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy, stellar spectroscopy. See also: spontaneous emission.
b) Absorption spectroscopy
Absorption spectroscopy is the study of electromagnetic radiation spectra absorbed
by atoms or molecules that change energy levels. Often, it is used as an analytical
technique; specific chemical compounds have a specific absorption spectrum that
acts as a fingerprint. Moreover, the amount of absorption is related to the amount of
absorbing compound. Absorption spectroscopy can be used to determine the
concentration of chemical compounds in samples (see molar absorptivity).
Examples of absorption spectroscopy:
Vibration spectroscopy - absorption of infrared radiation (see infrared
spectroscopy), often used as an analytical tool;
Atomic absorption - often used as an analytical tool;
UV/visible spectroscopy - absorption of ultraviolet and visible light; often used
as an analytical tool;
Mossbauer spectroscopy - Measures the absorption of gamma rays by atoms
bound in a solid as a function of gamma-ray energy. This is not an analytical
technique; it is a means to understand certain microscopic processes in matter.
c) Other techniques
Electromagnetic radiation can interact with matter in ways other than simple
absorption and emission, such as in the following techniques:
1. Circular dichroism spectroscopy - measures effects of a sample on the
polarization of light.
2. Magnetic circular dichroism.
3. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) - measures the resonant absorption of
radiofrequency radiation by nuclei in a strong magnetic field. Absorption peaks
correspond to transitions in the nuclear spin states of the sample molecule(s).
4. Electron-spin resonance - similar to NMR, but looking at electrons.

140 Ion N. Chiuţă
5. Raman spectroscopy - A molecule can absorb a part of the energy of a
photon, which results in a change in frequency (or wavelength) of the photon. The
amount of absorbed energy corresponds to an infrared transition in the molecule,
even though the photon might have a visible-light wavelength.
6. Stark spectroscopy - measures effects of electrical fields on the spectra.
3.11. Electromagnetic radiation hazard
Electromagnetic radiation can be classified into ionizing radiation and non-ionizing
radiation, based on whether it is capable of ionizing atoms and breaking chemical
bonds. Ultraviolet and higher frequencies, such as X-rays or gamma rays are
ionizing. Non-ionizing radiation, discussed here, is not capable of having these
effects on molecules.
There are three major potential hazards associated with non-ionizing electromagnetic
radiation: electrical, fire, and biological. Additionally, induced current caused by
radiation is a significant danger in the handling of electrically initiated explosives or
pyrotechnics. This risk is commonly referred to as RadHaz or HERO (Hazards of
Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance).
a) Electrical hazards
Strong electromagnetic fields can generate an electric current in other metal objects
by electromagnetic induction. The induced current can cause an electric shock to
persons or animals. It can also overload and destroy electrical equipment. This can
be a particular hazard in the vicinity of explosives, since an electrical overload might
ignite it.
b) Fire hazards
Again by electromagnetic induction, a strong electromagnetic field can cause electric
currents which may flow across an air gap to ground, causing sparks.
These sparks can then ignite flammable materials or gases, possibly leading to an
explosion or a fire.
c) Biological hazards of EMF
The best understood biological effect of electromagnetic fields is to cause dielectric
heating. For example, touching an antenna while a transmitter is in operation can
cause severe burns. Birds sitting on very high-power antennas when transmission
begins can be instantly cooked by RF energy. In fact, that is the principle behind the
operation of a microwave oven. This heating effect varies with the frequency of the
electromagnetic energy.
Human eyes are particularly vulnerable to RF energy in the microwave range, and
prolonged exposure to microwaves can lead to cataracts. Each frequency in the
electromagnetic spectrum is absorbed by living tissue at a different rate, called the
specific absorption rate (SAR), which has units of watts per kilogram.
The IEEE and many national governments have established safety limits for
exposure to various frequencies of electromagnetic energy based on SAR.
Equally there is limited evidence on complex biological effects of weaker non-thermal
electromagnetic fields (see Bioelectromagnetics), including weak ELF magnetic fields
and modulated RF and microwave fields.
The theoretical mechanism of action of non-thermal electromagnetic fields is not
understood since none of the known interactions could support a biological effect.

Applications of Electromagnetic Compatibility in Military Sciences 141
A number of hypotheses have been proposed to explain this interaction but none has
significant supporting evidence. Non-thermal effects, if they exist, may be beneficial
or harmful depending on the specific parameters of the field.
A common position presented by believers in these effects is that, since they are not
well understood, a precautionary principle approach would suggest minimizing
exposure whenever possible. Some studies have even suggested that a small
percentage of the population may be electromagnetically sensitive and can
consciously react to very low level fields even in double-blind experiments. It does
not seem to be a congenital condition and theories have been put forth that some
form of external trigger such as previous chemical exposure may bring about this
electrical sensitivity (ES).
In Federal Standard 1037C, the United States government adopts the following U.S.
military definition:
―Electromagnetic radiation hazards (RADHAZ or EMR hazards): Hazards caused by
a transmitter/antenna installation that generates electromagnetic radiation in the
proximity of ordonance, personnel, or fueling operations in excess of established safe
levels or increases the existing levels to a hazardous level; or a personnel, fueling, or
ordnance installation located in an area that is illuminated by electromagnetic
radiation at a level that is hazardous to the planned operations or occupancy.
These hazards will exist when an electromagnetic field of sufficient intensity is
generated to:
(a) induce or otherwise couple currents and/or voltages of magnitudes large
enough to initiate electro explosive devices or other sensitive explosive components
of weapon systems, ordnance, or explosive devices;
(b) cause harmful or injurious effects to humans and wildlife;
(c) create sparks having sufficient magnitude to ignite flammable mixtures of
materials that must be handled in the affected area.‖ (quoted form the Department of
Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms).
CONCLUSIONS
As it turns out, the electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all the
phenomena one encounters in daily life, with the exception of gravity.
Roughly speaking, all the forces involved in interactions between atoms can be
traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the electrically charged protons and
electrons inside the atoms.
This includes the forces we experience in "pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material
objects, which come from the intermolecular forces between the individual molecules
in our bodies and those in the objects.
It also includes all forms of chemical phenomena, which arise from interactions
between electron orbitals.

142 Ion N. Chiuţă
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] William G. Duff, Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Compatibility, Interference Control
Tehnologies, Inc. Gainesville, Virginia 1988.
[2] Michel Mardiquian, Grounding and Bonding, Interference Control Technologies, Inc.
Gainesville, Virginia 1988.
[3] Donald R.J. White & Michel Mardiquian, EMF-EMI Control, Interference Control
Technologies, Inc. Gainesville, Virginia 1988.
[4] Jeffrey K. Eckert, 1988, Filters and Power Conditioning, Interference Control Technologies,
Inc. Gainesville, Virginia 1988.
[5] Michel Mardiquian, Electromagnetic Control in Components and services, Interference
Control Technologies, Inc. Gainesville, Virginia 1988.
[6] Edwin L. Bronaugh & William S. Laubdin, Electromagnetic interference. Test Methodology
and Procedures, Interference Control Technologies, Inc. Gainesville, Virginia 1988.
[7] William G. Duff, Electromagnetic Compatibility in Telecommunications, Interference Control
Technologies, Inc. Gainesville, Virginia 1988.
[8] Donald R.J.White & Michel Mardiquian, Electromagnetic Interference. Control Methodology
and Procedures, Interference Control Technologies, Inc. Gainesville, Virginia 1988.
[9] Jeffrey K.Eckert, Comercial Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards of the United States,
Interference Control Technologies, Inc. Gainesville, Virginia 1988.
[10] C.M. Wintzer, International Commercial Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards,
Interference Control Technologies, Inc. Gainesville, Electromagnetic Compatibility
Standards, 1988.
[11] John D.M. Osburn, Military Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards of the United States,
Interference Control Technologies, Inc. Gainesville, Electromagnetic Compatibility
Standards 1988.
[12] John D.M. Osburn, Supporting and Unique Military Electromagnetic Compatibility
Standards of the United States, Interference Control Technologies, Inc. Gainesville,
Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards 1988.

Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 143
VALORISATION ÉNERGÉTIQUE DE LA BIOMASSE
Adrian BADEA 1
Abstract. The paper presents a "state of the art" of solutions Heat conversion of biomass
into electricity. Processes Piro-gasification integrated with thermodynamic Brayton cycle
engine or heat using synthesis gas with fuel cells based on hydrogen is the alternative
energy production with a high efficiency coupling between film and combustion Rankine
cycle Hirn; qualitative analysis of solutions in the state semi-industrial pilot completed by an
experimental study on the reaction kinetics of the biomass de volatilization stage so common
process of combustion and gasification. The paper provides an overview of possible variants
of energy recovery of biomass and, more broadly, fuels a "surface" in the European strategy
for sustainable development of energy resources by using renewable sources.
1. INTRODUCTION
L‘évolution du marché d‘énergie est au cœur des débats politiques et culturels.
Pendant de nombreuses années, l‘unique voie thermique conventionnelle pour la
production d‘énergie était la conversion des combustibles fossiles: charbon ou
hydrocarbures.
Au raison de pollution excessive avec impact immédiat sur l‘effet de serre, doublé
par la forte diminution des réserves naturelles des carburants les technologies
classiques utilisant les cycles Rankine, Hirn a vapeurs, cycles Brayton à turbines à
gaz ou moteurs thermiques sont en traîne d‘être adaptés au combustibles
alternatives nommés combustibles de surface.
Cette nouvelle classe de combustibles couvre un large spectre de sources comme:
la biomasse, les déchets industriels non dangereux, les déchets de l‘agriculture etc.
Parmi les sources combustibles de surface la biomasse représente plus de 72% et
réunisse toutes les matériaux organiques à basse de ligne cellulose. Par extension
on peut associe à la biomasse les déchets zootechniques et municipaux.
L‘utilisation de la biomasse offre des avantages majeurs sur la protection de
l‘environnement par la réduction de l‘effet de serre. Les cultures „énergétique‖
absorbent de l‘atmosphère la quantité de dioxyde de carbone équivalente à la
production du CO2 dégagé par leur combustion. En plus on bénéficie de la diminution
importante de l‘émission du SO2 issu par la combustion des combustibles fossiles.
Au niveau de l‘année 1990 la consommation mondiale d‘énergie provenant par la
conversion thermique classique de la biomasse été d‘approximatif 6,7 % de la
consommation globale. Pour l‘année 2000, les données de l‘Agence International
pour l‘Energie (A.I.E.), issu par un sondage sur 133 pays, montre que cette cote a
augmenté à 10,5%.
L‘objectif de la stratégie de l‘Union Européenne proposé par la Carte Blanche est de
doubler jusqu‘en 2010 la cote d‘énergie à base des sources renouvelables de 6% en
2001, à 12% en 2010, respective de 74,3 mil. tonnes équivalent pétrole (t.e.p.) à 182
mil. t.e.p. Par mis les sources renouvelables la biomasse sera majoritaire avec un
équivalent énergétique de 56 mil. t.e.p. Le potentiel énergétique de biomasse est
aussi utilisé en Roumanie : le bois et les résidus agricoles étant transformés en
énergie thermique par procédées avec une efficience très faible classiques –
combustion dans des centrales thermiques industrielles plus ou moins dépassé
physique et morale.
1 Prof., Dr. Eng., Faculté d‟Energétique, Université « Politehnica » de Bucarest, Splaiul Independenței,
313, Roumanie, Membre titulaire de l‟Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie.

144 Adrian Badea
La stratégie gouvernementale pour la valorisation énergétique de la biomasse a
comme objective pour l‘année 2010 l‘installation des nouvelles unités équivalentes à
3250 t.e.p. pour la production d‘énergie thermique et 190 MW pour la production
d‘énergie électrique. À présent seulement 11-12% du total d‘énergie est produite en
unités modernes de conversion. En Roumanie existe approximative 560 chaudières
à base de bois ou résidus de l‘industrie du bois.
Néanmoins la biomasse, dans le plus large sens représente un déchet avec un
impact important sur l‘environnement. A l‘heure où la tendance est au « zéro
déchet », de nouveaux procédés alternatifs à la combustion se développent peu à
peu, apportant de nouvelles perspectives à la génération d‘énergie. Parallèlement,
pour répondre aux normes de pollution, les procédés thermiques continuent de se
développer, notamment en intégrant des systèmes d‘épuration et de valorisation
énergétique avancé en utilisant des nouveaux vecteurs d‘énergie comme
l‘hydrogène.
2. PROCEDES DE CONVERSION THERMIQUE DE LA BIOMASSE
2.1 Systèmes pour la production de l‟énergie
Les systèmes standards pour la production d‘énergie électrique par combustion qui
ont opéré avec succès jusqu‘au présent sont menacés par de nouvelles technologies
et concepts déjà disponibles (pyrolyse et gazéification), mais qui n‘ont pas été
encore validées sur une assez longue période.
A ce moment, deux solutions se présentent fiables à l‘échelle industrielle:
La combustion directe (ou co-combustion avec des combustibles fossiles) de
la biomasse et production de vapeur suivie d‘une détente dans une turbine à vapeur
(rendement énergétique global généralement inférieur à 25%);
La combustion de combustibles issus du traitement des déchets (gazéification
ou thermolyse - pyrolyse) dans un moteur ou dans un turboréacteur (rendements
d‘approximatif 30%).
On ajoute ici la troisième solution représenté par les piles combustibles, mais
l‘échelle réduite d‘applicabilité ne la recommande pas a ce moment pour la
production d‘énergie électrique de haute puissance malgré l‘efficience énergétique
élevée au-dessous 60% (la valeur ne comprend pas le rendement de production
d‘hydrogène à partir de la biomasse).
Les développements futurs des conversions thermique en énergie de la biomasse
doivent envisager la meilleure technologie pour un coût minimal, ça veut dire des
systèmes compatibles environnementaux et avec une efficience économique élevée.
Dans la dernière période la pyrolyse suivie par la gazéification du coke résultant lors
de ce processus est envisagée comme une nouvelle et révolutionnaire méthode. Par
rapport aux ces technologies, la combustion couvre en présent 75 - 80% de la
marché d‘énergie. Le reste est partagé entre les technologies de pyro-gazéification
avec ou sans combustion.
Alors, les principales filières de conversion en énergie électrique de la biomasse
peuvent être définis par trois processus physico-chimiques qu‘on va les détailler ci
après. Les technologies existantes sont très diversifiées et les paramètres cidessous
sont donnés à titre indicatif. Comme procédés de base on distingue:
Pyrolyse: la désintégration thermique de la matière organique en coke, huile et gaz
de pyrolyse dans une atmosphère réductrice, faible en oxygène (O2 < 2 %) à
températures de 450 – 1000 °C.

Valorisation Énergétique de la Biomasse 145
Gazéification: la conversion partielle de la partie organique à l‘aide d‘un agent de
gazéification (oxygène ou vapeur d‘eau) en gaz de synthèse, à une température 800
– 1600 °C et une pression variable entre 1 à 45 bars.
Combustion: la conversion complète en chaleur CO2 et H2O de la partie organique
en présence d‘oxygène à températures entre 850 – 1200 °C.
Tableau 1. Caractéristiques générales des processus de valorisation thermique de la biomasse
Paramètres Pyrolyse Gazéification Combustion
Température [°C] 450 - 1000 800 - 1600 850 – 1200
Pression [bar] 1 1 – 45 1
Atmosphère Inerte (N2)
Conditions
stœchiométriques
Produits de
processus
Gazeux
Agent de gazéification
(O2, H2O)
Air
0 < 1 > 1
H2, CO, N2,
Hydrocarbures
H2, CO, N2, CH4, CmHn, CO2, H2O, O2, N2
Solides cendre, coke scories cendre, scories
Les technologies nouvelles pour la conversion en énergie de la biomasse et produits
associés on été redéveloppé à partir des années 80, malgré leur utilisation intense
pendant les années ‘40 en spécial par Wehrmacht, l‘armée allemande, à la raison du
déficit des combustibles pour l‘effort de guerre. L‘innovation qu‘ils ont introduit sur la
marché des procédées de conversion en énergie a été les étages distinctifs de
pyrolyse et gazéification dans le processus pour:
la conversion des déchets en gaz de synthèse avec un PCI élevé ;
réduire les émissions par la minimisation du débit des fumées.
La figure 1 présente la distribution des technologies de valorisation énergétique par
voie thermique non – oxydante de la biomasse et produits assimilés dans le monde
au niveau 2003 en fonction du processus utilisé. On observe que la pyrolyse comme
procédé indépendant couvre 20 % sur ce marché.
3%
3%
8%
7%
8%
8%
1%
3%
39%
20%
Gazéification
Pyrolyse
Thermo-gazéification
Pyrolyse+Gazéification
Pyrolyse+Combustion
Gazéification+Combustion
Pyrolyse+Gazéification+Combustion
Gazéification+Vitrification
Pyrolyse+Vitrification
Gazéification+Combustion+Vitrification
Figure 1. Technologies non – oxydantes au niveau 2003 en fonction du processus utilisé.

146 Adrian Badea
La gazéification est majoritaire avec 40%, le reste étant des méthodes combinées
adaptées aux différents types des déchets. Le pourcentage élevé de la gazéification
s‘explique par la finalité au niveau du produit résultant lors de ce processus. Le gaz
de synthèse à une large plage d‘utilisation et très bonnes caractéristiques
énergétiques.
Les produits de la pyrolyse, par contre, ont une destination de valorisation
énergétique précise à cause de leurs caractéristiques que les empêchent d‘être
utilisé dans domaines variés.
Pour une image technique en ce qui concerne ces technologies combinées il fut faire
un point sur les installations utilisées:
Pour la pyrolyse – incinération
La pyrolyse dans le four rotatif, séparation du coke et matière inorganique et
l‘incinération du gaz lors de la pyrolyse ;
La pyrolyse dans le four rotatif, la séparation des inertes et la combustion de la partie
riche en charbon solide et du gaz de pyrolyse ;
La pyrolyse dans le four rotatif, la condensation des composants du gaz résulté et
l‘incinération de l‘huile et coke.
Pour la gazéification
Réacteur à lit fixe – pour des matériaux divisés, le prétraitement est requis ;
Réacteur avec bain des scories – est comparable avec le réacteur à lit fixe mais il
décharge les scories fondues ;
Le processus éco-gaz – c‘est le réacteur à lits fluidisée circulant pour la biomasse,
les déchets urbains prétraités.
Il existe aussi la co-gazéification des déchets ensemble avec des combustibles
fournissant une meilleure PCI, par exemple le charbon (réacteur pour la gazéification
du mélange charbon - biomasse dont le charbon 25%, SVZ Schwarze Pumpe).
Pour la pyro – gazéification
Processus de conversion – pyrolyse dans un four tournant, le traitement de la phase
solide, la condensation de la phase gazeuse et l‘introduction dans un réacteur du gaz
de pyrolyse, huile et coke pour la gazéification.
Ces technologies ont comme point de départ le processus de pyrolyse, dont les
réactions existent même dans la phase préliminaire de la combustion. Le choix pour
une des ces technologies basées sur la pyrolyse est une question d‘optimisation
économique au niveau de l‘unité énergétique et politique nationale.
2.2. La combustion
Les principes théoriques à respecter pour réaliser une combustion complète des
déchets se résument au contrôle de trois facteurs: température de combustion,
temps de séjour et turbulence.
C‘est la règle d‘or de 3 T, chère aux thermiciens.
Température de combustion
La quantité de chaleur dégagée par la combustion complète de l‘unité d‘un corps
considéré ne dépend que de la composition chimique du combustible.
La connaissance du PCI est un paramètre important de la conduite d‘un incinérateur.
Dans la pratique, on peut considérer que des produits de PCI supérieur à 14000

Valorisation Énergétique de la Biomasse 147
kJ/kg sont auto - combustible, parce que leur réaction d‘oxydation est suffisamment
exothermique. Le PCI de la biomasse varie entre 17000 et 20000kJ/kg.
Temps de séjour
En pratique, on détermine le temps de séjour moyen par la formule suivante: T=V/Q,
V étant le volume de la chambre de combustion et Q le débit, en volume, de gaz
produit par la charge oxydée. Le volume de la chambre étant fixé par construction, le
temps de séjour des gaz est inversement proportionnel à la charge incinérée.
Cette dernière est prédéterminée par la charge thermique admissible dans la
chambre, soit 100 à 200 mth/m 3 de chambre.
Turbulence
La turbulence permet le mélange intime des combustibles et de l‘air comburant. Elle
peut être réalisée:
soit directement dans les brûleurs.
soit dans les fours par différents aménagements tels que des changements de
vitesse par des restrictions ou des nids d‘abeilles jouant également le rôle
d‘accumulateurs de chaleur, des inversions de parcours de fumées par des parois de
cracking, des dispositions judicieuses d‘injection d‘air et de produits.
On peut dire que 1 tonne de biomasse se transforme en 850 kg de gaz et abandonne
150 kg de résidus solides, par incinération [1].
Si la combustion est effectuée avec une quantité d‘air suffisante, le carbone réagit,
pour une température des gaz inférieure à 1 500°C, en quasi-totalité avec l‘oxygène
de l‘air.
2.3. La pyrolyse
Cette dernière décennie a été caractérisée, au plan des techniques de conversion
thermochimique des produits solides combustibles, par le développement
conséquent de la pyrolyse, une technologie déjà ancienne mais techniquement bien
actualisée.
La pyrolyse représente la décomposition, en l‘absence d‘air (condition réductrice) et
une température moyenne (450 à 800°C), de la matière organique. Le produit est
d‘abord fragilisé puis, à mesure que la température augmente, décomposée en
matières volatiles d‘une part, et en un résidu carboné, d‘autre part. Le terme
générique de « matières volatiles » recouvre tout un ensemble d‘espèces chimiques,
comprenant essentiellement deux grandes catégories: des espèces chimiques
condensables à température et pression ambiantes et dénommés goudrons, et des
gaz légers (H2, CO, CO2 et hydrocarbures légères en C1, C2, C3, C4).
A ces composés s‘ajoute de l‘eau et quelques autres constituants tels que des
benzols, des acides (formique, acétique), des alcools et des espèces azotées tels
que NH3 et HCN. Les goudrons sont à leur tour craqués en gaz combustible légers à
plus haute température (500°C).
Comme le précisent GARCIA [2] ou Li [3], ces réactions sont favorisées par des
vitesses de chauffe importantes et de longs temps de séjour des produits primaires
de pyrolyse à ces températures, car les goudrons formés pendant la première étape
n‘ont ainsi pas le temps de diffuser hors du solide et y sont craqués. Les goudrons
sont généralement les composés majoritaires des réactions primaires de pyrolyse [4].
Alors, la réaction de pyrolyse, qu‘on présente schématiquement ci-dessous, est le
départ pour la combustion aussi que pour la gazéification des déchets.

148 Adrian Badea
Le gaz issu de la pyrolyse est traité afin d‘en séparer ses composantes (méthane,
vapeur d‘eau, hydrogène, …).
L‘opération de «reforming» des gaz de pyrolyse permet d‘éliminer les goudrons et de
produire un gaz compatible avec le gaz naturel.
Une partie de ce gaz épuré sert à chauffer les parois du four, le reste peut être
valorisé par la production d‘électricité ou de chaleur.
Types de procédés de pyrolyse
Q
incondensables
Les procèdes de destruction pyrolytique peuvent être distingués principalement en
fonction de leur niveau de température:
Pyrolyse à basse température 400 – 600 °C.
Pyrolyse à moyenne température 600 – 1000 °C.
Pyrolyse à haute température 1000 - 2000 °C
condensables
(huile, aromatiques,
goudrons)
( C, H, O, N, K, H2O) ( C, K) coke
CO, H2, CH4, CO2, N2, H2O, CnHm Les principes techniques pour la pyrolyse de bas et moyenne température sont les
mêmes à cause de la cinétique de réaction similaire. Les sous produits formés sont
en général:
Des poussières, composées principalement de noir de carbone. Ces
poussières sont les plus faciles à traiter qu‘en incinération car elles sont moins fines
(a cause des températures modérées) et plus concentrées (volume gazeux limités).
Des gaz: constitués essentiellement de H2, CH4, CO et CO2. Ces gaz sont
combustibles et leur pouvoir calorifique se situe entre 3000 et 5000 kcal/Nm 3 . Il ne
contient pas d‘oxyde d‘azote du fait des températures modérées et l‘atmosphère
fortement réductrice des conduites en pyrolyse. Une composition typique en conduite
de dégazage serait par exemple: H2=54%, CO=10%, CH4=10%, CnHm=2%,
CO2=23%, N2=1%.
Un résidu huileux, composé principalement de produits organiques
partiellement oxydes (acides, alcools, esters…). Ce résidu appelé « huile
pyrolytique », est combustible, mais doit subir un traitement d‘épuration pour le
débarrasser des produits corrosifs soufrés et chlorés qu‘il contient. Il peut être utilisé
pour réaliser l‘apport endothermique de la réaction de pyrolyse, ou valorisé
séparément.
Un résidu solide – coke de pyrolyse. Ce résidu contient un substrat minéral
issu de la partie non organique des déchets et une fraction organique carbonée. Ce
résidu peut être utilisé comme combustible solide, après épuration ou transformé en
charbon actif.
En fonction du niveau de température de la pyrolyse on pourra déplacer la répartition
pondérale de produits de pyrolyse, voir tableau 2.
On a observé que le temps de séjour du produit dans l‘installation, la température et
la vitesse de chauffe influencent le rapport entre la fraction gazeuse et la fraction
solide des produits de pyrolyse:

Valorisation Énergétique de la Biomasse 149
Tableau 2. La répartition pondérale de produits de pyrolyse
Température de traitement Gaz [%] Liquides [%] Solides [%]
480°C 12,35 61,08 24,71
920°C 24,35 58,07 17,67
Temps de séjour faible, vitesse de chauffe et température importante (jusqu'à
650 °C) réduisent la fraction du coke et augmentent la phase gazeuse.
Temps de séjour élevé, vitesse de chauffe et température faibles (450 °C)
augmente la fraction solide et diminuent la quantité des gaz dégagés.
La pyrolyse à basse température peut être conduite aussi sous vide [5]. Dans ce cas,
l‘extraction continue des gaz par une pompe à vide permet de minimiser les
réactions secondaires telles que: repolymérisation, recondesations, oxydations etc.
Ceci conduit alors à maximiser la production en huile pyrolytique au détriment des
résidus solides.
L‘intérêt de ce type de procédé est de produire un combustible stockable et
transportable. De plus, l‘absence d‘oxygène limite la formation de NOx, de dioxines et
de furanes.
2.4 La gazéification
La gazéification a été découverte indépendamment en France et en Angleterre en
1798 et à partir de 1850 la technologie a été développe dans la manière que l‘éclairé
publique à Londres est devenue possible (en utilisant le « town gas » provenant du
charbon).
La technologie a traversé l‘Atlantique et en 1920 la plus part des villes américaines
ont été approvisionné avec du gaz pour le cuisiné et l‘éclairage des rues à l‘aide les
réseaux locales « gas-works ».
Les réacteurs de gazéification sont des équipements relatifs simples. La partie
mécanique de leur opération et l‘alimentation et l‘évacuation du gaz produit est aussi
simple. Mais l‘opération des gazéificateurs ce n‘est pas très simple. Ils n‘existent pas
des règles bien définies parce que la thermodynamique d‘opération des réacteurs
n‘est pas bien connue.
De plus, des principales thermodynamiques approximatives gouvernent la température,
l‘alimentation d‘air et autres paramètres du fonctionnement.
Le procédé de gazéification convertis les déchets liquides ou solides en gaz de
synthèse qui convient pour l‘usage dans la production d‘électricité ou à la fabrication
des produits chimiques, de l‘hydrogène ou de carburants.
Actuellement, la gazéification est largement déployée dans le monde entier et dans
beaucoup de configurations industrielles. Il existe 128 plans avec 366 gazéifieurs
opérationnels.
La gazéification possède beaucoup d'attributs positifs, comparés aux autres
technologies, qui ont aidé à stimuler le marché actuel.
La gazéification est la seule technologie qui offre des avantages ascendant et
descendant.
Toutes les matières de base de carbone y compris les pertes dangereuses, les
déchets solides et la boue d'épuration municipale, la biomasse etc., peuvent être
aisément gazéifiées après une préparation appropriée pour produire le gaz de
synthèse propre.

150 Adrian Badea
En raison de sa capacité d'utiliser les matières de base peu coûteuses, la
gazéification est la technologie choisie pour beaucoup d'applications industrielles
comme dans les raffineries.
La centrale à gazéification intégrée dans des cycles combinés et le procédé de
gazéification sont également la seule technologie avancée de production d'électricité
capable de la coproduction d‘une grande variété de produits de meilleure qualité, en
plus de l'électricité, pour satisfaire de futurs besoins du marché.
La gazéification du produit procède principalement par l'intermédiaire d'un processus
en deux étapes, pyrolyse suivie de la gazéification.
La première étape, également connue sous le nom de devolatilisation, est
endothermique et produit 75 à 90% de matières volatiles sous forme d'hydrocarbures
gazeux et liquides. La température de cette étape de dépasse pas 600 °C. Dans la
deuxième étape qui est la gazéification, le carbone obtenu lors de la pyrolyse réagit
avec vapeurs d‘eau, oxygène pure ou air, selon la technologie utilisé.
La gazéification sous vapeurs d‘eau est connue comme « reforming » et les produits
résultants sont en principal l‘hydrogène et le dioxyde de carbone [10].
Dans la plus part des applications les réactions exothermiques entre le carbone et
l‘oxygène fournissent l‘énergie (chaleur) nécessaire pour le déroulement du
processus de pyrolyse et la gazéification du coke résultant.
Cette méthode est nommé pyro-gazéification intégrée et possède un rendement
énergétique mieux par rapport à la solution séparée de pyrolyse sur un site et la
gazéification du coke résultant sur un autre site.
Il y a des technologies qui utilisent une combustion partielle en bas du réacteur.
Dans ce cas, un appoint calorifique est obtenu en bas de gazéifieur par des fumées
chaudes oxydantes issues d‘une post combustion, ou par un chauffage par plasma,
ou même par l‘introduction d‘un mélange métal - oxygène.
Cette technologie permet une gestion des cendres en cendres fondues, permettant
la vitrification en continu des résidus ultimes [11].
Aspects théorétiques et réactions mises en jeu
En pratique, les réactions de l‘oxygène et de la vapeur d‘eau sur les composés
carbonés n‘interviennent de façon notable qu‘après que ces composés aient été
décomposés par pyrolyse.
Les hydrocarbures et le charbon volatils sont convertis en syngas dans la deuxième
étape, gazéification.
Les réactions principales impliquées dans cette étape sont énumérées ci-dessous:
En général, les principales réactions de gazéification sont:
Réaction de gazéification par la vapeur d‘eau
C + H2O CO + H2 H = +131 kJ/mole (1)
Réaction du BOUDOUARD
C + CO2 2 CO H = +173 kJ/mole (2)
Réaction de gazéification par l‘oxygène
C + ½ O2 CO H = -111 kJ/mole (3)
C + O2 CO2 H = -395 kJ/mole (4)

Valorisation Énergétique de la Biomasse 151
Réaction de formation d‘hydrocarbures
Réaction shift
nC + m/2 H2 CnHm exothermique (5)
nCO + (n+m/2) H2 CnHm + nH2O exothermique (6)
CO + H2O CO2 + H2 H = -41 kJ/mole (7)
Réaction de formation du méthane
C + 2H2 CH4 H = -74,87 kJ/mole (8)
Suivant la nature de l‘agent de gazéification utilisé et de son débit certaines de ces
réactions prendront plus ou moins d‘importance et pourront influencer sur la
composition du gaz produit. Dans le cas de la gazéification de l‘oxygène ou à l‘air,
l‘énergie nécessaire aux réactions endothermique est apportée par l‘exothermicité
des réactions (3) et (4). Nous constatons qu‘à la pression atmosphérique et pour des
températures supérieures à 800°C, la réaction de formation du méthane (8.) est
quasiment négligeable. Par contre, si la pression augmente, l‘enrichissement en
méthane devient notable au détriment des deux autres réactions.
Aspect thermodynamique
Selon le principe de LECHATELLIER, une augmentation de la pression entraîne une
évolution du système dans le sens de la diminution du nombre de moles gazeuses.
Ainsi, une pression élevée défavorise les réactions (1) et (2) mais favorise la
production du méthane suivant les réactions (5), (6) et (8). Conformément à la loi de
VANT‘HOFF, la formation des produits dans les réactions endothermiques est
favorisés par l‘augmentation de la température.
Par contre la formation des produits dans les réactions exothermiques est défavorisée
par l‘augmentation de la température, c‘est à dire (5), (6) et (7). Si l‘on
s‘intéresse à l‘obtention d‘un gaz riche en CO et H2 en vue de synthèse chimiques,
on a intérêt à opérer à basse pression et à température élevée.
Par contre, si l‘on veut obtenir un gaz à pouvoir calorifique élevé, donc riche en
hydrocarbures, dont le méthane, on doit travailler à une pression élevée et à une
température relativement faible qui doit être toutefois compatible avec la cinétique
des réactions chimiques
Aspect cinétique
La gazéification de la des déchets solides est la résultante de nombreuse réaction
chimique faisant intervenir ou ne faisant pas intervenir le carbone. Les constantes de
vitesse de chacune de ces réactions sont différentes.
De plus, pour les réactions où le carbone intervient, deux phénomènes
supplémentaires peuvent modifier ces constantes, l‘un lié à la température, l‘autre à
la nature et la quantité des impuretés:
Suivant la porosité et la taille des particules de charbon, la taille des
molécules des réactifs et des produits gazeux et la température, ces réactions
peuvent s‘effectuer soit en régime chimique à basse température, soit en régime
diffusionnel interne à température plus élevée.
Selon la quantité et la nature des impuretés contenues dans l‘échantillon
charbonneux, l‘effet catalytique sur les réactions sera plus ou moins élevé. En outre,
pour deux réactions différentes, l‘effet catalytique d‘une impureté donnée peut varier
dans une grande mesure.

152 Adrian Badea
3. AVANTAGES ET INCONVÉNIENTS DES PROCÉDÉES
3.1. Les avantages / inconvénients de l‘incinération
La valorisation énergétique provient du simple fait que la matière brûlée à haute
température génère une chaleur qui peut être récupérée. L'équivalent énergétique
d'une tonne de biomasse 300 litres de fuel ou 4600 kWh par tonne [8].
Efficacité: brûler les déchets ligne - cellulosique permet de réduire leur volume
de plus de 90 % et la masse d‘environ 80 % ;
Souplesse: les unités de combustion / cycle a vapeurs s'adaptent à tous les
types de biomasse;
Possibilité d‘être co-combustioné avec des combustibles fossiles.
Parmi les inconvénients majeurs on trouve [1], [2], [9]:
Les capacités élevées des installations (au moins 100000 t/an) pour une
efficacité économiques des unités.
Une flexibilité réduite de fonctionnement à charge partielle.
Les volumes importants des fumées libérées: 8000 Nm 3 /tbiomasse
Lest hautes températures de combustion ont comme résultat une
granulométrie très fine des cendres qui sont entraînées dans les envols.
Les composants chlorés et les dioxines pour les déchets contenant du chlore.
3.2. Les avantages/inconvénients de l‟incinération
Le volume des effluents gazeux issus des procédés de pyrolyse est nettement
inférieur à celui d‘une opération d‘incinération conventionnelle [10]:
Pyrolyse – 3000 – 4000 Nm 3 /tdéchet ;
Incinération – 8000 Nm 3 /tdéchet ;
Le taux d‘envols est très inférieur par rapport à l‘incinération.
Par exemple un simple multi-cyclone permet d‘atteindre des teneurs en cendres
volantes de 100 mg/ Nm 3 , ce qui ne peut normalement être atteint que par filtration
électrostatique dans l‘incinération. Ça c‘explique par la granulométrie supérieure des
particules entraînées en pyrolyse.
Emission de gaz carbonique (principal responsable de l‘effet de serre)
réduite ;
Les dioxines sont totalement éliminées (absence d‘oxygène, captage du
chlore), voir [3] ;
Rejet atmosphérique largement inférieur aux limites des directives
Européennes.
Les avantages techniques concernent la:
Diversité des déchets admis ;
Souplesse d‘exploitation, supporte des variations de charge de 25 à 125 % ;
Des unités de pyrolyse modulables ; elles peuvent être adaptées pour
valoriser des quantités de 10.000 à 50.000 tonnes par an ;
Possibilité de combiner plusieurs unités de pyrolyse simple avec une unité de
pyrolyse intégrée.

Valorisation Énergétique de la Biomasse 153
Cette dernière valorisera la masse carbonée des unités de pyrolyse simple si cette
valorisation n‘est pas réalisable dans l‘industrie. Le coût d‘une unité de pyrolyse
simple a le tiers du prix d‘un incinérateur classique. Le coût d‘une unité de pyrolyse
intégrée à la gazéification est à peu près identique à celui d‘un incinérateur. Leurs
avantages environnementaux incontestables par rapport à l‘incinération concernant
les émissions gazeuses, les dioxines et les métaux lourds (pour les déchets urbains)
et aussi le rendement plus élevés de conversion en électricité (quand sont couplés
avec un cycle thermodynamique) d‘environ 30% (par rapport à 20 % en incinération)
sont les promoteurs pour le secteur énergétique de valorisation de la biomasse et
déchets assimilés.
Les inconvénients de la pyrolyse concernent:
L'utilisation des résidus carbonés. La pyrolyse ne constitue pas un traitement
total des déchets, mais un traitement partiel qui débouche sur un combustible solide.
La pyrolyse doit donc être conçue en amont d'une unité industrielle existante capable
d'utiliser ce combustible.
L‘aspect juridique. Les installations qui brûlent le résidu carboné provenant
des déchets urbains ou industriels doivent donc respecter les normes des
installations qui traitent les déchets, et les cendres provenant de sa combustion
seraient aujourd'hui stockées en décharges de classe I ce qui ajoute au coût. Une
solution sera l‘implémentation de la technologie intégrée pyrolyse – gazéification
pour la conversion en gaz de synthèse du résidu solide. Ce gaz peut être utilisé
après sans aucune restriction soit dans des installations pour la production d‘énergie
électrique soit dans le secteur du transport pour l‘alimentation des moteurs.
3.3. Avantages de la gazéification
En principe les avantages de la pyrolyse on les trouve aussi en gazéification.
Concernant les types de biomasse susceptibles d‘être traités par ce processus
- tous les déchets organiques sont traitables en gazéification.
La possibilité d‘atteindre des températures élevées permet une bonne
efficacité de destruction.
En plus, contrairement à la pyrolyse, la fraction solide résiduelle est minimisée
en gazéification.
La plupart des procédés de pyrolyse / gazéification sont basées sur des fours
verticaux. Au coté du type de réacteur, le mode de conduite en gazéification
présente l‘avantage de minimiser les résidus solides, avec possibilité de fusion
complète, sous forme d‘un laitier. Ce laitier ne représente que 5% en volume
seulement de la quantité de déchets traités.
Le traitement des effluents est en général conventionnel à part la nécessité de
traiter des volumes plus importants de fumées, souvent fortement chargées (le cas
des lits fluidisés), par rapport à la situation rencontrée en pyrolyse.
Par exemple, les volumes fumigènes typiques sont ici d‘environ 5000
Nm 3 /tdéchet, à comparer aux 2000 – 3000 Nm 3 /tdéchet en pyrolyse [12]. Ces volumes
restent cependant inférieurs aux volumes dégagés par incinération classique – 6000
Nm 3 /tdéchet. Ces effluents gazeux peuvent aisément être traités par postcombustion.
Ils peuvent également être épurés pour fournir une source d‘énergie primaire sous
forme de gaz combustibles. Une fraction est réimportée dans le procédé.
Les quantités d‘effluents aqueux (refroidissement, scrubage, quench) varient
entre 0,4 et 2 m 3 par tonne [1].

154 Adrian Badea
Compte tenu des températures atteintes dans les processus de pyrofusion, la
possibilité de fondre les cendres est susceptible de conduire à des granules vitrifiés
peu lixiviables, très denses (densité de 2,8 à 3) et pratiquement exemples d‘imbrûlés.
Les inconvénients de la gazéification concernent:
Les concentrations en oxyde d‘azote dans les effluents gazeux sont nettement
plus élevées qu‘en incinération classique, compte tenu des températures atteintes et
de la présence d‘air [13].
De plus la nécessité de résistance des équipements à haute température
augmente les frais d‘exploitation. Les investissements correspondants sont en
général également plus élevés qu‘en incinération classique.
Enfin, la complexité accrue des opérations requiert un personnel plus qualifié.
L‘apport complémentaire de combustibles s‘avère souvent nécessaire pour
atteindre la haute température. Cet appoint est en général fourni par un brûleur au
gaz naturel.
De même, un fort taux de poussière (en moyenne 5g/Nm 3 ) conjugué à une
température élevée des gaz en entrée de chaudière récupératrice a provoqué des
colmatages importants au niveau des surchauffeurs.
4. ETUDE SUR LA CINETIQUE DE DEVOLATILISATION DE LA BIOMASSE
Pour la quantification des cinétiques de devolatilisation nous avons réalisé des
essais de perte de masses pour eschantions de bois dans un four à moufle utilisant
des creusets en silice. Pour simuler la pyrolyse, les creusets sont couverts avec un
chapeau également en silice pour recréer l‘atmosphère réductrice (absence
d‘oxygène) de la pyrolyse. Trois températures (540°C, 700°C, 1100°C,) pour la
pyrolyse ont été testées afin de mieux appréhender les phénomènes (figure 2). On
voit bien sur les deux schémas que la température accélère les cinétiques de perte
de masse. Pour un temps infini, les écarts de rendement entre les différentes
températures de pyrolyse deviennent moins importants. Les courbes mettent bien en
évidence les écarts de temps de séjour entre la pyrolyse basse et haute température.
Ainsi a 1100°C, le processus pyrolytique est presque terminé au bout d‘un minute,
alors qu‘à 540°C, le processus se fini au bout de 3-4 minutes. On peut également
voir que la courbe à 700°C est beaucoup plus proche de la courbe à 1100°C que
celles à 540°C. Un traitement pyrolytique à 700°C se rapproche donc plus d‘un
traitement à haute température et court temps de séjour. Ca peut être expliqué par le
comportement des liaisons C-C qui commencent à être rompues à la surface du
produit à partir de 500°C. Pour ça on attend le coke de pyrolyse obtenue à 700°C
être similaire au coke obtenue à 1100°C. En utilisant la variation de la fraction
combustible du déchet et une fonction de premier degré pour la cinétique nous
pouvons calculer l‘énergie d‘activation Ea qui corresponde au produit analysé. Dans
le modèle on considère que la fraction combustible est constitué du carbone fie est
substances volatiles.
dm
k
[
m(ts
) mc
]
(9)
dt
ou:
m(t ) m (m
e
s
c
kt
s
0 mc
)
(10)
m(ts) – le contenue en matière combustible après le temps de séjour ts ;
mc – le contenue en carbone fixe;
m0 – la fraction de matière combustible initiale;
k – le coefficient de variation de vitesse.

Valorisation Énergétique de la Biomasse 155
Les courbes de variation du taux de matière combustible pendant la pyrolyse à
540°C et 700°C fournissent deux fonctions de variation avec deux coefficients de
vitesse k1, k2 et la même énergie d‘activation Ea (équation 11).
k
1
Ea
RT1
k e
(11)
0
En égalant les deux équations écrites pour 540°C et 700°C résulte l‘énergie
d‘activation en fonction des températures de traitement T1 et T2 (équation 12). La
valeur obtenue est caractéristique au produit Ea = 198 kJ/mol et peut être vérifiée par
l‘intermède de la troisième courbe pour la pyrolyse à 1100°C.
k
k
1 1 2
Ea R ln
(12)
2
TT
T T
Dans l‘expression de l‘équation pour la variation de masse (10) nous avons
considéré un coefficient de correction du temps pour prendre en compte le délai
introduit par la période de séchage avec une cinétique différente du processus de
devolatilisation.
Masse (%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Figure 2. La dégradation thermique de l‘échantillon de biomasse de pin pendant la pyrolyse.
CONCLUSIONS
Les systèmes standards pour la valorisation énergétique par voie thermique de la
biomasse et autres déchets assimiles qui ont opéré avec succès jusqu‘au présent
sont menacés par de nouvelles technologies et concepts déjà disponibles, mais qui
n‘ont pas été encore validées sur une période assez longue. Jusqu‘à ce moment la
gazéification quelque soit technologie utilisée semble la plus efficace pour
conversion en énergie électrique.
Par rapport à la chaîne de conversion en énergie du déchet elle peut être considérée
l‘alternative viable et beaucoup moins polluant à l‘incinération. Produisant une
quantité importante de hydrogène, cette technologie représente aussi la interface
entre la valorisation des déchets et la production d‘électricité dans les pilles de
1
2
700°C 1100°C 540°C
Temps de sejour (sec)

156 Adrian Badea
combustion. En ce qui concerne la pyrolyse on doit tenir compte que c‘est une
technologie de liaison entre l‘augmentation du potentiel énergétique de la biomasse
et sa conversion en énergie. Cette interface est nécessaire en spécial pour les
déchets assimilés à la biomasse ou imposé par raisons économiques et politiques
énergétiques. Le coke résultant en ce cas représente un combustible quasi - propre
mais dans le même temps un sous déchet qui peut être à la choie, brûler ou gazéifie
selon une série des facteurs en principal économiques et d‘environnement. Pour la
maximisation du carbone fixe contenu dans le coke sont nécessaires processus de
pyrolyse lente et basse température. Le pouvoir calorifique inferieure du produit
obtenu sera plus élevé et par conséquent le gaz de synthèse généré par sa
gazéification aura un contenu important d‘hydrogène.
La complémentarité et la complexité des solutions pour la conversion énergétique
par voie thermique, imposent une analyse détaillée et ponctuelle pour une éventuelle
implémentation dans les conditions spécifiques de l‘emplacement. Dans le même
temps au niveau national on a besoin d‘une stratégie globale pour la valorisation
énergétique zonale de la biomasse intégrée au traitement des déchets solides
assimilées (ménagères, déchets de l‘agriculture etc.) dans le contexte présent de la
politique communautaire: énergie– environnement.
R É F É R E N C E S
[1] Agence Européenne de l‘Environnement « Management des déchets municipaux en Europe»,
Sujet du rapport No 15/2001
[2] Antonini, G. & Gislais, P., « Traitement thermique des déchets industriels », Technique &
Documentation, Lavoisier, 143 p. 1995.
[3] Bajeat, P., « L‘incinération des déchets ménagères et assimilés », Textes des intervenants de la
journée d‘information sur l‘incinération performantes des déchets ménagères et assimilés, Sète,
1994.
[4] Buekens, A.G. & Schoeters J.G., « European experience in the pyrolysis and gasification of solid
wastes », Conservation & Recycling Vol.9, N°3, p. 253-269, 1986.
[5] Dario, M., « Municipal Solid Waste gasification reactions for H2 generation », State of the Art,
Michigan State University, 2004.
[6] Freeman, H., « Innovative Thermal Processes for the Destruction of Hazardous Wastes »,
Incineration of Hazardous Wastes, Ed. Technomic, USA, 1993.
[7] Garcia, A.N., Font, R.& Marcilla, A., Kinetic Studies of the Primary Pyrolysis of Municipal Solid
Waste in a Pyroprobe 1000, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 23, p. 99-119, 1992.
[8] Klein, A., « Gasification an alternative process for energy recovery and disposal of municipal solid
waste », M.S. Thesis, Columbia University, 2002.
[9] Li, A.M;, Li, X.D., Li. S.Q., Ren, Y., Shang, N., Chi, Y., Yan, J.H., & Cen, K.F., Experimental
Studies on Municipal Solid Waste pyrolysis in a Laboratory-Scale rotary Kiln, Enegy 24, p. 209-
218, 1999.
[10] Rath, J. & Staudinger, G., Craking Reactions of Tar from Pyrolysis of Spruce Wood, Fuel 80,
1379-1389, 2001.
[11] Roy, C., De Caumia, B., Pakdel, H., Plante, P., « Une Solution au Traitement des Déchets: la
Pyrolyse sous Vide » Proceeding 5 th Conference AQME, Château Ste Anne, Québec, 11-13 April
1991.
[12] Tchobanoglus, G., « Integrated solid waste management », Mc Grow Hill, 954 p., 1993
[13] Wilkins, E.S., Wilkins, M.G. « Review of Toxicity of Gases emitted from Combustion Pyrolysis of
Municipal and Industrial Wastes » Environ. Sci. Heath, A2O (2), p. 149-175, 1997.

PART FIVE
SECTION OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,
SILVICULTURE AND VETERINARY MEDICINE

D. Şchiopu, T. Șchiopu,
C O N T E N T S
La conception du professeur G. Ionescu-Șișești concernant la mise en
valeur de la zone inondable du Danube 159
P. G. Ploaie
Isolation and serological detection of apple proliferation phytoplasma group
in Romania 163
Constantin Bândiu
Silvocaly, a new direction in silvology 169
Agatha Popescu
The evolution of the Romanian animal husbandry during the last 50 years
and its perspective on the background of Romania‟s entry into the
European Union 173

Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 159
LA CONCEPTION DU PROFESSEUR G. IONESCU-ȘIȘEȘTI
CONCERNANT LA MISE EN VALEUR
DE LA ZONE INONDABLE DU DANUBE
D. ŞCHIOPU 1 , T. ŞCHIOPU 2
Résumé: On présent les conceptions concernant l‟utilisation agricole du zone inondable de
la Danube. Ils sont présentées les avantages et les risques d‟endiguement avec des digues
submersibles, en comparaison avec l‟endiguement avec des digues continus et
insubmersibles.
Mots clef: zone inondable, inondation, avantages et risques d‘endiguement, agriculture, pisciculture,
zootechnie
Dans la période d‘inondations du printemps du cet année (2006), parmi les localités
calamitées a été rappelé et Spanţov, ou le professeur G. Ionescu-Șișești a
commencé son activité comme agronome, dans la ferme d‘état Clinciu-Spanţov,
placée dans la zone inondable du Danube.
Ici il a été engagé, dans 1 avril 1911, par le grand ingénieur constructeur Anghel
Saligny*.
Le jeune docteur agronome attire l‘attention sur les réalisations de son prédécesseur,
ingénieur M. Florian, qui a organisé des champs d‘expérimentations.
Dans juin 1912. Les membres de la Société Roumaine d‘Agriculture visitent Spanţov
– les champs, les cultures expérimentaux, les œuvres d‘amélioration foncières – et
remarquent les progrès réalisés sur la direction du G. Ionescu-Șișeşti [3].
Il résulte que G. Ionescu-Șișești a connu la zone inondable du Danube et a conçu sa
mise en valeur au niveau de la technique contemporaine.
Dans une conférence à radio Bucarest, dans l‘année 1932, publié dans 1933 [1],
G. Ionescu-Șișeşti, maintenant professeur à l‘Académie d‘Agriculture, directeur de
l‘Institut des Recherches Agronomiques, qui a été ministre d‘agriculture et domaine,
présente sa conception sur la zone inondable du Danube et sa mise en valeur.
Nous rendrons quelques données et idées extraites d‘ici.
Le basin hydrographique du Danube a 817.000 km 2 ; la longueur totale du fleuve est
de 2900 km. Sa pente est rapide dans le cours supérieur: 40 cm/km dans l‘Autriche,
dans la plaine hongroise elle diminue aux 6-4 cm/km et entre Turnu-Severin et
niveau du Mer Noire elle est seulement de 4 cm/km.
Dans les périodes pluvieuses et celles quand le neiges fondent, ça fait impossible
l‘écoulement rapide de l‘immense quantité de l‘eau, l‘inondation étant inévitable.
Pendant les grands débordements des eaux dans l‘année 1897, la région inondable
(le lit majeure de rivière) a emmagasiné 24 milliards m 3 d‘eau.
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest. Membre titulaire, fondateur,
de l‟Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie.
2
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest.
*Saligny, Anghel, ingénieur constructeur, a projeté le pont de Cernavodă, inauguré à 14 sept. 1895 [à
l‘époque, le plus grand d‘Europe et le troisième dans la mode], président de l‘Académie Roumaine
(1907-1910).

160 D. Şchiopu, T. Şchiopu
Ainsi, la zone inondable (le lit majeur de rivière) sert comme régulateur du débit
pendant les grands débordements. Elle est limité a N et NV par la II ème terrasse, sur
quelle sont situé les villages et cité.
Le lit majeur (la zone inondable) a une largeur de 5-6 km, dans quelques points
attendant 12 km; dans l‘ile de Brăila entre les deux bras du Danube, la distance
atteint 26 km et dans le delta – 100 km, la surface tout entière étant de près
900 000 ha: une moitie est couvert avec des étangs, cannaies et une moitie sont des
terraines cultivé, prés, pâturages et forêts de saule.
La partie boisée est peuplée par des sangliers, loups, renards. Les pâturages offrent
nourriture pour les troupeaux des bêtes, haras de chevaux et plutôt troupeaux des
moutons provenues du coté de la région ou des villages du Carpates. Dans la partie
centrale du zone inondable qui est la plus baisse, sont des étangs qui, dans les
bonnes années, donnent une production qui s‘accroit à 35 millions kg de poisson,
plutôt carpe, puis sandre, tanche, brochet etc.
La grande richesse du Danube est due aux débordements des eaux qui couvrent la
zone inondable. Après leurs retrait, dans les eaux chaudes et peux profondes,
mettent les œufs la carpe et autres espèces. C‘est pourquoi, dans les années avec
des grandes eaux sont les plus grandes productions de poisson et au fur et à mesure
qu‘on protège la région contre inondations par l‘endiguement, la production de
poisson basse et les étangs se dépeuplent complètement.
Les terraines aux cotes élevées sont cultivées. Le risque à perdre la récolte par des
inondations est compensée par des grandes productions obtenues sur ces terrains
fertiles grâce aux alluvions apportées par dès eaux. En outre, ces terrains ne sont
pas soumis aux sécheresses parce qu‘elles sont alimentées par l‘eau d‘infiltration et
de la capillarité. Le problème de la façon à exploiter la zone inondable du Danube a
généré disputes. Pour comprendre ces problème, ils sont nécessaires quelques
notions. Le plus bas niveau des eaux du fleuve s‘appelle étiage. Les plus hautes
eaux sur étiage ont était observées dans l‘année 1897 quand la crue a été à Turnu-
Severin de 8,66 m, à Galaţi de 6,44 m et à Sulina de 0,81 m. En divisant par 10 la
plus grand crue, on obtient pour chaque localité 1 hydrograde. Donc, pour Turnu-
Severin 1 hydrograde = 0,866 m, pour Galaţi 1 hydrograde = 0,644 m et ainsi de
suite.
Les cotes des terraines exprimé par hydrogrades représente leur degré
d‘inondabilité: ceux situés à un cote de 9 hydrogrades sont inondés très rarement
(pratiquement noninondables), ces situés entre 6-9 hydrogrades sont inondés
rarement et la durés d‘inondation est courte; ils peuvent être utilisés pour agriculture
avec le risque ďinondation à 3-5 ans. Les terrains à 4-6 hydrogrades sont inondés
annuellement, jusqu‘au début de l‘été; après là, ils sont utilisés comme pâturage très
productives. Sur les terraines sous 4 hydrogrades se trouvent des étangs et des
cannaies.
Quand la Danube déborde, perd en vitesse et, par conséquent, immédiatement
qu‘elle dépasse son lit mineure de rivière, dépose les suspensions dès eau, les
bords des rivières s‘élèvent et forment des tertres longitudinaux, la partie centrale
reste à des cotes basses et sous la rivière haute de la terrasse coule fréquemment
un bras profond. Pour assurer l‘utilisation agricole, on a considéré qu‘on doit
construire une digue sur le terrasse des cotes hautes, en suivant que l‘eau restante
en derrière dès lui soit pompée sur la digue. Ainsi, en commençant de l‘année 1907,
ils ont était endiguées 1500 ha dans la zone inondable de Spanţov. Les productions
dans les premières années ont était 2-3 fois plus grandes que celles obtenues sur la
terrasse.

La Conception du Professeur G. Ionescu-Șișești … 161
Par conséquent, dans 1910 on a crée une direction générale du service
d‘améliorations foncières, conduite par l‘ingénieur constructeur Anghel Saligny, en
songeant d‘endiguer près toute la zone inondable avec des digues continus,
insubmersibles, quoique, un an avant, le biologiste Dr. Grigore Antipa et son
collaborateur, ingénieur I. Vidraşcu n‘ont pas été d‘accord avec cette solution. Ils ont
montré que, en procédant de cette manière, signifie une gigantesque lutte avec le
mécanisme du fleuve, que le niveau des eaux entre digues montrera aux cotes
inhabituelles, les villages et ports seront inondés régulièrement, la pression sur les
digues sera très grande et les rompra, tandis que le terrain non inondé perdra sa
fertilité.
Le professeur G. Ionescu-Șișești [1] note qu‘il doive garder les digues de ruptures.
Par des ruptures l‘eau entre avec grande vitesse, violemment, érode le fond,
entraîne aux distance les particules de sable et couvre des importantes portions des
la surface intérieure avec ce sable, en les faisant inutilisables.
Le professeur G. Ionescu-Șișești [1] écrivait qu‘après le quatrième, le cinquième
année, les récoltes commencent a baisser surtout à cause de l‘épuisement rapide du
sol.
Le professeur Ir. Staicu [4] dans un passage cité après Grisson H.P. (1957) montre
que sur les sols des zones inondables les conditions pour la décomposition de la
matière organique sont très favorables pendant l‘été et à cette cause, après
quelques années de mise en culture, ils perdent des grandes quantités de matière
organique. Par conséquent, les qualités de sol s‘empirent: premièrement ces sols
perdent leur structure et la perméabilité pour l‘eau se réduit beaucoup. L‘ingénieur
I. Vidraşcu a recherché des matériaux concernant les situations similaires et les a
publiées en 1921 dans un ouvrage intitulée „La mise en valeur des régions
inondables‖. De ça, le professeur G. Ionescu-Șișești [1] mentionne comme exemple
le fleuve Mississippi: dans 1857 près toute sa zone inondable était endiguée avec
des digues « insubmersibles ».
Un grand débordement des eaux dans l‘année qui a suivie, a rompu ces digues dans
45 lieux, les localités ont été plus exposées aux inondations après endiguement,
l‘accroissement générale de eaux les plus hautes a été de 4,4 m.
Comme une conclusion à celles montrées jusqu‘ici, nous citons un paragraphe du
professeur G. Ionescu-Șișești [1]:
« Voilà pourquoi monsieur Dr. Antipa a préconisé la restreinte de la surface destinée
pour l‘agriculture dans la zone inondable du Danube à approximatif 130.000 ha. Le
reste sera aménagé pour pêcherie. En ce qui concerne les digues, elles doivent être
construites à 8-8,5 hydrogrades, ainsi que aux eaux très hautes, l‘eau pourrait les
dépasser et le fleuve regagner son lit majeur. Ce système ne met pas en péril la
production de poisson; il sacrifie un fois aux 10 ans la production agricole à l‘intérieur
des digues, un sacrifice qui est compensé par le cout beaucoup plus bas des
endiguements. »
On retrouve ces conceptions et dans le traité « Agrotehnica » publié dans 1958, avec
son collaborateur, le professeur Ir. Staicu.Dans l‘année 1933 la surface endiguée
totalisait 58.387 ha [1]. Dans le plan quinquennal 1961-1970 était prévu d‘exécuter
dans la zone inondable du Danube des travaux ď endiguement et dessiccations sur
286.000 ha. [4].
Cette conception concernant la zone inondable du Danube nous incitent à méditation
et nous invite á relire les travaux des nos précurseurs pour ne pas répéter des
erreurs antérieures.

162 D. Şchiopu, T. Şchiopu
R É F É R E N C E S
[1] G. Ionescu-Șișeşti, Lunca Dunării şi punerea ei în valoare, M.O. Imprimeria centrală,
Bucureşti, 1933.
[2] Ionescu-Șișești G., Staicu Ir., Agrotehnica, Editura Agro-Silvică de Stat, Bucureşti, 1958.
[3] Mihalca, Veronica, Gheorghe Ionescu-Șișeşti, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 1971.
[4] Staicu, Ir., 1969, Agrotehnica, Editura Agrosilvică, Bucureşti.

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 163
ISOLATION AND SEROLOGICAL DETECTION OF APPLE
PROLIFERATION PHYTOPLASMA GROUP IN ROMANIA
P. G. PLOAIE 1
Abstract: Isolation and serological detection of apple proliferation phytoplasma group in
Romania. Using two polyclonal antisera, as primary andibodies, produced in rabbits, one
with phytoplasma of Apricot chlorotic leaf roll (ACLR-European stone fruit yellows group-
ESFY) and another one with Aster yellows phytoplasma (AYP) isolated on axenic culture, an
indirect dot blot immunoassay method was performed on nitrocellulose membrane stripes to
detect PD, AP15 and AYP in a comparative study with secondary antibodies. Goat antirabbit
IgG conjugated with Alkaline Phosphatase or Goat anti-rabbit IgG conjugated with
colloidal gold were used as secondary antibodies. Both antisera detected PD phytoplasma
from pear, Cacopsylla pyri, pepper experimentally infected by insect vector, apple
proliferation AP 15 and AY, both multiplied in Catharanthus roseus. These results suggest
that there are no serological difference between PD, apricot chlorotic leaf roll, AY and AP 15.
Keywords: mycoplasma-phytoplasma, serological detection.
1. Introduction
The microorganisms causing proliferating or decline diseases of fruit trees belong to
mycoplasmalike organism (MLO) or phytoplasma that were characterized by PCR
amplification of ribosomal and nonribosomal DNA and grouped in two phylogenetic
subclade: Apple proliferation (AP) group and X-disease (X) group (Lee et al., 1998;
Seemüller, 1998).
All investigations performed with PCR, in the last fifteen years, have used samples of
total DNA extracted from infected plants that include DNA from nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplasts, different species of RNA and, of course, MLO DNA. This
mixture of nucleic acids may have a serious influence when the primers are
designed.
The primers, designed for the highly conserved 16S rRNA gene or for non-ribosomal
or 16S/23S rRNA spacer region sequences are believed to detect the majority of
known fruit trees phytoplasmas. However some primers showed mismatches with
these sequences, dimmers or unspecific amplification because they have sequences
homology in the 16S-spacer region to chloroplasts and plastids incrising the risk of
false positives (Heinrich et al., 2001). False signals in PCR were obtained with
universal primer pair P1/Tint, located in the 16S and tRNA spacer region of the tRNA
operon (Skrzeczkowski et al., 2001). With universal primer pair fP1/rP7, after
increasing amplification over 70 cycles, a strong DNA smear was present in lanes for
all samples, including the positive controls, indicating an unspecific amplification of
DNA of pear decline phytoplasma (Schneider and Gibb, 1997). Wally et al., (2008),
using primers fP1/rP7, and P1/P6 not only phytoplasma DNA could be amplified but
also some mollicutes or bacterium DNAs. Dollet et al. (2006) using so-called
"phytoplasma universal primers" such as P1/P7 or "specific primers" such as
G813/AKSR to detect coconut diseases in Ghana and Mozambique showed that
those primers could lead to erroneous results.
Although the MLOs reach high concentration in the sieve elements and can be
obtained in large quantity in sediments (Giannotti et al., 1969; Ploaie, 1983), in
almost all papers concerning DNA extraction and PCR detection, examined by us, no
purified MLOs (phytoplasma) were used.
1 The Institute of Research and Development for Plant Protection, Bucharest, Honorary member of the
Academy of Romanian Scientists, e-mail: patruploaie@yahoo.com.

164 P. G. Ploaie
In our laboratory all MLOs detected in the field were multiplied in greenhouse in host
plant Chatharanthus roseus L (G. Don), purified and examined by high resolution
electron microscope, using negative staining. DNA was extracted from pure MLOs
cells, electrophocused on agarose gel and stained with Tholuidine blue or Thionine
specific for DNA or with ethidium bromide. No PCR amplifications were obtained
using universal primers P1/P7, U3/U5 orspecific O1/O1 with different PCR kits
(BIOMETRA-PrimeZyme DNA Polymerase Kit, FINNZYMES-DyNAzyme TM DNA
Polymerase Kit F 550S, Boehringer Mannheim-PCR Master Kit Cat.No.1636 103 or
DNA Core Kit). Therefore our attention was directed to the production of antisera and
elaboration of serological detection techniques (Ploaie, 2006; Ploaie et al., 1988;
1994; 2003; 2008). Some results are presented in this paper.
2. Materials and methods
Source of MLOs. Aster yellows (AY), isolated from barley by Macrosteles laevis,
apricot chlorotic leaf roll (ACLR), pear decline (PD) isolated in Romania and apple
proliferation (AP15) kindly provided by E. Seemüller, collected in Germany, were
used in this study. All strain were compared and maintained in experimental host
Catharanthus roseus (periwinkle) in our collection.
Preparation of antigens. For AY, MLO was purified from axenic culture by repeted
sedimentations and washing. For ACLR, MLO were purified only from petioles and
midrib of infected apricot or periwinkle using the metods described before (Ploaie,
1983).
All green material along the midrib was removed with a razor blade and only shoots
without leaves, petioles and midrib were retained and sectioned in small discs on
sterile filter paper and transfered in a sterile mortar with sterile MLOs buffer (0.1M
phosphate buffer + 0.33 M NaCl) supplemented with with 0.5% sodium sulphite or
1% HCl-Cysteine to prevent the oxidation process. Using sterile pestel, the discs
were gently pressed and ruptured with small dust of carborundum and the MLOs
were released into suspending buffer.
The plant organelles (chloroplasts, nuclei, mithocondria, microbodies from
companion cells or phloem parenchima) or other cell debris were removed by
microcentrifugation for 5 min at 3000 rpm (750 g) in microfuge Force 13 (Denver
Instrument-Colorado).
The MLOs were recuperated from supernatant by centrifugation at 14.000 rpm
(20.000g) for 30 min in a Janetzki T 24 D centrifuge, and the pellets resuspended in
MLOs buffer and stored at 20C. The purity of MLO was appreciated by electron
microscopy.
Production of polyclonal antibodies.
Three series of antisera were obtained for AY agent using ―MLO‖ cultivated in axenic
culture (Ploaie, 1983, 1990; Ploaie et al., 1994) and an antiserum for ACLR MLO.
The MLOs were mixed with an equal volume of Freund‘s complete adjuvant (Difco
Laboratories, Michigan) and injected in white rabbits, in two series of intramuscular
and intradermally injections. The antibodies were obtained after 100 days and
immunogamglobulin was purified by precipitation with ammonium sulphate and
dialised.
Appreciation of the specificity and sensitivity of the antisera
An indirect dot blott ELISA method was performed on solid support. The MLO was
pipeted as 110 L/spot or 10 L per stripe, on Sartorius SM 11378 nitrocellulose
membrane stripes, 0.8/8 cm, having a porosity of 0.15 m.

Isolation and Serological Detection of Apple Proliferation Phytoplasma Group … 165
The stripes were transferred in 8 ml volume plastic tubes filled with blocking buffer
warmed at 45C (0,1M Tris-HCl pH 8, supplimented with 4% BSA, 0.1% gelatin and
0.2% sodium azide) for 30 min. The blocking solution was removed and the stripes
were incubated in 1/10 dilution of primary antiserum for 5-8 hours or over night.
Negative controls were carried out by omitting the antigen or the primary antibody.
The stripes were washed several times (10-15 min) with buffer to remove unbound
antibody. To detect antibodies bound to MLO, the stripes were introduced in tubes
filled with secundary antibodies (Goat anti-rabbit IgG - whole molecule) conjugated
with Alkaline Phosphatase–AP (Sigma product A 3937)) or with Goat anti-rabit IgG
(whole molecule) conjugated with coloidal gold 10nm (Sigma product No.G3779).
The stripes were incubated over night in diluted secundary antibodies (1/100, 1/1000,
1/5000, 1/10.000). The membrane stripes were thoroughly washed in ddwater and
the positive reactions were identified for AP using SIGMAFAST-BCIP/NTB (Sigma
product No. B0274 tablets substrate). With this substrate, color reaction of spots is
blue-purple and end product is insoluble.
The staining reaction was stopped by washing the stripes with DD water.
When Goat anti-rabbit IgG – coloidal gold was used the spots became red. If the
spots were less vizible, sliver enhancement procedure was used (Anonim, 1987),
and the spots became black and strong visible.
Stripes were air-dried, mounted onto card board and stored at room temperature as
document. For illustration the blots were photographed or scanned with a Logitech
Page Scan Color and transfered in a PC.
3. Results and discussion
The antisera and dot blott technique for rapid diagnostic of MLOs were evaluated on
numerous extracts of infected plants and insects.
The following MLOs were selected and listed below from 1 to 7, spoted on
nitrocellulose stripes and detected by indirect ELISA with secondary markers goat
anti-rabit IgG-PA or goat anti-rabit colloidal gold:
1. Pear decline MLO purified from Capsicum annum L. (cultivar) artificially infected
by the vector Cacopsylla pyri (2003);
2. Pear decline MLO purified from petiols and midribs of pear leaves (2004);
3. Pear decline MLO purified from Capsicum annum L. (cultivar) artificially infected
by the vector Cacopsylla pyri (2003);
4. Aster yellows MLO isolated from barley and purified from host plant
Catharanthus roseus (2003);
5. Apple proliferation AP15 (Germany) purified from Catharanthus roseus (2004).
In our laboratory AP15 induced identical symptoms with that caused by aster
yellows;
6. MLO purified from the vector Cacopsylla pyri, (2002-2004);
7. Apricot chlorotic leaf roll MLO, purified from petiols and midribs of apricot.
In figure 1 (A, B, C) the apricot chlorotic leaf roll MLO (position 7 in list) is detected
with primary antiserum for ACLR MLO. The secondary antiserum was Goat anti-rabit
IgG-AP and enzyme substrate SIGMA FAST TM (5-Bromo-4-Chloro-3-Indolyl
Phosphate/Nitro Blue Tetrazolium–BCIP/NTB). High dilution of secondary antibodies
assured the detection at the level of 1 pg protein (C). No positive detection was
observed on strips when the antigen was omitted (arrows).

166 P. G. Ploaie
Without Antigen Antigen omitted
A B C
Antigen 10µL/spot Antigen, 1µL/spot
Primary antiserum 1/10 Primary antiserum 1/10
Secondary antiserum 1/100 Secondary antiserum 1/10 000
Fig. 1. Immunodetection of ACLR MLO in spots (A, C) or band (B)
on nitrocellose membrane. Aparition of positive reaction in 5 min (Original).
The results with the MLOs listed from 1 to 6 are illustrated in figure 2.
Antisera anti AY MLO, produced in rabbits in 1988, 1992 and 1993 using as antigen
the AY MLO isolated in axenic culture, detected both AY (stripe 1) and AP15 (stripe
2) when goat anti-rabbit IgG-Gold as secondary antibodies were used.
Blanc
Stripes: 1 2 3 4 5
MLOs: 5 µL/spot on stripes 1 and 2 2µL/spot, on stripes 3, 4, 5
Stripe 1: AP15 (5) in 4 repetitions Stripes 3 and 4: MLOs spoted
Stripe 2: AYA (4 in 4 repetition) in the order of the number from list
Primary antiserum: Stripe 5: MLO from 6 (Cacopsylla) in 6 repetitions
rabbit anti AYA MLO Primary antiserum: rabbit anti ACLR MLO
Secundary antibodies and conjugates: Secundary antibodies and conjugates:
Goat anti-rabbit IgG-Gold Goat anti-rabbit IgG-AP.
Sliver enhancement Positive detection: 5 min
Blanc: antigen omitted
Fig. 2. Immunodetection of MLOs from AP and AY group (Original).
By symptoms in periwinkle AP15 from Germany and AY from barley were similar,
inducing virescence and prolifertion.
When AY (4) and AP15 (5) were tested with antiserum for ACLR these MLOs gave
positive reaction as seen on stripe 4 at position 4 and 5.
Pear decline MLO, extracted from pepper, infected by Cacopsylla (positions 1 and 3
in list) and from pear (position 2 in list) was detected also with anti ACLR MLO serum
as shown on 3 and 4 stripes.

Isolation and Serological Detection of Apple Proliferation Phytoplasma Group … 167
MLO purified from Cacopsylla sp. (position 6 in list) was also detected and
demonstrated on stripe 5. The diagnostic on stripes 3, 4 and 5 was of ELISA type
performed with Goat anti-rabbit IgG-AP.
Our results demonstrate that AP15 and AY phytoplasmas are, serological, identical
when purified from Catharanthus roseus and tested with primary antiserum produced
in rabbits, using as antigen AY phytoplasma cultivated in artificial media, and goat
antirabbit antiserum conjugated with gold.
Phytoplasma of PD purified from pear, Capsicum annum and from Cacopsylla piry
and AP15 and AY phytoplasmas were all identical when were tested with antiserum
for apricot chlorotic leafroll phytoplasma.
The ELISA in spot on solid support and Immuno-Gold techniques developed by us
are extremely simple, very cheap and easy to perform. They have high sensitivity
and specificity.
This technique proved once again that aster yellows ―MLO‖ is cultivable on axenic
culture.
Based on the analysis of 16S rDNA gene sequence Poggy et al. (2000) established
that ―the 16S rDNA sequence of AP and PD phytoplasma are similar and have a
single base difference between the two probes, and a single base mismatch with the
16S rDNA sequence of the ESFY phytoplasma‖.
Phylogenetic analyses of Apple proliferation (AP), pear decline (PD) and European
stone fruit yellows (ESFY) revealed that the 16S rDNA sequences of strains of each
of these pathogens were identical or nearly identical (Seemüller and Schneider,
2004).
A homology of 99.8% for 865 bp of 16S rDNA gene of AP and peach decline was
established by PCR (Poggi et al., 1995).
R E F E R E N C E S
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168 P. G. Ploaie
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interfering in detection of phytoplasma by PCR using primers derived from the ribosomal RNA
operon. ISHS Acta Horticulturae 550: XVIII International symposium on virus and virus-like
diseases of temperate fruit crops - top fruit diseases, 2001.
[15] O. Wally, et al., DNA sequencing reveals false positives during the detection of aster yellows
phytoplasmas in leafhoppers. Scientia Horticulturae 116, 130-137, 2008.

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 169
SILVOCALY, A NEW DIRECTION IN SILVOLOGY
Constantin BÂNDIU 1
Abstract. The book presents the subject and principles of forest aesthetics contained in the
book "Aesthetics forest. Introduction in silvocaly (Publisher Mediastar, Resita, 2004). Top is
an analysis of the natural beauty applied to forest, including a semantic landscape of forest,
seen that: a) physical - geographical presence in time and space (landscape undulating,
curvilinear, jagged and portal-type), b) inner reality, mental meta-space. (landscape
consonantal, sacral, mythical, romantic and ethnic). Both of these events are related to
immediate meta-ecology another border discipline, inter and intra-disciplinary. This leads to
the establishment of a basic philosophy of the forest, which the author calls silvosophy
representing the theoretical development of the spiritual function of the forest.
Keywords: silvocaly, silvosophy, meta-ecology, meta-landscape, semantics forest landscape
Until not so long ago, the forest was regarded only as a natural creation producing
economic and ecologic goods without knowing its aesthetic properties or
subordinating them to the other functions, regarded as being more important. On the
other hand, the very idea of natural beauty is not unanimously acknowledged by
specialists, considering that nature doesn‘t work according to the laws of the beauty,
but rather according to those of the requirements of adaptation to the environment,
hence the opinion that if it really exists, natural beauty should be defined not by the
aestheticians, but rather by the biologists (Tudor Vianu, 1997).
Actually, neither the biologists, nor the specialists from other branches can provide a
satisfactory explanation of the natural beauty considering its ineffable character
(Hegel), or the impossibility to express it in a discursive manner, the natural beauty
being, according to the expressionist aesthetics as a ―fireworks show‖, an impression
that appears and disappears before being able to be framed into the concrete and
perennial forms of the art (Th. Adorno, 1968), the art itself being, according to the
author, illusion and tension at the same time. The fact that for a century (according to
von Salisch in 1902) nothing consistent has been written on forestry aesthetics
resides just in the difficulty of demonstrating the existence of natural beauty, the only
papers that were written being limited to articles, scientific communications or
chapters of university courses. Our book ―Forestry aesthetics. Introduction in
Silvocaly‖ (Mediastar, Reşiţa, 2004) is rather audacious, judging by this aspect. We
had to find a new way to define natural beauty, the forestry beauty, besides the older
ways used to define the artistic beauty, unsatisfactory as they were (the laws of
symmetry, the laws of the polygonal-hexagon organisation in the inorganic world, and
pentagon in the organic world, the golden number or section:
15 1.618,
Finobacci‘s
series, etc.); this new way should be valid both for the forest as ecosystem and for
the forest as geographic landscape.
For this purpose we used Plato‘s classical theory of beauty according to which there
is an equivalence between beauty and good, going up to merging (Timaios, 2).
According to this meaning we may consider that a forestry ecosystem, properly
structured and perfectly functional, being properly adapted to the environment, is
good and beautiful at the same time.
This beauty can be recognised in the harmony of the shapes, of the structures and
colours; at the same time it also has a hidden part that consists in the perfect
sequencing of the internal processes and functions.
1 Ph.D. eng.
2

170 Constantin Bândiu
Natural beauty can not be separated from the ecosystemic good, the two forming a
functional unit that we named ―kalon‖. Across the five chapters plus the consistent
introduction and closing argument, the book analyses the following aspects:
The principles and themes of silvocaly, including the delimitation from other
disciplines concerning the spaces that generate aesthetic feelings;
The main characteristics of the forestry beauty: harmony, adequate form of the
function, colours, contrast, musicality, animation, appeasing capacity and annihilation
of alienation;
The tree, protagonist of the forestry landscape. It is regarded as a lyric or
dramatic character that creates atmosphere and leads to contemplation, participative
attitude and dreaming;
The forest as a show. Living being with specific reactivity (with ―soul‖), the forest
can inspire special emotional states, similar to those emerging from art productions:
lyric, epic, dramatic, musical, poetic, pictorial, etc.
*
Seen from the inside, the forest appears as a structural space in which we can
recognise general values such as:
- the general law undulation – in multi-annual and mosaic structures
- a given inner architecture resulting from tree distribution in time and space that
suggests consecrated styles such as: Classic, Gothic, Expressive, Expressionism.
*
Seen from the outside the forest shows a landscape with a double cognitive
characteristic:
a) as tangible, physic geographical, descriptive-quantitative reality (types:
undulating, curvilinear, frazzled, portal)
b) as virtual reality, beyond us, seen as meta space in our inner living (types:
consonantal, sacral, mythical, romantic, and Edenic)
*
The basic idea of the book is to make the forest understood and loved so that it may
be more respected and better protected.
However, understanding of scientific concepts is difficult and hardly accessible, this is
why we can use Silvocaly, inter- and multidisciplinary subject, that links the exact
sciences with the humanist ones and with art theory.
However, forest beauty must not be understood only as a harmony of shapes,
structures and functions. It has a deeper meaning due to the echo that its sensitive
displays have on the subject. It is the representation, beyond us, of the forestry
landscape currently known as MetaScape.
Hence the dichotomy with which we observe the presence of the forest in time and
space: as physic geographical landscape, on the one hand and as inner landscape,
on the other hand.
Silvocaly is on the same level of knowledge and representation as Meta ecology,
another frontier science (Const. Bândiu and Viorel Soran, 1994).
By its dimensions and purposes it tends to build a new philosophy specific to the
modern man, that we can call ―ecosophy‖.

Silvocaly, a new Direction in Silvology 171
Both sciences have in common the interesting idea that beauty is a divine creation
and that it is displayed by love: first of all by the love of nature and forest, and by the
love of God through man, secondly.
Therefore, we have here an interesting connection between the matter and the spirit,
representing two founding sides of a unique process.
The purpose of the new discipline, Silvosophy, is a remarkable one: it is to make the
forest loved and protected by catechetic knowledge starting from other than those
purely scientific.
Obviously, other humanist disciplines (literature, art) have a contribution as well.
Once the purpose is known, we may move on to the object.
At an early and incomplete stage this should be the following:
To define the forest by its spiritual properties too considering that it also has a
―soul‖. There is a book with an enticing title on this subject that shows the reversed
relation, forest-human, too: ―The forest, root of the soul‖ (Al. Pălăncean et. al., 1993);
The universal character of the forest: the forest is a cosmos,
The place of the forest within it, this time, considering the earth as a cosmos;
The functions of the forest as spiritual being (transfer of psychic energy, psychic
modeling, link to the transcendent);
The feeling of space and time that the forest transfer to humans – that will
contribute, among others, to the self understanding of the Romanian people – with
their own philosophy (Lucian Blaga, 1985);
The psycho-sanogenous function of the forest: to save man from alienation under
the conditions of the stressing modern life;
Ensure the communication with God by guiding the thoughts towards the High
(transcendent);
A deeper knowledge of the specificity of the philosophy of space at the
Romanian people (undulating, ―mioritic‖ type). This also connects with the laws of the
Universe (undulating, easily recognisable in the inner structure of the forest);
The specificity of the patriotic feeling of the Romanian people regarding the forest
as their home: ―Only the people who lives in its own territory feels at home‖,
Hemingway;
The shaping role of the forest on the human soul, which it makes sensitive to love
the Beauty, the Good and the Truth (Plato). The sensitivity to love poetry and myths
more, also finds support in the forest.
This may explain why the Romanian person – who loves the forest – is poet.
*
We can not suggest now all the themes of the new discipline. This is just a beginning
and as any beginning it can not comprise everything.
We expect the future to develop the philosophy of the forest (Silvosophy) and that it
will reach the great culture and that by ―loving the forest more‖ Silvology may emerge
from the Cinderella current state of culture, bringing also a contribution to the
ecologic safety of the country.
This is the natural evolution of any discipline that reaches maturity. It defines its
concepts more thoroughly, enlarging its scope.

172 Constantin Bândiu
Silvocaly and Silvosophy may be thus regarded as the young roots emerging from
the vigorous and strong trunk of Silvology.
A final observation: in fact the new frontier discipline brings to light a new function of
the forest: the spiritual one.
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Bândiu C., Soran V., Metaecologia, o nouă ştiinţă de graniţă, Bucovina forestieră, An III, nr. 1,
Câmpulung Moldovenesc, 1994.
[2] Bândiu C., Estetica forestieră. Intorducere în Silvocalie, Ed. Mediastar, Reşiţa, 2004.
[3] Blackburn Simon, Dicţionar de Filozofie, Ed. Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureşti, 1999.
[4] Blaga L., Trilogia culturii, Opere, vol. 8, Ed. Minerva, Bucureşti, 1985.
[5] Peters E. Francis, Termenii filosofiei greceşti, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureşti, 1993.
[6] Scripcaru Gr., Bândiu C., Silvocalia – o estetică a pădurii, Ed. Tehnică Silvică, Fil. Câmpulung
Moldovenesc, 1997.

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 173
THE EVOLUTION OF THE ROMANIAN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
DURING THE LAST 5O YEARS AND ITS PERSPECTIVE ON THE
BACKGROUND OF ROMANIA‟S ENTRY
INTO THE EUROPEAN UNION
Agatha POPESCU 1
Abstract This study aimed to analyze the evolution of animal husbandry during the last 50
years, based on the empirical data collected from various information sources, mainly
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development and National Institute for Statistics.
The main indicators and indices were determined and integrated: number of live stock by
species, average yield and total production (milk, meat, eggs, wool etc), food consumption of
animal origin per inhabitant, exports, animal production contribution to agricultural
production. An overview concerning the strategy for animal husbandry development is finally
presented for the perspective of 2007-2025. As a conclusion during the period 1950-1990,
animal husbandry recorded an important development, while after 1990 it was facing a deep
decline. After the year 2000, animal husbandry has started recovering in order to prepare
Romania‟s entry into the EU structures. Romania is facing new challenges concerning the
improvement of production, quality and competitiveness according to the EU standards.
Keywords: animal husbandry, evolution, prospect, Romania‘s entry into the EU
1. Introduction
Animal Husbandry has been, is and will be an important branch of the agriculture and
the national economy in general, taking into account its essential role for assuring high
quality biological products for population consumtion, raw materials for food and other
industries, jobs for people living both in the rural and urban areas, important incomes
for farmers along the year. Also, it brings its contribution to the development of vegetal
production as well as of pastures and meadows, to the organic soil fertilisation, to the
creation of new nonconventional energy sources, to the development of rural tourism
and rural areas, to the development of the Romanian exports with live animals and
agro-food products, to the improvement of Romania‘s Trade and Payment balances
(3,4). The analysis of the evolution of Animal Husbandry during the period 1950-2004,
based on the empirical data supplied by Ministry of Agriculture, Forestru and Rural
Developmeny emphasizes the main aspects concerning livestock, production
performances (average yield and total production), contribution of animal husbandry to
the development of agricultural production and food consumption per inhabitant.
Romania‘s entry into the European Union in January 2007 imposes a new strategy,
scientifically set up, enabling Animal Husbandry to become a durable, viable, high
productivity and profitablity economic branch, assuring high quality products of animal
origin in the Romanian and European market and food safety (2,5).
2. Material şi method
The data provided by M.A.F.R.D. şi N.I.S concerning the period 1950-2004 have been
statistically processed using the variable and fixed indices (4), reflecting the dynamics
of Animal Husbandry by means of the following indicators: livestock by species, animal
density per 100 ha, average animal yield, total animal production, weight of Animal
Husbandry into the the total value of agricultural production, average food consumption
per capita. Taking into account, the average annual increase/decrease and the weight
of Animal Husbandry within the agricultural policy in Romania, finally the strategy for
the development of this important economic sector is presented in the perspective of
Romania‘ s entry into the E.U. for the period 2007-2025.
1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest. Full member of the Academy
of Romanian Scientists.

174 Agatha Popescu
3. Results and discussions
The evolution of Animal Husbandry during the last 50 years has two be divided into
two parts: 1950-1990 şi 1990-2004, characterized by various aspects concerning: the
number of animals per farm, the number of animal farms and their structure by size,
endowment, fixed assests, financial capital and labor, raising technologies, economic
and financial performances, productivity and profitability.
a) The number of animals by species has continuously increased during the
period 1950-1990, so that, on January 1 st, 1990, the cattle stock counted 5,381
thousnd heads, being 1,19 times more numerous than în 1950; the number of pigs was
12,003 thousand heads, 5,46 times higher than in 1950; the sheep number was 14,062
thousand heads, 1,38 times higher than in the same year of comparison; the poultry
stock recorded 121,333 thousand heads, being 6,89 times more numerous than in
1950. After 1989, the livestock has recorded a continuos decline due to the dissolution
of the agricultural co-operatives and state agricultural enterprises, when animals have
been given back to the rural householders, who have salughtered many of the old and
low productive animals, applying a severe culling rate. Compared to the level of 1950,
in the year 2000, the figures concerning livestock showed lower values by 36 % in
cattle, 18 % in sheep, 50 % in pigs, 41 % in poultry stock. In the year 2004, compared
to the level recorded in the year 2000, a slight recovering has been noticed as follows:
an increase by 4.27% in cattle, 6.28% in sheep, 65% in pigs, 12% in poultry. (Table 1).
b) The animal density per 100 ha has increased 5.4 times in pigs, 2.4 times in
poultry, 1.4 times in sheep and 1.1 times in cattle during the priod 1950-1990, due to
the increasing number of all the farm species. Compared to the year 1990, in the year
2000, per 100 ha agricultural land, there were by 58-60 % less animals. The increasing
number of animals has also determined an increased animal density per 100 ha, so
that in the year 2004, on 100 ha there were: 20.1 cattle, 48.5 pigs, 55.9 sheep and
goat, 538 poultry (Table 2).
Table 1. Livestock evolution during the period 1950-2004
Year /Period MU Cattle Pigs Sheep Poultry
1950 Thousand heads 4,502 2,197 10,222 17,610
1970 Thousand heads 5,216 6,359 13,818 54,333
1980 Thousand heads 6,485 11,542 15,865 99,692
1990 Thousand heads 5,381 12,003 14,062 121,333
2000 Thousand heads 2,925 5,001 8,374 71,413
2004 Thousand heads 3,050 8,300 8,900 80,000
1990/1950 % 119.52 546.33 137.55 689.00
2000/1950 % 64.97 227.62 81.92 405.52
2000/1990 % 54.35 41.66 59.55 58.85
2004/1950 % 67.74 377.78 87.06 454.28
2004/1990 % 56.68 69.14 63.29 65.93
2004/2000 % 104.27 165.97 106.28 112.02
Source: National Institute for Statistics and processed indicators.
c) The level of farm fixed assets, financial capital and labor varied very much
from a period to another. Till 1990, the state animal raising enterprises were better
endowed compared to the agricultural co-operatives where most of the operations
were manually done. The dissolution of the agricultural co-operatives, restructuration
and privatization of the state units, the new legislation concerning production structure
have lead to the appearance of the new organisational forms in agriculture such as:
agricultural societies, commercial societies, family associations with legal status and
million of subzistence households. Around 99,5 % of the total number of animal farms

The evolution of the romanian animal husbandry ... 175
consists of subzistence households. In the year 2004, just 972 animal raising holdings
could be considered larger units, enough well endowed with fixed assets, working
capital and labor, but representing 0.57 % of the total existing anaimal growing farms.
d) The number of animal farms and their size has changed as follows: from
thousands of state enterprises and agricultural co-operatives existing till 1989, at
present there are millions of households, which can not be named „real farms‖, but
small subzistence households. In 2004, there were just 160,336 larger agricultural
commercial companies with legal status owning 6.23 million ha, meaning 44.6 % of the
total agricultural land in the country. A number of 30,327 holdings, that is 17,90 %,
represent animal farms, whose average size is 134 cattle, 1,260 pigs şi 230 sheep.
e) Technologies and raising systems applied till 1990 were more diversified, but
after that date the extensive raising sysytem has been become a common aspect for
almost all the households and farms. The commercial poultry companies are the only
ones still applying intensive raising technologies. Howevere, Romania‘s entry into the
E.U. will oblige farmers to pass to high performance technologies assuring animal
welfare and health, high quality products and environment protection against pollution.
Table 2. Animal density per 100 ha agricultural land during the period 1950-2004
Year /Period MU Cattle Pigs Sheep Poultry
1950 Heads /100 ha 32.4 23.4 77.1 342
1970 Heads /100 ha 36.9 65.3 101.4 557
1980 Heads /100 ha 45.5 117.8 113.7 1,085
1990 Heads /100 ha 38.0 127.3 106.3 822
2000 Heads /100 ha 22.1 77.2 63.2 484
2004 Heads /100 ha 20.1 48.5 55.9 538
1990/1950 % 117.28 544.0 137.87 240.35
2000/1950 % 68.20 329.91 81.97 141.52
2000/1990 % 58.15 60.64 59.45 58.88
2004/1950 % 62.03 207.26 72.50 157.30
2004/1990 % 52.89 38.09 52.58 65.45
2004/2000 % 90.95 62.82 88.44 111.15
Source: National Institute for Statistics and processed indicators.
f) The level of production and financial performances has been deeply
influenced by technical endowmnet, farm size, labor training level, animal productive
potential, livestock, use of production factors and farm management. In the year 1990,
milk production was 2.37 times higher, wool production was 1.78 times higher, egg
production was 2.36 times higher and sheep milk by 15% less than in the year 1950.
Table 3. Evolution of animal production during the period 1950-2004
Year
Cow Milk
l/cow/year
Sheep Milk
l/ewe/year
Wool
Kg/sheep
Eggs
Pieces/Hen
1950 867 40 1.60 69
1970 1,559 33 2.30 93
1980 1,901 33 2.60 160
1990 2,063 34 2.85 163
2000 3,014 50 - 142
2004 3,412 59 - 153
1990/1950 % 237.94 85.00 178.12 236.23
2000/1950 % 347.63 125.00 - 205.80
2000/1990 % 146.09 147.06 - 87.11
2004/1950 % 393.54 147.50 - 221.74
2004/1990 % 165.39 173.53 - 83.86
2004/2000 % 113.20 118.00 - 107.75
Source: National Institute for Statistics and processed indicators.

176 Agatha Popescu
In the year 2000, the average yield was 1.46 times higher in cow milk, 1.47 times
higher in sheep milk and by 13 % less in eggs compared to the level recorded in
1990. In the year 2004, we can notice that average yields are recovering: milk
production is by 13.20 % higher, sheep milk is by 18 % higher and egg production is
by 7.75 % higher than in the year 2000 (Table 3).
Till the year 1990, animal production has continuously increased, but after that year it
has recoreded a decline, except milk production. In the year 2000, the total milk
production has become by 41.70 % higher, meat production by 33.29 % lower and
egg production by 41 % lower than in the year 1990. In the year 2004, animal
production was by 14.32 % higher in milk, by 38.41 % higher in meat and by 7.14 %
higher in eggs compared to the achievements recorded in the year 2000 (Table 4).
Table 4. Evolution of total animal production
Year/Period
Total Milk
Thousand hl
Total Meat
Thousand Tons
Eggs
Million Pieces
1950 19,358 599.56 1,290.53
1990 38,210 2,076.00 9,480.00
2000 54,144 1,385.00 5,600.00
2004 61,900 1,917.00 6,000.00
1990/1950 197.38 346.25 734.58
2000/1950 279.69 231.00 433.93
2000/1990 141.70 66.71 59.07
2004/1950 319.76 319.73 464.92
2004/1990 161.99 92.34 63.29
2004/2000 114.32 138.41 107.14
Source: National Institute for Statistics and processed indicators.
Economic efficiency in the animal farms has recorded a decrease due to the low
prices imposed by processors and low subsidies. Production costs were higher and
higher, many times higher than market price. The imports of animal products (eggs,
pork etc etc) coming from countries with better subsidized agriculture have deeply
affected the local producers many times.
g) The contribution of Animal Husbandry to Agricultural Production has
increased from 38.6 % in 1950 to 47 % in 1990, but after that year it has recorded a
decline to 44 % in the year 2000 (Table 5). Till 1990, 56.5 % animals were raised in
state enterprises, 36 % in agricultural co-operatives and 47.2 % in small households.
At present, over 90 % of animal production is achieved in households. After 1990,
most of farmers have oriented mainly to vegetal production, especially to cereals and
technical plants, with a negative impact on animal husbandry.
Table 5. Weight of Animal Husbandry within Agricultural Production (%)
Specification 1950 1970 1990 2000 2004
Vegetal Production 61.4 58.8 53.0 53.9 56
Animal Production 38.6 41.2 47.0 46.1 44
Source: National Institute for Statistics.
h) After 1990, Romania‘s exports with live animals and products of animal origin
have been deeply affected by the decreasing number of animals and low production
level. For covering market demand, many agricultural products were imported. As a
result, the Romania‘s trade balance with agri-food products has become unbalanced
and Romania has become a net importer instead of a net exporting country as it was
before. In the year 1993, 74% of the total exports with agricultural products was
represented by live animals and animal products. In the year 2000, compared to 1993,
the reduced livestock and low product quality have determined that the exportsof live
animals and products of animal origin to represent just 34 % of total exports.

The evolution of the romanian animal husbandry ... 177
Table 6. Annual consumption of animal origin products per capita
Product MU 1950 1970 1990 2000 2004
W.H.O.
Standard
Milk and dairy products l 107.6 162.9 140.3 197.3 231 240
Meat and meat products Kg 16.7 62.0 61.4 45.1 60 64
Eggs Pieces 59 140 246 237 248 280
Source: National Institute for Statistics.
i) The consumption of animal origin products per capita has decreased after
1990, affecting the living standard, as a consequence of the reduced offer and
increased prices. In the year 2000, Romania‘s population consumed 79 % meat, 82 %
eggs, but by 39 % more milk of the consumption level recorded in the year 1990.
Compared to W.H.O.‘recommendations concerning rationale human nutrition,
Romania‘s population consumes less animal proteins. Human food need is partially
assured as follows: 75 % in meat, 81 % in milk and dairy products 81 % and 71.7 % in
eggs, with negative consequences upon people longevity. The life hope has decreased
from 69 years, compared to 76 years in Germany and 78 years in France.
Table 7. Parameters of Strategical Development of Animal Husbandry in the prospect of 2007-2025
Indicator
LIVESTOCK
MU 2007 2025
a) Cattle,of which: Thou. heads 3,500 3,500
- Dairy Cows Thou. heads 1,700 1,600
b) Pigs,of which: Thou. heads 7,200 10,000
- Sows Thou. heads 580 700
c) Sheep, of which: Thou. heads 9,100 12,000
- Sheep females Thou. heads 7,400 9,500
d) Poultry, of which: Thou. heads 90,000 120,000
- Layers Thou. heads 49,500 65,000
ANIMAL DENSITY
PER 100 ha
- - -
- Cattle Heads/100 ha 23.6 23.9
- Pigs Heads/100 ha 48.7 68.3
Shhep and Goats Heads/100 ha 61.6 81.9
- Poultry
AVERAGE YIELD:
Heads/100 ha 609 820
- Cow Milk l/cow/year 3,764 4,563
- Sheep Milk l/sheep/year 62 63
- Eggs pieces/head 152 180
TOTAL PRODUCTION - - -
- Beef Thou. Tons 520 560
- Pork Thou. Tons 750 1.300
- Sheep Meat Thou. Tons 160 210
- Poultry Meat Thou. Tons 560 1.100
- Cow Milk Thou. Hl 64,000 73,000
- Sheep Milk Thou. Hl 4,600 6,000
- Eggs Million Pieces 7,500 11,700
- Honey Tons 21,000 28,000
WEIGHT OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION
IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
% 47 49
Source: Stretegy of Agriculture Development in the prospect of the period 2007-2025, Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development
j) The impact of Romania‘s entry into the E.U On Animal Husbandry.
In the perspective 2007-2025, Animal Husbandry will be developed as a part of the
whole process for creating a durable agriculture, involving the implementation of
modern high performance and effective technologies under the condition of the
rationale use of biological and environmental in order to satisfy population needs and
food safety, life quality and environment protection. The objectives provided by the
strategy issued by Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development for the

178 Agatha Popescu
period 2007-2025 aim, among other aspects, the change of Animal Husbandry into a
modern economic branch, whose commercial viable farms are able to apply high
performance technologies and to achieve high quality products according to the E.U.
standards (Table 7).
The main measures stipulated for achieving the objectives mentioned above are the
following ones:
- government support to animal breeders for all the farm species but also for the
development of the genetic patrimony;
- free allocation of 2,048 sheds in various counties where Lei Billion 191 were
invested and 1,558 new jobs were created;
- 151 modern dairy farms were established, where the state budget will contribute
by 50 % to the construction of buildings and heifer and equipment purchase;
- forage production will be assured at the needed level using high potential
seeds, modern crop technologies, developing combined food industry;
- assuring high value biological material for all the farm species for improving
genetic potential;
- extending official performance control in the private farms; the extending
artificial insemination;
- milk quality will be controled on a new basis in specialized laboratories;
- improving breed structure and distribution in the territory;
- new directions will be taken into account for animal beeding;
- setting up new commercial units for dairy farming, pig farming, sheep breeding,
poultry farming at European standards;
- offering financial support for Animal Husbandry from the Romanian Government
but also from the E.U. Funds (SAPARD, PHARE, P.C.B);
- during the period 2000-2004, Lei Billion 11,733.2 were allotted for Animal
husbandry, representing 13.82 % of the total funds allotted to agriculture;
- ongoing investments at local level and encouraging foreign investments in
animal breeding;
- implementation of EUROP Carcass Classification System for encouranging
exports with the E.U. countries and assuring payment according to meat quality;
- beekeeping, sericiculture and fishculture will be developed in viable commercial
farms, assuring additional incomes for the people living in the rural areas;
- development of new distribution channels for animal origin products in their way
from producer to processor and consumer;
- increased efficiency in product marketing and processing.
In the moment of Romania‘s entry into the E.U., farmers will benefit of the direct
payment sysytem according to the provisions negociated with the E.U. Commision as
follows: for 452,000 bovines, farmers will benefit of Euro 210 Euro/Bull of 9 month old
and Euro 150 Euro/young bull; for 1,233,000 bovines, farmers will get the premium
for export slaughtering: Euro 80 Euro/head (bulls, cows, heifers of 8 months old) and
Euro 50 Euro/head for animals of 1-8 months old; for 150,000 cows, farmers will
receive the premium of Euro 200 /cow; Euro 21 /head for 10-50 sheep raised for
meat and Euor 16.8 Euro/head for dairy animals.
The approved milk and meat quota will be achieved, but product quality is still under
uncertainty, especially concerning milk quality. Of the Billion Litres 5.3 Milk, 70% will
be delivered directly in the market and the remaining to milk processing industry.

The evolution of the romanian animal husbandry ... 179
From the 588 milk porcessing units existing in the country, just 19 correspond to the
E.U. requirements. The National Agency for Agricultural Extention, Agricultural
Universities and research institutes have to be much more involved in farmers
theoretically and practical training, in delivering consultancy in the field of farm
management and product marketing and technical assistance for applying modern
technologies and dissemination of updated knowledge and skills in Animal Science.
Conclusions
1. During the period 1950-1990, Animal Husbandry has recorded an important
development concerning livestock, production, consumption and exports of animal
origin products.
2. After 1990, Animal Husbandry, like all the other agricultural branches was
facing a deep decline. The reduction of livestock, avergae and total productions, food
consumption and exports had a negative impact on population health, living standard
and life quality.
3. After the year 2000, a new strategy was adopted by Ministry Of Agriculture,
Forestry and Rural Development for developing a modern agriculture, animal
husbandry included, in order to fulfill the conditions imposed for Romania‘s entry into
the E.U. During these last 5 years, we can notice a recovering of agriculture, in
general, and animal husbandry especially: livestock is continuously increasing,
average and total productions are also increasing for all the species, product quality
is improving and animal production is diversified, paying more attention to
beekeeping, silk worm raising, fish culture, and aquaculture.
4. In the perspective 2007-2025, it is expected as the number of farms to be
lower and lower and farm size to become higehr and higher up to the level assuring
farm profitability. The small sized subzistence farms will be replaced by larger
commercial viable farms. It is expected as milk, meat and egg productions to
increase by 7-15 %, and product quality as well by means of local and foreign
investments.
5. The trade with products of animal origin will recover soon and will continue to
be mainly orineted to the E.U. market
6. SAPARD Programme will play an important role in the development of Animal
Husbandry, assuring corresponding funds for investments in modern animal farms
and processing units, for stimulating the development of rural areas.
7. Romania‘s entry into the E.U. will be another challenge for the Romanian
Animal Husbandry which will contribute to the change of this sector into a dynamic,
competitive and high effective economic branch.

180 Agatha Popescu
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] D. Gavrilescu, Agro-Food Economy, Expert Publishing House, Bucharest, 2000.
[2] A. Lăpuşan, Agricultural Structures, Banea Press, Bucharest, 2002.
[3] Oancea Margareta, Treatese of Management in Agricultural Units, Ceres Publishing House,
Buharest, 1999.
[4] Popescu Agatha, Research on Economic Results of Private Dairy Farms. Session 6. Animal
Production. International Symposium ―Prospects for the 3 rd Millenium Agriculture ―. U.S.A.M.V.
Cluj-Napoca, Oct. 25-27, 2001, 6 p, Buletinul USAMV Cluj-Napoca, vol.55-56, (pp. 22-27)
2001.
[5] Popescu Agatha, Romania‘s Agri-food Trade. Session 5. Economic and Management.
International Symposium ―Prospects for the 3 rd Millenium Agriculture―. U.S.A.M.V. Cluj-
Napoca, Oct. 25-27, 2001, 5 p, Buletinul USAMV Cluj-Napoca, vol.55-56 (p. 291) 2001.
[6] Popescu Agatha, A comparative study concerning financial evaluation in Dairy Farming in a
few areas of Romania. Sesiune anuala de comunicari stiintifice a Facultatii de Zootehnie si
Biotehnologii, Timisoara, 23-24 mai 2002, Lucrarile stiintifice nr.XXXV, Ed.Agroprint, 6 p, (pp.
401-406) 2002.
[7] Popescu Agatha, Evaluarea rentabilitatii economico-financiare in societatile comerciale private
de industrializare si comercializare a carnii si produselor din carne, Conferinta ―Stiinte,
procese si tehnologii agro-alimentare‖, Facultatea de Stiinte agricole, industrie alimentara si
protectia mediului, Univ. Lucian Blaga, Sibiu, 31 oct. 1 noiem. 2002, 8 p, 2002.
[8] Popescu Agatha, Considerations upon Economical and Financial Activity in private firms for
Animal Slaughtering and Meat Processing, The 32 nd Annual Session of Scientific
Communications of the Bucharest Faculty of Animal Science, Oct. 15-17, 2003, 6 p (p. 79)
2003.
[9] Popescu Agatha, Integrarea agriculturii tarilor din Centrul si Estul Europei in Politicile Agricole
Comunitare - Actiuni ale Romaniei in perioada de pregatire pentru aderare. A IX-a Sesiune de
Comunicari Stiintifice ale cadrelor didactice, Universitatea Romano-Americana, 28-29 mai
2004; 6 p (pp. 53 -58) 2004.
[10] Popescu Agatha, Pregatirea agriculturii CEEC in vederea integrarii In Uniunea Europeana -
Actiunile Romaniei in perioada de trazitie. Simpozionul National ― Perspective ale restructurarii
si relansarii agriculturii romanesti in competitia pentru integrarea in Uniunea Europeana ―,
USAMV Bucuresti, 18 iunie 2004; 6 p (pp. 210-216) 2004.
[11] Popescu Agatha, Prospects for dairy farm management under milk quota. The International
symposium on‖Prospects for the 3 rd Millenium Agriculture‖, USAMV Cluj-Napoca, 20-23
oct.2003, Buletinul USAMV Cluj-Napoca vol.60, (pp.14 - 20) 2004.
[12] Popescu Agatha, 2004, Farm management and Extension needs under Milk Quota System in
the prospect of Romania‘s entry into the E.U. CEEC WG Workshop, The 55 th EAAP Meeting,
Bled, Slovenia, September 4-9, 2004, FAO Workshop Proceedings, 6 p, (pp. 119-125 ).
[13] Popescu Agatha, Study concerning some parameters of dairy farms in the Central and
Northern part of Romania. Lucr. St. USAMV a Banatului Timisoara, Vol.XXXVIII, Zilele
academice timisene Ed. a IX-a, 26-27 mai 2005, 6 p (pp.86-91) 2005.
[14] Popescu Agatha, Research concerning dairy cows, farm structure and milk performances in
the proximity of the capital, Bulletin UASVM Cluj-Napoca, Vol.61, 4 p., (pp. 399-403) 2005.
[15] Popescu Agatha, Evolutia zootehniei romanesti in ultmii 50 de ani si perspectiva ei in
contextul integrarii Romaniei in Uniunea Europeana. Simpozionul jubiliar « 50 de ani de la
infiintarea Academiei Oamenilor de Stiinta », Universitatea Bioterra, Bucuresti, 5 martie 2006,
8 p, 2006.
[16] ***National Institute for Statistics, Statistical Yearbook, 2005.
[17] ***Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development, Strategy for the development of
Agriculture in the period 2204-2007 and 2007-2025, 2004.

PART SIX
SECTION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES

Vasile Cândea, Alexandru Vasilescu
C O N T E N T S
Les disponibilités d‟organes pour le transplant cardiaque en utilisant des
listes alternatives 183
Vasile Cândea, Luminița Iliuță, Camelia Săvulescu,
C. Macarie, H. Moldovan, D.P. Gherghiceanu, R. Vasile
The Cost-Benefit Report of Performing Intraoperative Echocardiography in
Mitral Valve Surgery 189

Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 183
LES DISPONIBILITES D‟ORGANES POUR LE TRANSPLANT
CARDIAQUE EN UTILISANT DES LISTES ALTERNATIVES
VASILE CÂNDEA 1 , ALEXANDRU VASILESCU 2
Résume. Actuellement, la transplantation cardiaque est un traitement reconnu pour
l'administration d'insuffisance cardiaque avec une très bonne survie, la survie au-delà du
centre de 85% de plus d'un an. Malheureusement, toutefois, cardiaque grephes disponibilité
est très limitée. En outre, au cours des dernières années a été une diminution du nombre de
greffons non-destinés à la transplantation. Le manque de disponibilité de cours implique un
problème particulier: la question de la sélection et de sélection des destinataires des cordes
disponibles pour une utilisation en tant que greffe cœur [de sélection].
À la lumière de ces réalités, d'un programme de transplantation cardiaque a fait au moins
trois catégories de questions: a) de l'exécution dans lequel le centre de transplantation
cardiaque; b) sélectionner le destinataire; c) la sélection appropriée de la piscine de dons
d'organes disponibles.
En outre, il a été le concept de «listes alternatives" pour les patients à haut risque ou les
patients plus âgés. Ces patients seront alloués des cordes considérées "à la limite».
Actuellement, environ 40% de cordes disponibles pour une transplantation cardiaque ne
sont pas utilisés, car ils sont considérés comme "non-standard", mais l'utilisation d'une liste
d'alternatives non-augmentation de greffe et de l'accès à la transplantation, sans mettre en
péril les chances de transplantation avec des patients à faible risque et les jeunes.
Xeno transplante, mécanique cardiaque permanent de soutien, les thérapies médicales,
nous bi ventriculaire stimulation, la transplantation de cellules et de la thérapie génique sont
les solutions à la pénurie actuelle de cœur pour une greffe.
Mots-clé: transplantation cardiaque, les bénéficiaires de sélection/donateur, listes suppléant, soutien
mécanique cardiaque
A présent le transplant cardiaque représente une méthode de traitement acceptée
pour l‘insuffisance cardiaque terminale, ayant une très bonne survie, survie qui
dépasse chaque année le pourcent de 85%, dans beaucoup de centres.Mais,
malheureusement, la disponibilité de greffes cardiaques est très limitée.De plus, les
dernières années on a constaté une décroissance du nombre des greffes cardiaques
disponibles pour le tranplant. Cette disponibilité réduite implique certainement un
problème à part: celui de la sélection du receveur et de la sélection des coeurs
disponibles afin qu‘ils soient utilisés comme greffes de coeur (la sélection du
donneur). En principe, tout patient dont la maladie cardiaque est correctement et
maximalement traitée et dont la survie estimée est moindre que celle offerte par un
transplant cardiaque peut en bénéficier. Malheureusement, le nombre des patients
s‘intégrant à cette catégorie est de beaucoup plus grande.Au cas ou tous ces
patients auraient été inscrits sur la liste de transplant, les temps d‘attente jusqu‘au
transplant seraient trop longs et par conséquent la mortalité parmi les patients
inscrits serait inacceptable.Il en résulte la nécessité de choisir seuls les patients
ayant la plus grande probabilité de survie et de réhabilitation postopératoire.Les
progrès enregistrés par la technique chirurgicale, mais aussi par la thérapie immunosuppressive
ont déterminé que de plus en plus patients s‘inscrivent dans ces
demandes mêmes très strictes de survie et de réintégration postopératoire , rendant
plus difficile le processus de sélection et surmontant la pénurie d‘organes. Voilà donc
que l‘organisation d‘un programme de transplant cardiaque a à résoudre, dans la
lumière des choses ci-haut présentées, trois catégories de problèmes au moins:la
performance des centres ou le transplant cardiaque est réalisé, la sélection adéquate
1 Institut de Maladies Cardiovasculaires “Prof. Dr. C.C. Iliescu”, Clinique de Chirurgie Cardiovasculaire,
Founding, full member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists.
2 Institut de Maladies Cardiovasculaires “Prof. Dr. C.C. Iliescu”, Clinique de Chirurgie Cardiovasculaire.

184 Vasile Cândea, Alexandru Vasilescu
des receveurs et la sélection dans la mare d‘organes disponibles de ceux qui seront
utlisés pour le transplant.Le problème des couts et de l‘appui du programme de
transplant par un certain système sanitaire ne constituent pas l‘objet de ce travail.
Dès 1984, aux Etats Unis d‘Amérique ont été établies sous la forme de ―The National
Organ Transplantation Act‖ (l‘acte national concernant le transplant d‘organes) une
série d‘exigences que les centres qui réalisent le transplant cardiaque doivent
accomplir. Afin d‘encourager l‘assistance excellente des patients et de décourager
les centres dont les résultats ne sont pas optimaux, on a établit que seuls les centres
qui effectuent au moins 12 interventions de transplant cardiaque annuellement et
obtiennent une survie de plus de 70% après une année, peuvent bénéficier des
organes offerts par le réseau de prélèvement et de distribution des greffes d‘organes
(United Network of Organ Sharing). Outre cela, le centre respectif doit disposer de
facilités et de personnel qui correspondent aux normes rigoureuses et doit être un
membre actif d‘une organisation locale de prélèvement d‘organes pour le
transplant.Le personnel médical (chirurgiens et autres spécialistes) doit aussi
accomplir une série de critères de performance et d‘expérience.
Un problème extrêmement controversé est celui de la sélection des candidats pour le
transplant cardiaque. Au moment présent il n‘y a pas de critères précis qui
établissent une indication pour le transplant cardiaque.Tout patient qui souffre d‘une
maladie cardiaque terminale qui détermine une symptomatologie significative et un
espoir de vie inférieur à celui offert par le transplant cardiaque pourrait être inscrit sur
la liste de transplant. Chez ces patients les procédés chirurgicaux alternatifs doivent
s‘avérer irréels (respectivement, impossibles à être appliqués). D‘autre part, ces
patients ne doivent pas présenter des affections extra-cardiaques qui altèrent le
pronostic après le transplant et doivent faire preuve d‘un psychique et d‘une
motivation qui assurent l‘adoption d‘une manière de vie active doublée d‘une bonne
compliance aux régimes thérapeutiques indiqués.Par malheur, le nombre des
patients qui s‘inscrivent dans ces critères est de beaucoup plus grande que celui des
greffes de coeur qui peuvent être utilisées. Pour cette raison on a du établir une série
de nouveaux règlements d‘exclusion et de priorité.
Tableau no.1. Priorité pour le transplant conformément à l‘UNOS
Status I. (priorité maximale). Les patients qui nécessitent une assistance cardiaque et/ou
pulmonaire avec une/un des suivants:
. coeur artificiel total
. système d‘assistance du VG ou du VD
. ballon de contrepulsation intra-aortique
. ventilateur mécanique
. Patients qui accomplissent les deux suivants critères:
- patients admis dans le service de thérapie intensive
- patients qui nécessitent des agents inotropes pour le maintien d‘un débit
cardiaque adéquat
Status II- tous les autres patients admis sur la liste de transplant.
L‘un des critères d‘exclusion peut être l‘âge des patients.Nombre de centres
n‘acceptent pas pour le transplant des patients au dessus de 55 ans. La raison de
l‘introduction de ce règlement paraît très simple: pratiquement dans toutes les
interventions chirurgicales cardiaques l‘âge avancé est un facteur de risque pour une
évolution postopératoire défavorable.C‘est pour cela que le nombre limité des greffes
cardiaques doit être orienté vers les receveurs ayant des perspectives des plus

Les disponibilités d‘organes pour le transplant cardiaque en utilisant des listes alternatives 185
favorables, donc non pas vers les patients âgés.Ce point de vue soulève toute une
série de problèmes.
La croissance de l‘espoir de vie dans le monde civilisé rencontrée les dernières
décennies (croissance relativement constante les 50 dernières années) a déterminé
que le segment d‘âge de plus de 70 ans soit le segment de la population avec la plus
grande croissance parmi les segments populationnels occidentaux.Ainsi, en 1990,
aux Etats-Unis d‘Amérique l‘espoir moyen de vie était de 75,6 ans et on estime une
croissance de celui ci. Généralement, l‘individu qui atteint à présent 65 ans a un
espoir de vie de plus de 15 ans. Cette tendance des changements démographiques
est aussi réfléchie dans le domaine de la chirurgie cardiaque.Les patients âgés
représentent un pourcent de plus en plus élevé parmi les patients opérés à coeur et
ils sont soumis à des opérations d‘une complexité de plus en plus grande.
Parallèlement, le transplant cardiaque a atteint une performance remarcable.
Les données du registre de la Société Internationale pour le Transplant de Coeur et
de Poumon (ISHLT) indiquent vraiment le fait que l‘âge avancé représente un facteur
de pronostic défavorable pour l‘évolution après le transplant. Donc, il y a des
arguments qui suggèrent un taux plus grand d‘infections et de néoplasies malignes
après le transplant, une récupération fonctionnelle faible, une durée de l‘hospitalisation
plus grande et des couts plus grands chez les patients âgés. La détermination
d‘un âge limite qui sépare le groupe à bas risque du groupe à risque élevé est
difficile et arbitraire. Dans différents centres il est établi à 50, 55, 60 ou 65 ans.
Conformément aux données du registre ci haut cité, l‘âge avancé représente en
ensemble un facteur prédictif pour une mortalité accrue tant après un an qu‘après 5
ans depuis le transplant. De plus, les facteurs de risque connus avoir de l‘influence
sur la mortalité après un an depuis l‘intervention persistent encore après 5 ans en
leur grande majorité. Néanmoins, ces données doivent être analysées dans un
contexte correct du point de vue statistique, considérant la grande variabilité
concernant la sélection des donneurs et des receveurs dans différents centres.Ainsi,
il y a sans conteste la possibilité que toute une série de différences entre les
receveurs ( il s‘agit particulièrement de différences sur la présence de divers facteurs
de pronostic) ne soient pas prises en considération lorsqu‘on fait la collection des
données pour l‘analyse statistique.
Une série d‘études ont montré que le transplant cardiaque chez les personnes âgées
( au dessus de 55 ou plus de 65 ans) peut être réalisé avec succès, respectivement
avec une mortalité et une morbidité comparables avec celles observées chez les
patients plus jeunes et avec une survie excellente à long terme.Ces études ont
souligné que l‘âge en lui-même n‘est pas nécessairement un facteur de risque pour
le décès et qu‘il n‘est pas obligatoire qu‘il soit considéré une contre indication pour le
transplant cardiaque. Dans la lumière de ces études, beaucoup de centres ont admis
dans le programme de transplant des personnes de plus en plus âgées. L‘âge
moyen des patients transplantés a lui aussi accru. En 1988, seulement 1,4% des
patients receveurs d‘une greffe cardiaque étaient au dessus de 65 ans, tandis que,
en 1998, ce pourcent était de 8,8%. Voila donc, pour quelle raison on justifie la
question: est-ce qu‘il y a un appui médical pour le transplant cardiaque chez le
patient âgé? A côté de cette question il y en a d‘autres qui se posent, notamment:
jusqu‘à quel âge le transplant cardiaque est-il justifié? Peuvent les personnes âgées
se soumettre et supporter les rigueurs d‘un transplant cardiaque? Peuvent-ils se
récupérer fonctionnellement et mener ensuite une vie productive? Un problème d‘un
intérêt à part est celui lié aux greffes cardiaques de qualité sous-optimale. La pénurie
des donneurs pousse à l‘utilisation de ces organes pour le transplant aux personnes
âgées. Il est certain que seul l‘âge chronologique ne doit pas représenter une contre

186 Vasile Cândea, Alexandru Vasilescu
indication absolue pour le transplant. Pourtant, les critères d‘acceptation des patients
âgés (même au dessus de 70 ans) sur la liste de transplant doivent être très
sélectifs. De manière particulière, chez ces patients le taux de complications
postopératoires doit être très réduit. Afin de réduire ce taux de complications les
patients âgés sont inclus dans le soi-disant ―status 2‖.
Généralement, dans le cas de la détérioration hémodynamique, ces patients âgés
sont plutôt écartés du transplant et, en tout cas, ils ne sont pas avancés en tant que
priorité maximale (―status 1) afin de prévenir qu‘un patient âgé ―passe avant‖ un
patient jeune. Le soutien mécanique de la circulation (à l‘aide d‘un ballon de contre
pulsation intra-aortique ou d‘un dispositif d‘assistance ventriculaire mécanique) est
plus rare chez les âgés, vu que ceux ci supportent plus difficilement les
complications de ces dispositifs. Le concept de ―liste alternative‖ pour les patients
âgés (ou en général avec les patients à grand risque) réside en la formation de
certaines listes de transplant parallèles ou sont inclus les patients avec indication de
transplant à la limite.A ces patients, qui ne bénéficieraient pas autrement de cette
méthode thérapeutique, seront accordés des coeurs également considérés à la
limite. Actuellement, environ 40% des coeurs disponibles pour le transplant
cardiaque ne sont pas utilisés étant considérés non standard.
L‘emploi d‘une liste alternative accroît le nombre des greffes cardiaques disponibles
et l‘accès au transplant sans compromettre la chance de transplant des patients
standard à bas risque et plus jeunes. Ce système soulève tout de même une série
de problèmes théoriques et pratiques. L‘utilisation des greffes cardiaques de qualité
à la limite pour les patients à risque élevé va très probablement déterminer une
survie et un taux de succès moindres tant à court qu‘à long terme, continuant ainsi
l‘idée que l‘âge avancé implique des résultats plus faibles. Un argument en faveur de
l‘utilisation du système de liste alternative est représenté par les résultats
communiqués par certains centres de transplant conformément auxquels l‘utilisation
sélective des greffes cardiaques à la limite est compatible à une très bonne
récupération de la fonction cardiaque et est associée à une très bonne survie.
L‘incidence des complications néoplasiques malignes chez les receveurs âgés d‘un
transplant, supposée d‘être accrue selon les résultats du registre ISHLT, n‘est pas
nécessairement différente de celle rencontrée chez les receveurs standard. Les
centres qui rapportent des incidences pareilles justifient ces résultats sur la base de
l‘adaptation de la médication immunosuppressive à la réponse immune naturellement
plus faible rencontrée chez la personne âgée. Le développement de certains
immunosuppresseurs plus spécifiques et l‘établissement de certains protocoles
efficaces afin d‘obtenir une tolérance immune ont la capacité de réduire les
complications associées à l‘immunosuppression, complications qui sont en général
plus sévères chez la personne âgées. L‘introduction à l‘avenir des stratégies
thérapeutiques immunossuppressives basées sur la pharmacogénomie pourrait
éventuellement permettre l‘adaptation de la thérapie au profil génique du patient
avec un bénéfice maximal chez le patient âgé.
Notre société doit évaluer de manière appropriée le problème de la baisse de la
mortalité des listes de transplant tout comme le problème de la croissance de la
survie après le transplant. L‘accroissement de la disponibilité d‘organes par
l‘utilisation de certains organes non standard (sous-optimaux pour le transplant)
pourrait réduire la mortalité sur les listes d‘attente. En principe, si l‘on clairement
prouvait que les résultats de l‘utilisation de tels organes soient similaires avec ceux
de l‘utilisation des greffes de coeur standard (fait suggéré par plusieurs travaux
récemment publiés) il s‘érigerait la question si ces organes ne devraient-ils être
accordés plutôt aux patients à moindre risque. La qualification d‘un coeur en tant que

Les disponibilités d‘organes pour le transplant cardiaque en utilisant des listes alternatives 187
sous-optimal (synonyme: limité, non standard (en dehors du standard) est faite sur la
base de certains critères qui sont présentés dans le tableau no.2.
Tableau II. Critères d‘évaluation d‘un coeur sous-optimal
. le sexe féminin
. l‘âge au dessus de 45 ans
. support inotrope avec dopamine en dose plus grande de 10 g/kgc et min
. superficie corporelle du donneur 210 min
. pression veineuse centrale> 10 mm Hg
. hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche
. facteurs de risque pour la maladie coronarienne
. hépatite
Le xenotransplant, le support cardiaque mécanique permanent, les nouvelles
thérapies médicales, la stimulation biventriculaire, le transplant cellulaire et la
thérapie génique sont des solutions potentielles à la pénurie actuelle de coeurs pour
le transplant.Actuellement, le support cardiaque mécanique permanent paraît la
stratégie la plus convenable pour les patients réfractaires à tout traitement
médicamentueux. Les résultats de certaines études prospectives comme l‘étude
REMATCH (Randomized Evaluation of Mechanical Assistance Therapy for
Congestive Heart Failure) vont donner la direction des critères d‘utilisation de cette
méthode de traitement.
L‘objectif d‘équilibrer le problème de la mortalité de sur liste de transplant et
l‘amélioration des résultats du transplant peut être partiellement atteint par
l‘adaptation du risque de dysfonction du coeur transplanté (greffe de coeur) à la
condition immunophysiopathologique du receveur. Un exemple serait celui sur
l‘utilisation des coeurs à partir de donneurs jeunes aux receveurs jeunes (d‘un âge
proche). La solution serait, donc, l‘introduction de toutes les greffes de coeur sur une
liste étendue, l‘appréciation standardisée de chaque organe et son allocation à un
récipient adéquat. Toutes les données sur la greffe cardiaque, ainsi que celles
concernant le receveur sont analysées ensemble en vue de la réalisation du
transplant. Il en résulte que l‘utilisation d‘une seule liste d‘organes et d‘une seule liste
de patients pour le transplant est une solution qui puisse surmonter les inconvénients
que le système des listes alternatives implique.
Le système des listes alternatives désavantage les patients trouvés sur la liste
alternative en leur offrant des organes ―de seconde qualité‖, mais aussi ceux qui sont
sur la liste principale par le fait qu‘on ne leur donne pas l‘accès à certains coeurs, qui
pourraient, d‘ailleurs, leur être alloués.
La provocation de l‘allocation ―parfaite‖ d‘organes envers les receveurs va continuer
jusqu‘au moment ou nous disposerons de critères clairs concernant la décision
d‘attribuer un certain coeur à un certain patient.Elle est, de manière certaine,
nécessaire, ensemble avec la croissance des efforts pour une information et une
éducation meilleures de l‘opinion publique en vue de l‘acceptation et de l‘approbation
de l‘idée de transplant, une relaxation des critères qui attestent la qualité de donneur
de coeur.

188 Vasile Cândea, Alexandru Vasilescu
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[6] Loebe M, Potapov E.V., Hummel M et colab. – Medium term results of heart transplantation, in
J Thorac Cardivasc Surg, 2000; 19: 957-963
[7] Marelli D, Laks H., Fazio D. et colab. – The use of marginal donor hearts, in J Heart Lung
Transplant, 2000; 19: 76
[8] Robbins R.C., Ethical implications of heart transplantation in elderly patients, in J Thorac
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in Circulation, 1998; 80 [Suppl]: III-133-139

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 189
THE COST-BENEFIT REPORT OF PERFORMING INTRAOPERATIVE
ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY IN MITRAL VALVE SURGERY
Vasile CÂNDEA 1 , Luminița ILIUȚĂ 2 , Camelia SĂVULESCU 2 ,
C. MACARIE 2 , H. MOLDOVAN 2 , D.P. GHERGHICEANU 2 , R. VASILE 2
Abstract. Trans esophagus echocardiography (TEE) and immediately post intra operatory
has become an integral part and a standard procedure in different cardiovascular surgery
and also in selecting cases in non-cardiac surgery. Due to expanding indications for TEE
and growing experience in performing this procedure its impact on surgical interventions and
treatment decisions is becoming increasingly important [1-17].
Particulars of carrying out TEE intra operatory are primarily associated with the patient's
status hemodynamic undergo surgical intervention. Many intra operatory specific parameters
can have a significant impact on the degree of regurgitation. These parameters, which may
be controlled differently, are pre load variability (with Intravascular volume status, and
treatment parameters associated vasodilator general anesthesia), variability post load
(vasopressin treatment, therapy or treatment entropy positive vasodilator presence of a
bubble counter pulsing intra aortic, tract obstruction the ejection of left ventricle and other
parameters associated with general anesthesia), and the onset of myocardial function (which
can be recovered after the variable or hypothermia after cardiologic solutions [18-29].
1. BACKGROUND
Intra operative and early postoperative trans oesophagus echocardiography (TEE)
has became an integrant part and a standard procedure in various cardiovascular
surgical interventions and also for selected cases in non-cardiac surgery. Due to
extensions of the indication for intra operative TEE and increasing experience in
performing this procedure, its impact on surgical interventions and therapeutical
decision become more and more important. [1-17]
The particularities of performing the intra operative TEE are related, firstly, to the
poor hemodynamic status of patient undergoing the surgical intervention. Many
specific intra operative parameters could have a significant impact on evaluation by
TEE of an important number of cardiac lesions, especially regarding the assessment
of the valvular regurgitation degree. These parameters, which can be differently
controlled are: preload variability (with the intravascular volume status, vasodilator
treatment and parameters related to general anaesthesia), post load variability
(vasopressin treatment, inotrop positive treatment or vasodilator treatment, presence
of an intra aortic counter pulsation balloon, obstruction of the ejection tract of left
ventricle and other parameters related to the general anaesthesia), presence of the
arrhythmias and myocardial function (which can be variably recuperated ether
hypothermia or after the administration of the cardioplegic solutions) [18-29]. Thus,
the echocardiography in the operation room has the task to interpret these
parameters, to integrate them taking into account the particularities of each case and
give the surgeon more accurate data.
2. AIM OF THE STUDY
1. Establishing the implications that peri operative TEE performed in patients with
different types of mitral valvular diseases has on their prognostic.
2. Estimating the correlation between the diagnostic done by intra operative TEE
and the surgical diagnosis.
1
Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases “C.C.Iliescu” – Bucharest, Romania, Founding, full member of
the Academy of Romanian Scientists.
2
Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases “C.C.Iliescu” – Bucharest, Romania.

190 V. Cândea, L. Iliuță, C. Săvulescu, C. Macarie, H. Moldovan, D.P. Gherghiceanu, R. Vasile
3. Assessment of the cost-benefit report of performing pre operative TEE in
mitral valve surgery.
4. Establishing the indications for using TEE in cardiac surgery taking into
consideration its value from economic point of view.
3. MATERIAL AND METHOD
We performed a prospective study on 499 patients with mitral valve diseases
undergoing cardiac surgery in ―C.C.Iliescu‖ Institute for Cardiovascular Diseases,
Bucharest, between January 1 st , 2000 and January 1 st , 2003. Patients were divided
in 2 groups taking into consideration intra operative TEE performed as imagistic
procedure:
Group A – 125 patients who underwent intra operative TEE before or/and the
CPB
Group B – 374 patients who did not underwent intra operative
The study protocol was completed with demographic data, details related to the
valvular lesions, specific indication for performing peril operative TEE, its impact on
the decision making during the surgery and in early postoperatively and the patients
evolution immediate postoperative and at 1 month after.
The data base was done using Visual Fox Pro programme. The main variables used
were:
Prediction variables: patient ID Data, preoperative diagnosis, surgical risk (calculated
using a scale from 1 to 10 taking into account different preoperative parameters: age,
co-morbidities, gravity of the cardiac lesions (NYHA class), type and duration of
surgical intervention, associated risk factors), type of surgical intervention, if the intra
operative TEE modified the surgical strategy and how, specific variables related to
the surgical performance: duration of surgical intervention, intra operative
complications, if the intra operative TEE performed in intensive care unit immediate
postoperatively modified the specific treatment and how
Outcomes variables: presence and type of postoperative complications, death and its
causes
The statistical analysis was performed using the SYSTAT and SPSS programmes
for: Measurement of the power association between the prediction variables and
outcomes using the tests:
a) for qualitative variables: CHI square test or Fischer exact test.
b) For quantitative variables: T test (Student test), ANOVA test or U test
depending of the samples volumes and Kruskal Wallis nonparametric tests...
There were used, also, the following methods of statistical correlation methods:
Analysis of simple linear and multivariate regression for quantitative variables;
Relative Risk calculation and the confidence interval 95%;
Positive and negative predictive value calculation
Cost-benefit report calculation for performing the peri operative echocardiography
of cardiac diseases underwent surgical correction. It was determined using a
special programme, which using the data from the data base and different economic
data from the specialized departments from our Institute, has performed the
assessment of the efficiency of using peri operative echocardiography in cardiac
surgery.

The Cost-Benefit Report of Performing Intraoperative Echocardiography in Mitral Valve Surgery 191
Calculation of the cost-benefit report for each type of echocardiography indication
was done taking into account the following parameters:
a) parameters related to procedure
- cost of each echocardiography (transthoracic or transoesofagial) per patient
- number of echocardiographies for each patient and on the type of the surgical
cardiac diseases
- information provided by the peri operative echocardiography.
These have answered to the following questions:
1. Has intra operative TEE performed before the CPB brought new information?
2. Have these new information influenced the surgical strategy?
3. Have the information brought by the performed after the CPB influenced the
therapeutical attitude?
4. If the surgical strategy was modified following the performance of the intra
operative TEE, has this modified of the patient prognostic?
b) Parameters dependent of surgical intervention:
- postoperative mortality rates for each type of the surgical intervention
- on subgroups of patients and on types of surgical interventions taking into
account the individual risk
-early postoperative specific mortality rates depending on the performing or not
the peri operative echocardiography
-immediate and long term postoperative complications rate depending on the
performing or not the peri operative echocardiography
-life quality at 1 month postoperatively on risk subgroups and on the types of
surgical interventions
c) Parameters dependent of patient: age, gender, co-morbidities, associated risk
factors,
On these parameters there were calculated a risk score which was used then for
estimation of cost-benefit report associated to using the peril operative
echocardiography on types of surgical interventions
d) Parameters dependent of the hospital: complication rate for which the peril
operative echocardiography does not bring an additional benefit for diagnosis,
accessibility to the echocardiograph use, personnel training, training curve. Data
were grouped on surgical lesions types and the surgical interventions according to
the exposure level to the risk factors. For each exposure level there were introduced
the number of patients performed the peri operative echocardiography (cases) and
the number of patients who have not performed perioperative echocardiography
(controls). The confounders were eliminated by stratification. We calculated the costbenefit
report using the above mentioned programme. Data interpretation was
performed taking into account the following hypothesis:
- a cost-benefit report >1 was considered unfavourable from economical point of
view; for these patients the perioperative echocardiography was considered as
having uncertain indication, without any utility for the patients taken into study;
- a cost-benefit report =1 included the patients subgroups classified as with
relative indication for performing perioperative echocardiography, this investigation

192 V. Cândea, L. Iliuță, C. Săvulescu, C. Macarie, H. Moldovan, D.P. Gherghiceanu, R. Vasile
could be useful for certain cases, risks and benefits appreciated on case by case
basis;
- a cost-benefit report

The Cost-Benefit Report of Performing Intraoperative Echocardiography in Mitral Valve Surgery 193
valve replacements (mitral and aortic valve replacements in 75 patients – 15.63%,
mitral and tricuspid valve replacements in 12 patients –2,4% and mitral, aortic and
tricuspid valve replacements in 12 patients –2.4%) (Figure 1).
The dynamics of the indications for TEE in the three years of the study were different
depending on the surgical intervention.
Thus, the TEE was performed in all the patients with the mitral valvuloplasty both
before and after the CPB. Regarding the isolated mitral valve replacement, the
frequency of TEE solicitation by the surgeon or the anaesthesiologist in operative
room was increased 4 times in 2002.
Analysing this subgroup taking into consideration the valvular lesion for which there
were performed the mitral valve replacement, intra operative TEE was solicited more
frequent in 2003, especially for the patients with ischemic mitral insufficiency by
prolepsis or for patients after infective endocarditic (Figure 2a and 2b).
% patients
Figure 2.a The evolution of the use of intraoperative
60% TEE depending on the type of the valvular lesion
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
5.16%
3.23%
1.29% 0.65%
3.87%
2.58%
3.77%
1.89%
4.71%
1.89% 0.94%
2.83%
7.63%
3.82%
14.50%
9.16%
1.45%
16.79%
5.61%
3.06%
7.65%
4.85%
6.63%
Regarding the frequency of intra operative TEE performed in patients undergone
associated mitral valve replacement with aortic or tricuspidian valve replacement, it
was increased in 2001 and decreased in 2002 regardless the type of valvular lesion.
For patients undergone mitral, aortic and tricuspid valve replacement, TEE were
solicited to be performed in operative room more and more frequent in the study
period, thus, in 2002 this imagistic method were indicated in appreciatively 2/3
patients.
Early postoperatively in the intensive care unit the indication for performing TEE in
patients with mitral valve lesions were variable in time but its frequency were
increased in time (Figure 3).
The exception were triple valve replacement, for which the indication of the TEE in
intensive care unit in the three year study has significantly decreased, probably
because the increased frequency of the TEE solicitations in operative room in these
patients, this investigation being useful for intra operative diagnosis and because of
the training curve with decreasing the postoperative mortality and morbidity rates.
4.34%
2000 2001 2002 total
Ischaemic mitral insufficiecy Mitral valve prolaps
Rheumatic mitral insufficiency Endocarditis
Mitral stenosis Mitral lesion

194 V. Cândea, L. Iliuță, C. Săvulescu, C. Macarie, H. Moldovan, D.P. Gherghiceanu, R. Vasile
% patients
120%
Figure 2. Dinamics of intraoperative TEE indication in mitral
valve surgery
100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
100%
87.50%
73.34%
80%
60%
56.25%
50.00%
66.67%
63.36% 66.67%
50.00%
58.34%
69.23%
40%
20%
0%
40.00%
16.77% 16.04%
60.00%
Because the low number of patients the decreasing number of TEE solicitations in
patients undergone mitral valvuloplasty cannot be interpreted.
The detailed cost-benefit analysis in patients with mitral valve lesions performed peri
operative TEE has shown a low efficiency of this investigation in patients undergone
isolated mitral valve replacement. The usefulness of this diagnostic method was
superior for the patient‘s undergone mitral valvuloplasty (uncertain because of low
number of patients) and for associated valve replacements (Figure 4):
In all patients undergone mitral valvuloplasty, TEE were performed intra
operatively both before the CPB and after the cardiac time of the intervention for
evaluating the remaining mitral insufficiency for appreciating the opportunity of reintervention
for mitral repairing or valve replacement. The cost-benefit report for this
50.00%
32.14%
2000 2001 2002 total
Plastie mitrala Protezare mitrala
Protezare mitro-aortica Protezare mitrotricuspidiana
Protezare mitro-aorto-tricuspidiana
Fig. 2b. Dinamics of intraoperative TEE indication in mitral
valve surgery
Mitral Plasty Mitral Prostesys
Mitro-Aortic Prostesys Mitral Tricuspid Prostesys
Mitro-Aortic-Tricuspid Prostesys

The Cost-Benefit Report of Performing Intraoperative Echocardiography in Mitral Valve Surgery 195
investigation were >1, but without statistic significance because the low number of
patients;
Among the 390 patients undergone isolated mitral valve replacement, there
were been performed TEE in 120 patients (32.14%) as follows: in 49 patients
(12.5%) TEE were solicited only before the CPB (CPB), in 30 patients (7.65%) it was
performed both before and after the CPB and in 47 patients(11.99%) TEE was only
performed after the CPB.
The reasons of performing TEE were:
In 27 patients (6.89%) TEE was only performed before the CPB for a correct
and complete preoperative diagnostic concerning the mitral lesion mechanism and
severity with regards to the opportunity of the mitral valvuloplasty (8 patients) or to
the opportunity of mitral valve replacement. The indication for TEE had an overall
more than 1 cost-benefit report, unfavourable for the patients. However, in subgroup
of the patients with ischemic mitral insufficiency undergone also coronary artery
bypass grafting, this investigation turned out to be very useful with a sub-unitary costbenefit
report (0.97). In the same time, in patients with mitral insufficiency and severe
left ventricular systolic dysfunction, intra operative TEE had a unitary cost-benefit
report. In consequence, performing the intra operative TEE before the
cardiopulmonary bypass in patients with mitral valve lesions for diagnostic purpose
and for the choosing the most appropriate surgical strategy is not indicated as a
routine procedure unless the for the patients subgroup with ischemic mitral
insufficiency undergone coronary artery bypass grafting in the same time.
In 30 patients (7.65%), TEE was performed both before the CPB for a more
accurate diagnosis and after extra-corporeal circulation for the routine control of
prosthesis function, with a supraunitary cost-benefit report. The cost-benefit report
was superior (unitary) in patients with a dilated left ventricle cavity.
In 22 patients (3.06%), TEE was performed intra operatively after the surgical
correction for assessment of acute hemodynamic dysfunctions, life threatening. For
these patients TEE has revealed the cause of hemodynamic dysfunction, in 20 of
them, and helped in the optimal choose of the treatment strategy, with a favourable
cost-benefit report for the patient. Thus, in 12 patients, intra operative TEE has
revealed a filling deficit, in 7 patients has revealed global left ventricle systolic
dysfunction with a severe contractility disturbance (that necessitated the use of the
aortic counter pulsation balloon in 5 patients); in one patient has shown a right
ventricle systolic dysfunction and in 2 patients it could not reveal the cause of the
hemodynamic dysfunction. In 4 patients (1.02%), intra operative TEE was used for
suspicion of the prosthesis dysfunction, but it was confirmed in none of the patients,
so, the cost-benefit was unfavourable from economic point of view. However, in 21
patients (5.35%), intra operative TEE was performed after the mitral valve
replacement for the assessment of associated valve lesions which could have been
under- evaluated or covered preoperatively by the mitral valve lesion. Thus, in 16
patients, intra operative TEE has infirmed the presence of a hemodynamic significant
associated aortic insufficiency and in 3 patients has revealed the presence of a
hemodynamic significant associated aortic insufficiency (which was surgical
corrected in the same operative time in 2 patients). In 2 patients, intra operative TEE
has infirmed the presence of the tricuspid lesion. In these situations the cost-benefit
associated to this imagistic method was sub unitary and intra operative TEE could be
included among the standard indications for these patients.

196 V. Cândea, L. Iliuță, C. Săvulescu, C. Macarie, H. Moldovan, D.P. Gherghiceanu, R. Vasile
In 27 patients (6.89%), TEE was only solicited before the CPB for confirming
or infirming the presence of associated alular lesions. In this subgroup, in 7 patients,
TEE has indicated the corrective surgical intervention at other valves but mitral valve
(undiagnosed preoperatively), which lead to a change in the surgical strategy (4
patients with associated aortic valve replacement, 1 patient with associated tricuspid
valve replacement and 2 patients with associated tricuspid valvuloplasty). In this
subgroup of patients the cost-benefit associated to this imagistic method was unitary.
LV systolic dysfunction
Global
LV systolic dysfunction
Confirmed aortic lesion-3p
Confirmed aortic lesion -4p
Confirmed tricuspid lesion -2p
Ischemic mitral insufficiency
Global
Invalidated aortic lesion -16p
Tricuspid lesion -3p
-tricuspid valvuloplasty-2p
Unconfirmed-4p
Volemic deficit-12p
-tricuspid replacement-1p
Global LV dysfunction-7p
Global RV dysfunction -1p
Unknown cause-2p
Figure 4. Cost-benefit report for the use of intra operative TEE in patients with isolated mitral valve
replacement

The Cost-Benefit Report of Performing Intraoperative Echocardiography in Mitral Valve Surgery 197
Regarding the usefulness of the early postoperatively TEE in intensive care unit, the
cost-benefit report has not shown a good efficiency of performing this investigation, in
patients taken into study. In our three year study, the early postoperative TEE was
performed in 41, 08% among the patients with valvular lesions undergone surgical
correction. The indication for performing this investigation was not different from the
other categories of patients. As exceptions we have noticed 5 patients undergone
mitral valvuloplasty, in 3 among them the early postoperative TEE was performed for
appreciating the severity and the mechanism of a probable remaining mitral
insufficiency, with a sub unitary cost-benefit report. Thus, the indication for the early
postoperatively TEE in intensive care unit were the following (Figure 5):
In 95 patients (19,04%), the early postoperatively TEE was performed for
acute hemodynamic dysfunctions, suddenly developed or in patients with
hemodynamic instability, with a sub unitary cost-benefit report, being taken into
consideration as a standard investigation for diagnosis of acute hemodynamic
dysfunction in these patients. Thus, in 47 patients, TEE has revealed a filling deficit,
in 7 patients – left ventricular global systolic dysfunction, in 2 patients – segmentary
kinetic modifications, in 5 patients – significant pulmonary hypertension, in 2 patients
– pulmonary thrombembolism and in 30 patients - pericardia or pleural effusion which
have been evacuated.
In 23 patients (4,61%), TEE were performed for the suspicion of a liquid
collection at the pericardia or pleural level confirmed in 18 patients, with a sub unitary
cost-benefit report, investigation which has to be taken into consideration as a
standard indication in intensive care unit for the patients undergone valvular surgery.
In 12 patients (2,40%), TEE was performed for a suspicion of pulmonary
embolia, confirmed in 1 patient with a supraunitary cost-benefit report, this method
being with less relevance for diagnosis than other more invasive investigations.
In 43 patients (8, 62%), the early postoperatively TEE was performed for the
suspicion of early mitral prosthesis dysfunction (37 patients) or aortic prosthesis
dysfunction (in 6 patients from the subgroup of patients undergone two or three
valves replacement). Thus, in 19 patients, this investigation was performed for early
incomplete prosthesis thrombosis, this hypothesis being infirmed in all patients with a
supraunitary cost-benefit report.
The same pattern was noted for patients with suspicion of early aortic
prosthesis thrombosis (2 patients). For para-prosthesis leaks by early des-insertion of
prosthesis annulus, performing the early postoperatively TEE had sub unitary costbenefit
report, being a standard indication. In 18 patients with suspicion of
paravalvular leak, it was confirmed in 2 patients by the early postoperative TEE,
imposing re-intervention and in 4 patients with early prosthesis des-insertion
suspicion, one was confirmed imposing re-intervention.
In 3 patients (0.6%), the early postoperatively TEE was performed for
appreciating the severity of the remaining mitral regurgitation after mitral
valvuloplasty with a sub unitary cost-benefit report, as it was mentioned above.
In 26 patients (5.21%), the early postoperatively TEE was performed after the
isolated or associated mitral valve replacement for appreciating the severity of the
associated valvular lesion known preoperatively, with a supraunitary cost-benefit
report.
In 3 patients (0.6%), the early postoperatively TEE, was performed for
appreciating the right ventricle systolic performance, with a unitary cost-benefit
report.

198 V. Cândea, L. Iliuță, C. Săvulescu, C. Macarie, H. Moldovan, D.P. Gherghiceanu, R. Vasile
Figure 5. Cost/benefit report for using the echocardiography postoperatively
immediate in intensive care unit in patients with surgical mitral valve lesion
1,40%
3,80%
0,60%
0,80%
3,61%
0,40%
3,81%
0,60%
2,40%
4,61%
19,04%
Reasons for using ecocardiography
postoperatively in ICU
Evaluation of the associated tricuspid
lesion
Evaluation of an associated aortic lesion
Evaluation of the severity of a residual
mitral regurgitation after valvuloplasty
Aortic prosthesis early desinsertion
Mitral prosthesis early desinsertion
Aortic prosthesis early thrombosis
Mitral prosthesis early thrombosis
Evaluation of RV function
Pulmonary embolism
Pericardial/pleural effusion
Evaluation of the hemodinamic
dysfunction aethiology
0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
% patients
5. DISCUSSIONS
Cost-benefit report
0.73 unconfirmed-16p
unconfirmed-2p
0.41
0.53
Pulmonary embolism (PE) confirmed-1p
5.1
Pulmonary confirmed-18p embolism unconfirmed -11p
4.2
0.7
LV segmantal systolic dysfunction -2p
0.45
confirmed-1p
3.7
unconfirmed-3p
confirmed-2p 2.8
unconfirmed-19p
unconfirmed-5p
1 Volemic deficit-47p
2.3 LV global systolic dysfunction 7p
RV global systolic dysfunction -2p
Pulmonary hypertension 5p/PE-2p
0 2 4 6
Pericardial effusion-30p
Ccost/benefit report
Surgical interventions for mitral valvuloplasty or for valve replacement need the intra
operative TEE both before and after CPB for the above mentioned reasons. The
dynamic of its use in our there year study was variable depending on the type of
surgical intervention, data being similar with those published in the literature. Thus,
TEE was performed in all patients undergone mitral valvuloplasty both before and
after the extra-corporeal circulation. In the literature, this imagistic investigation is
predominant for monitoring the surgical intervention of mitral valvuloplsty than for
other surgical interventions, its dynamic being with a positive trend between 1991-
1998 [58-66].
Regarding the isolated mitral valve replacement, the frequency of TEE solicitation in
operative room, in our clinic, has increased 4 times in 2002. This can be explained by
the accessibility to this investigation, on one hand, and by the surgeon and
anaesthesiologist excessive prudence asking for this investigation as a routine one
for prosthesis control after the cardiac time of the intervention, on the other hand.
However, these arguments cannot entirely explain this spectacular increase in its
indication. Analysing this patient subgroup depending on the type of valvular lesion
for which there were undergone isolated mitral valve replacement, intra operative
TEE was performed more frequently for ischemic mitral insufficiency because the
number of these patients was increased in 2003 than the former years. The
references regarding this imagistic method for isolated mitral valve replacement has
shown that there were noticed an increased trend of its solicitation between 1991-
1995, with a flat trend after that. As for associated valvular replacement to the mitral
one, its dynamic was a positive one in 2001 and negative in 2002, regardless the

The Cost-Benefit Report of Performing Intraoperative Echocardiography in Mitral Valve Surgery 199
type of valvular lesions. For triple valve replacement, the intra operative TEE was
more and more solicited and in 2002 this imagistic method being indicated in 2/3 of
patients.
Immediate postoperatively in intensive care unit, the indication for TEE was variable
in time, but with an overall positive trend. As exception it was noticed the triple valve
replacement with a negative trend, explained by the increasing of the solicitation of
this investigation intra operatively and by surpassing the training curve, with
decreasing of the mortality and morbidity rates. Decreasing the indication for
immediate postoperatively TEE in intensive care unit, for patients undergone mitral
valvuloplasty cannot be interpreted because the low number of patients.
The usefulness of intra operative TEE in our clinic was inferior those from literature.
Thus, the cost-benefit report for performing this imagistic method was favourable
from economic point of view for TEE performed before the CPB for diagnosis of
ischemic mitral regurgitation severity and mechanism and for evaluating the
opportunity of a conservative mitral surgical intervention.
After the CPB, TEE was performed for appreciating the degree of remaining mitral
regurgitation after mitral valvuloplasty or after coronary artery bypass grafting for
ischemic mitral insufficiency. This method was also used for establish the severity of
mitral lesions appreciated preoperatively ―at the border of hemodynamic
significance‖, associated to an aortic lesion after the aortic valve replacement. In
patients with associated infective endocarditic to the mitral lesion, the cost benefit
report was also efficient.
Early postoperative TEE, in intensive care unit in patients with mitral valve lesions
undergone surgical treatment, was performed for suspicions of pericardia or pleural
collections, determining the aetiology of an acute hemodynamic dysfunction,
suddenly developed immediate postoperatively, unexplained by other investigation
methods and when it is no time for performing other invasive investigations. It was
also useful for establishing the severity of a remaining mitral insufficiency after mitral
valvuloplasty. In all these situations the cost-benefit report was favourable.
There were noticed some differences regarding the indications of TEE between the
results of our study and the literature. Thus, in guidelines published, the standard
indications for performing TEE do not take into consideration some patients subgroup
for which in our study we have found a favourable cost-benefit report, such as for
diagnosis of associated valve lesions (aortic or tricuspidian) by appreciating the
severity and the opportunity of surgical correction, after the mitral valve surgical
treatment and for three valve replacement.
This can be interpreted, on one hand, because the low number of patients with this
pathology in country where there were a successful programme for cardiac arthritis
prevention, and, on the other hand, because of an accurate preoperative diagnosis
due to the high technologies use.
Regarding the use of TEE immediate postoperatively in the intensive care unit for
suspicions of pericardia or pleural collections or for establishing the severity of a
remaining mitral insufficiency after mitral valvuloplasty, these indications were not
found in the published guidelines.
As it was mentioned before, the frequency of pericardia or pleural collections in other
clinics are very low and for its diagnosis there are used other investigations. In other
clinics, the experience in mitral valvuloplasty is higher, the surgical intervention being
practically monitored by TEE, which leads to a decreasing the number of solicitation
of this intervention postoperatively.

200 V. Cândea, L. Iliuță, C. Săvulescu, C. Macarie, H. Moldovan, D.P. Gherghiceanu, R. Vasile
Regarding the routine evaluation of the prosthesis after the CPB, it is presented as
relative indication in literature, but in our study it turned out to be inefficient from
economic point of view, being included in the third category with uncertain indication.
A possible explanation for this difference is the high experience of valve replacement
in our clinic, TEE being solicited only for special situations or for high suspicion of
prosthesis dysfunction.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Intra operative and early postoperative TEE has become an integrant part and
a standard procedure in numerous cardiovascular surgical interventions and in
selected cases in non-cardiac surgery. Due to extensions of the indication for intra
operative TEE and increasing experience in performing this procedure, its impact on
surgical interventions and therapeutically decision become more and more important.
2. Intra operative TEE has practically replaced epicardial echocardiography as
imagistic alternative procedure being considered as now the golden standard in
some cardiac surgical interventions because using it assure the safety of the surgical
performance
3. The particularities of performing the intra operative TEE are related, firstly, to
the poor hemodynamic status of patient undergoing the surgical intervention. Many
specific intra operative parameters could have a significant impact on evaluation by
TEE of the important number of cardiac lesions.
4. Before the CPB, the intra operative TEE is useful for the new information that it
provides, helping in diagnostic and in the surgical strategy optimal choose.
Frequently the intra operative TEE infirms the presence of valvular lesions significant
hemodynamic, discover morphological valvular destructions, the presence of
intracavitary thrombi or can diagnosis a foramen oval patent which cannot be seen
before, can detect segmental kinetic modifications de novo and can provide
important details for establishing the aetiology of the lesion and for choosing the
optimal therapeutic decision. It can indirectly determine the frequency decreasing of
the postoperative complications, the decreasing of early postoperative mortality rate
and amelioration of the immediate and the long term prognosis and improvement of
the quality of life. In certain situations, the information provided by the intra operative
TEE before the CPB can modify the surgical strategy.
5. The concordance between the diagnosis provided by the TEE before the CPB
and surgical diagnosis is, in general, good the most of the discordances being related
to the description of the valvular morphology. The diagnostic discordances could lead
to choosing a wrong surgical strategy. These cases are very rare and depend not
only on the echo graph performance and cerographist experience but also on the
surgeon and anaesthesiologist concerning the interpretation of the information
provided.
6. Intra operative TEE performed after the CPB has numerous advantages being
useful for both surgeons for an immediate outcome regarding the surgical
intervention and for the anaesthesiologist, the information presented by this
investigation guiding the therapeutic decision. Frequently, this imagistic method was
solicited after the extra-corporeal circulation cessation for verifying the valvular
repairment, for appreciating the severity of aortic insufficiency after the surgical
correction of an aortic dissection and for establishing the aetiology of intra operative
hemodynamic dysfunctions in patients with difficult evolution.
7. Due to increased use of intra operative TEE, the necessity of well trained
specialists to perform this investigation, because the patient has to be adequately

The Cost-Benefit Report of Performing Intraoperative Echocardiography in Mitral Valve Surgery 201
managed. Thus, in appreciation of the hemodynamic parameters and of the diseases
impact on patient evolution, it has to be taken into account the immediate
postoperative evolution.
8. Depending on the cost-benefit report, the indications of performing peri
operative TEE (adapted to specific conditions in our country) revealed by our study
on patients with mitral valve lesions undergoing cardiac surgery, can be synthesised
as follows:
Category I (standard indications):
A. Intra operative TEE for:
Determining the mitral valve regurgitation mechanism and severity, guiding the
mitral valve valvuloplasty;
Diagnosis of associated valve lesions (aortic or tricuspidian) by appreciating
the severity and the opportunity of surgical correction, after the mitral valve surgical
treatment;
Establishing the causes of intra operative acute hemodynamic dysfunction, life
threatening;
Routine evaluation in three valve replacement (mitral, aortic and tricuspid an).
B. Early postoperative TEE, in intensive care unit for:
Suspicion of pericardia or pleural collections;
Establishing the aetiology of an acute hemodynamic dysfunction, suddenly
developed immediate postoperatively, unexplained by other investigation methods
and when it is no time for performing other invasive investigations;
Evaluating the severity of a remaining mitral insufficiency after mitral
valvuloplasty
Category II (relative indications):
A. Intra operative TEE for:
Preoperative diagnosis in patients with left ventricle systolic dysfunction and
associated alular lesions to the mitral one;
B. Early postoperative TEE, in intensive care unit for appreciating the right ventricle
systolic performance in patients undergone triple valve replacement (mitral, aortic
and tricuspid an).
Category III (uncertain indication, with low usefulness):
A. Intra operative TEE for:
Preoperative diagnosis of mitral valve lesion or associated valve lesions in
patients with poor acoustic window, whom were not adequately explored
preoperatively;
Routine assessment of the prosthesis after the CPB;
B. Early postoperative TEE, in intensive care unit for:
Suspicion of pulmonary emboli;
Suspicion of thrombosis of mitral or aortic prosthesis;
Diagnosis of the associated valve lesions severity.

202 V. Cândea, L. Iliuță, C. Săvulescu, C. Macarie, H. Moldovan, D.P. Gherghiceanu, R. Vasile
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210-216.

PART SEVEN
ECONOMICAL SCIENCES, LAW AND SOCIOLOGY

C O N T E N T S
Marius Bǎcescu, Angelica Băcescu-Cărbunaru
Improving the cybernetic system of national economy 209
Marta-Christina Suciu
The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society.
investment in people and skills 219

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 209
IMPROVING THE CYBERNETIC SYSTEM OF NATIONAL ECONOMY
Marius BǍCESCU 1 , Angelica BĂCESCU-CĂRBUNARU 2
MOTTO
„The first reasonable act against evil is to prevent it”
Henri Domnique Lacordaire (1802 – 1861)
French prelate and speaker
Abstract. The paper approaches the essence of modernization of any cybernetic system of national
economy, in improving its structure, i.e. the selection of sectors that have proved to be viable,
sustainable and competitive at national and international level, in improving its functionality, i.e.
increased efficiency all activities in the economy, primarily based on privatization, and improvement in
the behavior of the system by improving its operating mechanisms, for rapid growth of GDP / capita.
All these must be made parallel with improving the state budget and the shift from "curative strategy"
to "development strategies".
1. WHAT MEANS TO IMPROVE THE CYBERNETIC SYSTEM OF NATIONAL
ECONOMY
Romania‘s economy like any other national economy is a complex, dynamic and self
control system, namely it is a cybernetic system. Any cybernetic system is
characterized by three fundamental features: structure, functionality and behaviour.
The reform of such a system which became obsolete, certainly requires severe
measures on the improvement of its structure (economic restructuring), for its
functionality (efficiency of all activity sectors) and for its behaviour (improving its
functioning mechanisms). We shall try further to approach the most important
aspects of the reform of the Romanian economy system due to the requirements of a
modern market economy, aiming at each of those three features mentioned above.
2. IMPROVING THE NATIONAL ECONOMY SYSTEM STRUCTURE
The essence of restructuring a national economy is to identify the activity sectors
which proved to be viable, competitive and sustainable, in time, these sectors giving
a certain identity to the Romanian economy both at internal and international level.
Romania‘s natural conditions made agriculture, for hundred years, one of the basic
branches of the economy. It is normal that restructuring aims at agriculture first of all.
Essence of its restructuring should be its decentralization, in order to stimulate the
functioning of agricultural markets under efficient conditions, at the same time with
the institutionalization of bankruptcy and simplifying its procedures. It is not
necessary to enumerate here the sectors of agricultural crop and animal production
and other nature rendering in Romania, because they are well-known.
Starting from priority agricultural sectors, restructuring should continue in other two
directions, this time industrial ones, namely in the field of industry for agriculture:
- revitalizing and upgrading the branches of upwards agriculture, namely the
branches creating technical and material base of agriculture, such as tractors and
agricultural machinery construction, certainly in line to the new dimensions of
agricultural holdings, as well as other branches ensuring specific construction
materials and installations, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides etc.;
1 Academy of Economical Studies, Bucharest, full member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists.
2 Academy of Economical Studies, Bucharest, associated member of the Academy of Romanian
Scientists.

210 Marius Bǎcescu, Angelica Băcescu-Cărbunaru
- revitalizing and upgrading the branches of downwards agriculture, such as
prime-processing branches and complex processing of agricultural crop and material
raw materials or other, in order not to export raw materials and then to import
processed agricultural products, many times of doubtful quality or even expired.
Advantage of setting up the branches to which economic units should orient their
resources will consist in the possibility to benefit of comparative advantages as
against those in the competition. Or, these advantages should not be neglected and
all competitors exploit them to get better positions on the market.
Under the conditions of over 15 years, Romanian industry has not been restructured
in the necessary rate and directions, as well as the ownership types, or the sizes of
production capacities do not correspond to the solvable demand, as well as the
industry participation in the GDP growth, by value added imports, everything is not
natural.
Restructuring the privatized enterprises was done under the market restrictions. If
this process puts them under more difficult situations, they could be supported to
improve their management.
In case of public enterprises, they should have bee4n restructured before the
privatization, which can be done by the correlation of production capacity with the
domestic and external solvable demand; this correlation certainly supposes the
involution of subsidies or to cover the losses. Achieving the harmony of production
capacity – demand is necessary first for the energy intensive enterprises, such as
those in the metallurgy, petro chemistry, construction materials etc.
In order to find the strong and vulnerable points of Romanian economy, to underlie
the privatization strategy, it is necessary to group the economic branches, to point
out the comparative advantages mentioned above.
Such a classification seems adequate to that used by the EBRD, according to which
economic branches can be structured as follows:
1. agricultural branches;
2. labour branches;
3. natural resources branches;
4. capital branches;
5. science branches.
This classification provides a clearer image than that strictly connected to the
production factors and a better opportunity to identify the comparative advantages.
We should admit that Romania has a comparative advantage, especially in the field
of labour branches relatively few classified. In Romania, there is enough potential not
taken into account in the field of capital branches and agricultural branches too. One
of middle term economic priorities in our country should be to develop these
branches, both based on investments and foreign investment infusion.
Regarding the science branches, namely highly qualified work, as well as in natural
resources branches, Romania has a major handicap. Our economic relations
severely amends two old regime persistent „myths‖, namely that we have a rich
country in resources and that labour force is highly qualified (do not make a
confusion with responsible labour force as potential).
Certainly Romania also has natural resources branches, of long and middle term
perspective, such as those related to wood, non-ferrous metals, electric energy
production (if we finalized of course another reactor from Cernavoda nuclear station

Improving the cybernetic system of national economy 211
and ensure export of electric energy surplus). On the contrary, branches relying on
massive oil and gas import will register a certain decline fully justified.
But Romania has science branches which could have a middle term perspective at
least, under the conditions of drawing over foreign investors of know-how capital and
foreign management. Among these branches we remind fine mechanics and small
tonnage chemistry (especially medicinal and pharmaceutical products). All these
mentioned above would create the conditions to achieve a rapid and efficient
privatization, namely they would create the conditions to increase the national
economy efficiency.
3. IMPROVING THE FUNCTIONALITY OF NATIONAL ECONOMY SYSTEM
Essence of national economy functionality is represented by efficiency of all activity
sectors, which can be first done by privatization of all activities which can become
private. In fact, within a market economy public sector should limit only to the
activities which private economic units cannot carry out or to some activity sectors on
which mostly relies the national security.
If the privatization is done to further produce the same products as before and to
keep the number of employees, at the same time with the promise to make several
investments, we should expect to a lot of negative consequences for economic
growth. Therefore, consistent capital flows needed to improve the companies could
not be ensured, as they wished. Potential investors will be discouraged, because
they could not change the fabrication profile, therefore, losing not only money, but
also know-how technologies, performing management as well as a new corporative
culture. We do not mention about the fact that promises regarding future investments
could not be verified and they cannot be often found in practice. Therefore, central
target of privatization should be the maximization of balance price. Certainly there
are enterprises, which are today different from the moment when they were
nationalized, but in their capital comprise nationalized goods. In these cases, to
compensate in kind the ex-owners is not possible anymore, but it is necessary that
ex-owners should be compensated by the state with the value of these nationalized
goods, but the new owners should not be compensated for their ownerships which
should be receded in kind to the ex-owners.
It is also necessary that the privatization process should include all assets, as well as
those which are today excluded from the privatization because of reasons which are
not always very clear, transparent. In this context, the land should also become
private no matter if it is or not the main production means.
Income from privatization should be included in the state budget in the chapter
„special funds‖, just because they should not be used for consumption or cover some
black holes in the economy, which would mean a consumption of substance from
national wealth. When we say, therefore, „special funds‖, we say in fact funds which
must be used so that to create a higher value and not a lower national wealth. If
privatization income would be stipulated in the budget as sure income, thus losing a
certain rate of privatization, let us say 4-5% of GDP, we would have the advantage to
be framed into a certain budgetary deficit and would support a easier passage of a
next period lasting 3 – 4 years, when the budget should ensure massive costs of
bank sector restructuring and to introduce the second panel of pension system (5 –
6% of GDP).
Such an approach has also the disadvantage that, on one hand, creates certain
dependence in the budgetary construction as against privatization income, which
could be hardly abandoned later on and, on the other hand, would be opportunity to

212 Marius Bǎcescu, Angelica Băcescu-Cărbunaru
blackmail from potential buyers regarding prices fixing, because the state intention to
sell a certain volume of assets is known.
We cannot mention here the problem of accumulated debts by privatizable
companies, debts which blocked more and more privatization intentions, postponing
the privatization process, leading to higher debts. We consider that the privatization
should be done simultaneously approaching, both assets and liabilities of the
companies proposed to become private and of the required price to decrease the
equivalent value of debts accumulated by the company as against the budgets, debts
which are recognized as some „sinked costs” and which in most of cases, could not
be recovered.
In face of the privatization process, all the companies should be equally treated. If the
state right to involve in strategic decisions is kept, even when in fact, the company
control finished, because it has a strategic character, as well as employees privilege
to buy shares at a lower price, will decrease the company value, diminish the
responsibility and finally lose potential investors. That is why, it is necessary that
such practices should be rapidly abandoned, to square the responsibility regarding
the privatization because it administered the state patrimony. Therefore, the
privatization dispersion will be avoided by several ministries; this can have harmful
effects, because we know that in Romania, under the existence of a governing
coalition, ministries belong to various parties and represent different group interests.
4. IMPROVING THE BEHAVIOUR OF NATIONAL ECONOMY SYSTEM
Essence of improving the behaviour of national economy system is improving its
functioning mechanisms, namely of its mechanisms promoting a sustainable
economic growth expressed by GDP growth per inhabitant, under the conditions of
market operating.
This is as much as necessary as in 1999; GDP/inhabitant was USD 3636, calculated
at purchasing power parity, while in developed countries it is by 20 – 30 times higher.
In order to carry out GDP significant growth, at least for over USD 10.000 /
inhabitant, it will be necessary a real estimation of national currency, which allow an
outrun of economic growth rate by GDP/inhabitant. For this it should be needed to
reach a GDP growth rate by over 5% yearly.
Carrying out such wish first supposes closing (not covering), black holes in the
economy, namely those companies which along years are kept artificially alive,
although they are able to cover not even their own material costs, taking out value
added instead of adding the value.
This measure can work from harder measures, such as total operational closing until
their closing with assets sale, or by part operational closings only for some parts of
those companies.
The so-called state companies, considered ―intangible‘ until now should enter a rapid
privatization pace. We refer here to great autonomous bodies which, although hold
the monopole in their activity field and benefit of an absorption state existent in the
economy, are not anymore interested in the productivity growth and production costs
decrease, but resort only to periodical increases of their products and services, this
being one of the main causes of inflation in Romania.
As such, number of these so-called “strategic” units should be continuously and
quickly reduced, to give the possibility of a better functioning of market mechanisms
in our country too, even if there will be several general pressure of election cycle.
Therefore, a behaviour change will also take place, of not pay the debts to the budget

Improving the cybernetic system of national economy 213
type; this behaviour got already roots in Romanian economy, at the same time with
our country‘s credibility growth in front of international bodies.
It is time that, according to these measures, to rush the privatizations agreed by
structural adjustments agreements with the World Bank and conclude new
agreements, to happily end for the first time since 1989, stand-by agreement with the
IMF to be able to conclude another long term agreement and to help for the inflation
drastic decrease, at least until the level reached by candidate countries for the
European integration. In this context, we could elaborate new sartorial projects,
industrial projects related to the infrastructure, agriculture and environment, to be
able to be financed from the European Union funds. Economic programs could not
succeed if we do not take severe measures leading to the growth of internal
credibility. It is necessary the bureaucracy drastic reduction and therefore of
bureaucratic procedures, especially within the Ministry of Justice and Ministry of
Finance, in order to have a more „friendly‖ environment for business in Romania.
This requires a massive decrease of budgetary administrative staff, starting with a
real and consistent reduction of general government, Parliament and
parliamentarians expenditure.
New mechanism of economy functioning should lead to reasonable and progressive
reduction of inflation, in order to reach a level allowing us to start the progressive
convergence with the European Union countries, imposing one figure inflation rate. If
this cannot be done, interests will remain at higher levels and will enhance budgetary
deficit, which will cause further growth of interest rates, determining that the state
should reach the impossibility to face the debt service. Thus, we should give up to
the habit, already created, by which macroeconomic policies more severe at the
beginning of the year later unjustifiably relax themselves.
When the access to external financing is limited, a public internal debt as that of
Romania cannot be neglected at all. Only to pay interests to internal and external
debt, we need a GDP surplus, supposing to limit budgetary expenditure, excluding
interests to public debt. Of course, a reduction of pressure per expenditure could be
done passing from actual deadline to later deadlines, namely strengthening public
internal debt. In this period, an essential element is the growth of official foreign
currency reserve of the country. Generally, a normal situation in the economy is
official foreign currency reserve should ensure imports for at least 3 months. When
official foreign currency reserve was USD 2.5 billion at the beginning of 2000
(including monetary gold) and convertible foreign currency reserve covered import
needs only for 1.7 months, there is the risk of speculative attacks over ROL. In order
to face such attacks and for the country‘s credibility in front of foreign investors,
Romania enhanced its official foreign currency reserves, since 2000, to at almost
normal level. The rapid increase in official foreign currency reserve involves several
costs, but has the advantage that provides a perspective on the stability of exchange
rate. Therefore, until we do not succeed to have some higher foreign currency
reserves, strengthening of national currency exchange rate cannot be done, the only
solution for business credibility being inflation rate decrease.
5. IMPROVING THE STATE BUDGET SYSTEM
A healthy economic system supposes a healthy budget. Essential condition of a
healthy budgetary construction is to eliminate the discrepancies between legal rights
and resources which can be allocated for these rights. Budget can remain in the
projected parameters only if actual legislation on the budget rights will be reviewed
regarding the viable projects financing.

214 Marius Bǎcescu, Angelica Băcescu-Cărbunaru
Actual economic situation of Romania does not allow a budgetary deficit higher than
3% of GDP, because this outrun will have as result, either an inflation higher than the
projected one, leading to the impossibility to reduce interest rate and take over
economic growth, or a higher deficit as against current account, leading to some
difficulties in ensuring external debt service. Or, we should not forget that 3% of GDP
of budgetary deficit is in fact one of main stipulations of the Maastricht Treaty. If until
now the budget project was done by permanent increase in taxes and yearly
decrease of a non-sustainable policy, this vicious circle should be further broken, just
by a new philosophy of budgetary construction, both from income viewpoint and from
expenditure viewpoint. If macroeconomic policy takes no account of assumed
objectives and restrictions involved, there is the danger not only to reach a certain
objective, but also not to reach all the objectives, which represent but a system of
objectives coming from the unique system of the national economy.
The system of objectives for one budgetary year comprises several macroeconomic
objectives, among the most important ones being the inflation decrease by over half,
interest rates decrease, taking over the economy crediting, growth of money demand
from economic units, taking over the economic growth, ensuring the external debt
service, budgetary deficit control at limit of 3% of GDP, improving the internal
production competitively, not only for the exchange rate depreciation but especially
by the fiscal reform.
State budget income should be projected if the projected economic growth is
ensured, fiscal reform is applied consequently, an improvement of tax collection is
done, equal to an improvement of financial discipline in the economy, as well as if
privatization income are totally used for investments and public debt recovery. Any
deviation from the above mentioned premises will lead to the collection of income
under the programmed level, risking to be changed into contradictory measures of
fiscal policy. If some negative forecast (expectations) are created regarding
legislative framework stability in time, fiscal reform will be then doubtable,
discouraging both saving and investments too.
State budget expenditure should be also projected taking into account several
restrictions, integrated to keep the budgetary expenditure, in the limit of budgetary
income, plus budgetary defici proposed. For instance, if during one year the budget
income should be 33% of GDP and budgetary deficit 4% of GDP, budgetary
expenditure cannot be higher than 37% of GDP.
Efforts to keep the budgetary expenditure in the set up limits often suppose harmful
decisions, hardly to be taken, but which cannot be avoided.
On the other side, budgetary expenditure policy is characterized by certain rigidity,
given by the legislation in force regarding several rights, such as pension,
unemployment benefit, social allowance, support allowance, lunch tickets,
compensatory pay etc. Therefore, legislation should be reviewed, to eliminate the
discrepancies between legal rights and resources which can be allocated in this
direction.
When inflation is higher than programmed one in one country, interest expenditure
will increase, which determined that other expenditure should be reduced
accordingly. In fact, higher budgetary deficit was the main factor leading to the
growth of interest expenditure, Interest size in real terms is determined by lack of
credibility because of the unsteadiness in carrying out and implementing the
economic policies.

Improving the cybernetic system of national economy 215
At the same time, we should not forget that interest expenditure became
burdensome, because costs of bank sector restructuring had to be covered, this
being used for years to assimilate the losses in real economy, costs which in case of
Romania reached to represent 30% of total interest expenditure.
6. DECREASE OF THE GAPS IN THE ECONOMIC GROWTH AS AGAINST
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
In order to be able to decrees the gap of economic growth as against developed
countries, namely to pass from a GDP/inhabitant of USD 3630 at the beginning of
2000 to a GDP/inhabitant of USD 15-20000 (calculated to purchasing power parity) in
the next 5 years, it is necessary to simultaneously fulfil several conditions.
First of all, it is necessary to rebuild the social capital destroyed during 1990-2000,
because profound restructuring of Romanian economy is very much burdened by
precarious social capital, defined as whole norms, behaviours and relations among
society members.
Since 1989, Romanian society had not only a higher deficit of theoretical preparation
on the market economy but is also unreliable in the positive values of this type of
economy, leading to double standards regarding the obligations against state and is
aware that all the time, rents to be pulled out in the detriment of others etc.
In this context, rebuild the Romanian social capital destroyed more or less, supposes
to carry out a permanent dialogue with civil society to explain to the population, by
media which are the reforms costs, which are beneficial, as well as to encourage the
exchange of information, of horizontal communication, in order to increase the
decisions and economic acts coherence.
At the same time, it is necessary to recognize the real values, in each field of activity,
to promote the opinion leaders and to send to study more and more young people in
developed countries of the world.
Secondly, revival of economic growth supposes retaking internal saving, based on
which foreign investments will be reborn, as background of future economic growth.
We should remind here that internal saving in Romania is among the lowest ones in
Europe. Taking into account that Romanian economy has not capacity to generate
enough capital against real needs of its modernization, it is further necessary to
massively draw over foreign capital, creating an attractive business environment and
efficient both for the foreign investors and for Romania.
Thirdly, it is time not to admit higher expenditure than resources; salaries should not
increase than together with labour productivity and inflation should be reduced
consistently. Chances to improve the economy will be badly affected if trade unions,
social groups and political parties do not require more resources than the country has
available.
Fourthly, substantial progress is needed to increase the competitivity of Romanian
products, which will release labour force from low salary restrictions and will assure
an important growth if income per inhabitant.
Therefore, it is necessary to improve the management of productive activities,
because Romanian products are not for the time being competitive regarding the
quality or promptitude in the sale and adapting to the customers tastes or quantity of
incorporated intelligence.
Presently, most of Romanian products are competitive on the lower costs of labour
force, while material and account expenditure are excessive.

216 Marius Bǎcescu, Angelica Băcescu-Cărbunaru
As conclusion, we can state that only if major and severe issues faced by the
Romanian economy are better understood, they could be correctly solved and allow
Romania to be listed in the highway of balanced, efficient and sustainable
development.
7. PASSING FROM “CURRATIVE” STRATEGIES TO “DEVELOPMENT”
STRATEGIES
All strategic elements mentioned above represent a whole of correction measures for
disaster situation in which was the economy of Romania at the beginning of 2000. It
would be ideal these measures assure a normal growth rate of GDP of at least 5-6%
yearly. For the time being, we believe such growths are not realistic, because it is
urgent in the economy of Romania to recover the massive losses suffered.
We could not forget that only in 3 years (1997-1999, GDP losses amounted to USD
15.2 billion, while during 1990-1999 the losses were higher than in the second world
war and brought into poverty most of the country‘s population.
Therefore, it is necessary to switch from a ―curative‖ (corrective) strategy to a
―development‖ strategy consisting of tactical and strategic objective directions,
visions, actions and measures. On the contrary, it is possible to waste a proper
occasion for the country‘s rehabilitation with the help of its own program and
international environment. In order not to lose some of its own history, Romania
needs a strategy to resque not only the economic situation she is in, but also to have
a rapid revival on the highway of an efficient and sustainable development in the next
period.
Strategic elements mentioned at points 1-5 correspond to the existing situation, but
they also represent a late recognition of no programmatic substance in actions and
non-professional way to manage an economy in the last years.
Any government should have already carried out the strategy of sustainable
development. Because in Romania, the issue of carrying out such a strategy in 2000,
namely in the year of the end of 1996-2000 election mandate, demonstrates that this
power did not merit the vote and trust of the population which elected it in 1996.
The above mentioned observation should not be considered critical, because we are
aware that it is very hard to obtain the consensus for a perfect system formulating
directions and visions for the healthy evolution of the country, especially when the
governing is done by a coalition having a melange of political dogmas.
Economic and social situation of Romania was also taken into account by the
European Union, which noticing the incoherence and incompatibility our country
could generate in the Balkans, proved available to provide assistance and direct
support to carry out a middle term strategy. In fact, middle term economic strategy of
Romania carried out by the government in February 2000, was suggested to the
Romanian authorities by the European Union as well, which noticed a chaotic, order
less, undirected movement of the country in European and world economic
landscape, having major negative results even inside the national infrastructure.
Main objective of a real development strategy in Romania should be improving the
mechanism promoting the sustainable economic growth, expressed by GDP growth
under the conditions of market operation. This supposes to identify the basic main
elements, of economic model created during 1990-2000, which can assure the whole
transformation of the country as soon as possible, these elements giving to the
strategy a committed and responsible novelty.

Improving the cybernetic system of national economy 217
A new strategy of development involves first of all a new philosophy of budgetary
construction, eliminating chaotic formulations of budget configuration and spending
only the existent income.
Decrease of public debt should be a tactical element and instrument to reach new
performances, to reduce their level to a lower percentage in GDP.
Lower inflation should be set up aligning it in time at more and more acceptable
levels, according to the evolution of the ratio between monetary supply and level of
national production.
Level of exchange rate has to flow by real correlation of the disproportion between
factors influencing the evolution of national production, ratio between purchasing
power and ratio between RON demand and supply in comparison with the currency
changing.
Foreign currency reserve of the country should be considered as a basic element
supporting the interconditioned dynamics of national economy, as well as the result
of how native economic environment evolved
Acceleration of privatization must be thought starting from the fact that state is the
weakest administrator and it is necessary to eliminate as far as possible the
unnatural disproportion between state and private sector. On the other side, the idea
that any state involvement is not democratic is not liberal or according to the market
economy principles and therefore, non-private enterprises should be left in their own
drift.
Administrative staff turnover must be really done, physically and not cutting job
vacancy from bushy schemes or redistributing persons in other budgetary
organizations or institutions. At the same time,, these decreases should not be
materialized in “political shakeup” accompanied by the installation of some overruled
persons in vital positions of national economy, but with party member card in the
governing convention and in economic purification”, namely brutal removal or
marginalization of specialists, technocrats, scientists, capable the best to work with
real economy .
Here are a few characteristics pleading for a “development‖ strategy, leading to
regain internal and external credibility and eliminating the wrong conception, by
which ―an economy, to be healthy developed should first be tormented‖. Only such a
strategy will create the conditions to adhere as far as possible Romania to European
economic structures.

218 Marius Bǎcescu, Angelica Băcescu-Cărbunaru
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Băcescu-Cărbunaru Angelica, Macroeconomia relaţiilor economice internaţionale, Editura
ALL-BACK, Bucureşti, 2000;
[2] Băcescu Marius, Strategii şi politici macroeconomice, Editura GLOBAL-LEX, Bucureşti, 2001
[3] Bulgaru Mircea, Mileniul III. Disperare şi speranţă – o nouă paradigmă a dezvoltării, Editura
Revista Română de Statistică, Bucureşti, 2003
[4] Georgescu Roegen Nicholas, Legea entropiei şi procesul economic, Editura Politică,
Bucureşti, 1989
[5] Hill, T.P., Le mesure de la production en termes réels, OECD, Paris, 1991
[6] Lipsey R.G., An introduction to positive economics, Weidenfield and Nicholson, London, 1998
[7] Anuarul statistic al României, Institutul Naţional de Statistică, Bucureşti 2005
[8] European System of Accounts – ESA 1995, Eurostat, 1996

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 219
THE EMERGENCE OF INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL IN A KNOWLEDGE-
BASED SOCIETY. INVESTMENT IN PEOPLE AND SKILLS
Marta-Christina SUCIU 1
MOTTO:
"Society's most important investment is in the education of its people.
We suffer in the absence of good education: we prosper in its presence."
Donald J. Johnston 2
Abstract. This article emphasizes the importance of investment in education as a driving
force for economic growth and sustainable development in the long term. In the context of
knowledge society to enhance the role of intangible assets like intellectual capital, creativity
and innovation as key sources of competitive advantage. As the secret ingredient of success
in business is to invest in human capital, the question why so few companies in Romania
meet the challenge of making such investments? Due to any explanation that such an
investment is an investment with the effects propagate long while companies favorite
contemporary thinking in the short term? Investment in people and their capabilities and
skills are essential and at the Union level which stated strategic priority target for 2010 to
become "the most dynamic and competitive knowledge-based economy."
Keywords: knowledge-based economy, knowledge-based organizations, workers who rely on
knowledge, intellectual capital, investment in human capital, investment in education, investors in
people
We are living in one of the most exciting times in the history of civilization. In the last
one hundred years, the world has rapidly evolved from an agriculture-based
economy to a production-based economy and now we are in a knowledge-based
economy. We have to face a paradigm shift towards a new type of society called a
knowledge-based society in which the rules of the game are fundamentally different.
To understand where we are going, we have to know where we came from. A review
of the rules of the game in the agriculture and production-based economies can shed
some light. The foundation of the agriculture-based economy was ―land”. All things
being equal, if you had more land, you could grow more crops and the more crops
you grew the better off you were. So, the rule of the game in the agriculture economy
was ―get more land”. If you had more land, things would work out. All that changed in
the production-based economy. The production-based economy was all about
producing more goods at lower prices. The faster machines you had, the more you
could produce. The more automated the manufacturing plant, the less it cost to
produce goods. And as the plants got more automated and the cost of production
became directly linked to labor, inexpensive labor became critical. So, the rules of the
game in the production-based economy were process automation and inexpensive
labor.
The knowledge-based economy is a different ball game all together. The foundation
of the knowledge-based economy is not about land, nor is it about manufacturing
plants. It‘s about information, it‘s about people, and it‘s about the intellect of the
people. It‘s about creativity, it‘s about innovation. The knowledge-based economy is
not about cost reduction; it‘s about value creation. In a global knowledge-based
economy, land does no longer make the difference. Food can be grown in any corner
of the world and is available in all parts of the world. In the past, most people ate
1 Academy of Economical Studies, Bucharest. Corresponding member of the Academy of Romanian
Scientists.
2 Former minister in the Canadian government and OECD Secretary General.

220 Marta-Christina Suciu
vegetables that were grown in close vicinity to their home, enjoying the regular fare
with each season. Things are different now. Vegetables are being produced in Latin
America and Asia and Europe and the U.S.A, but they are now all available in our
local grocery stores. The same is true for goods. Production capacity, machines,
plant automation and cheap labor are no longer making the difference in a global
knowledge-based economy. The globalization has created a physical distribution
network that is going to get harder and harder to differentiate your business and your
country based on production capability. In the global knowledge-based economy we
compete on value creation. This is not about having access to information, but what
you do with it. Value creation is about creating new products, creating new solutions,
creating new services. And that requires intellectual capital, creativity and innovation.
Furthermore, the interest shown by different international organizations, such as
OECD and the World Bank towards building knowledge-based economies have been
demonstrated on different occasions.
1. KNOWLEDGE AS THE MAIN DRIVEN FORCE IN THE NEW MILLENIUM
Knowledge, unlike land, labor and capital is an appreciating asset. The more it is
used, the more efficient it becomes. According to Karl Erick Sveiby, knowledge has
four characteristics: it is tacit, action-oriented, supported by rules and constantly
changing. A knowledge-based company can inject entrepreneurialism into an
organization to motivate top management staff and it can enable an organization to
capture, apply and develop value from high technologies. Knowledge can transform
the whole economy. The human-centered assets a company needs to operate will be
rare and expensive. It will take years of investment to create valuable infrastructure
and intellectual property assets.
The emerging importance of intellectual capital reflects the organization‟s increasing
dependence on intangible assets. Companies based mostly on intangible assets
have products that are intangible and that can be distributed electronically in the
―virtual market space‖ via e-commerce and the Internet. Knowledge intensive
organizations whose products are digital and intangible are considered to be the third
millenium enterprises. The world has changed and we have to find new ways of
monitoring and managing the organization that reflect those changes. The third
millenium workforce is knowledge-based workforce-it is participatory, understanding
the goals of the company and receiving satisfaction from knowing the part they play
in achieving them. To become knowledge driven, companies have to learn how to
recognize changes in intellectual capital and ultimately in their balance sheets. A
firm's intellectual capital-employees' knowledge, brainpower, know-how, and
processes, as well as their ability to continuously improve those processes-is a key
source of competitive advantage.
2. THE EMERGENCE OF INTANGIBLE ASSETS AND INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL
The third millennium society-seen as a global knowledge-based society-has workers
who are valuable because of what they know. Intellectual capital is the term given to
the combined intangible assets that enables the company to function efficiently. It is
the knowledge of a workforce; the training and intuition of a team or the know-how of
workers who come up with a thousand different ways to improve the efficiency. It is
the electronic network that transports information at light speed through a company,
so that it can react to the market faster than its competitors. It is the cooperative
working-the shared learning-between a company and its customers (customer
capital). It is collective brainpower. It‘s hard to identify and harder still to deploy
efficiently. But once you find it and exploit it, you win.

The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society … 221
How do we measure a firm's intellectual capital? How can a firm tell whether its
knowledge assets have increased or diminished over a certain period of time?
According to Strassman (1998),”intellectual capital is what is left over after suppliers,
employees, creditors or shareholders and the government have been paid, and
obsolete assets replaced” There are other approaches, including those of Sveiby
(1997) and of Stewart (1997). One tool that is now widely used by US companies is
Kaplan and Norton's Balanced Scorecard, which combines financial with nonfinancial
measures, such as internal business processes, learning and growth, and
various customer-related measures (Kaplan and Norton, 1996). Competency
models seek to define and classify the behaviours of successful employees and
calculate their market worth. In the third millenium the organization must put
emphasis on encouraging employees‘ involvement, showing an appreciation for
individuals‘ contribution in the organization. There are many ways in which to think
about people when trying to assess their value, both current and potential to the
organization. Different modern forms of investment in education are mostly
recommended: training, vocational qualifications, work related to knowledge, work
related competencies. As the work force becomes more “global”, valuable employers
and employees invest more and more in themselves. This may protect and grow core
competencies. Knowledge analysts are required to work with individuals in the
organization to identify key knowledge assets. In order to increase people power, it is
necessary to measure human-centered assets. Knowledge means power and profits.
The extension of the intellectual capital asset base can be achieved in the third
millenium enterprise if creativity and innovation abound everywhere in the company.
There is a feeling of success and of constant movement and change. The real
―heroes” of an organization are those who excel and help the company win and grow
on the long run. This means also to create and develop a corporate culture that
promotes and supports the process of innovation.
There is a direct relationship between how innovative a company is and its ability to
expand intellectual capital. The degree to which a company is innovative is a
measure of its life force. And not only that, because managing the flood of knowledge
is more than ever what determines whether a company succeeds or fails.
3. HOW COMPANIES ARE BECOMING MORE KNOWLEDGE-INTENSIVE.
KNOWLEDGE WORKERS
More and more people spend their day in the realm of information and ideas.
Stephen R. Barley from Stanford University has calculated that“ the share of the
American labor force whose jobs primarily involve working with things (farm-workers,
craftspeople) or delivering non professional services (hotel and restaurant workers,
distribution workers, domestic servants) will have fallen by more than half by the turn
of the century, from 83 % in 1900 to 41 %; those who work with information (in sales,
managerial, professional, technical) were 17 % in 1900 and at the beginning of the
new millenium 59 %.”. An ever growing percentage of people are “knowledge
workers‖.
According to Kiichi Mochizuki, a former executive at a Japanese steel company, a
New York City research group:”These days, with computerized factories and digitally
controlled machines, mathematics are very important for factory operations. When
you talk about skill-the word “skill” is wrong: It implies manual dexterity to carve the
wood or hit something with a hammer. Now skill is mental rather than manual.”
Companies are in business to make money and ultimately, their success or failure is
expressed in financial terms, but the language of management is increasingly nonfinancial.
The rallying cry is no longer ―shareholder value‖ but ―values‖.

222 Marta-Christina Suciu
4. INVESTING IN HUMAN CAPITAL
"Whenever possible, invest in human capital!"
World Cultural Report 2000
The world of the 21 st century offers a wide range of investment opportunities.
Buildings, petroleum industry, movies industry, music, football; all call out for
investors (and the list could go on). ―Investment‖ is usually associated with the idea
of money, with ―fat‖ bank accounts and probably with a growing reputation in the
world of business. But few are those who remember that behind the ever growing
fortunes stand the people who work hard in order to ―feed‖ the bank accounts. The
idea of investing in human capital was first approached by Adam Smith in The
Wealth of Nations (1776), who claimed that the differences between the methods of
individuals with different levels of education and professional training reflects the
differences between the necessary efficiencies for covering the training costs.
The term human capital is recognition that people in organizations and businesses
are important and essential assets who contribute to development and growth, in a
similar way as physical assets such as machines and money. Any expenditure in
training, development, health and support is an investment, not a cost. For the
employer, the gains expected from investing in human capital result in the
improvement of the company‘s performance, profitability, flexibility and innovation
capacity, which should have as consequences the enlargement of the basis for skills
and aptitudes and the increase of knowledge and competencies levels. The value of
human capital is not always measured in money, because in most of the cases it can
not be measured. In other words, human capital is what people can do, what they
know, the qualities they have, including a proper health condition, without which other
efforts and qualities could not be fully exploited.
What does investing in human capital mean and who can invest?
Investing in human capital has several aspects, according to the level at which it
appears. The investment begins from the very moment we are born. Not appeasing
the little child every time he asks for an expensive toy is a form of investing in people
and in attitude, as the child learns that in life you can not get everything you want,
that the resources are limited, although our desires and needs are not. So parents
are the first ―investors” when it comes to investing in people and their investment is
synonym with bringing up the child in a proper manner, offering him the moral
principles on which he will later build his career and life. Teachers take over the job
started by parents and contribute to the investment, by completing their education.
Knowledge-based organisations are also investors in human capital.
Why should one invest in human capital?
Unfortunately, the results of investing in human capital can not always be seen on
the short run. If one attends a training course today, it does not necessarily mean
that his skills will improve over the night and from a terrible negotiator she/he will
become a specialist in the field. Investing in human capital is a long-term process
and has to be done periodically and continuously in order to obtain some results.
Then why should someone invest in human capital rather than in new equipment?
Basically because equipment can become obsolete and if this happens, the only
solution is to throw it away and purchase a new one, while with people the situation is
exactly opposite: the more time passes by, the more valuable they are to the
company for their experience. It is vitally important for a manager to be aware of the
potential of the human capital he has to manage in order to fully exploit its capacities
in the good interest of the company. And it is even more important for him to
understand that in the case of people, the value of the whole is not equal to the sum

The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society … 223
of the parts, as synergy has a strong influence in a company. In other words, the
human capital of a company is equal to the sum of the individual human capital plus
the way in which they work together, which calls for a proper collaboration between
the employees in order to achieve the synergy.
In some cases the state is aware of the importance of human capital and decides to
invest in it and decide to help the private sector and so the public-private partnership
is born. The public-private partnership is an agreement between the public
administration and entities from the private sector with the purpose of offering public
services. This type of agreement has several advantages for the parts involved and
also for the beneficiaries of the partnership. The partners share the investing effort,
the risks, the responsibilities and the results.
5. INVESTING IN PEOPLE AND SKILLS. INVESTORS IN PEOPLE
„People do not change with time; they change the time”
P. K. Shaw
People are an important factor in the production process and for the success of a
company. This is why it is essential for the modern knowledge-based organizations
to rethink their strategies, to make investments on the long run, so to invest in
people. Their success and their survival on the market depend, to a great extent, on
understanding this. The new wealth of organisations is considered to be people and
therefore, investing in people and skills becomes crucial. It simply means investing in
future. Investing in people includes investments in knowledge, skills and attitudes,
and the organizations that meet the standard to achieve this objective are usually
called ―investors in people”. In order to achieve sustainable economic growth and
development, world leaders must be aware that investing in people is a strong need.
The ways of investing in people are very diverse, but we have to underline the fact
that the first step to be followed in trying to achieve sustainable development is what
is called basic investments. It is a responsibility of governments to ensure that
virtually all members of society have adequate nutrition, primary health care, clean
water, safe sanitation, family planning services, and at least a primary education.
These basic investments in people are essential not only for humanitarian reasons
and for the creation of civilized societies but also as the foundations for sustained
economic growth and development. In recent years, research has demonstrated the
power of that investment in many different ways. For instance The British
Government funds a number of special programs such as ―Investing in People‖ (IP)
launched in 1990. “Investing in People” program is based on ―Investors in People
Standard”-a National British Standard introduced in the wake of the ―Training in
Britain Survey of 1989‖ which has raised major concerns about training in the UK. IP
has not only made managers more aware of the importance of training but also
encouraged them to develop a more systematic approach. Ruth Spelman, a chief
executive considers that “contrary to expectations, Investors in People is not about
spending more on budgets for training. Rather it is a mechanism for assessing
whether or not an organization„s training fits its business needs. “This program brings
real benefits. In an independent report called ―Building Capability for the 21 st century”
Rujan Chapple and van Eupen (1999) spoke to over 2000 organizations and 42
business leaders who said that the key benefits of being Investors in People were:
improved productivity ( 70% of the organisations);
greater competitiveness (70%);
increased customer satisfaction (80%);
better corporate image (80%);
team-working (90%).

224 Marta-Christina Suciu
The Investors in People Standard “provides a framework for improving business
performance and competitiveness”. It encourages excellence in the field of human
resource development and creates a culture of continuous improvement. The
Investor in People Standard is built on four principles:
Commitment-an IP is fully committed to developing its people in order to
achieve its aims and objectives.
Planning-an IP is clear about its objectives and what its people need to do to
achieve them.
Action-an IP develops its people effectively in order to improve its
performance.
Evaluation-an IP understands the impact of its investment in people on its
performance.
Michael Howard, Secretary of State, had launched the name investors in people at a
conference in Glasgow in November 1990. Organisations are encouraged to meet
the IP Standard and that means that organisations will consider training as an
investment, not as a cost. For those individuals who are members of professional
institutions, there is a specific concept that is familiar-the continuous professional
development (CPD). The Investors in People offer support in improving and
developing the individual, the unit and the organization in line with business
objectives.
6. INVESTING IN EDUCATION
“Employees don‟t depreciate. Their value to the organization,
when they are well-maintained, only appreciates”
David Decenzo
One important ingredient of investments in people is considered to be investment in
education. It means that organizations have to invest in knowledge, skills and
attitudes. Education and training have become crucial in the process dedicated to
build the so-called "Europe of knowledge" and a knowledge-based society. Intelligent
organisations are those who invest in people considering that they invest in future
and get a long-run sustainable competitive advantage. In a global knowledge-based
world the rivals are no longer just around the corner; they are around the world both
in the real and virtual marketplace.
Competing is therefore as natural as breathing and winning welcome the competitive
intelligence age where investment in people is a strategic investment! Part of
education results are expressed in terms of diplomas and abilities, qualifications.
Although the two seem to be similar, the truth is that they are not the same. The
diplomas show what the employee is supposed to know theoretically, while the
abilities are a proof of what they actually know.
The differentiation between diplomas and abilities is an important issue related also
to lifelong learning, for continuous improving the qualifications and abilities. Why is
this necessary? Because we live in a world in which "the single constant of the
Universe seem to be change". Radical changes take place from a minute to another,
not to speak from a year to another and what is ―fashionable‖ and required now may
be undesired and outdated in the following minute.
Jobs may disappear, being replaced by other jobs, the skills demanded by the
employees may change, so the individual must be able either to prevent being
caught by surprise by these changes, continuously improving his/ her qualifications
and enlarging the sphere of interest, or to be prepared to respond promptly to any
changes in the work environment, by switching to the newly sprung types of jobs.

The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society … 225
Private returns to education
It is necessary that the employees should have an adequate education so that the
managers could thus appreciate them at their right value. The amount of education
acquired by workers has an important impact on their earnings. The more education
individuals acquire, the better they are able to absorb new information, acquire new
skills, and familiarize themselves with new technologies. The amount of education an
individual receives not only affects his earnings, but the quality of his employment as
well. In his book,”Studies in Human Capital”, Jacob Mincer stated:”Educated
workers have at least two advantages relative to less-educated workers: higher
wages and greater employment stability.” Another aspect worth mentioning and
which is closely connected to education is represented by the quality of our life.
Persons with higher levels of education tend to have better health than those with
lower levels, because they have made an investment in themselves, an investment
that they protect by taking preventive measures to increase the probability of better
health.
Public returns to education
Economists have been interested in economic growth since Adam Smith made his
inquiry into the wealth of nations. The contribution of education to economic growth
occurs through two mechanisms. The first, and most highly publicized, is through the
creation of new knowledge, known as Schumpeterian growth. More highly educated
individuals will translate into more scientists, and investors working to increase the
stock of human knowledge through the development of new processes and
technologies. The second way in which education affects economic growth happens
through the diffusion and transmission of knowledge.
Schools provide the education level necessary to understand and digest information.
Increases in educational levels helped the invention and innovation in the computer
industry over the past 30 years, yet without schools to teach how to use computers,
the effect of such innovations would have been reduced. Education benefits society
in ways that cannot be measured by economic growth. Education enables people to
be better mothers, fathers, children, voters and citizens. In his 1962 work,”Capitalism
and Freedom”, Nobel Laureate Milton Friedman described the effects associated
with education:”A stable and democratic society is impossible without a minimum
degree of literacy and knowledge on the part of the citizens and without acceptance
of some common set of values. Education can contribute to both.” One major
component of education concerns strategies for making lifelong learning a reality for
all. This includes work on barriers to investment in lifelong learning, strategies for
making learning accessible in terms of pedagogy and the location of learning and
ways in which educational institutions can develop their students' skills and
motivation for lifelong learning. E-learning is said to have great potential for improving
quality, increasing access and reducing costs in post-secondary education and
training. Furthermore, a cost/benefit analysis of e-learning compared to other delivery
modes is often inconclusive.
Learning paradigm is centered on search and discovery. It emphases
creativity and initiative, interaction and collaboration
The advent of a digital knowledge-based society has brought about significant
changes in many ways. These changes call for a paradigm shift in education to one
that is search- and discovery-centered, emphasizing creativity and initiative, and
valuing interaction and collaboration. This digital-knowledge-based era calls for a
new paradigm in education, which emphasizes learners' active acquisition of

226 Marta-Christina Suciu
knowledge through the search for various information and sources, useful for
everyday or specific situations. This new paradigm in education thus focuses on
learners' self-motivated and self-regulated learning activities to obtain knowledge that
is practical in the individual contexts and circumstances faced by learners. To acquire
such knowledge is to actively participate in the progress of personal development
both through interactive education and application, rather than passively absorbing
knowledge developed by others. Today we need individuals with the capacity to
utilize creativity and resourcefulness to apply innovative solutions in order to meet
complex challenges. Our modern knowledge-based society requires extensive
interaction and collaboration for completion of complex tasks. Individual instruction
designed to meet the needs and expectations of individual learners through planned
interaction between the learner and computer technology has been less then
adequate in the digital learning environment. The opportunity for interactive and
collaborative learning enriches the learning experience by providing learners with the
opportunity to learn by presenting them with actual aspects of real problems, diverse
viewpoints on various subjects and experiences of sharing and living together in a
community.
The paradigm shift in education is from one of a teaching paradigm to one of
learning. This means that education is no longer about how to deliver information
and knowledge to the learner but about how to help learners to search and discover
information for themselves to create knowledge useful to their own contexts.
Teachers are responsible for how learners acquire information and knowledge. In a
rapidly changing society, they should have clear visions themselves as to the
creation and application of knowledge that is to be presented to learners. The job of
teachers is of course to educate. On a social level however, another major task is to
inculcate learners with a sense of morality and ethics. The new roles for teachers as
change enablers, knowledge incubators, and learning consultants will become
crucial.
Change management refers to not only passively responding to changes but also
active and intentional planning of changes. Teachers' role should be shifting from the
role of 'answer provider' to that of 'change enabler' -a person who helps learners find
knowledge needed to confront changes and actively deploys self-development
strategies. More specifically, teachers' roles in the new era should include mitigation
of the potential shock from changes, guidance to help learners establish new visions
for the future, and encouragement of leadership for learners to help them initiate their
own roles and to continue self-development. Knowledge creation by a few creative
people has come to its limit and must give way to knowledge creation by a network
of people who share ideas based on their own creativity and imagination. In this
changing environment, the role of a teacher should be one of a knowledge incubator
that serves as a network navigator or a director to the useful sources of knowledge.
Thus, teachers in digital society should teach the methods of finding where and in
what manner information and sources can be determined, as well as ways to process
knowledge and apply them to problems encountered in everyday experiences. The
quality of teaching is determined not just by the quality of teachers but also by the
environment in which they work. Policies aimed at attracting and retaining effective
teachers need both to recruit able people into the profession, and also to provide
support and incentives for on-going performance at high levels and professional
growth. The last decade of educational research has attested to the importance of
investing in teachers to attain any significant changes in terms of student learning.
International orgnizations such as OECD or World Bank are really concerned about
education policies. For example, Education for the Knowledge Economy (EKE) is a

The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society … 227
three year analytical program, initiated by the Human Development Network of the
World Bank, to understand and articulate how education and training systems need
to change in order to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy, and to offer
practical and sustainable policy options.
Investment in education yields its dividends in many other forms. It modernizes
attitudes and builds confidence in change. It stimulates broader participation in real
life. It assists the process of allowing what is good in the new to replace what is bad
in the old. It brings an awareness of new ideas and new choices. It raises the
average age of marriage and makes family planning more likely. Decades of
research findings have regularly demonstrated that investment in primary education
yields significantly higher returns in both social progress end economic growth and
development.
European Union educational policy
Nowadays world leaders‘ concern is to find ways of ensuring sustainable economic
growth and development. A good example is that of the European Union.
The EU leaders imposed to themselves a very ambitious target: "to build the most
competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of
sustainable growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion"(Lisbon'
Agenda). One of the ways in which EU is intending to achieve this goal is to
encourage investment in people and training, which are Europe‘s chief assets. The
European Union recognizes the importance of education and lifelong learning, the
need to learn several languages and to have technological skills. Investing in people
is a priority for the European Union, as it is one of the main points in implementing
the Lisbon' strategy. On the 12 th of February 2001, based on contributions from the
Member States, the Council adopted the "Report on the concrete future objectives of
education and training systems". This important document outlines a comprehensive
and consistent approach for national policies on education in EU based on:
improving the quality and effectiveness of education and training systems in
the EU;
facilitating the access of all to "lifelong" education and training;
opening-up education and training systems to the wider world.
But there is a very important difference between what a government (in this case the
European Council) establish as policy and the way of implementing this policy. The
most important are the concrete actions taken by the European Union leaders to
meet the educational challenge.
7. INVESTING IN PEOPLE AND SKILLS AT THE LEVEL OF A KNOWLEDGE-
BASED ORGANISATION. PEOPLE DEVELOPMENT INSIDE A COMPANY.
CAREER MANAGEMENT & DEVELOPMENT
"Sending men into war without training is like abandoning them."
Confucius
Any company having as a long-term objective the development and maintenance in a
dynamic and competitive economic environment is aware of the only resource that
can make the difference: people. And the human resources experts have, among
other things, the generous mission to keep and enrich the company's human wealth.
If a company does not feel the real value of the human capital, in order to use it
effectively, it might lose it. It is known that the workplace is enormously significant as
a site for learning, both for accessing formal learning opportunities and for many
informal learning opportunities which result from the nature of work and from social

228 Marta-Christina Suciu
interaction with work groups. Within organisations, the weak role of training and
development within corporate structures, the tendency for training and development
to be seen as an operational rather than strategic issue, all contribute to the
difficulties of operationalising workforce learning strategies.
Investment in education has a main dimension inside an organisation: it means to
invest in future. Moreover, employers and employees should be aware of the mutual
interest in investing in training and in developing workforce skills, as in proportion to
the evolution of an individual, there is an evolution of the company. A company is like
a FAMILY were every individual makes the strategic difference.
Learning organisations versus telling organization
"Change is a process, not a goal; a journey, not a destination."
Robert Kriegal and David Brant
Things are changing so fast today that it is difficult to keep up with the pace. People
who cannot keep up with changes may find themselves "downsized" or, in term of
other euphemism, they will be "out of work". A business that cannot change in tune
with the global marketplace probably has no future. What is the proper answer? The
answer is investing in people. It is one of the few, if not the only long-run sustainable
competitive advantage available today. Moreover, it is the healthiest response in a
world of rapid change. The key benefits of being Investors in People (IP) are:
improved productivity, greater competitiveness, increased customer satisfaction,
better corporate image and more team working. The organizations considered to be
Investors in People exhibit many of the characteristics of a learning organization. A
learning organization is an organization that prioritises learning. Learning is
simultaneously both a process and a value. Every individual in the company,
regardless of position or length of service, is committed to being better tomorrow than
they are today - through learning. Instead of homogenous training classes (managers
with managers, secretaries with secretaries), learning groups have diversity in both
title and responsibility. The organization as a whole is committed to continual
improvement of every facet of itself, its products and its services-by learning about
learning. As both the individual and the organization develop, employees will feel a
renewed connection to their work, customers will be better served and the
organisation will create a future for itself.
At the other pole is the telling organization, where learning is like ice, rigid and
frozen. Training is an event that takes place when times are good. It is often for
select groups of employees, perhaps salespeople and managers. It may even be
perceived as either a perk or a punishment. One gets the chance to go, or is required
to go. There is not room for wanting to go. Consequently, when learning occurs, it is
in isolated pockets around the organisation. Hence while some individuals may learn,
the organization does not. For an IP organization, training may come in different
packages: internally developed programme, "off the shelf" (in other words, the
company purchases a prepared programme), hiring outside experts, public seminars,
off-site executive programmes, customized books / videos, computer-based training,
computer-aided instruction. Training investments transform the performance potential
of employees and managers, serving the constitute employees as strategic
resources. Training is said to have the effect of increasing employee motivation.
Organizations should be concerned with training, mostly with continuous professional
development (CPD). Nowadays, attitude is a key concept in the human resources
domain. It was concluded that what matters in a selection interview, and further on, in
the organisational gearing, is not by all means the professional experience (which
may be obtained in a certain period of time) but the attitude of the one that agrees to

The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society … 229
enter in a specific work-system. With an adequate attitude, a person may learn
immensely, may develop rapidly, may interact with one's colleagues, may be an
exceptional leader and evolve in direct proportion with the organization. The
employee is not seen as a static entity, as one comes with one's own experiences
and enters a game of relations with others who modify one's conduct and, implicitly,
attitude. Therefore, an IP organization should adapt its employees' attitudes to its
requests, as: attitude counts in investments!
How to keep valuable people in your company?
"If you think training is expensive, try ignorance."
Old saying
The ideal employer is the one who invests in the long run in a company's most
valuable capital: people. The unilateral focus on short-term objectives and results is
not in the "vocabulary" of an IP company. An IP company is visionary, training
today‘s workforce for tomorrow's needs. Nancy Alrichs, the author of the book
"Competition for Talent", wrote: "Ten years ago, the interviewer would have asked:
«Why would I hire you? »; today the potential employee asks: «Why would I come to
work for you? » Nowadays, the persons with potential choose the organization which
guarantees them recognition of results, promotions and the possibility of professional
development, the culture that "smiles at them", the manager they want to work with,
the projects they are interested in.
Ways of investing in people inside the company. Internship versus Trainee
"For the most part, careers do not just happen, they are made".
Patrick Forsyth
At first sight these two programs, internship and trainee seem to have nothing in
common, as the internship programme addresses to students in the 3rd and 4th year
of study and the trainee program has as target the graduates looking for a job. But in
fact they do have something essential in common: the aim-investing in people. For
example, Procter & Gamble means, besides a trustworthy producer also an excellent
chance to attend an internship. Under the slogan "Your Development, Our Touch",
the company organizes monthly meetings with the students, in order to share them
some of its knowledge about Marketing, Creativity and other subjects of interest.
These meetings, as well as the "P&G Business Week", which takes place every
spring, draw a lot of applications for internships within the P&G framework. Which is,
in fact, the "philosophy" behind the internship? The students receive important
projects that have immediate feasibility in business. This way, the same environment
is created for every new employee and so the employee has a significant contribution
starting with the first day. The "interns" are integrated in the organization and benefit
from guidance continuously. Briefly, the P&G employee has to show talent in all
regarding "Power of People", "Power of Minds" and "Power of Agility". The benefits
resulted from an internship are significant for both parties.
The private companies enjoy the influx of enthusiasm and motivation for
performance, which are characteristic to those that live the first contact with a "job".
The implied students get, in an unrisky way, procedural knowledge regarding the way
in which things happen in practice, completing the theoretical information obtained
during the lectures. The main advantage is that the trainees can enter the "real" world
ready, and will be able to offer performance more quickly than those that are fresh
graduates. Moreover, they are tempted to stay in the "trainer" company, because
they perceive this training as an investment in them and as a sign of trust. They see
that the company also offers, not only asks from them, as happens in the great
majority of companies.

230 Marta-Christina Suciu
Training & development
It was Mark Twain (in "Pudd‟nhead Wilson‟s Calendar") who stated that, "Training is everything. The
peach was once a bitter almond; cauliflower is nothing but cabbage with a college education."
There is no doubt that training is important. First, we need to define what we mean by
training and development.
Pepper defines training as „that organized process concerned with the acquisition of
capability, or the maintenance of capability‘. Where the objective is to acquire a set of
capabilities which will equip a person to do a job some time in the predictable future,
which is not within his present ability, that person is often said to undergo a process
of development.
Investing in and developing human capital
„Don‟t expect others to help you, help yourself”
Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen, founder of Raiffeisen Group
Today‘s workplace, with its focus on managerial skills and technological innovation,
imposes higher educational demands on the labour force of developing nations.
Lower labour cost is no longer sufficient to attract investments. In its place, the
―human capital of the local labour force‖ is gaining momentum as labour cost
differentials or proximity to raw materials become less important in decisions to locate
technology-intensive facilities. Strong human capital attracts and encourages growth.
Although easier to be said than to be done, an investment in human capital should be
a part of any economic development policy. The availability and the prevalence of a
nation‘s human capital determine the rate of growth of its economy and integration in
world markets. Sustainable development requires an investment in human capital.
Although human capital requires constant support, its returns are fundamental for
improvement. Treating money spent on people as an investment in an important
asset is a far more appropriate mindset that treating such expenditure as an
expense. If people are valued, and all management and leadership actions
demonstrate that, then every effort should be taken, whether formally or informally, to
develop skills and abilities and to provide opportunities for people to maximize their
contribution.
The new economy is a knowledge and competencies-based economy
In the new economy knowledge is related to the person. It is embedded in the
individual or in a specific organizational context. The creation of knowledge is related
to a social interaction process. The company is not anymore a simple portfolio of
products or services, but a portfolio of resources, competencies and knowledge. The
competitive advantage rests with the company‘s capacity to make use of its
resources, mostly on the intangible one. Therefore, the sources for the competitive
advantage must be searched within the company. The starting point of the entire
strategy is to clarify the identity of the company and to determine the competitive
advantage. In the classical approach, the company tries to identify its clients and the
needs it tries to satisfy. But in the context where the tastes of the consumers evolve
rapidly, it is peremptorily to formulate a long-term strategy. The resources and
competencies are offering a better level of stability than the needs of the customers.
The evolutionary theory, resource-based theory, is the work of several economists
like Nelson and Winter, Teece, Dosi. The main object of this school of thinking is to
offer a general theory of the economic change. This theory lies mostly on three
elements:
a ―genetic‖ patrimony under the shape of experience which is an element of

The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society … 231
permanent state; they correspond to the know-how and to the competencies;
the companies suffer in the same time changes which can be translated
through research, which finds itself at the basis of innovation;
a ―selection mechanism‖ which acts on these changes. The selection is made
randomly on the environment where the evolutions will be an advantage for certain
companies to the detriment of those that did not evolve correctly.
According to this theory, the company has at its disposal a range of answers more or
less programmed to face the evolutions of the environment. It can be distingue
between the ―static experience‖, which constitute the simple repetition of the past
practices, and the ―dynamic experience‖ or “research experience”, which represent
the basis for a change within the company. Practices are specific assets of a
company; it is them that differentiate companies among themselves and that
constitute the essence of their performance. It is the nature of the competencies and
the nature of experience or practice that determines to a larger extend the
evolutionary process of the company. If we are to consider the company as a
portfolio of competencies, we can come to the conclusion that the companies that are
more adapted and more likely to be chosen by the environment. The survival and the
competitiveness of the company depends on its patrimony of its solid competencies
and on the nature more or less adapted to the changes of the environment of its
competencies.
Competencies are also allowing companies to respond in a more flexible way at the
transformation of their organizational structures which are taking more and more the
configuration of a matrix and in which the project management come to change the
traditional hierarchical structure. Faced with the instability of the environment in the
companies and with the difficulty encountered in adapting the human resources in
the new structures of the company, competencies characterizes the employee‘s
capacities which allow her/.him to exercise a function and/or to improve his
performance at work. Competencies designate the organizational capacity to express
the resources under different combinations in order to achieve an objective.
There is a hierarchy between resources and competencies. A resource is an asset,
while a competence is a knowledge that results from a combination of more
resources. Among all the competencies of a company, some have a strong strategic
value. These are the ―distinct competencies‖ also called ―core competencies‖.
Identification of core competencies. Creating, keeping and developing
competitive advantage
Competencies have been defined as the fundamental characteristic of an individual
who guides her/himself in order to obtain or improve his performances at work on the
basis of precise criteria. Some competencies can be easily developed, they are
knowledge and skills. Others, more numerous, are more difficult to be identified and
developed; they are traits, self-concept and motives.
Most companies which implement a management of competencies believe that the
competencies are a necessary, but sufficient condition for performance. The
competence is defined as a validated operational know-how, and the logic
competence which sustained leads to:
take into account knowledge and the employees‘ experience in different jobs
in different fields, not the qualifications required by the performed functions;
create the necessary conditions so that the employees could put into practice
their competencies;
draw the conclusions, for the employees, in terms of qualification, payment

232 Marta-Christina Suciu
and career.
A competence is considered to have a strong strategic value if it constitutes a source
of lasting competitive advantage. The problem is to identity and to evaluate core
competencies. In order to do that, a chain of five tests can be used; they will allow an
appreciation of the strategic value of competencies.
The first test is interested in how ―strong” the competencies are. If a
competence allows a company to notice an opportunity in the environment or to
escape a danger, then it may be considered as being strong or pertinent.
The second test is the ―rarity” test. It separates the common competencies
from the ones owned by a small number of competitors. The more rare is the
competence, the more its value is a strategic one.
The third test determines the “imitative” character of the advantage gained
from the competencies. The more the competencies are intangible, the less they are
visible and imitative. Three reasons can explain the imperfect imitative character of a
competence: the competence depends on the unique historical conditions; the
relationships between the competitive advantage and the competencies are based
on the ambiguous relationships; the competence is socially complex (the complexity
of the interpersonal relationships; the complexity of the company‘s culture; the
complexity of the reputation).
The fourth test evaluates the “re-display” character of the competence or
better said checks to see if the competence can be used in another context. The
more a competence is specific to a context, the less it can be used in another context
and the more its value is strategic. This criteria measure the degree of control the
company has over the competence. For example, the qualification owned by an
employee is used by the company, but the latter can lose this competence if the
employee leaves the company. The investment in human capital can be easily
transferred. If the competence rests on a single individual, that competence is
transferred by a simple participation of the individual.
The fifth test identifies the existence of a “substitute” for a competence. If a
competitor can obtain the same competitive advantage by using a similar competence,
it is obvious that the strategic value of the competence is small. By cumulating the
results of these five tests, we can place the competencies on a level between a weak
(not that strong competence, rich, imitative, easy to transfer, changeable) or a strong
strategic value (strong competence, rare, difficult to imitate, non transferable, without
substitutes). Based on these tests, the company can establish a global conclusion by
classifying the competencies according to two criteria:
―The degree of superiority‖ over the competition. In this way, it can be
distinguished between ―different competencies‖ (the strong points of the company),
―undifferentiated competencies‖, meaning the ones that do not represent an
advantage against competition and ―missing competencies‖ (the weak points of the
company);
“The degree of accessibility‖ that depends on the existence of qualitative
and/or quantitative barriers. The qualitative barrier is the capacity of the company to
be different than its competitors because of a rare competence or to an accumulation
of a non-transferable experience. The quantitative barrier represents the difficulty for
the competitors to obtain comparable price levels.
The different competencies are a basic element that constitutes the company‟s
reputation. The well-known companies are usually known for their excellent work in a

The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society … 233
specific area. These competencies could be related with different areas such as
human resources, marketing, research and development. Table 1 offers an idea over
different competencies associated with well-known companies.
Table 1. Examples of different competencies
Areas Example of different
competencies
Human Resource Know-how in relation to the
creation and development of
rare human resources
R&D The capacity to develop
entirely new products
Example of companies
IBM
Sony
Creation The originality of design Apple
Logistics The capacity to optimize the
costs of logistics and supply
Production The tools‘ flexibility and the
speed of the answer
Mass-production for a massservice
Sales and distribution The excellence of an own
suppliers network
Marketing Creation and management
of brands
Service Complete service that
accompanies the product
Service after sale
Carrefour
Benetton, McDonald
Louis Vuitton
L‟Oréal
Decaux, Darty
Source: Adapted after T. Atamer & R.Calori, Diagnostic et décision stratégique, 1993, p. 364.
The global result of competencies have to facilitate the identification and evaluation
of the strong and weak points of the company compared to the competitors. In the
same time, it must indicate the actions that must be taken for development,
acquisition.
Classical approach versus competencies-based approach: The conditions for
success of the competencies management
In order to implement a real management of competencies, it is not enough to
redefine the old practices. It also means to implement an innovative system that will
remain coherent with the company‘s culture in order to avoid the difficulties and the
lack of understanding which sometimes might lead to incredible failures (table 2).
Table 2. Comparative analyze between the ―competencies‖-based approach in comparison and the
―classical‖ approach
Function
Employee
The classical approach The competencies approach
Tasks
Activities
Qualification
Personality
Skills
Behaviour
Required competencies
Professional route
Owned competencies
Development
As it can be seen from table 2, there is a clearly established difference between the
classical approach and the competencies-based approach. In the classical approach,
the function is described by taking into account: tasks, activities and qualification.
The competencies-based approach is based on required competencies and

234 Marta-Christina Suciu
professional route each employee must develop in the company. In what in concerns
the employee, the classical approach is counting on personality, skills and behaviour.
On the other hand, the competencies-based approach focuses on improving the
owned competencies of the employee and in the same time to improve them. The
competencies-based management cannot be implemented in an organization without
taking into account the company‟s culture. The implementation of a competenciesbased
management in a company has several advantages for improving the working
of a human resource system, but its success is obtain with the price of numerous
efforts. Its consequences are translated through payment readjustments and through
the implementation of new actions for development. In order to stimulate people
presumes the existence of an evaluation and remuneration system that recognizes
and valorizes the development of new competencies. The competencies can then
contribute to improving the payment methods. The wage is based on the evaluation
of the proved competencies. It refers to encouraging the employees, by putting into
relationship the payment with the validation of the competencies. The competencies
put into practiced by an employee are revised in a ―competencies passport‖ that is
kept for the entire working period.
Career management & development comprises the processes of career planning
and the assurance of managerial succession. Career planning refers to the way of
advancing of the employees in the company according to the company‘s necessities,
employees‘ performances, their potential and preferences.
Career Development Program
Companies today have a new vision in what it concerns the new economy. It is
related to the intellectual capital and the importance of intangible assets. The human
resources must be taken into account, as people increase the company‘s value
through their competencies. The importance of people development (mostly personal
development) in a company forced the appearance of career programs and
competencies tracking. Career management is the process through which the
aspirations and abilities of employees are assessed and their personal development
is planned and guided, in line with the opportunities available in the organization. It
involves a range of techniques such as mentoring, training, appraisal and
competency assessment. For the organization, career management allows talent to
be identified and employees to be placed in jobs where their skills can be used
effectively. Career management has three main goals:
to ensure the compliance with the company‘s necessities in what it concerns
the managerial succession
to offer the employees with potential a training and a practical experience in
order to prepare them for the responsibility level they could reach;
to offer the employees with potential the guidance and the encouragement
they need in order to have a successful career, in the same company or not,
according to their talent and own aspirations.
The way a career evolves:
the expansion in the beginning of the career, when new skills are obtained,
when the volume of knowledge is rapidly increasing, the competencies are
developing in an accelerated rhythm, and the aspirations and the personal desires
are identified and expressed;
establishing the career path, when the skills and the knowledge obtained at
the expansion level are applied, tested, modified and consolidated through practical
experience and when the complete levels of competence have been achieved, and

The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society … 235
the aspirations are confirmed or corrected;
maturing, when the individual is well paced of his career path and is evolving
according to his own motivations, skills and opportunities.
The study of the career dynamics is necessary before formulating the career
management politics and the preparation of the managerial succession plans. The
study is made by analyzing the path of an employee in the company, taking into
account the performance evaluations results. The tracking of the career dynamics
could indicate the necessary actions for modifying the trends in the case of the
employees with potential, with the help of some activities specific to career
management. The large companies are continually working to implement their
visions. Among their visions, is a commitment to organization excellence and people.
Such a relationship develops a partnership between the company and its people in
focusing on the development of all individuals to support the growth of the business.
Companies are working with programs that support the development of people.
Among these programs are:
Continuous Performance Improvement that allows for annual assessment of
performance against a set of specific objectives agreed upon by an individual and the
manager
Global Staffing which focuses the company‘s efforts on recruitment,
assessment and selection of the right people into the right jobs
Education and Training
A Career Development Planning Process that addresses an individual‘s need
for growth
Succession Planning which enables the organization to have the talent
necessary for meeting its current and future strategic business goals.
The tools serve as a basis for defining skills, development actions, and growth
opportunities and create people development programs. In a global knowledgebased
society the human resource (personnel), representing the organization, play a
critical role in developing it. When companies invest abroad we notice a confrontation
with new organizational cultures and new managerial philosophies. Under such
circumstances, people become both common and key resource, a vital resource, of
today and tomorrow, for all the organizations, that assures their development and
competitive advantage. In the knowledge-based society the development of high
levels of skills and knowledge in the population are critical.
People will need to be more polyvalent or multi-skilled sometimes working in
multidisciplinary teams. Thus, we can say that the duty of a society based on cultural
diversity is that of particularly investing in education, in protecting the health and in
other programmes of social nature. The key principle which must govern the
investment policies, either private or public, in the modern societies, should be the
one that would allow and promote investment in human and social capital.
This principle can be applied both to the systems of ensuring the welfare and the
quality of life and to other aspects of the social and economic development. The
welfare approached traditionally, based on the system of transferable payments,
bureaucratic services and on the so-called social engineering, must make room for
the new approaches regarding the active welfare, the continuous education and the
development of systems of ensuring the quality of life by making use of a set of
investment priority programmes, such as those connected to investment in
education. Education and implicitly investment in education must represent key
components in ensuring an authentic long-run human development, not only all over
the world, but in Romania as well.

236 Marta-Christina Suciu
Investment in people and skills in Romania on the way to become a knowledgebased
society
As an investment, education is an end in itself, or an intermediate end with
knowledge gained from education as the ultimate end. The proportion of education
services used increases when per capita income is higher because of the declining
marginal return on other marginal things. Therefore, higher education in a
knowledge-based economy consists of the following three characteristics:
a. Academic excellence
There are a number of institutions that are qualified research universities capable of
creating new knowledge and be major sources of technological progress, which is
indispensable to modern economic growth
b. Higher education public awareness campaign
In a knowledge-based economy, higher education is no longer a luxury that only the
rich can afford and is restricted to the elite of society. Higher education is required
not only for the continuous growth of the economy, but also for reasons of equity
c. Diversification of higher education
What are the implications of the „knowledge divide’ for Romania in terms of
regional disparities, social exclusion and the urban–rural divide?
The main aspects regarding the knowledge divide (both as cause and effects) refer
to the following aspects:
1. Social polarization
2. Social marginalization of persons with disabilities
3. Limited access to the culture of the population in rural and suburban areas
4. Economic discrepancies between and within the regions
Unlike the pre-industrial and industrial societies where knowledge was acquired
especially through experience-"learning by doing"-, in the knowledge-based economy,
people must learn both before entering the labor market, in school and afterwards as
well, adapting themselves to the more and more complex demands of the worldwide
dynamics. The implementation of the knowledge-based economy in Romania is a
process that can have significant benefits. One of them is the innovating type of
learning which can bring about renewal and reorganization of problems so that we
could survive on the long run in times of change. Students, adults will have to be
taught, in time, how to react in an environment of new, unpredictable conditions of
partial or total uncertainty. Moreover, if in the professional adaptation there exists the
tendency to see the future looking at the past, in the process of innovating learning,
present must be rethought in terms of the future.
Another very important consequence we might witness here in Romania due to
becoming a knowledge-based economy is represented by a change in mentality and
attitude. If in the past the emphasis was put on the classical factors of production, in
the context of the new economy, the qualitative aspects of the human factor must be
rediscovered. The knowledge-based economy gives birth to many other benefits which
can be grouped together and they represent people's ability to understand and accept
cultural differences, think critically, approach problems from a global perspective, and
change their life-style in order to protect the environment as much as possible.
Romania is a country with great potential and at the same time with many problems
to solve, but I believe in its power to overcome them, because "If during your life time
you find a road without any obstacles, you will know for sure that it leads nowhere."

The emergence of intellectual capital in a knowledge-based society … 237
Romania on the way to the alignment process to the EU norms. The European
Higher Education Area & Bologna Process
The University system has started to change by applying important changes imposed
by the alignment to the EU standards. Thus, the majority of the students will obtain
their degrees only after 3-4 years, and afterwards they can have Master Courses
lasting 2 years. These changes are imposed by the application of the Bologna
Declaration, signed by Romania in 1999, which stipulates the alignment of the
Romanian University System to the European one. In addition to that, an important
aspect derived from the Bologna Process refers to the necessity of establishing a list
with all the specializations in which the students can get their degrees. All faculties
will have to adapt their curriculum and reach 180 credits, for 3 years of study (the
exams for one year summing 60 credits). One of the most important motivations for
this reform has been the international recognition of the Romanian graduates. „ This
change is a crucial step that needs to be taken in order to make sure that the
Romanian system is compatible with the European one, in view of the creation of the
European Space of Higher Education, starting from 2010 according to the Bologna
Declaration”, the Minister of Education underlined. The integration of the graduates
will be much easier because they will study in the same way as their European
colleagues. This entire process of alignment to the EU norms is a very important step
taken by Romania in the transition process towards a knowledge-based society, taking
into consideration the powerful impact of globalization on the entire world, and the
changes each country needs to make in order to deal successfully with the new
challenges. In a knowledge-based economy companies will have to rethink their entire
business processes as they embed knowledge into their business processes. In a
knowledge-based company it is very easy to share knowledge with any employee at
any level. The value of the employee is not whom they know, but what they know. The
traditional models of the information hierarchy no longer apply. And that means that
there is an opportunity to flattened organizational hierarchy. So, at the very least a shift
to a knowledge-based company will present an opportunity to flatten organization
charts and hence become more efficient. Some or a lot of operation processes may
become unnecessary. A while ago people used to write memos and make carbon
copies. Nobody does that anymore. In fact business processes have changed and a lot
more people get involved in sharing, thanks to e-mail technology. If customers can
share in the knowledge of a company, with things like: outstanding issues with the
product they are using, promotions being planned in their region, training programs for
the service they use; this can fundamentally alter business processes in the company.
The business process that was earlier a push model with information being pushed out
to the customer now becomes a pull model with the customer pulling relevant
information. This is also true on the supplier side. The supplier can see the inventory
levels and fulfill automatically without the intervention of the company. They can see
the defects that are being logged with the parts that they supplied and pro-actively fix
the error in the part before it becomes a big issue. So, a company has to rethink
business processes, as they become a knowledge-based company. What does this
mean? The knowledge-based economy is here and is rapidly changing the way we do
business. It is driven by globalization and the key success factor is Human Capital. To
be successful in the knowledge-based economy, countries must invest in education,
competencies, and information networks, attracting global talent and creating a culture
of creativity, innovation and risk taking. The knowledge-based economy will have a
profound and positive impact on individual businesses as they embed knowledge in
their business processes and focus on their human capital. It is a challenge that is
global in nature. Investing in people and skills is crucial also for a country like
Romania on its road to a knowledge-based society.

238 Marta-Christina Suciu
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Becker, G. S., Comportamentul uman. O abordare economică, All Publishing House, Bucharest,
1994.
[2] Becker, G. S., Capitalul uman – Analiză teoretică şi empirică, All Publishing House, Bucharest,
1997.
[3] Blöndal, S., Field, S., Girouard, N., Investing in human capital through post-compulsory education
and training, OECD, Economics Department Working Papers, No. 282, Paris, 2002.
[4] Bonciu, C., Introducere în managementul resurselor umane, Colecţia Economică, Credis
Publishing House (University of Bucharest), Bucharest, 2002.
[5] Braham, B. J., Creating a Learning Organisation, Kogan Page Ltd, 1996.
[6] Brooking, A., Intellectual Capital, core asset for the third millennium enterprise, International
Thomson Business Press, 1998.
[7] Cortada, J. W., Rise of the Knowledge Worker, Resources for the Knowledge based Economy,
Butterworth, Heinemann, 1998.
[8] Forysth, P., Developping your staff, Kogan Page Ltd. Publishing House, 2001.
[9] Lefter, V.; Manolescu, A., Managementul resurselor umane, Editura Didactică and Pedagogică
Publishing House, Bucharest, 1995.
[10] Les Cahiers français, juillet-août 2004, Paris ―Comprendre le management‖, pag 52-57.
[11] Marinescu, C. Educaţia. O perspectivă economică, Economica Publishing House, Bucharest, 2001.
[12] Rainbird, H., Training in the Workplace, Macmillan Press LTD, 2000.
[13] Stewart, T. A., Intellectual Capital. The New Wealth of Organizations, Nicholas Brealey
Publishing House, London, 5th edition, 2000.
[14] Suciu, C., Economics. New Economics & Knowledge-Based Society, Part I, ASE Publishing
House, 2002.
[15] Suciu, M. C., Economics, part II, ASE Publishing House, 2004.
[16] Suciu, M. C., Investiţia în educaţie, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000.
[17] Zamfir, C., Dezvoltarea umană a întreprinderii, Academiei Publishing House, Bucharest, 1980.
Cariere, 3rd year, no 49, 50, 51.
[18] OECD, Paris, 1998 – ―Human Capital Investment – An International Comparison‖.
[19] Young Money, no 1, 2005, Internship vs. Trainee.
[20] The Investor in People Standard. How to get started?, UK, London, 1995.
[21] National Progress in Implementing the ICPD Programme of Action1994-2004-Investing in people,
global survey of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), online version.
[22] http://europa.eu.int/pol/educ/index_en.htm.
[23] http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/s19001.htm.
[24] www.derekstockley.com.au/newsletters-05/ 018-human-capital.html.
[25] www.mier.org.my/mierscan/ archives/pdf/elayne4_10_2004.pdf.
[26] www.hku.hk/cepc/.
[27] www.britannica.com.
[28] www.cambridge.org.
[29] www.stanford.edu.

PART EIGHT
SECTION OF PHILOSOFICAL
AND HISTORYCAL SCIENCES

Dinu Săraru
C O N T E N T S
Plaidoirie pour « Des Paysans » 241

Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 241
PLAIDOIRIE POUR « DES PAYSANS »
Dinu SĂRARU 1
Ma plaidoirie d‘aujourd‘hui est en faveur de la renaissance d‘un monde et d‘une
civilisation qui, au début de la troisième millénaire et dans des milieux qui ne sont
pas de tout limités, reçoivent, malheureusement, des connotations envoyant á l‘idée
d‘archaïque, de désuet, de caduque, de vieux, de périmé, pourrant me situer, dans le
meilleur cas, dans la zone de la candeur. Mais je m‘entête à croire dans la cause de
la renaissance de la civilisation rurale malgré de tant de questions guetantes et
rusées, qui me séduisent sans cesse, et, au risque d‘être contraint de me confronter
avec l‘ironie la soi-disant savante, d‘une soi-disant élite qui ne fatiguent pas d‘agiter –
même d‘une manière de plus en plus agressive – l‘étendard, du nouvel type
d‘internationalisme dissous, de l‘intégration à tout prix, en abandonnant tout le passé,
toute marque distinctive, toute tradition, en considérant rétrograde même la simple
réclamation onomastique d‘une certaine identité dans l‘avantage de l‘indésirable
conviction, cette-ci étant vraiment réactionnaire, d‘après laquelle le procès de
synchronisation avec l‘occident implique l‘abandon du monde paysan, l‘abandon de
tous les mythes de ce monde qui ont constitués la source de la spiritualité nationale
et de notre être nationale même.
Je ne crois pas que la vocation fondatrice de la foi sur la renaissance de la
civilisation rurale, ayant des raisons sociales et économiques tellement profondes
dans notre espace géographique, peut être inhibée par la modernité naturellement
prétendue naturelle, de la troisième millénaire, où nous sommes entrés, à la fin de la
millénaire paysanne, de l‘identité des roumains de qui parle, avec tant d‘arguments
charmants l‘académicien Razvan Theodorescu, partisan – dans de nombreux de ses
livres – d‘un esprit foncière, aulique, européen des roumains, mais qui n‘hésite pas
de souligner la permanence de notre espace géographique qui est la ruralité, en
affirmant que cette ruralité este dominante pour les roumains et leur histoire, à partir
de la genèse et de la fondation des villages, c‘est une ruralité, je cite encore, qui
appartient à un certain type de conception, d‘oralité, d‘écriture, une ruralité retrouvée
dans une zone fondamentale de la vie, cella d‘habiter, déroulée, pendant des siècles,
dans un mélange, toujours le même, jusqu‟ici, j‘ajoute de nouveau, du village et de la
ville, illustration admirable de la syntagme « urbi in rure ».
« Chez Nous », disait Liviu Rebreanu dans son discours célèbre à l‘Académie
Roumaine de 29 mai 1940, « chez nous, la seule réalité permanente a été et est y
restée, le paysan ». Je n‘insisterais plus sur le caractère polémique imposé par
l‘approchement d‘un tel sujet qui, depuis plus d‘un siècle, sous le nom de « la
question paysanne », enflamme les esprits par des questions et des appelles
inquiétantes sans cesse, par leur substrat encore incendiaire, sociale et politique,
substrat qui a trouvé une expression brillante, au début du XX ème siècle qui vient de
ce terminer, dans le pas moins incendiaire « 1907 depuis le printemps jusqu‘à
l‘automne ». L‘important est, pourtant, d‘observer que les arguments en faveur
d‘abandonner, pour des raisons d‘intégration, la soi-disant intégration, les attributs de
l‘identité, comme un sort de tribut qui s‘ imposera d‘être payer au nouveau type de
devenir Turques, ne pourra pas être séparés de la renonciation de la civilisation
rurale, de son abandon et, pas du tout au hasard, le procès est déterminé et
accompagné par une aiguë pauvreté paysanne, endémique aujourd‘hui, en
1 Membre titulaire, fondateur de l‟Académie des Scientifiques de Roumanie.

242 Dinu Săraru
Roumanie, résultats éloquents de la « deuxième destruction des payants et du travail
agricole », de laquelle parle, avec inquiétude, le professeur Ilie Bădescu, le président
de l‘Association des Sociologues de la Roumanie, qui ne se gêne pas de faire référence,
d‘une manière suggestive, à une phrase bien-connue de Manolescu en 1934:
« Les gouvernants du pays – disait le grand économiste à l‘époque – se jouent avec
l‘âme de la foule avec une liberté et une frénésie qui seulement une cruauté morbide
pourrait l‘expliquer. »
La ruralisation de la pauvreté, en Roumanie, peut être un argument de l‘abandon du
village roumain qui a fondé le millénaire paysan des roumains, millénaire qui vient de
se terminer d‘une façon malheureuse, justement par cette ruralisation de la pauvreté,
mais devant l‘histoire, un tel abandon ne pourra jamais être justifié parce qu‘elle
implique l‘abandon de la ration d‘appartenir à une nation, poussée brutalement de
revendiquer sa propre priorité apatride des services à la disposition de n‘importe qui
et de la livrée sous la boutonnière de laquelle le cœur qui batte n‘a aucune
importance. Ni le corne d'abondance, promis des uns, en échange de l‘abandon
mentionné ne peut pas justifier la cruauté morbide du jeux avec l‘âme de la foule de
qui parle Manolescu, en n‘ont parlant du fait que la philosophie du monde capitaliste,
qu‘on a embrassée après cinquante années d‘illusions regardant la richesse du
communisme totalitaire, suppose l‘engagement avec toute son être en service du
slogan « par vous-mêmes », qui n‘a pas du tout un caractère isolateur et qui n‘est
pas contraire à l‘idée de l‘intégration et de la synchronisation.
« La fierté et le pouvoir moral d‘une nation – disait Iorga – ne réside tant dans les
éléments matériaux qu‘elles en possèdent, et qui pourra être incapable d‘empêcher
la chute d‘une société ruinée, en répétant ce que c‘est passé souvent dans l‘histoire
avec la chute des nombreux faraud bourrés de nuance carthaginoise, que dans la
liaison spirituelle entre les membres actifs de la nation et au delà de leur temps,
parmi lesquels leur précurseurs, aussi, qui laissent un héritage dont on doit garder la
meilleure part avec le soin le plus grand, les vivants et les morts ayant ensemble
dans l‘augmentation du même trésor. »
L‘intégration européenne où euro-atlantique, la synchronisation avec le progrès du
monde occidental, but noble de ce début millénaire, progrès bénéfique pour le
progrès de la société contemporaine dans son entier, donc pour la Roumanie aussi,
un procès précipité du rouleau de la globalisation qui, à son tour, tient du progrès de
l‘humanité et il n‘est pas bien et il n‘est pas naturel et on ne peut pas en être contre –
à l‘intégration – mais cela ne peut pas se passer, d‘une manière profitable, de la
perspective de doctrine de la Fondation Nationale pour La Civilisation Rurale « Des
Paysans » – par l‘abandon de l‘identité, mais, au contraire, par assumer le risque de
sa dignité et de son morale, par la défense et l‘education des valeurs fondamentales
de l‘univers spirituel définitoire, surtout aujourd‘hui quand les drapeaux des grandes
nations ne fatiguent de s‘agiter avec de l‘orgueil, souvent levés par les mains de
ceux qui sont encouragés dans la triste aventure de la perte de leur propre identité.
L‘appelle de la Fondation « des Paysans » est de rester solidaires avec les sources –
l‘emplacement et la foi – qui sont et qui seront toujours le fondement de la verticalité
des peuples dans l‘histoire et leur contribution originale, décisive, au nom de
l‘harmonie, du progrès social, morale et culturel de l‘humanité. La Fondation
Nationale pour La Civilisation Rurale « Des Paysans », avec laquelle s‘identifient
représentants éminents de la culture et de la science roumaine contemporaine et qui
a comme but manifeste la renaissance de la civilisation rurale, est née du désespoir
et de l‘espérance. Elle a pris sa source, aussi du devoir ressentie par chaque de ses
partisans, de rendre justice à l‘histoire des humbles et des anonymes de la
Roumanie qui, d‘après notre acte fondateur, écrit avec l‘académicien Razvan

Plaidoirie pour « Des Paysans » 243
Theodorescu, « ont créé, dans la plus part de la richesse matérielle et spirituelle de
ce pais, la place des paysans dans notre civilisation ayant, depuis toujours,
essentielle, et son héritage accablant. » Aussi, dans cet acte fondateur, nous
exprimons notre conviction que, « regardant au tour de nous et scrutant la société
roumaine d‘aujourd‘hui et son abeille royale, qui est l‘emplacement du village
roumain, nous trouverons encore, dans l‘espace paysan, un immense réservoir pour
la possible prospérité de lendemain ».
Après 50 ans de dépaysement, sous l‘empire d‘une doctrine néfaste, qui a conduit à
la perte de la propriété et du culte du travail vu comme sacré, mais à l‘oublie de
l‘appartenance à une spiritualité, dans les yeux du paysan s‘est allumée la croyance
que sa Golgotha est fini, et qu‘il se trouve, en fin dans le moment de la délivrance.
Parce que la terre a été pour les paysans, plus que seulement une propriété, mais
une religion en même temps; un monde des pensés, le même qui a donné naissance
à Miorița. Nous n‘avons pas eu, malheureusement, dans ce 11 ans qui sont passés
de la Révolution, de nous poser la question du vide qui a laissé dans l‘âme du
paysan la disparition de l‘argument qui faisait un bucher de sa passion pour la terre.
Il est grand est ce vide? N‘est-il comme une spiritualité entière?
La passion pour la terre est de nouveau née très tôt après la victoire de la
Révolution, mais malheureusement, elle s‘est allumée de nouveau par un crime, le
premier crime pour la terre après cinq décennies de l‘absence de la passion pour la
terre et cela s‘est passé dans une soirée de mars 1990, au 25 mars, même au jour
de la fête de l‘Annonciation.
Mais bientôt, cette tragédie a été suivie – et ca continue aujourd‘hui aussi – d‘un état
d‘esprit que j‘ai nommé inquiétude, désillusion, de confusion, d‘impuissance. L‘amour
pour la terre, y compris comme une religion, semble de s‘éteindre à cause de
l‘impuissance de sa transformation, tellement réveillée, dans une chance de
délivrance du danger qui menace le village roumain aujourd‘hui, la pauvreté
paysanne mentionnée.
A côté de l‘autoroute Bucarest-Pitesti où roulent à grand vitesse les derniers types de
limousines Alfa Romeo, les paysans labourent de nouveau avec l‘araire au bois et
deux chevaux efflanqués.
Une bibliothèque rurale n‘as reçu pas un livre depuis 11 ans, épouvantable ! On
entretenait la culture et la civilisation avec des piles de bouteilles de Coca-Cola et
des réclames des tavernes, pourtant des noms américaines, étouffant les sanglots
de Miorița, la gaité de foire de la fanfare.
Dans les marchés de Bărăgan et de la Campagne Roumaine, les paysans vient avec
leurs actes de propriété à la main pour vendre la terre pour 1.000.000 l‘hectare; leur
maïs reste étendu ignoré de tous, tandis que les épis ont brulés pendent l‘hiver
passé, les feux dans les cheminés, au lieu des bois.
« Quand nous réexaminons la situation des paysans – dit professeur Ilie Bădescu
dans son étude intitulé La deuxième chute de la paysannerie – sans nous laisser
attirés par le moulin des mots des politiciens, nous constatons que depuis 1989
jusqu‘à présent, on n‘a fait aucune faveur pour cette part de la société roumaine,
aucune réforme constructive, c‘est à dire on n‘a rien organisé, ni pour la production,
ni pour la vente des produits, ni pour l‘approvisionnement des paysans avec des
machines et des grains. »
La situation est nettement inférieure à celle du début du siècle, quant un régime
oligarchique aussi, offrait au monde paysan la solution du mouvement coopératif
qu‘on appliquait intensivement.

244 Dinu Săraru
Il y avait, cependant, les temps de Spiru Haret. Débutant avec la retraite de l‘état de
l‘agriculture et avec la destruction de la marché autochtone par des imports
intéressés qui ont fait que seulement le consommateur soit d‘origine roumaine,
pendant que l‘ail même est portugais, la réforme oligarchique a met l‘empreint
destructive sur le village roumain ainsi que pas plus tard que mardi soir le nouveau
ministre de l‘agriculture déclarait qu‘on ne pourra pas ignorer, à partir de février les
imports du blé... dans le pais du blé!!!
Voilà comme la vie impose une intervention académique, la marche a quatre pates
dans une géographie qui, d‘ailleurs, avait toutes les chances de nous offrir l‘occasion
d‘un haut débat philosophique.
La renaissance de la civilisation roumaine devient un impérative de ce début du
troisième millénaire, qui, dans cette manière ne peut pas être séparée de la marque
paysan qui l‘a précédé.
La Fondation « Des Paysans » est née de cette douleur. Son orgueil est la
renaissance de la civilisation rurale, la foi est que le paysan reste encore, un pilon
fondamental de cette pais, que le village roumain, porte, les signes de notre identité
nationale.
De cette espoir que le future appartient toujours à la civilisation rurale, est né
« L‘appelle pour le paysan roumain », lancé sous la rédaction de prof. Ilie Bădescu
par la fondation « Des Paysans » et par laquelle la Fondation soutienne la
constitution des Association Communautaires rurales qui pourront permettre la
renaissance du crédit rurale, à l‟école rurale de redevenir ce qu‘elle était, au paysan
renforcer ses biens, de s‘adresser à la société elle-même – comme autre fois –par
une loi du service social, au prêtre et au chantre d‟église, au spécialiste de redevenir
les pilons de l‘état exactement comme Spiru Haret les a remplacés.
Ce procès de paysannerie – et je pense au fermier sans cesse – on dit dans le
manifeste, devra stopper le procès sauvage inverse, par l‘instauration de la culture
du travail, la culture de la santé, la culture de l‘âme, dans la perspective d‘un vaste
mouvement réformateur au niveau national, dans toute sa dimension.
L‘intégration européenne sans identité nationale et l‘identité nationale sans le village
de nos origines sont, dans la conception de la Fondation « des Paysans »,
inconcevables! Ma foi totale dans la renaissance de la civilisation roumaine à la base
la conviction que « la gloire appartienne au ceux qui aiment plus la lutte que le
succès ». Cette conviction m‘oblige de regarder en face toujours la vérité d‘une
réalité dramatique. La narration brève « Pour qui je lutte » veut exprimer la situation
que je viens de parler. Elle vienne chez moi, à Slătioara, vers le soir, à l‘aube du jour
des Saintes Brâncoveni, avec un une brassé de fleurs mise sur un panier plain de
piments et de tomates et de livèche et d‘une touffe entière de basilic répandant, peut
être, pêle-mêle, une arôme séduisante, et je dévore des yeux Măgura et je me suis
rendu compte, dans la lumière du soleil, quand la lumière devient de verre, que ses
forêts ont commencé déjà d‘être guettées par les rouillures de l‘automne.
- Comment vont nos paysans? Je demande à cette femme qui n‘est pas été prêt à
rire après tant de mésaventures pitoyables qui se sont passées dans sa vie,
comptant à peine soixante ans.
Ses pieds et ses mains, comme de racines tordues canin et brûlés comme des pots
oubliés dans le four au delà du temps qu‘il faut et noires violacé et abîmés.
Mais son visage joyeux et ses yeux riants comme dans nos jeunesses et dans les
pommettes de son visage la même palpitation de la vie prêt à déborder.

Plaidoirie pour « Des Paysans » 245
- Comment vont nos paysans? Je demande encore croyant qu‘elle n‘a pas entendu.
- Ceux qu‟y restent plus! Elle, hochant sa tête timide maintenant, éteignant la lumière
sereine de ses yeux comme deux marrons détachées de leurs bogues, claires et
encore jeunes et inquiets.
- Se sont amoindris, je me hâte à l‘épier.
- Vachement, dit-elle. Leur temps este passé... autre monde... qui a aujourd‟hui la
patience et l‟ambition de se faire paysan?
- On n‟enfante plus de paysans - j‘essais de plaisanter.
- Pour rien au monde, dit-elle. Maintenant, ceux qui sont plus se préparent de mourir.
- Voyons, je m‘ambitionne de la faire être la moitié dans un nécrologue je n‘en ai
jamais pensé jusqu‘à ce moment là... À Potereși... je dis, et je vois devant mes yeux
la fête de la Sainte Marie blanchissant des long voiles portées par les paysannes et
des chemises avec fioritures des hommes au chapeaux noirs à la main, montant sur
la sentier de l‘église de Cociobor à la fête patronale fameuse au tours de l‘établissement
de l‘intendant du domaine Ursianu, les tables dressées au bouteilles de vin
rouge, brillant dans le soleil doux de l‘après midi de l‘août, quand chez moi, à
Slătioara, la balance du temps se laisse vers l‘automne.
- À Potreși qui est paysan encore? Me demande-t-elle maintenant...
- Les Gemenele, je dis, et les Terteci.
- Ils n‟y a plus, tu ne connais personne, sauf Salomia et votre filleul, Gena de Năiţă
Lucean... mais elle...
- À Turicesti!... Iancu de Bătrâna, Checiu, Aurica de Totoi...
- C‟est bien fini. De ce que tu sais, sauf moi, que tu vois, autre monde!
- Les Geanovis?
- Dans la terre. Il y aura leurs enfants, Vică, maintenant vachement fatigué, et
Gheorghe, le forestier, mais lui il ne se lève plus que rarement de la banquette
devant la porte... et, quand à lui, il n‟a pas été un vrai paysan, il a couru les forêts de
Voineasa et nous a pourchassé à la cueillette de framboise...
- À Gurgui, je demande pressé si comme je voudrais y trouvait, au sommet de la
colline, couvert de tant des maisons nouvelles, un paysan.
- À Gurgui, qui soit resté? s‟étonnait-elle... Les descendants, des petits-fils surtout...
Revenus de la mine et perdus au début des bandes étroites de terre. Ni la creuser ils
ne savent plus à passer sur la mule.
- Chez Zamfira... j‘ose de nouveau...
- Chez Zamfira, Culiţă le chantre et sa femme, Mariţa, et plus bas, Leonică. Je ne
sais plus, et j‟habite ici, qui me salue dans son chemin
- Les Hăbuciș?
- Désert, se défend elle de leur mémoire; ni la trace de leur mort n‟y est restée.
- Et les noces qu‟on fait Dimanche, à Coasta Corbului?
- Ceux sont des Lăbăuș – ils se fondent paysans, ils sont des gens plus résistants, et
les enfants qui se maris sont des paysans. On verra de quoi ils iront vivre...
- Pour qui je lutte? Je me demande, resté seul auprès de son demeure, devant le
panier de fleurs, aux dahlias sanglantes et l‘aster des Alpes grand comme la roue de

246 Dinu Săraru
la charrue et la reine – des – nuits et de renoncules des marrais et de zinnias et une
touffe entière de basilic comme les paysans mettent dans la chandelle au jour des
morts, comme ils mettaient je me vois obligé de corriger.
Moi même, je me promène à Slătioara dans un monde nouvel, jeun, beau,
orgueilleux, jetant mes regards aux voitures qui roulent comme l‘arc en ciel, comme
disait Năiță Leucean, rarement une femme avec la fourche à glaner le foin sur
l‘épaule ou un homme avec la faux au coût. Et brusquement je me souviens, troublé,
des vingt vieillards à l‘aube de Sainte Marie, au jour de morts des Sărăruș. Appuyés
contre le mur en attendant les brioches. Je ne les connais plus. Sauf Gena de Năiță
Lucean...
- Comment ca va fille? Je la demande en mettant dans ses mains tendues un panier
de grappes apportées de Drăgăşani.
- Autre foi ceux grappes muraient chez nous aussi, disait elle si comme s‘excuser
qu‘elle est avec ses mains tendues dans le cimetière à l‘aube de Saint Marie. Au
sommet de Măgura, au-dessus des Lacs noirs, ils commençaient à mûrir. Nous
avons une mode des grappes petites, jaunes, et quand on entrait dans le vignoble,
on était ravi de leur parfum.
- Pour qui je lutte? je me demande.
Cinquante années de socialisme et le progrès du monde, que nous en manque, ont
transformé en désert le village roumain, l‘ont dépourvu de la passion pour la terre et
ont éloignait ses « habitants » du culte du travail ... Nous apprenons à peine pas
revenir au temps où les grappes au sommet de Măgura au-dessus des Lacs noirs
devenaient mûres, mais le moral de continuité sous le signe d‘une civilisation qui a
donné naissance à notre identité, aujourd‘hui si fragile ...
Il est, dans ma foi, le dernier moment. Mais ce moment, si nous ne réveillons, sera
dans notre avantage... Il est à nous de rentrer dans le troisième millénaire intégrés
dans la verticalité de la civilisation que nous a donnée le sentiment d‘appartenance à
une histoire et à une foi et à un monde des pensés et des sentiments qui nous ont
légitimé en temps et en dehors duquel nous ne serons plus nous.
Voilà pour quoi la Fondation pour la Civilisation Rurale « Des Paysans » est née
comme un cri de douleur qui ne pourrait et ne devrait être étouffé, venant d‘attire
l‘attention sur le drame de dépaysanement et de la perte de l‘identité nationale et de
l‘esprit dans un monde soumis agressivement au totalitarisme de la globalisation pas
moins nuisible, malheureusement, que sont revers, le fondamentalisme identitaire.
L‘intégration culturale – but noble de la fin du siècle et du début du millénaire – ne se
pourra passer d‘une manière profitable, d‘après la perspective de la Fondation pour
la Civilisation Rurale « Des Paysans », par l‘abandon de l‘identité, mais au contraire,
en s‘assumant le risque de la dignité et de sa morale, par la défiance et la culture
des valeurs fondamentales de l‘univers spirituel définitoires et surtout aujourd‘hui
quand les drapeaux de grands nations ne fatiguent pas, de s‘agiter avec de l‘orgueil,
souvent levés par les mains de ceux qui sont encouragés dans la triste aventure de
la perte de leur propre identité.
Militant pour la renaissance de la civilisation rurale, la Fondation pour la Civilisation
Rurale « Des Paysans », vous appelle ainsi de rester solidaires avec les sources –
l‘espace et la foi – qui se sont fondés et seront toujours fondés sur la verticalité des
peoples dans l‘histoire et leur contribution originale, décisive, au nom de l‘harmonie,
au progrès social, moral et cultural de l‘humanité.

PART NINE
SECTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
OF INFORMATION

Mihai Drăgănescu
CONTENTS
Broadband Internet and the Knowledge Society 249
Doina Banciu
Unitary retrieval of library information 265
Andrei Danchiv, Mircea Bodea, Claudius Dan
Chopper Technique Overview Focused on Base Amplifier Optimisation 273
Ștefan Iancu
Social Impact of the Technology of Information and Communications 287
Neculai Andrei
Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for
Unconstrained Optimization 293

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 249
BROADBAND INTERNET AND THE KNOWLEGDE SOCIETY
Mihai DRĂGĂNESCU 1
Dedication
The present paper is dedicated to prof. George Metakides.
Abstract. The paper presents the technical characteristics of the broadband communication
and its role in the development of Internet communications, to ensure construction of a
global network of knowledge. The author presents, also, content notion of knowledge society
and the role of communication on broadband Internet in building this company, include
functional vectors and technologic knowledge society, with the semantic web, grid
development and development as a knowledge network. The paper ends with final
considerations that indicate that the ultimate goal should be building the knowledge society
which will be a company of innovation, training general of intelligence, both human and
artificial, and the company will integrate all social levels by using the broadband network.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Internet is the main technological vector of the information society. For the
knowledge society technological and functional vectors were defined (A.L. Barabási,
2002). These are not only theoretical concepts, they are also pillars for action toward
such a society.
Broadband Internet becomes together with artificial intelligence the main technological
vectors for the knowledge society. Broadband Internet is not a simple
technical notion. In this paper this notion is examined in the context of the concept of
knowledge society.
2. LARGE BANDWIDTH IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS
AND BROAD-BAND INTERNET
If in the field of classical telecommunications the bandwidth is smaller or greater after
the technical necessity of various types of transmissions (A.L. Barabási, 2002).
Instead, the contemporary Broadband Internet has a more complex approach,
looking at the same time at three main factors:
(1) The INTERNET as a means for communication and services, because Internet
becomes ''a single general-purpose communications platform capable of delivering a
wide range of content and applications'' (B.R. Schatz, 2002). Upgrading the Internet
to the broadband is a requirement for the Knowledge Society.
(2) The largest possible range of applications and services using broadband
technologies, for the benefit of the users, but also for the economy of the industry of
broadband transmission, and for the progress of the entire society.
(3) Broadband local access links to the homes, small enterprises and offices, to
make the Internet more useful to most people. As it was observed ''all hinges on
higher capacity in the 'first mile' or 'last mile' (our note M.D.: first mile or last mile is
the same thing, depending how the local access link is looked at) that connects the
user to the larger communication network (B.R. Schatz, 2002). Broadband refers
most com-monly to high-speed transmission services aimed at residential and small
business users. (Broadband connection ''is often adequate for large organizations
such as universities and corporations, but enhanced connections to homes are
needed to reap the full social and economic promise'' (B.R. Schatz, 2002).
1 President of the Section for Science and Technology of the Romanian Academy, Former President of
the Romanian Academy. Founding, full member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists.

250 Mihai Drăgănescu
For the Knowledge Society we may add a fourth point,
(4) Broadband together with Semantic Web and Grid technologies to assure the
construction of a global network of knowledge (see part 3 of this paper).
All these factors together are characterizing the broadband Internet.
Taking into account all these factors we can not speak of broadband Internet in a
country like Romania, excepting perhaps a few homes that are using television
cables also for digital transmission of data. It seems that also DSL begins to be used.
Still, because there is no large home use of Internet, and the Internet is not yet
extended at the entire geographic scale of the country, we can not speak today of
real broadband in Romania. With best dial-up links (speed 56 kbps) on twisted wires,
this is under the broadband range (even IDSN technologies are under broadband
range).
The first mentioned factor of Broadband Internet is technological. The firstgeneration
Broadband Internet used primarily DSL (digital subscriber line) and
coaxial cable technologies (shortly, cable) and future generations will use optical fiber
cables (shortly, fibers) and wireless technologies. The thresholds for Broadband
Internet are given by the technologies used: DSL, cable, optical fiber, wireless. The
threshold of DSL technology may be evaluated from the following table (A.L.
Barabási, 2002), (Eu. Comm., 2005)
Length of the link Speed of data transmission
5,5 Km ADSL 1,544 Mb/s
4,9 Km ADSL 2,048 Mb/s
3,7 Km ADSL 6,312 Mb/s
2,7 Km ADSL 8,448 Mb/s
1,4 Km VDSL 12,96 Mb/s
910 m VDSL 25,82 Mb/s
300 m VDSL 51,84 Mb/s
ADSL - DSL asymmetric
VDSL - DSL for very great speed
The technical characteristics of Broadband Internet are: speed and capacity (often
taken as equivalent), latency (delay = how long it takes to deliver a packet of data
across the network to its destination), jitter (variations in latency), symmetry between
upstreams and downstreams speed of transmissions or capacity, and in many cases
always-on (instead of dial-up that introduces delays to dial-up, to negotiate a
connection, and to log in) that is instant access to Web or other Internet services
(very important for health monitoring, security etc) and others (B.R. Schatz, 2002).
The second factor mentioned above is an important social and economical issue of
broadband. In a paper published in 1997, Robert W. Lucky, former Executive Director
of the Communications Sciences Research Division at AT&T Bell Labora-tories
(1982-1992), examines the relations between social expectations and new
telecommunications and Internet services: ''What, indeed, does society want? It is a
deeply important and elusive question. The history of telecommunications services in
recent years does not fill us with optimism that we know what society wants, or even
that we know how to go about finding an answer to this question. It is filled with
market failures like the Picturephone. Even the successes like the World Wide Web,
were unexpected… […] Perhaps the ultimate truth is that there is no real answer of
what society wants. Society does not know what it will want in the future'' (I. Foster,

Broadband Internet and the Knowledge Society 251
1998). There are many examples of failures, successes and doubts of proposed
applications {2}. In such applications both the private sector and the government may
have to play a role. In the case of Minitel in France it was the government mandate
and subsidy to ''break the start-up barrier'' (I. Foster, 1998).
About the role of private investment and of government action one observes: ''For
more than a decade, broadband in the last mile has been understood to be a key to
maximizing the benefits of the communications and information infrastructure.
Now, as then, there are multiple technologies and industries that can advance the
infrastructure in general and broadband in particular, optical fiber systems continue to
promise the most bandwidth, but at the highest cost and risk. Private investment is
still viewed as an essential ingredient, but it continues to be inhibited by uncertainty
about what consumers will buy and what business models will succeed. Today, as
then, it is understood that government action (or inaction) has the potential to both
inhibit and promote investment ‗‗(B.R. Schatz, 2002).
The third factor mentioned refers to the links for homes and small enterprises. In
USA '' following roughly a decade of development and experimentation and a recent
period of rapid growth, first-generation broadband services, using primarily cable
modems and digital subscriber line (DSL), are available in many markets. This
progress is offset by recent business failures and uncertainty about the pace of future
investment - factors that in part reflect slow growth in subscriptions for broadband
services. Today, dial-up connections over the public telephone network remain the
dominant way homes and small businesses connect to the Internet or other online
services. Broadband, though, not only provides higher-performance options for
connecting to familiar Internet and other online services, but its capacity and "alwayson"
nature also enable new network-based activities. Together, these capabilities
promise significant social and economic benefits'' (B.R. Schatz, 2002).
In the domain of first-generation broadband services, using DSL and coaxial
cables, there is a race between these two technologies (only in 1998 that deployment
began in earnest, though experimental broadband trials began in 1980s - in USA
(B.R. Schatz, 2002). The possibilities of broadband Internet are appreciated as
follows: ''Today's residential broadband capabilities, which are typified by several
hundred kilobits per second to several megabits per second downstream and several
hundreds of kilobits per second upstream, support such applications as Web
browsing, e-mail, messaging, games and audio download and streaming. These are
possible with dial-up, but their performance and convenience are significantly
improved with broadband. At downstream speeds of several tens of megabits per
second, new applications are enabled, including streaming of high-quality video, such
as MPEG-2 (a standard defined by the Moving Picture Experts Group) or high
definition television HDTV), download of full-length (70 to 190-minute) audiovisual
files in tens of minutes rather than hours, and rapid download of other large data
files. Reaching this plateau would enable true television- personal computing
convergence. With comparable upstream speeds, computer-mediated multimedia
communications become possible, including distance education, telecommuting, and
so forth. With FTTH (Fiber to the Home), a new performance plateau with gigabit
speeds both up- and downstream would be reached. The applications that would
take full advantage of this capacity remain to be seen'' (B.R. Schatz, 2002).
FTTH is not widely available at present. Investment in FTTH in USA has lagged other
options because of costs and uncertainty about demand for its capabilities. At the
same time, a variety of wireless options provide cost-effective alternatives to wire
lines, or complementing wire line technologies.

252 Mihai Drăgănescu
In the American report (B.R. Schatz, 2002) the following vision is presented
concerning communication technology: ''In the long term, two last mile technologies
will dominate: fiber for maximum performance and wireless for coverage and mobility.
Pervasive deployment of fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) and ultimately ''fiber-to-thedesktop''
are inevitable. Eager's benefits include not only enormous potential
bandwidth but also longer service lifetime, upgradability and ability for rapid turn-on
of new services that any format-transparent medium provides.
In addition, unlike wireless, FTTH solutions are not constrained by spectrum
availability or the rate at which regulatory processes can make spectrum available.
Completion of the last mile bottleneck using these two technologies would also
provide a remedy to the current economic leveling-off of both the telecommunications
and computer industries.''
3. THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY AND BROADBAND INTERNET
The notion of Knowledge Society
In 1986, based on the philosophical concept of the laws of tendencies, I prefigured a
future society of knowledge (N. Kafatos, 2001), (M. Kafatos, 1994). Only in the years
1990's the notion of Knowledge Society gained momentum due to the works of Peter
Drucker and others. In the last 4-5 years the Knowledge Society was recognized as a
new stage of the information era, respectively of the information society.
For the knowledge society, pioneering ideas were advanced, as mentioned before,
by Peter Drucker (M. Drag., 2002) and apud (M. Drag., 2002). It may be mentioned
that for the developing countries he considered they will not be able to rely upon
lower cost labour for their comparative advantage and they will need to excel in the
application of knowledge (M. Drag., 2002); contributions were also made by Lundvall
(1992) and others (M. Drag., 2002).
In a 'Report for the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology
Development' (M. Drag., 2002), published in 1998, the notion of Knowledge Society
is already very clear presented: ''More recently the term 'knowledge society has been
used to shift the emphasis from ICTs as 'drivers of change to a perspective where
these technologies are regarded as tools which may provide a new potential for
combining the information embedded in ICTs systems with the creative potential and
knowledge embodied in people.
ICTs are best considered as tools or facilitators which may substitute under certain
conditions for other means of knowledge creation in innovative societies (OECD
1996a).
These technologies do not create the transformations in society by themselves; they
are designed and implemented by people in their social, economic and technological
contexts'' (M. Drag., 2002). In this document, knowledge society was already
conceived as a society of innovation systems and of generalised learning {4}.
Recently, Philippe Busquin, le comissaire européen pour la recherche, presented
actions for the VI-th European frame-plan of research taking into account the
objectives of knowledge society (M. Drag., 1988).
The new program eEurope 2005 will establish actions for‘re-skilling for the
knowledge society' and for 'knowledge economy' (M. Schwartz, 1994).
The technological and functional vectors of the knowledge society.
In (A.L. Barabási, 2002), (M. Kafatos, 1994) were defined the main vectors of the
knowledge society as follows:

Technological vectors:
Internet;
Electronic book;
Artificial Intelligence;
Nano electronics.
Functional vectors:
Knowledge management;
E-learning;
E-health;
E-government;
E-economy;
Broadband Internet and the Knowledge Society 253
Deepening of fundamental knowledge;
A system of innovation.
Environmental protection and a sustainable society.
The Internet for the knowledge society represents much more than for the
information society of today. First, for the knowledge society the Internet must be
extended to reach the entire population and broadband becomes an essential
necessity.
Secondly, new technical and functional advances like the semantic web, the GRID
and the generalized knowledge network are already envisaged for the future
knowledge society.
The semantic web.
For the knowledge exchange, the Internet is approaching the limits of its
effectiveness (this does not depend on broadband Internet, as powerful as this may
be, but on the way the information is considered, as data, information or knowledge).
Knowledge is information, but it is mainly semantic information [1, pp.64-65] and ''this
requires a quantum leap in functionality - for looking for words in text to automatically
identifying documents containing related concepts'' (M. Riezeman, 2001).
The Internet will evolve then in a new information infrastructure that will support
interaction with abstraction.
This new Internet for the knowledge society was named Inter-space by Bruce R.
Schatz: ''Concept navigation will become a standard function in the Interspace just as
the document browsing is in the Internet'' (M. Riezeman, 2001).
Bruce R. Schatz sees an evolution of the Global Information Infrastructure in three
waves from Arpanet to Internet and Interspace as follows:
ARPANET 1965-1985 Data packets e-mail
INTERNET 1985-2000 Objects (of information) Document browsing
INTERSPACE 2000 - --- Concepts Concept navigation
Without entering here into technical details, we shall cite B. R. Schatz (M. Riezeman,
2001):

254 Mihai Drăgănescu
''… This second wave took a decade to
peak in functionality, and it has continued
during the past five years with the
consolidation of document browsing
technologies in commercial distribution.
The transition about to occur in the
third wave will involve concept
navigation, a radical new paradigm for
network information retrieval.
Concepts, which contain indexing
and meaning for groups of objects, are
useful for analyzing content and
correlating knowledge. During the phase,
information retrieval will move beyond
searching individual repositories to
analyzing heterogeneous data across
sources and subjects.
Just as the telesophy 1 prototype led to
Mosaic, the Interspace prototype will lead
to a widely used system with standard
protocols that support direct inter action.
With community knowledge. Each
specialized community knowledge. Each
specialized community will maintain its
own repositories, indexing these
collections on their own machines.
The Interspace will interconnect all
these knowledge spaces, enabling
switching across communities by navigating
concepts across repositories.
Within five years, the Interspace
will be incorporated into the information
infrastructure.
Within a decade, concept navigation
will be a ubiquitous commercial service
on the global network.
…''
1 B. R. Schatz, ―Telesophy–A System for Manipulating
the Knowledge of a Community‖ Proc.IEEE
Global Comm Conf. (Globecom 87), IEEE Press,
Piscatawa, N.J. 1987, pp.1181/1186
Tim Berners-Lee who invented the Web in 1989, now director of the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C) and a researcher at the Laboratory for Computer Science at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was and is preoccupied the Web to carry
more semantics. He and his co-authors wrote recently: ''Semantic web agent
keywords indicate terms whose semantics, or meaning, were defined for the agent
through the Semantic Web. The Semantic Web is not a separate Web but an
extension of the current one, in which information is given well-defined meaning,
better enabling computers and people to work in cooperation. The first steps in
weaving the Semantic Web into the structure of the existing Web are already under
way. In the near future, these developments will usher in significant new functionality
as machines become much better able to process and ―understand‖ the data that
they merely display at present.
The essential property of the World Wide Web is its universality. The computers will
find the meaning of semantic data by following hyperlinks to definitions of key terms
and rules for reasoning about them logically. The resulting infrastructure will spur the
development of automated Web services such as highly functional agents. Ordinary
users will compose Semantic Web pages and add new definitions and rules using
off-the-shelf software that will assist with semantic markup'' (N.A.Press, 2002) {5}.
The meaning of semantic data is to be found in ontologism: ‗‗ontology is a collection
of statements written in a language (such as RDF) {6} that define the relations
between concepts and specify logical rules for reasoning about them.
Computers will ―understand‖ the meaning of semantic data on a Web page by
following links to specified ontologies '' (N.A.Press, 2002).
RDF (Resource Description Framework is a technology for expressing the meaning
of terms and concepts in a form that computers can process: ''RDF can use XML for
its syntax and URIs to specify entities, concepts, properties and relations''
(N.A.Press, 2002). URI (Universal Resource Identifier) ''defines or specifies an entity,
not necessarily by naming its location on the Web'' (N.A.Press, 2002).

Broadband Internet and the Knowledge Society 255
Ontologies are already currently used by intelligent agents (P. Drucker, 1994), (P.
Busquin, 2002) and in the technologies of natural language (R. Kurz, 2002).
Agents will have a tremendous role in the Semantic Web: '' The real power of the
Semantic Web will be realized when people create many programs that collect Web
content from diverse sources, process the information and exchange the results with
other programs. The effectiveness of such software agents will increase
exponentially as more machine-readable Web content and automated services
(including other agents) become available. The Semantic Web promotes this
synergy: even agents that were not expressly designed to work together can transfer
data among themselves when the data come with semantics'' (N.A.Press, 2002).
Concerning the intelligent agents, Gheorghe Tecuci, the creator of the Disciple
system (R. Sar., 2000) observed recently on the future of personal agents: ''The
Disciple approach advocates the creation of a powerful learning agent shell that can
be taught by a person to solve problems in a way that is similar to how that person
would teach a student or an assistant. We think that the Disciple approach
contributes directly to a new age in the software systems development process […].
In the mainframe computers age, the software systems were both built and used by
computer science experts. In the current age of personal computers, these systems
are still being built by computer science experts, but many of them (such as text
processors, email programs, or Internet browsers) are now used by persons that
have no formal computer education. Continuing this trend, we think that the next age
will be that of the personal agents, where typical computer users will be able to both
develop and use special types of software agents. The Disciple approach attempts to
change the way intelligent agents are built, from ―being programmed‖ by a knowledge
engineer to ―being taught‖ by a user who does not have prior knowledge engineering
or computer science experience. This approach would allow a typical computer user,
who is not a trained knowledge engineer, to build by himself an intelligent assistant
as easily as he now uses a word processor to write a paper'' (R.W. Lucky, 1997).
The GRID
The concept of the grid (R. Man., 1998), (G. Tec., 1998) was developed in 1998 by
Ian Foster and Carl Kesselman (USA) to create a software capable to put together at
work a very great number of computers distributed in the entire world, every user
having the illusion he is working with only a machine.
The grid was conceived in the beginning for scientific computing, for some industries
and lately for new Internet services: ''Né dans le cenacle du calcul scienti-fique, le
concept de 'grille' correspond à la faculté de mutualiser les resources de traitement
massif de l'information, et ce, a l'echelle de la planète. Cette technologie pourrait
aussi constituer un moteur pour les services Internet, a la recherche d'un second
souffle (R. Man., 1998).''
Victor Alessandrini se demande: L'avenir d'Internet passera-t-il par les grilles ? Il
présente la situation dans l'Europe: ''Le logiciel chef d'orchestre capable de faire
travailler ensemble ces puissants ordinateurs d`une manière étroitement couplées
est une en cours de developpement dans le cadre
d'Eurogrid. Ce projet, démarré en 2000 et financé par la Commission européeenne,
réunit des centres de ressources informatiques nationaux pour la recherche (notamment
celui du CNRS en France), et des industriels […]. Une grille de calcul transnationale
a déjà été créé en Europe pour fédérer des centres de calcul dans six pays
(Allemagne, Grande-Bretagne, France, Suisse, Norvège et Pologne) et des
applications scientifiques tres gourmandes en temps de calcul (meteo, biochimie,
astrophy-sique …) sont actuellement développées sur cette grille.

256 Mihai Drăgănescu
Quelle est sa principale fonction? Gérer l'ensemble des ressources heterogenes du
reseau à l'aide de logiciels d'intermédiation ou middlewares de telle sorte que chaque
utilisateur ait l'illusion d'avoir affaire à un système informatique unique. Datagrid,
autre projet européen en cours de d‘éploiement, est piloté par le CERN (Centre
européen de recherche nucléaire). I'l s'agit cette fois de réaliser une grille capable
d'analyser la marée de données (10 petaoctets (10 15 ) par an, soit environ 20 millions
de CD-ROM) du nouvel accélérateur de particules, le Large Hadron Collider (LHC),
dont la mise en service est prevue en 2005. Datagrid, qui sera accessible par environ
10000 chercheurs mobilisera quelques sites informatiques centraux et des centaines
de grappes de PC… '' (R. Man., 1998).
The future of the grid or the grids will be perhaps at global level. Then it could
become a new powerful Internet and Web.
It seems that the American project GLOBUS of Ian Foster and Carl Kesserlman is
very promising for realising the concept of the grid (R. Man., 1998), (G. Tec. 1998).
Still the GRID is a project of which success depends on finding key applications {8}.
A more detailed treatment of the GRID may be found in (G. Tec. 1998). The main
problem is to have an operating system for the grid: ''Internet-scale operating system
(ISOS) to provide the necessary ―glue‖ to link the processing and storage capabilities
of millions of independent computers.[…] Although …an Internet-scale operating
system does not yet exist ―developers have already produced a number of Internetscale,
or peer-to-peer, applications that attempt to tap the vast array of underutilized
machines available through the Internet'' (G. Tec. 1998) {9}.
The combination of the GRID with the Semantic Web technology will give a very
potentially powerful Internet/Web. If so, the ''Internet remains an immense untapped
resource'' (G. Tec. 1998).
Concerning the economical problems of the GRID a series of ideas is very valuable
(G. Tec. 1998): ''A virtual payment system encourages users to provide resources
and cheaper computer than the users could own privately. An Internet-scale
operating system (ISOS) coordinates all the participating computers and pays them
for their work. When [somebody] gets back on her PC, the work for the network is
automatically suspended. Her laptop stores backup copies of encrypted fragments of
other users' files. The laptop is connected only occasionally, but that suffices. The
cost of ISOS resources to end users will converge to a fraction of the cost of owning
the hardware. Ideally, this fraction will be large enough to encourage owners to
participate and small enough to make many Internet-scale applications economically
feasible. A typical PC owner might see the system as a barter economy in which he
gets free services, in exchange for processor time and disk space''.
Knowledge as a network
Both the semantic web and the grid will have a great impact on the knowledge
structure of the society. Tim Berners-Lee and co-authors (N.A.Press, 2002) see a
new evolution of knowledge due to the semantic web because this ''is not 'merely' the
tool for conducting individual tasks […]. In addition, if properly designed, the
Semantic Web can assist the evolution of human knowledge, as […] simply by a URI
(Universal Resource Identifier) lets anyone express new concepts that they invent
with minimal effort. Its unifying logical language will enable these concepts to be
progressively linked into a universal Web. This structure will open up the knowledge''
(N.A.Press, 2002).
Due to the grid technology, knowledge may become available like energy in an
electric grid: ''La nouvelle technologie des grilles est susceptible d'entrainer une

Broadband Internet and the Knowledge Society 257
profonde transformation socio-economique, comparable à celle declenchée par
l'émergence des reseaux electriques (electric grid en anglais) au début du XXe
siècle'' (R. Man., 1998).
Knowledge becomes more and more a network. I'll quote here from (D.Tufis,
2002) a very beautiful explanation of this: ''Knowledge is not a specific bit of knowhow
but a network that evolves over time. The definition of knowledge is also
changing. It is no longer just what is stored in our brains, nor just what is written in
books or amassed in libraries. Knowledge has become a fluid "state of the moment"
in which the Web itself has become a fundamental part of that knowledge. Doctors
will not be chosen purely on the basis of their experience, the number of books in
their reference library or how much equipment is available in the hospitals where they
practice. Instead, that choice might be biased by what access they have to the
network of global medical knowledge. Even our own illness (with appropriate privacy
concerns taken into account) could become a part of this Web of knowledge to
benefit others with similar problems.''
Building a knowledge network available to all and for all domains of human endeavor
is already a possible perspective.
4. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
In the mentioned American report (B.R. Schatz, 2002) the acknowledged aim is
''reaching all Americans'' with Broadband Internet.
In the action plan eEurope 2005 of the European Commission (M. Schwartz, 1994)
one of the main objectives was the widespread availability and use of broadband
Internet by 2005. The tendency is evidently for broadband to reach all Europeans. A
particular attention is given to attain 'full exploitation of broadband networks by the
research community'. Also to speed up the transition to digital television.
For Romania, also, the broadband was and is necessary. We needed a step by step
procedure, beginning perhaps with DSL technologies on the existing lines and to use
more and more optical fiber and coaxial cables for the backbone network, and also
the wireless technologies at convenient levels. There is also necessary to create
good conditions for the formation of clusters of consumers.
The final aim should be the Knowledge Society. This society will be a society of
intelligence, both human and artificial, comprising all the social levels by the use of
broadband networks. There are laws of becoming expressed by tendencies of
becoming. These are ontological laws, with the meaning of the philosophical term of
ontology, and not with the significance that the ontology notion has for the
information technologies of language processing (lexical ontology), of intelligent
agents or of the semantic web. This was already very well observed by Tim Berners-
Lee and co-authors (N.A.Press, 2002): ''… the third basic component of the Semantic
Web, [are] collections of information called ontologies. In philosophy, ontology is a
theory about the nature of existence, of what types of things exist; ontology as a
discipline studies such theories. Artificial-intelligence and Web researchers have coopted
the term for their own jargon, and for them ontology is a document or file that
formally defines the relations among terms. The most typical kind of ontology for the
Web has taxonomy and a set of inference rules''.
Tendencies of becoming are a specific form of manifestation of the laws of nature, of
existence in general. It is very difficult to understand such laws in the frame of the
structural science of today. For this is necessary to extend the science to an
integrative science - a science which comprises structural, phenomenological and

258 Mihai Drăgănescu
social (groups, in general under the form of networks) phenomena - in a unitary way,
perhaps under the general frame of the theory of categories and functions (G. Tec.,
1988), (G. Tec., 2000).
Yet the traces of the laws of tendencies may be seen in the structural realm of
science and technologies in many and important cases, still they reflect perhaps
deep phenomenological tendencies. I would like to mention such laws as:
Moore's law and its extension (''The ratio of performance to cost of computers
continues to grow rapidly (a phenomenon closely related to Moore's law, which says
that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit doubles every 18 months), and
communications rates should grow at a similar pace. To keep pace with processor
speed, disk size, and so on, communications should become 10 times faster every 5
years. In some situations, such as local area networks or long-haul fiber optic circuits,
speed improvements have been consistent with processor improvements. But in the
residential market, it has taken a very long time to surpass dial-up speeds, and there
are fears that motivation will be lacking for the service providers to invest in a way
that will provide ongoing improvements in speed. Broadband deployment may stall at
a speed that is an improvement over dial-up but which does not keep pace with what
is needed thus acting as a brake on the computer industry. Similarly, operators of
other segments of the network (i.e., backbone Internet service providers [ISPs] and
long-haul data carriers) may view the last mile is a potential bottleneck to growth in
their traffic volume and revenue'' (B.R. Schatz, 2002)).
Although there are such complaints concerning the extension of the Moore Law in
the communications and Broadband Internet domains, yet the Moore Law, respected
by the electronic circuitry for the equipments of these domains and the increasing
demands of the knowledge society will bring a very sensible growth of performances
and applications.
Metcalfe's law (This law states that the value, or the impact, or the efficiency of
a network is "n" squared, with "n" being the number of nodes of the network. The
square of the number of nodes is roughly the number of possible connections
(n (n-1)/2)).
Networks laws (after Barabasi and others, laws put in evidence in the last 3-4
years (G. Tec., 2000), referring to the structure of self-organized networks in nature,
physics, biology, Internet, Web, economy, social life, all being submitted to the same
general properties).
Kurzweil's laws (T.B. Lee, 2002) namely: I}. The law of accelerating returns - i.e.
of valuable products of the process - that states that the time interval between salient
events grows shorter as time passes; II}. If the chaos is increasing, the time interval
between two salient events becomes longer as time passes).
The first law of Kurzweil may be seen, in general, as a law of accelerating history and
of increasing order; the second law is of the decelerating of history and of increasing
disorder. We are now listening perhaps to the first law, due especially to the Moore
law, but we are at the same time endangered by the second law if the Knowledge
Society will not succeed to attain a sustainable society.
I hope that the Knowledge Society will advance so quickly to maintain the first law in
function and to prohibit the possible second law. This might be the historical role of
the Knowledge Society and we must act in a hurry in the following years of this
century to provide the future of society and of its consciousness. Then the society of
consciousness might follow, and don't forget that consciousness is also a form of
information!

NOTES
Broadband Internet and the Knowledge Society 259
{1} in the telecommunication domain there are some classes of bandwidth:
Narrow bandwidth, for telegraph and telephone (voice and data)
communications on paired-wires, of two types,
- Single open-wire pair that may be used for carrier telephony up to 150 kHz (it may
carry 12 multiplexed voice channels of ~ 4 kHz with single-side band, the available
band of the line being used, for instance, for direct transmission in the 40-88 kHz
range, and for the inverse transmission in the 100-148 kHz), and
-Pair wires in a cable, every pair of the cable having the possibility to be used up to
500 kHz (with 24 voice channels as before).
For narrowband data transmissions the bandwidth is sufficient, with corresponding
modems, as it was observed: ''Of course, we keep learning to live with such
limitations and, to a significant extent, to "best" them. For example, approximately 25
years ago the best modems could only push data across the best phone line at 110
to 300 bits per second, a laughable rate by today's standards. But although the
twisted pair infrastructure has remained the same (and actually aged) innovative
people have figured out how to use increasing available processing power to 1200,
2400, 4800, 9600, 14400, 28800, and finally 53000 bits per second.
If we move to a fully digital connection [without using a modem (MOdulator/
DEModulator) to convert the digital 1's and 0's into audio tones for their trip across
the phone network, we can use ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) to get up
to 128000 bits per second over a common configuration. And if we look at the newest
last mile technology now gaining in popularity, DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) and its
variants, then speeds of megabits per second are possible.
Another technology, cable TV Internet service, can offer 10 megabits per second
service today (although your PC is unlikely to be able to use but a fraction of that
overall capacity)'' (D.Tufis, 2002).
Large bandwidth, beginning with DSL technology: ''Specifically, DSL (Digital
Sub-scriber Line) technology is working to change the copper access rules, enabling
existing twisted pair wires to carry data at up to 8 million bits per second! This magic
is accomplished by sending 256 signals simultaneously over the wire, each at a
different frequency (ranging from 4 kilohertz to 1 megahertz), with each signal
carrying part of the information. Fast, specialised processors […] enable these ADSL
modems to perform the complex math required to separate the signal on the
transmitting end and to reconstruct the data stream at the receiver. DSL is still an
emerging technology, even as some forward-looking phone companies are beginning
to implement it to keep the cable TV and wireless folks from taking over the
broadband access pipes'' (D.Tufis, 2002). Most cable TV systems have the ability to
provide as much as 10 megabits per second of data to subscribers. Coaxial cable
technology for land and undersea with a total band of transmission in the Mhz range
(supporting, for instance, up to 600 voice channels).
For video transmissions are used both large bandwidth and compression of data: ''In
1989 a group of imaging and data processing experts got together with the goal of
creating a standard for digitizing and compressing multimedia information for use by
computers; thus MPEG-1 was born (Moving Pictures Experts Group, version 1). This
technique enabled video to be digitized into a comparatively small data stream of
only 1.5 megabits per second (about 100 times less than uncompressed digitized
video). One trade-off was quality; MPEG-1 video was comparable to that of a

260 Mihai Drăgănescu
standard VHS= VCR. But that was "good enough"; MPEG-1 became the standard
that fired up multimedia CD-ROMS, and it also enabled the first practical uses of
(small pieces of) video on the Internet. Of course, putting this in perspective, MPEG-1
video would fill up a floppy disk each second, and this 1, 5 megabits per second is
still far faster than a typical modem. But, of course, this was just the beginning. In
1992 MPEG-2 came out, generalizing the standard so that it could work over a broad
spectrum of media (CD-ROMs, satellite links) etc.), and allowing various quality
trade-offs, letting the content developer balance quality against the disk space and
bandwidth available. Of course, there's no such thing as a free lunch-quality high
enough to satisfy broadcast applications still requires 4 to 6 megabits per second.
Both MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 encoding are based on breaking an image up into tiny
squares for digitizing and compression, but neither format knows anything about an
image's composition. […] To combat this, a concerted effort by TV, computer, and
telecommunications companies began work in 1997 on a new standard, MPEG-4,
which begins its encoding with any objects that are defined by the director or the
artist who created the image, Those objects retain their identity even after the image
is decoded. This has a great deal of potential value (For more in- depth information
on MPEG technology, see www.cselt.it/rnpeg and www.mpegiorg/MPEG/)'' (D.Tufis,
2002).
Fiber-optic cables: ''Glass fiber is amazing stuff. Light goes in at one end and, with a
bit of attenuation comes out the other. And fiber can carry far more data than an
equivalent length bit of wire. Also, when you bundle a bunch of wires together the
different wires signals can interfere with each other, but by contrast fibers are very
'closed- mouth' -nothing escapes to interfere with adjacent fibers (or to be 'snooped'
by an eavesdropper,) It turns out that mice and other rodents are far less enamored
of fiber bundles than they are of our old copper standbys; there are fewer gnawed
fiber cables! So, why not replace all the copper twisted pairs with fiber; we'd all have
virtually limitless bandwidth! The answer, of course, is cost. First and foremost,
replacing existing cable with new fiber cables is 'extraordinarily expensive and
disruptive-not so much because of the cost of the fiber- but because of the labor
involved‘‘ (D.Tufis, 2002).
Radio FM and TV: ''Broadcasting in the form of radio and television has been in place
for many decades. While radio and TV have very large bandwidths and may make
use of digital signal transmission, none of these services fits today's common
understanding of broadband. This is in part because, unlike the more general
purpose generally Internet-based broadband offerings of today, they integrate
physical- and higher-layer functionality. That is, the services are aimed at particular
types of communication or content (e.g., broadcast radio or television), much as the
public telephone network has been designed to support a particular set of voice
communications services, and they have emerged, evolved, and coexisted in selfcontained
fashion. Some proposed applications are data centric, however, and may
play a role complementary to the digital communications services discussed in this
report. Since the 1980s, direct broadcast satellite has used satellite transmission to
provide many channels of service over very wide areas, and this technology has
been further developed to provide two-way broadband service delivery''(B.R. Schatz,
2002).
Ultrawideband, of 500 Mhz when the microwave carrier frequencies are
either 4 or 6 GHz, and of 1000 Mhz for 11 GHz carrier frequency. The 11 GHz
frequency bands are used for distances up to 400 km, and 4 GHz and 6 GHz for
distances up to 6400 km (D.P.Anderson, 2002). For a microwave system, ''a total of
1860 message channels are combined to form the modulating signals. The

Broadband Internet and the Knowledge Society 261
bandwidth of this overall group is on the order of 8 MHz'' (D.P.Anderson, 2002). As it
is known for microwave communication, signals are transmitted line of sight between
relay stations, 30 to 50 km apart. Wireless ultrawideband is now in preparation for
broadband Internet and digital communication. It opens the possibility for a common
global standard that will finally allow wireless devices to work anywhere in the world
(E. Jonietz, 2002).
{2} One of the reason for success and growth of the web was that ''the browser was
free and could be easily downloaded anywhere in the world'' (I. Foster, 1998).
Concerning the Picture phone Robert W. Lucky observes that it ''might have become
popular, too, had it been mailed free to a large percentage of the population in the
United States. On the other hand, would the Web have taken off if it had been
conceived by a commercial company and the browsers sold for $199?'' (I. Foster,
1998).Other failures or almost failures are described in (B.R. Schatz, 2002): ''For
example, ISDN, which was implemented slowly and was perceived as having
significant shortcomings, has been adopted by only a modest number of users. The
failure of the much-anticipated Iridium satellite telephone service underscored
concerns about the financial risk of bold infrastructure investments.'' Regarding
broadband services Robert W. Lucky is asking: ''If the infrastructure is upgraded to
video capability, will services grow to fill the bandwidth? If so, how quickly will that
happen? These questions are not mere philosophical whimsies but serious matters
of national economics. The dilemma for the infrastructure provider is whether the
enormous investment required to upgrade the bandwidth can be justified on the basis
of return'' (I. Foster, 1998).
{3} The implicated text from (M. Kafatos, 2001) is the following: ''Today, the microelectronic
and informational revolution appears to be fully coincident with the
lawfulness of society's historical becoming. This technological revolution amplifies the
opportunities of knowing, of giving man more leisure for creative, cultural and spiritual
activity, in other words it promotes the essential factors of historical becoming. Those
who cannot see the link between the microelectronic and informational revolution and
the trend of historical becoming are not abreast of the times. And those who oppose
this revolution leave the course of historical becoming. And yet, this revolution is not
to be absolutized, for it should be accompanied by other changes as well. Hence we
cannot concentrate exclusively upon it, but on a broader context within which it can
play the chief role for a certain historical period.
The trend of historical becoming (II) appears to be the tendency towards a society
of knowledge, creation and civilization, towards a global society and towards an
interstellar society, then towards a cosmic act in keeping with the existential tendency
of the universe (I). Nearer to us, as a result of the micro- electronic and informational
revolution, of a new industrial revolution, are the prospects of an informationally
oriented society…''
It was a vision, of that moment, following a philosophy developed by the author in the
years 1980, a vision with roots in the electronic and informatic reality, that later will be
named information society.
{4} From (M. Drag., 2002): ''The concept of a national innovation system refers to the
processes of technological institutional capability building and policy-making that
enable effective choices to be made and implemented. The concept is closely
associated with the notion of social capability building in the sense that it
encompasses the social, political and economic features of the institutional context in
which learning takes place. Learning processes are important features of the
innovation process.

262 Mihai Drăgănescu
For example as Bengt-Ake Lundvall puts it, the most fundamental resource in the
modern economy is knowledge and, accordingly, [...] the most important process (of
economic development) is learning…learning is predominantly an interactive and,
therefore, a socially embodied process which cannot be understood without taking
into consideration its institutional and cultural context (Lundvall 1992).
The national innovation system (National innovation systems have been discussed
by Abramovitz (1986); Freeman (19870; Lundvall (1992); and Nelson (1993) apud).
It is perhaps interesting to mention that the author of this paper introduced in 1974*
the notion of the 'mode of innovation' as an important sub-system of society at
equality with the 'mode of production', the 'mode of management' and the 'mode of
social-cultural life'. (*Mihai Drăgănescu, Revoluţia ştiinţifico-tehnică şi modul de
inovare al unei societăţi (The scientific-technical revolution and the mode of
innovation of a society), in a volume of 1974 and republished in the author's volume
Sistem şi civilizaţie (System and Civilsation), Editura politică, Bucureşti, 1976).
{5} For the Semantic Web are used two technologies: the known eXtensible Markup
Language (XML) and the Resource Description Framework (RDF). ''XML allows
users to add arbitrary structure to their documents but says nothing about what the
structures mean'' (N.A.Press, 2002) (see Jon Bosak and Tim Bray, XML and the
Second-Generation Web, Scientific American, May 1999).
RDF: Resource Description Framework provides the technology for expressing the
meaning of terms and concepts in a form that computers can readily process. RDF
can use XML for its syntax and URIs to specify entities, concepts, properties and
relations'' (N.A.Press, 2002).
URI: Universal Resource Identifier. URLs are the most familiar known type of URI. ''A
URI defines or specifies an entity, not necessarily by naming its location on the Web''
(N.A.Press, 2002).
''Human language thrives when using the same term to mean somewhat different
things, […] Using a different URI for each specific concept solves that problem''
(N.A.Press, 2002).
{6} Globus becomes, it seems, a de facto standard for the grid technologies
(http://www.globus.org; see also http://www.gridforum.org, http://www.eurogrid.org
and http://eu-datagrid.web.cern.ch/eu-datagrid).
V. Alessandrini is asking himself: ''La révolution annoncé par le paradigme de Grid
aura-t-elle lieu ? Les grilles ne risquent-elles rester dans le sérail du calcul
scientifique ? L'espoir de voir la technologie décoller pour atteindre le public repose
sur un pari : la découverte de quelques « applications clefs » (killer applications)
susceptibles d'emballer le marché, comme le furent les tableurs pour les PC dans les
années 1980 ou les navigateurs Web pour Internet dans les années 1990.
{7} ''An operating system provides a virtual computing environment in which
programs operate as if they were in sole possession of the computer. It shields
programmers from the painful details of memory and disk allocation, communication
protocols, scheduling of myriad processes, and interfaces to devices for data input
and output. An operating system greatly simplifies the development of new computer
programs. Similarly, an Internet-scale operating system would simplify the
development of new distributed applications. IN PRINCIPLE, the basic facilities of the
ISOS ―resource allocation, scheduling and communication‖ are sufficient to construct
a wide variety of applications'' (G. Tec. 1998).

Broadband Internet and the Knowledge Society 263
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Albert-László Barabási, Linked. The New Science of Networks, Perseus publishing, Cambridge,
Massacusetts, 2002.
[2] Bruce R. Schatz, The Interspace: Concept Navigation Across Distibuted Communities, Computer
(IEEE), January 2002, pp. 54-62.
[3] Dan Tufis, Dan Cristea: "Methodological issues in building the Romanian Wordnet and
consistency checks in Balkanet", In Proceedings of LREC2002 Workshop on Wordnet Structures
and Standardisation, Las Palmas, Spain, 28-31 May, 2002, pp. 35-41
[4] David P. Anderson and John Kubiatowicz, The Worldwide Computer, Scientific American Special
Online, April 2002, pp.31-38
[5] Erika Jonietz, Ultrawideband squeezes in, Technology Review, September 2002, pp. 71-79.
[6] European Commission, eEurope 2005: An information society for all, An action plan, Sevilla
European Council, 21/22 June 2002.
[7] Eds. Ian Foster and Carl Kesselman.The Grid: Blueprint for a New Computing Infrastructure.
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 1998; see also B. A. Huberman, The Ecology of Computation, North-
Holland,
1988; and ed. Andy Oram, Peer-to-Peer: Harnessing the Power of Disruptive Technologies, O‘Reilly
& Associates, 2001.
[8] Menas Kafatos, Mihai Draganescu, Preliminaries to the Philosophy of Integrative Science, e-book
(MSReader), ISBN 973-10-02510-X, Editura ICI, Bucharest, 2001.
[9] Menas Kafatos, Mihai Draganescu, Community and Social Factors for the Integrative Science, in
preparation
[10] Mihai Drăgănescu, Societatea Informaţională şi a Cunoaşterii. Vectorii Societăţii Cunoaşterii (The
Information and Knowledge Society. Vectors of the Knowledge Society), study, July 9, 2001,
Romanian Academy, published (pp.43-112) in the vol. ed. Florin Gh. Filip, Societatea
informaţională - Societatea cunoaşterii. Concepte, soluţii şi strategii pentru România, Academia
Română, 2002.
[11] Mihai Drăgănescu, Perspectivele societăţii cunoaşterii în România (Prospects of the Knowledge
Society in Romania), communication at the 'V-th scientific symposium of the Romanian Engineers
from everywhere', AGIR, Bucharest, September 13-14, 2002.
[12] Mihai Draganescu, Tendencies of becoming, Romanian Review, 1986, Nr. 11, p.55-59,
republished in Romanian, in the volume Mihai Drăgănescu, Spiritualitate, Informaţie, Materie
(Spirituality, Information, Matter), p.23-28, Ed. Academiei, 1988. See note {3}.
[13] Misha Schwartz, Bernard S. Finn, Ivan Stoddard Coggeshall, John R. Pierce, Ed.,
Telecommunication Systems, in The New Encyclopedia Britannica, vol.28, 1994, p.473-504.
[14] Michael J. Riezeman, Optical Nets Brace for Even Havier Traffic, IEEE Spectrum, January 2001,
p. 44-46.
[15] Committee on Broadband Last Mile Technology, Computer Science and Telecommunications
Board, National Research Council, Broadband: Bringing Home the Bits, National Academy Press,
National Academy of Sciences (USA), 336 pages, 2002.
[16] Peter Drucker, The age of social transformation, The Atlantic Monthly, November 1994, pp. 53-80.
[17] Philippe Busquin, Entrétien sur la recherche éuropéenne, La Recherche, juin 2002.
[18] Ray Kurzweil, The Age of Spiritual Machines, Penguin Books, 1999. Communication presented at
the International Conference Information Society Technologies for Broadband Europe, 9 - 11
October 2002, Marriott Grand Hotel, Bucharest, Romania.
[19] Roberto Saracco, Jeffrey R. Harrow, Robert Weihmayer, The Disappearence of
Telecommunications, IEEE Press, 2000.

264 Mihai Drăgănescu
[20] Robert W. Lucky, New Communications Services- What Does Society Want? Proceedings of the
IEEE, October 1997, pp. 1536-1548.
[21] Robin Mansell and Uta When, Knowledge Societies: Information Society for Sustainable
Development, Oxford University Press, 1998 (Ch.1, Building innovative 'knowledge societies',
pp.6-17).
[22] Tecuci G., Building Intelligent Agents: An Apprenticeship Multistrategy Learning Theory,
Methodology, Tool and Case Studies. London, England: Academic Press, 1998.
[23] Tecuci G., Boicu M., Marcu D., Learning Agents Teachable by Typical Computer Users. In Proc.
of the AAAI-2000 Workshop on New Research Problems for Machine Learning, Austin, Texas,
2000.
[24] Tecuci G., DISCIPLE: A Theory, Methodology and System for Learning Expert Knowledge, 197
pages, Thèse de Docteur en Science, University of Paris-South, 1988; see also, a theses in
Romanian, Gheorghe Tecuci, Mediu de dezvoltare a sistemelor expert instruibile pentru
proiectarea asistat de calculator, Tez de doctorat, Institutul Politehnic, Bucure ti, 1988.
[25] Gheorghe Tecuci, Mihai Boicu, Dorin Marcu, Bogdan Stanescu, Cristina Boicu and Jerome
Comello, Training and Using Disciple Agents: A Case Study in the Military Center of Gravity, AI
Magazine, 2000, to be printed.
[26] Tim Berners-Lee, James Hendler and Ora Lassila, The Semantic Web, Scientific American
Special Online, April 2002, pp.24-30.
[27] Victor Alessandrini, L'ambition d'un ordinateur planétaire. L'avenir d'Internet passera-t-il par les
grilles?, La Recherche, juin 2002, p. 41-46.

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 265
UNITARY RETREIVAL OF LIBRARY INFORMATION
Doina BANCIU 1
Abstract. In Romania, there were many projects for computerization of libraries, especially
in the last 16 years. Unfortunately, due to the institutional network of libraries (public
libraries, university libraries, academic libraries), there was a unitary concept, widely
accepted, for the computerization of libraries and access to databases on-line activities.
Launching in 2004 of a sectoral research project called NUSIDOC (National System of
Information and unitary Scientific and Technical Documentation) allowed a research team to
conduct first interconnection of large university libraries.
The system is based on network communication RoEduNet and software libraries (Metalib).
One of the notable results of this research project is to develop portal ROLiNeST (Romanian
Library Network in Science and Technology), in that first portal that allows, starting from a
single point, on-line access to databases of the BCU. ROLiNeST portal will be developed in
future by adding elements specific content retrievable digital info-structure documentation.
1. PROJECT OBJECTIVES
Libraries across Romania are piloting a new resource sharing service that will enable
the public to have easier access to materials located in libraries across Romania.
➢ The analysis of the requirements and the opportunities offered by the National
Unitary System of Information and Documentation in Science and Technology
(NUSIDOC), the study of possibilities to ensure an integrated and uniform
development of each partner library and to develop a global system.
➢ Set-up of concepts, principles and procedures to create the National Virtual Library
in Science and Technology.
➢ On line catalogue Unification process that will link together the largest university /
research libraries in Romania by offering a single locating and supply management
solution.
➢ enable simultaneous users to access all virtual catalogues in the system and to
locate the required documents by using context sensitive criteria.
➢ defining a communication infrastructure, based on Internet service providers from
the academic and research area and who should be able to unitary manage the
existing resources from the library consortium members.
➢ set-up unitary data structure to retrieve information from on-line library catalogues
in consortium
The partners in this project are: the ―Politehnica‖ University of Bucharest and the
National Institute for R&D in Informatics. The beneficiaries are the most important
university libraries and a specialized library in science and technology:
Central University Library of Bucharest
―Mihai Eminescu‖Central University Library of Iași
―Eugen Todoran‖ Central University Library of Timişoara
―Lucian Blaga‖ Central University Library of Cluj
―Horia Hulubei‖ National Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering Library
1 Research Institute for Informatics, 8-10, Averescu Avenue, Bucharest 1, Romania.

266 Doina Banciu
2. THE STAGES OF THE PROJECT ACHIEVEMENTS
Stage 1.
An overview of the requirements regarding the Unitary National System for
Information and Documentation in Science and Technology.
Stage 2.
Unitary development of an information system capable of harmonizing disparate
library information systems.
Stage 3.
Integration testing to ensure that all components of the ―National Union Catalogue‖
system interact and interface correctly with each other.
Stage 4.
Expansion of the information retrieval system and preparation of the appropriate
documentation.
Stage 5.
Analysis of possibilities for the existing library information systems to perform
multilingual functions.
Stage 6.
Integration of the multilingual interface in ROLiNeST portal and in a trial library
Integrated On-line Library System (IOLS).
3. TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT
The project sets out with the aim to create, for the first time in Romania, a virtual
union catalogue based on the catalogues of large academic/research libraries for
science and technology, as a basis for a future national network for information and
documentation.
By means of this project it has been achieved for the first time in Romania a metasearch
type system that enables simultaneous search in on-line catalogues of
consortium libraries and other electronic resources.
The project laid the foundations for electronic document libraries and virtual
resources in science and technology in Romania.
4. METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES USED
Beneficiary libraries have a well known expertise in IOLS utilization.
NUSIDOC project uses existing IOLS of consortium member libraries, which hold a
significant volume of records, creating the ROLiNeST portal. Internet connection
provided by RoEduNet is chosen to interconnect distributed databases.
Cataloguing (database creation) is performed in local integrated library systems. The
information is retrieved in virtual catalogue.
Consortium members benefit of additional services (records import/export,
administration facilities, statistical reports, etc).
Virtual catalogue allows consortium members to offer centralized services both to
librarians and users.
The union catalogue is accessible to the science and technology community in
Romania. Local IOLS can have different origins, but communication inside ROLiNeSt
portal is based on standard protocols (Z39.50, http. XML).

Unitary retrieval of library information 267
The chart of library consortium created in NUSIDOC project is presented below:
BCU Iasi
BCU
Cluj-Napoca
5. ROLiNeST PORTAL STRUCTURE
ROLiNeST
BCU
Timisoara
BCU
Bucuresti
Enable adequate access speed and effective portal response
Z39.50 protocol or other standard protocol of communication, between IOLS
of beneficiary libraries to enable bibliographic data exchange.
Modularity
Simultaneous search into the data bases, localised inside the country and in
perspective abroad
The possibility of simple and advanced search
The possibility to use Boolean operates for refining the search
The existence of a unitary format to display the search result
The possibility to display the original MARC format and the converted format
of METALIB system
The possibility to customize the user workspace.
In the following pages is presented how ROLiNeST portal is working.
Capture 1: The selection of the databases for search.
UPB IFIN-HH

268 Doina Banciu
Capture 2. Unitary format for display.
Capture nr. 3. Record in the online catalogue of Central Library of ―Politehnica‖ University of
Bucharest (BC/UPB).

Unitary retrieval of library information 269
Capture nr. 4. Display of same record, searching for title, in ROLiNeST.
Capture nr. 5 USMARC record format.

270 Doina Banciu
Capture nr. 6. One serial format (SE) record displayed in the online catalogue of the Central Library of
―Politehnica‖ University of Bucharest with access to the electronic information.
Capture nr. 7. Record of rare book, in the online catalogue of digitized document.

Unitary retrieval of library information 271
Capture nr. 8. Registration of a periodical, in the online catalogue of Central University Library of
Bucharest (BCU Bucharest), with access to electronic information.
6. NON-FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
The system is offering both to users and to administration non-quantified facilities:
easy maintenance of the system
complexity of data to be processed
integrity
data security
7. TEST FOR FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Access speed
All the participants in this project are connected to RoEduNet national
network, having main nodes in Bucharest, Iași, Târgu Mureş, Cluj-Napoca,
Timişoara, Galaţi and Craiova. Data transmission speed between participant libraries
is in a bandwidth about 2x155 Mbps.
The tests demonstrated that the data packages speed in RoEduNet between
participant institutions is 2 Mbps for packages up to 10 MB and 1.7 Mbps for
packages between 10 MB and 100 MB.
The project is extended to the public library in Târgu Mureş. The main objective of
this extension is the building of multilingual user interfaces. The project will be
focused on TELEKI branch. Because the library has not a good connection to the
internet, the project will develop a wireless connection to the internet via RoEduNet
Târgu Mureş.

272 Doina Banciu
The schema of this project is presented below:
At the end of the project, the multilingual interfaces will cover: German, English,
Hungarian, and French.
CONCLUSIONS
After the tests, it was demonstrated that ROLiNeST portal corresponds to the
purposes and objectives proposed in NUSIDOC project.
The performance of RoLiNeST portal are correlated with hardware/software
components optimization of the interconnected libraries.
The national virtual catalogue, based on Metalib system, is a distributed virtual
catalogue enabling the user to interrogate simultaneously both bibliographical
databases and heterogeneous electronic resources. In the future, the virtual
catalogue will include more databases from Romanian libraries as well as electronic
resources from other suppliers.
The system was designed as an open one, allowing other Romanian university and
Academy libraries, to be connected to it.
The project will be further developed by a new one oriented to the e-content
management. The project entitle (SINRED) is just a beginning, but the same libraries
are involved in it. The system is open to be connected to other similar systems from
abroad.

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 273
CHOPPER TECHNIQUE OVERVIEW
FOCUSED ON BASE AMPLIFIER OPTIMISATION
Andrei DANCHIV 1 , Mircea BODEA 1,2 , Claudius DAN 1
Abstract. This paper presents optimal design, based on manual analysis supported by
SPICE simulation of a CMOS amplifier selectively, viewed as a functional block amplifier with
modular-chopper. In the first part of the paper are reviewed the methods of reducing voltage
offset and noise of an amplifier using modulation techniques- chopper aiming to emphasize
the importance of the results to design selective amplifier. In the second part of the paper the
method of designing a selective amplifier and GMC results using a typical CMOS process of
0.6 µm is presented.
Introduction
For precision amplifier design, the noise and offset become critical issues, especially
for MOS technologies. For MOS transistor both mismatch and flicker noise level are
generally higher than that of similar area bipolar transistor. Taking into account only
process and layout induced mismatching, the typical value of an MOS amplifier offset
voltage is limited to a few milivolts. To further reduce this offset and improve noise
performances, special techniques have been implemented, the most widely used
being chopper stabilization and auto zero. The chopper stabilisation technique uses
modulation to shift the signal spectrum to a frequency domain where it is not affected
by the amplifier‘s offset and low frequency noise. This way, the useful signal is
separated from offset and low frequency noise which now can be filtered out while
the signal is amplified. The auto zero technique first samples the offset and then
subtracts it from the input signal (either at the input, at the output or at an
intermediary point on the signal path). The offset performances are greatly improved,
but some residual offset still remains, due to sample and hold errors and offset drift.
The auto zero technique also improves the low frequency noise performances but
degrades the wide band noise due to under sampling. Also, the auto zero is a
sampling technique and is best suited for sampled data systems. Many papers have
been written on this subject. An important reference in precision amplifier literature is
the Enz and Temes paper, which presents most of the up to date noise and offset
reduction techniques. The present paper, which is largely based on Enz and Temes
paper, select and highlight the important results concerning chopper stabilization
technique and gmC filtering. Our goal was to provide a general overview on the
chopper stabilisation technique, focused on the base amplifier optimal design. A
frequency selective gmC implementation has been chosen for the base amplifier and
its performances are discussed for a 0.6 µm CMOS process implementation.
I. Chopper Stabilisation Technique
The Chopper Stabilized Amplifier Basic Schematic
This section describes the chopper stabilisation technique and analyse its
performances. Even if there are many different chopper amplifier implementations, all
of them share the same basic principle of using modulation to separate the input
signal from noise and offset. The chopper stabilized amplifier bloc level schematic is
presented in Fig. 1. From this figure the three main phases of the chopper
stabilisation technique and the corresponding functional blocks becomes apparent:
the modulation phase, respectively the modulator, the amplification phase,
respectively the base amplifier, and the demodulation phase, respectively the
demodulator.
1 Infineon Technologies Romania, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest.
2 Corresponding member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists.

274 Andrei Danchiv, Mircea Bodea, Claudius Dan
m(t)
x(t)
Fig. 1. The chopper stabilized amplifier block level schematic.
m (t) is the modulation signal, x (t) – input signal, y (t) – modulated signal,
z(t) – amplified modulated signal, and u(t) – output signal.
The modulation phase role is to move the signal spectrum from its base-band to a
higher frequency domain. Any kind of modulation can be used, but, for practical
reasons, most chopper amplifiers use a rectangular signal. The amplification phase
represents the actual signal amplification. The modulation and demodulation phases
contribute to the offset and noise reduction, but do not provide signal gain. During the
amplification phase, the amplifier‘s noise and offset are added to the useful signal.
However, after modulation, signal is centred on the modulation frequency so it is
separated from offset and low frequency noise. The white noise is still overlapped on
the signal and cannot be reduced by means of chopper stabilisation technique.
During the demodulation phase, the amplified signal is brought back to its base-band
while the offset and low frequency noise are scattered to higher frequencies. We note
that the chopper stabilized process presented in this section does not eliminate the
offset or low frequency noise but scatters them to high frequency. For this reason, a
forth, filtering phase, is usually needed to eliminate offset and low frequency noise.
The Modulation Phase
The most commonly used modulating signals in chopper stabilisation technique are
the rectangular signals, as they are easily implemented and provide the desired
frequency shift. Let us consider the rectangular signal given by:
1 for t [ kT; kT T/
2)
mt ()
1
for t [ kT T / 2; kT T
)
where T is the modulation signal period and ω0=2π/T is the modulation signal
frequency. The modulating signal Fourier transforms, M (ω), is given by:
11 2 0 ;
(2)
M n
jn
n
n
the modulating signal spectrum is presented in Fig. 2. The first step of the chopper
stabilisation technique consists of modulating the input signal, by multiplying it with
the modulating signal, as shown in Fig. 1. The modulated signal, y (t), is given by
y( t) m( t) x( t)
1
Y( ) M( ) X(
)
2
The modulating signal spectrum is given by equation (2), so we have
(1)
(3)
11 0
(4)
1
Y ω X ω nω
jn
n
A
y(t) z(t)
Modulator Base Amplifier
Demodulator
n
u(t)

Chopper Technique Overview Focused on Base Amplifier Optimisation 275
Fig. 2. Modulating signal frequency spectrum.
This equation shows that the input signal spectrum has been shifted around the
modulating signal odd harmonics. This is a very important aspect of the chopper
technique, as this frequency shift allows the signal separation from the amplifier‘s
offset and low frequency noise.
The Amplification Phase
The modulating signal is applied to the base amplifier. We shall first consider the
general case of arbitrary transfer function, A(ω), of the amplifier. In this case, the
amplified signal spectrum is given by
ω ω ω Z A Y
(5)
Replacing the modulated signal expression [equation (4)], we get
11 0
(6)
1
Z ω A ω X ω nω
jn
n
We shall analyze in more detail two of the most important amplifier possible transfer
functions: the wide band amplifier and the band pass amplifier.
Wide band amplifier. This amplifier has a constant, frequency independent, gain,
A(ω) =A0. Of course, no amplifier has infinite bandwidth. However, the modulated
signal harmonics decrease rapidly with the harmonic order (as they are multiplied by
1/n). For this reason, any amplifier having a constant gain for the modulated signal
first few harmonics can be considered a ―wide band amplifier‖. In this case, the
amplified signal spectrum is given by
n
11 0
(7)
A
Z 0 ω X ω nω
jn
n
|M()|
−70 −50 −30 −0
It is worth to note that for wide band amplifier (i.e. constant gain) case the amplified
signal and the modulated signal spectrum have the same shape, for both frequency
and time domains:
ω ω z t A y t
Z A0Y 0
(8)
Band pass amplifier. Another base amplifier transfer function widely used in
chopper stabilisation technique is the band pass amplifier. The wide band amplifier
has the same gain for the useful signal and for the input referred noise and offset.
This is not a major disadvantage, as the chopper stabilisation technique separates
n
0 30 50 70

276 Andrei Danchiv, Mircea Bodea, Claudius Dan
the noise and offset from the useful signal. However, the frequency selective
amplifier (FSA) use is an efficient approach in order to amplify significantly only the
useful signal.
The basic idea of using a frequency selective amplifier is to keep only the first useful
signal harmonic. This way, two goals are met: (a) all the input signal‘s information is
kept and (b) the amplifier has a minimal pass-band, resulting in minimal noise
amplification.
In this case, the amplified signal spectrum is given by
The Demodulation Phase
2A
Z ω 0 X ω ω0Xωω0 jπ (9)
In standard chopper stabilised amplifiers, the same signal is used for both modulation
and demodulation. The input signal is modulated [multiplied by m (t)], amplified by a
constant gain A0, and finally demodulated [second time multiplied by m (t)].
Based on modulating signal definition [see equation (1)] we note that
because m (t) can take only +1 and −1 values.
2
m t 1
(10)
This means that any signal multiplied twice by m(t) is left unchanged:
u t A x t
0
(11)
This is a very important result for the chopper stabilisation technique. It shows that
after demodulation, the input signal is completely recovered (ideally no parasitic
harmonics remain) and only the base amplifier gain remains.
From the input signal point of view, the entire chopper amplifier has the same effect
as the base amplifier.
Now we shall determine the output signal spectrum, U(ω), for the case when a
frequency selective amplifier having an ideal pass-band transfer function is used.
During the demodulation phase, the amplified signal, z (t), is second time multiplied by
the modulating signal, m (t). The output signal spectrum is given by [see equation (2)]:
11 0
(12)
1 1
U ω M ω * Z ω Z ω nω
2 π jn
n
Replacing Z(ω), as given by equation (9), we get the output signal frequency
spectrum for a chopper stabilized amplifier that uses a frequency selective base
amplifier:
n
0 11 0 0
(13)
n
n
2A
U ω { X [ω ( n 1)ω ] X [ω ( n 1)ω
]}
π
Signal Spectrum Evolution in a Chopper Stabilized Amplifier
The Wide Band Base Amplifier Topology. In this section, all previous results are
put together and the signal evolution is described from the amplifier‘s input to the
output. Let us consider a finite bandwidth input signal, with the frequency spectrum
presented in Fig. 3.a and b. It is important that the input signal bandwidth is smaller
than half the modulating frequency, ω0/2. During the modulation phase, the signal is
n

Chopper Technique Overview Focused on Base Amplifier Optimisation 277
multiplied by m (t). As a result, the input signal spectrum is shifted around the
modulating frequency odd harmonics. The modulated signal spectrum, Y(ω) is
presented in Fig. 3.b and described by equation (4).
This signal is further amplified by the base amplifier. In this section we consider a
wide band amplifier, with a constant gain, A0, for the entire frequency range. In this
case, all modulated signal‘s spectral components are simply increased by A0, without
any change to the spectrum shape. The amplified signal, Z(ω) [see equation (7)] and
the base amplifier transfer function are presented in Fig. 4.c. During the next phase –
the demodulation – the amplified signal is multiplied once again by m(t). This results
in bringing the signal back to its baseband. The output (demodulated) signal is
presented in Fig. 4.d.
(a)
−50 −30
−0 0 30 50
(b)
−50 −30
(c)
−50 −30
(d)
−50 −30
−0
−0
−0
X()
Y()
Fig. 3. Chopper amplifier signal evolution, wide
band base amplifier: (a) input signal,
(b) modulated signal, (c) amplified signal and (d)
output signal.
0
Z()
0
U()
0
30
30
30
50
A()=A0
50
50
X()
−50 −30
−0 0 30 50
−50 −30
−50 −30
−50 −30
Fig. 4. Chopper amplifier signal evolution,
frequency selective base amplifier: (a) input signal,
(b) modulated signal, (c) amplified signal (d) the
output signal.
The Frequency Selective Base Amplifier Topology. This section analysis the
selective amplifier topology effects on the chopper technique. We consider the same
input signal as in the previous case applied this time to a frequency selective chopper
amplifier. The modulation phase is similar to the previous discussed case. The
modulated signal is presented in Fig. 4.b and is given by equation (4).
This signal is further amplified by the base amplifier. In this section we consider an
ideal frequency amplifier, with a constant gain, A0, for the pass-band and zero gain
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
−0
−0
−0
Y()
0
Z()
0
U()
0
30
A()
30
30
50
50
50

278 Andrei Danchiv, Mircea Bodea, Claudius Dan
for all other frequencies. Also, we consider that the base amplifier‘s pass-band is
centred on the modulating frequency and is wide enough to let the useful signal pass.
In this case, only the modulated signal component centred on the modulation
frequency is amplified, and all other components are rejected. The amplified signal,
Z(ω) [see equation (9)] and the base amplifier transfer function are presented in
Fig. 4.c.
During the demodulation phase, the signal is multiplied once again with m(t). This
results in shifting the amplified signal once again to the modulating signal odd
harmonics. This results in bringing the useful signal back to its baseband, but also
results in parasitic harmonic components centred on the even multiples of the
modulating frequency. The output (demodulated) signal spectrum is presented in
Fig. 4.d and is given by equation (13).
This result shows that, unlike the wide band base amplifier case, the use of a
selective amplifier results in unwanted harmonic components centred on the even
multiples of the modulating signal. However, this is not a very important disadvantage
of the frequency selective topology, as the output signal is generally filtered for noise
and offset performance reasons.
Residual Offset and Noise Performances
Residual Offset
Ideally, the chopper stabilised technique completely eliminates the offset voltage. In
practical applications however, chopper amplifiers present a finite offset voltage. The
main contribution to this offset is given by the spikes introduced by the input
modulator during commutation.
We shall try to evaluate the input modulator spike contribution to the residual offset.
To this end we shall consider a zero useful signal applied to the input, x(t) =0. The
real modulated signal will not be zero (as in the ideal case), but will present spikes at
the modulating signal commutations. This effect is mainly due to capacitive coupling
and charge injection. The spikes are in the same direction as the m (t) value change.
[For example, a rising m (t) will introduce a positive spike (the positive input increases
and the negative input decreases from their d.c. values)]. We also consider that the
spikes have a sharp rising front and than an exponential settling to the normal d.c.
value. The real modulated signal for a zero input signal is presented in Fig. 5.
The modulated signal is then amplified and demodulated. To simplify the problem,
we shall only consider the wide band base amplifier topology. During the
demodulation phase, the positive y (t) spikes are multiplied by 1 (as the positive
spikes appeared when m (t) changed to ―1‖) and similarly, the negative spikes are
multiplied by −1. As a result, after demodulation, all spikes are positives. The
demodulated signal, u (t) is presented in Fig. 6.
y(t)
T/2
T
Fig. 5. Spikes introduced by the modulator. Fig. 6. The demodulated spike signal.
t
y(t)
T/2 T
t

Chopper Technique Overview Focused on Base Amplifier Optimisation 279
We notice that the output signal, u (t), corresponding o a zero input signal, x (t) =0,
has a d.c. component different from zero if we take into account the spikes
introduced by the modulation signal transitions. This non-zero d.c. component
represents the residual offset. The input equivalent residual offset is equal to the
output signal d.c. component divided to A0 and can be evaluated to:
2
VOS,rez Vs
(14)
T
The residual offset can be significantly reduced by using a frequency selective base
amplifier topology. The modulated signal spikes are narrow, fast variation signals, so
they have a large band spectrum, much larger than the bandwidth needed for the
useful signal. If a frequency selective amplifier is used, the spikes components
outside the useful signal band are rejected and their energy reduced significantly.
This also leads to reducing the output signal d.c. component and thus the residual
offset voltage. It can be shown that, for a selective amplifier that rejects all
components larger than double modulating frequency, 2ω0, the total residual offset is
given by
Noise Performances
2
2 V V
T
OS,rez s
This section focuses on the chopper stabilisation technique effects on the base
amplifier‘s noise performances. Noise is a random signal and, for this reason,
statistical methods must be applied in order to get accurate results on the chopper
stabilized amplifier noise performances.
The base amplifier‘s noise is added to the useful signal during the amplification
phase and is then affected by the demodulation phase. To describe the chopper
stabilized amplifier noise performances comes to determining the effects of
multiplying a random, noise signal, to the deterministic modulating signal, m (t). By
first evaluating the noise repartition and distribution functions, we can get the output
noise autocorrelation function. Finally, integrating the autocorrelation function we get
the output noise power spectral density:
(15)
11 0
(16)
2
g g n
Y 2 2 N
n
n
where gN is the base amplifier output noise power spectral density.
n
This result describes the demodulation phase effect on the base amplifier noise.
Equation (16) gives only the relationship between the demodulator input and output
noise and cannot predict the output noise by itself.
To determine the output noise level, we must first know the base amplifier noise.
What equation (16) tells us is that, after demodulation, the base amplifier‘s noise is
scattered at the odd multiples of the modulation frequency and that the noise power
corresponding to the n order harmonic is reduced proportionally to 1/n 2 .
The total noise power is not affected by demodulation, as ideally the switching
process has no power losses.
Another important conclusion is that the chopper stabilisation technique affects the
base amplifier noise in the same manner, regardless if a wide band or frequency
selective amplifier is used. However, the wide band amplifier and the frequency

280 Andrei Danchiv, Mircea Bodea, Claudius Dan
selective amplifier have different output noise power spectral distributions, so the
total output noise will be different in the two cases.
Base Amplifier Design Considerations
After presenting the chopper stabilization technique and discussing the residual
offset and noise issues, we can draw some conclusion regarding the base amplifier
requirements.
The frequency selective base amplifier topology has some important advantages
over the wide band configuration. Firstly, the residual offset is significantly lower for a
frequency selective configuration, as it partially filters the spikes introduced by the
modulation process, that are mainly responsible for residual noise [see equations
(16) and (15)]. The frequency selective amplifier also provides an additional noise
filtering that can improve noise performances. The 1/f noise corner frequency must
be smaller than the modulation frequency, to reduce the total noise to the white noise
floor level.
The advantages of the wide band base amplifier are concept simplicity and the fact it
ideally offers a harmonic free output.
For the frequency selective amplifier, the transfer function influences both signal
distortions and noise and offset rejection. It is very important to have a well designed
transfer function, with constant gain and phase for the entire signal spectrum and
high rejection outside the pass band. Also, the base amplifier pass band must be
correlated with the modulation frequency.
As a symmetric modulating signal is used, for an asymmetric power supply system, a
completely differential topology is required. This also significantly improves the
common mode rejection and allows a higher signal variation.
Overall, best performances can be achieved by using a frequency selective base
amplifier topology.
Frequency Selective Amplifier Design
FSA Basic Schematic
This section presents a CMOS frequency selective amplifier (FSA) implementation,
based on gmC filtering techniques, intended for chopper amplifier use. The gmC
approach is largely used in present day IC design as it offers simple filtering and gain
capabilities for a moderate frequency range at reasonable area consumption.
The gmC selective amplifiers are well suited for MOS technologies, where high input
and output impedances can easily be achieved. Also, capacitors are quite easily
implemented in MOS technologies.
The FSA presented in this Section (see Fig. 7) is basically a parallel RLC resonator
driven by a gmC stage. Other gmC stages are used to implement the resistor and
inductor as shown in Fig. 8.a and, respectively, Fig. 8.b.
The equivalent resistor and inductor are given by:
R
eq
g
1
mS4
C
Leq
(17)
gmS2gmS3 By replacing in Fig. 7 the resistor and inductor with their gmC equivalents results the
FSA functional blocks schematic (see Fig. 9). We note that this is a fully differential
amplifier (differential input and differential output) and unless measures are taken, the
output common mode is floating. For this reason, a common-mode feedback (CMFB)

Chopper Technique Overview Focused on Base Amplifier Optimisation 281
circuit is needed to control the output nodes and keep the desired output common
mode. The common mode feedback circuit will not be explicitly presented in this paper.
Vin
Gm1
R L C Vout
Vr
Ir
Gm4
VL
Gm2
(a) (b)
IL
V1
C Gm3
Fig. 7. FSA simplified schematic. Fig. 8. (a) Resistor, and (b) inductor implementation.
transconductance
input stage
equivalent L C equivalent R
Vi Vo
Gm1 Gm2 C Gm3
C Gm4
FSA Transfer Function
Fig. 9. Frequency Selective Amplifier (FSA) functional blocks schematic.
For this analysis, the gm stages were considered ideal voltage controlled current
sources. The FSA ―ideal‖ transfer function results:
H
i
V j g / C
j
o mS1
.
2 2
(18)
i ( j ) j mS4 / mS2 mS3
/
V g C g g C
For a chopper stabilized amplifier application, we need a narrow bandwidth as we
only want to amplify the useful signal and to reject as much as possible the input
noise.
To this end, we impose a double pole transfer function. Indeed, for a two poles
transfer function, the narrowest bandwidth is reached when the two poles are
overlapped.
The condition to get a double pole transfer function is:
2 2 2
mS4 mS2 mS3
g C 4ggC 0;
2 gmS4 4gmS2
gms3
(19)
and the double root is given by
g C.
(20)
0 S4 /2 m
Replacing the double pole frequency [equation (20)] into the ideal transfer function
[equation (18)] we get:
H
i
g
2j /
j
mS1
0
g
.
2
(21)
mS4
(1 j / 0)
Fig. 10 shows the ―ideal‖ transfer function Bode plots. This results support the RLC
model. The total gain is determined by Gm1 and the R resistor (implemented by Gm4).
The peak gain magnitude is:
H g g
i 0 mS1 / mS4
. (22)

282 Andrei Danchiv, Mircea Bodea, Claudius Dan
To accurately model the low frequency stage behavior, we must take into account the
parasitic resistance effects. The only high impedance node is V1 and we consider
only its parasitic resistance, Rp.
H( ω)
H( ω0) φω ( )
90°
-90°
ω 0
ω 0
ω
ω
H( ω)
H( ω0) φω ( )
Fig. 10. FSA ―ideal‖ transfer function. Fig. 11. FSA ―real‖ transfer function.
The ―real‖ transfer function, results:
The zero frequency is now
90°
-90°
H(jω)
2 ( j )
. (23)
H (ω ) (j ) j ( 2 ) 2 ( 2 )
0 z
2
i 0 z 0 0 z 0
ω z
ω z
1/ CR
(24)
z p
The transfer function‘s zero – see equation (23) – is no longer in origin but in ωz.
Fig. 11 shows the ―real‖ transfer function Bode plots. The peak gain magnitude is
also unaffected by Rp,
Tran conductance Stages
H(ω ) H (ω )
0
i 0 . (25)
z
0
The peak gain magnitude is given by two stages gm ratio [see equation (22)]. To get
a large gm ratio, we shall use two different gm stage topologies: the standard
differential pair and a linearized gm stage.
The standard differential pair transconductance stage is presented in Fig. 12.a and
has a transconductance given by‖
gmS Io / 2 Vd gm1 / 2 Cox
W / L V
1 ov . (26)
A linearized gm stage implementation using MOS transistors (instead of resistors) is
presented in Fig. 12.b . The stage transconductance is given by:
FSA design
3
gm Io/ 2Vd 2 Cox
W / L Vov
(27)
Fig. 13 presents the FSA schematic. The input stage, Gm1, uses a standard
differential pair, but the other stages use the linearized topology, to get a high
gmS1/gmS4 ratio. In this case, the transconductance ratio, and thus the gain is
ω 0
ω 0
ω
ω

Chopper Technique Overview Focused on Base Amplifier Optimisation 283
controlled by the geometric ratio between the Gm1 and Gm4 transconductance stages
differential pairs aspect ratio. We use cascade current mirrors as they provide the
high output impedance needed to keep the transfer function zero at low frequency
[see equation (24)]. We underline the difference between gmS1-4 that is the Gm1-4
stages transconductances and gm1-4 that are the MP1–MP4 transistors
transconductances.
Vinp
MN1
Vdd
Ib Ib
2Ib
MN2
Iout
Iout
Vinm
Vbp
Vmc+Vd Vmc-Vd
MN1
MN2
Vbn
VT+Vov
MPb5
VT+Vov
Vdd
(a) (b)
VT+Vov+2Vd
VT+Vov
I MN3
2Vd
Vs1 Vs2
MN4
MNb7
VT+Vov
MPb7
MNb8
Fig. 12. (a) Standard differential pair and (b) Linearized gm stage.
We also underline that MP9–MP14 transistors have the bulk connected to Vdda as
their source and drain are not predetermined. MP3–MP8 transistors also have their
bulk connected to Vdda in order to have the same ―substrate effect‖ and thus the
same threshold voltage as MP9–MP14 transistors.
The FSA peak gain is given by equation (22). Gm1 is a standard differential pair with
the transconductance given by (26) and Gm4 is a linearized gm stage, with gmS4 given
by (27). We choose the same (W/L) ratio for all differential pairs (simple and
linearized), so we have (W/L) 1= (W/L) 4. The peak gain results:
( W / L) I
1 1
0 D
(28)
( W / L) 9 ID4
H(
)
The FSA double pole frequency is ω0=gmS4/2C [see equation (20)]. We are interested
in the capacitance needed to get the desired resonance frequency:
gmS4g C mS4
(29)
20 4f0
This capacitor model does not take into consideration important parasitic effects, as
the overlap capacitance. We also neglected the differential pair‘s capacitance that is
also important because of the differential pair large area. This is why this area value
has to be taken only as a first estimation and must be trimmed by several iterations
using the SPICE analysis.
FSA SPICE Analysis
The SPICE simulated FSA transfer function‘s magnitude and phase is presented in
Fig. 14. The resulted peak gain magnitude of 256 compares well to the manually
estimated value of 240. We used the estimated capacitor area [see equation (29)] as
a first iteration and the resulted resonance frequency was 14.8 kHz. Finally the
capacitor area was adjusted to 1296 μm 2 , in order to get the desired 10 kHz

284 Andrei Danchiv, Mircea Bodea, Claudius Dan
resonance frequency value. The finite zero frequency (ωz=4.59 Hz) introduced by the
parasitic resistor is clearly visible in Fig. 14. We note that the ωz

Chopper Technique Overview Focused on Base Amplifier Optimisation 285
(a)
(b)
Fig. 14. SPICE simulated FSA transfer function: (a) magnitude and (b) phase.
One of the main advantages of the chopper stabilisation technique is the low
frequency noise reduction. As noise is a random signal, statistical methods must be
applied to get accurate results on noise behaviour.
The general chopper stabilisation amplifier output noise PSD model determined in
this paper was also used to analyse the chopper technique effect on two very
common noise distributions: the white noise and on the 1/f noise.
The 1/f noise is successfully scattered around the modulation signal‘s odd
harmonics, separating it from the signal and making it easy to filter. For this reason,
chopper stabilisation is an efficient technique in reducing the low frequency noise in
precision amplifiers.
The chopper stabilisation technique effectively reduces the offset voltage to the
microvolt level. However some residual offset still remains. This residual offset is
mainly due to the spikes introduced by the modulator during switching process.
These spikes are demodulated and the resulting signal has a d.c. value different from
zero.

286 Andrei Danchiv, Mircea Bodea, Claudius Dan
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
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Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Optimization of Electric and Electronic
Equipment (OPTIM ‟06), Brasov, Romania, paper 4A02, vol. IV, pp. 9-16, 2006.
A. Danchiv, M. Bodea, C. Dan, Optimum Design of Frequency Selective Amplifier Intended for
Chopper Stabilized Applications, Proceedings of the International Symposium on System
Theory, Automation, Robotics, Computers, Informatics, Electronics and Instrumentation,
SINTES 2005, Craiova, Romania, , vol. 2, pp. 337-342, 2005.
A. Danchiv, M. Bodea, C. Dan, Optimum Design of Frequency Selective Amplifier Intended for
Chopper Stabilized Applications, Proceedings of the International Symposium on System
Theory, Automation, Robotics, Computers, Informatics, Electronics and Instrumentation,
SINTES 2005, Craiova, Romania, , vol. 2, pp. 337-342, 2005.
A. Mateescu, N. Dumitriu, L. Stanciu, Semnale si sisteme, Aplicatii in filtrarea semnalelor,
Editura Teora, Bucuresti, 2001.
Al. Spataru, Teoria Transmisiunii Informatiei, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti, 1966.
B. Razavi, Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits, McGrawHill, New York, 2001
C.C Enz, G.C Temes, Circuit techniques for reducing the effects of op-amp imperfections:
autozeroing, correlated double sampling, and chopper stabilization, Proc. IEEE, vol. 84, pp.
1584-1614, Nov. 1996.
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, Analog Integrated Circuit Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997.
F. Krummenacher, N. Joehl, A 4-MHz CMOS Continuous Time Filter with On-Chip Automatic
Tuning, IEEE J. Solid State Circuits, Vol. 23, No. 3, March 1998..
O. Stanasila, Analiza matematica, Editura Didactica si Pedagogica, Bucuresti, 1981.
P. Gray, P. Hurst, S. Lewis, R. Meyer, Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits, 4th
Ed., McGrawHill, 2001
O. Stanasila, Analiza matematica, Editura Didactica si Pedagogica, Bucuresti, 1981. W. Liu,
MOSFET Models for SPICE Simulation, John Wiley & Sons, N.Y., 2001
[13] Y. Tsividis, Operation and Modeling of the MOS Transistor, McGrawHill, Boston, 1999

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 287
SOME SOCIAL, ECONOMICAL, LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES ON
UTILISATION OF THE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY
Ștefan IANCU 1
Abstract. The Author presents in this paper controversies points of view on the social impact
of the information and communications technology (ICT): violations of the private character
of the personal data, economic crimes, dissemination of the materials of illegal substance,
violation of the intellectual property rights, the necessity of juridical regulations on
dissemination of information by Internet, unlawful acts and so on.The conclusion of this
paper is the necessity of the juridical, international regulations, at least at the level of all
countries that participate in the Internet, that take in view the intangible character of the
information and that should be different from the specific juridical regulations for the material
goods.
Key words: information and communications technology, protection of personal data, intellectual
property, infringements
At the beginning of the third millennium, ―Information and Communication
Technologies‖ (ICT) are no more just a technology, but form part of our daily life. ICT
now put people around the world in touch with each other to an extent, which was
difficult to imagine just a decade ago. School students from Bucharest or Paris can
and do correspond daily about evolution and intellectual liberty with librarians from
Kansas or Norway and even professors from South Africa. Large companies
consider it quite routine to have a head office in one country, production plants in two
or three others, administered from a fifth and a sixth, while customer support is based
in three more convenient time zones.
The symbol of the convergence between telecommunications, computer and control
industries, the Internet, has established itself as one of the main building blocks of
the Global Information Infrastructure and as an essential enabler of the Knowledgebased
Information Society in Europe. The potential of the Internet to inform, educate,
entertain and conduct business on a global scale is considerable. But, like any other
new technology, the ICT carries an amount of potentially harmful or illegal contents
or is misused as a vehicle for criminal activities.
To analyze and evaluate the impact of a new technology can be difficult. Some of the
changes are obvious. Some are subtler. Even when benefits are obvious, their costs
and side effects may not be, and vice versa. Changes in technology usually require
adaptive changes in laws, social institutions, business policies, and personal skills
and attitudes and even mentalities. A new technology makes possible harmful
actions that were not considered when existing laws were written and, for this
reason, they are not illegal or criminal.
Many issues and problems that arise from the ICT development are not
fundamentally different from issues and problems with which the society has been
confronted before and this fact suggests that the root is not always or only ICT, but
may be human nature, ethics, politics, instruction and education.
In strategic thinking, dependence soon becomes a vulnerability and then by
extension a potential target.
1 Prof. univ., Ph.D. Eng., Founding, full member of the Academy of Romanian Scientist, Scientific
Secretary of the Information Science and Technology of the Romanian Academy.

288 Ștefan Iancu
In the last decade, the same translation from dependence to target has been made
via information. Viruses can destroy vital systems in a surprise attack. Small
campaigns of information warfare are becoming quite commonplace.
All this has led to anxieties that new opportunities are opening up for hostile states or
terrorists. Information warfare might involve disabling air-defense systems, sending
missiles off course, leaving local commanders in the dark and senior commanders
confused by interfering with software or hardware.
Television images might be distorted to make an enemy leader appear ridiculous;
misleading signals could be sent to top commanders; false orders might be delivered
to key units. Civilian life might be disrupted through attacks on the information
systems supporting the financial or transportation systems
The ICT utilization does not exist in a legal vacuum, since all people involved are
subject to the laws of the respective State. In the studying the potential infringements
we have to differentiate the illegal acts and the harmful ones. In facts, in our days,
INTERNET has become the country of the four Apocalypse knights: organized crime,
terrorism, gun and dope dealer, and pedophilia. The negative impact of ICT utilization
lead to the following main categories of infringements:
1. VIOLATIONS OF THE PRIVATE CHARACTER OF THE PERSONAL DATA.
As a result of the rapid ICT development large quantities of information relating to
individuals (―personal data‖) are routinely collected and used by public
administrations and in every business area.
Computers make the collection, analysis, storage, access and distribution of large
amounts of information much easier than before. A sector of data on a disk can be
accessed in roughly 5 milliseconds - faster than we can turn a page in a book.
Computers have increased both the speed and anonymity with which a person can
do searches. In the past, our conversations disappeared when we finished speaking,
and only the sender and recipient normally read our personal communications. Now
that we communicate by e-mail and electronic discussions groups, our words are
recorded and can be copied, distributed, and read by others.
Some of the risks that arise from the existence of the many government and private
databases are the following: unauthorized uses by ‖insiders‖, the people who
maintain the information; inadvertent leakage of information through negligence or
carelessness, and access by intruders (e.g. hackers); propagation of errors and the
harm caused by them.
2. ECONOMIC CRIMES
Computers make many activities easier for us. They also make many illegal activities
easier for criminals. Computers provide new ways to commit old crimes: fraud,
embezzlement, theft, forgery, vandalism, industrial espionage and they provide new
challenges for prevention, detection, and prosecution of crimes.
Computer crimes against businesses and organizations include offenses committed
by ―insiders‖ (usually employees) and outsiders (hackers, competitors, criminal
gangs). Computer as a criminal tool is a powerful one. It makes some crimes not only
easier to commit, but also more devastating and harder to detect. Global networks
extend the reach of thieves and make arrests and prosecutions more difficult. A thief
who steals a credit card gains access to a much larger amount of money than the
thief who steals a wallet with some cash. Confidential business information can be
stolen from computers and voice mail systems without any signs of ―forced entry‖.

Social Impact of the Technology of Information and Communications 289
It is not easy to get reliable data on the amount of computer crime, in part because
banks and other victims prefer not to publicize their losses and weak customer
confidence.
3. DISSEMINATION OF THE MATERIALS OF ILLEGAL SUBSTANCE;
There exists a whole range of rules which limit for different reasons the use and
distribution of a certain content. The infringement of these rules lead to the illegality
of the content. Various types of material may offend the values and feelings of other
persons.
What is an offensive speech? What should be prohibited or restricted on computer
networks. It depends on who you are. It could be political or religious speech,
pornography, sexual or racial slurs, libelous statement, depictions of violence, or
information about how to build bombs. Although there is a disagreement over the
standards for what material adults have the right to view, most people agree that a
tighter standard is appropriate for children.
There is no generally accepted legal definition of ―indecent‖ or ―filthy‖ words used in
free messages. There is pornography on the INTERNET. There are numerous
INTERNET sites from which users can download sexually explicit images. There are
discussion groups where people discuss sexual activity including pedophilia, in
graphic detail. It is illegal to create, possess, or disseminate child pornography. It is
also illegal to lure children into sexual acts. But the INTERNET is used to commit
such facts.
Computer networks are changing the meaning of word ―community‖ or ―distribution‖.
An obscene files send through INTERNET from a town to another can be accessed
by anyone, from anywhere.
Are new restrictions on freedom of speech needed to protect children on the
INTERNET (and to protect adults from material that is offensive to them)? Are there
other solutions that do not threaten to diminish free discussion of serious subjects or
deny sexually explicit material to adults who want it?
The ease that digital images can be modified raises other issues, some related to
crime and some that are intriguing ethical and social issues. Many cameras now
record digital images; they do not use film. Photos taken on film are scanned for
storage and use in computerized publishing systems. How can we be sure the
images we see have not been modified or faked? There are numerous examples in
history of photographs that were faked before digital technology. The ethical issues
are not new, but many more people face them because image manipulation has
become so easy; it is no longer reserved to the specialist with a darkroom. The
general public must become more aware of the possibility of fakery and learn to have
a reasonable skepticism.
4. VIOLATION OF THE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS.
The increasing use of electronic media and computer networks has created new
problems for protection of literary, artistic and musical works, as well as computer
software. Multimedia program spread by INTERNET has extrapolated the
possibilities for violation of the intellectual property rights. Transposition of one
intellectual work in electronic form leads to new problems. The cost of imitation and
distribution using computer network of a counterfeit product can be reduced a lot.
The authentic producers of music, film, texts in digital form have problems in fixing
the distribution price of their works in copies, competitors that offer substitutes of
these works can, at any time, lower the price.

290 Ștefan Iancu
New computer, storage and communications technologies have made copying
extremely easy and cheap because the digital signals 1 or 0 can be sent around the
world by some clicks of the mouse in fact without the cost. And unlike other copying
technologies, the copy of a digital file is indistinguishable from the original.
Enforcement of copyright is becoming much more difficult; some say impossible. As
more and more creative work, including novels, essays and movies are distributed
digitally instead of in physical books, magazines and tapes. Solving this problem in a
way that maintains a reasonable balance between the interests of publishers and the
interests of the public will not be easy.
In the digital world, even the most routine access to information invariably involves
making a copy. Computer program are run by copying them from disk to memory and
Web pages are viewed by copying them from a remote computer to the local PC.
Billions of dollars of software is copied illegally worldwide every year and
unauthorized copying and use of software deprives publishers and developers of a
fair return of their work, increase prices, reduces the level of future support and
enhancement, and can inhibit the development of new software products.
Purchasers and users of counterfeit or copied software face unnecessary risks:
viruses, corrupt disks, or otherwise defective software; inadequate documentation;
lack of technical product support available to registered users, and lack of software
upgrades offered to registered users.
Electronic information is volatile and easily reproduced. For this purpose respect for
the work and personal expression of others is especially critical in computer
environments.
Violation of authorial integrity, including plagiarism, invasion of privacy, unauthorized
access, and trade secret and authors‘ right violations should be grounds for
sanctions against members of the community.
In order to successfully fight against the infringements done through ICT, a pertinent
strategy at international level has to be established, as follows:
The improving of the present legal framework in the information field;
Technological improving – cryptography soft, to eliminate the possibility of
deciphering;
Increase of technological performances in hard manufacture, to diminish
hackers possibility of action;
Future measures against computer crime should aim at comprehensive
solutions including non-legal measures and at extension of the preventive concepts,
appreciated to be more efficient than the punitive ones;
All solutions must be specified solutions between tangible and intangible
property.
The strategy should be elaborated at international level and to include compulsory, at
least all the countries connected at INTERNET.
The adoption of different national strategy could constitute ―information heavens‖
that, in exchange, could lead to market restrictions and national barriers in the way of
information free circulation.
When elaborating the strategy it will be considered that the information is a new,
different value that can not be protected by analogy with the material items.

Social Impact of the Technology of Information and Communications 291
In the legal field a new doctrine should be elaborated in terms of information rights
that will have as object protection of both the author and of the holder of the
information; of the person the information refers to; of the society against the
dissemination of illegal and harmful information; of the persons legal right to have
free access to receive and send information.
The situation ICT users are facing now can be really expressed by Voltaire
affirmation in terms of communication freedom: “I disapprove of what you say, but I
will defend to the death your right to say it”.
The more intensive use of the computers increase the separation of rich and poor,
creating a two-class society, the information ―haves‖ and ―have-nots‖. There is a
need for government subsidies for people who cannot afford computers, or for ―public
spaces‖ on the Internet with kinds of information that commercial services may not
provide.
The technological advances brought by computers and their extraordinary pace of
development can cause dramatic impact on people‘s lives.
To some, who see computers as a de-humanizing tool that reduces the quality of life
or as a threat to the status quo and their well-being, this is frightening and disruptive.
Others see the development of computer technology challenging and exciting
opportunities.
Do computers have an overall positive or negative impact?
In general, when we are evaluating a new technology like ICT, we should not
compare it to some ideal of perfect service or zero side effects and risk.
That is impossible to achieve in most aspects of life. Instead, we should compare ICT
to the alternatives and weigh the problems against the benefits.
I am an engineer and I think that the technology, in general, has been a major factor
in bringing physical well-being, liberty, and opportunity for hundreds of millions of
people to live better.
That does not mean that ICT - this relatively new wonderful technology - is without
problems. We must recognize and study them so that we can reduce the negative
effects of ICT and increase the positive ones.
Let us hope for the future.

292 Ștefan Iancu
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] *** Information technology: Transforming our Society,
http://www.ccic.gov/ac/interim/section1.html
[2] Serge Le Doran & Philippe Rose, Cyber-Mafia, Editura Antet, Bucureşti 1998.
[3] Frederick L. Wettering, The Internet and the Spy Business, International Journal of
Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, vol. 14, nr.3 / 2001, SUA.
[4] Electronic Commerce: Commissions presents framework for future action.
http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/media/infso/313.htm
[5] Political agreement on a Common Position of the Council on a Framework for Electronic
signatures (22 April 1999)
http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/media/sign/composen/htm
[6] Opinion 4/2001 on the Council of Europe‘s Draft Convention on Cyber-crime,
http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/dataprot/wpdocs/wp41en.htm
[7] Lege privind semnătura electronică (proiect) http://www.mcti.ro
[8] Lege privind comerţul electronic (proiect) http://www.mcti.ro
[9]
Mario Monti, The Internet and privacy: what regulations?
http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/speeches/rome0598.htm
[10] Declan McCullagh, ―U.S. Wants Less Web Anonimity‖, Wired News, www.wired.com, 2 March
2000
[11] ***Codul penal , Bucureşti, Editura Lumina LEX, 1994
[12] F. Debout, Guerre Informatique- Vulnerabilité de nos systèmes, Armées d‘aujourd‘hui, Franţa,
nr 26, dec-ian 1999.
[13] David Clark, Groups Calls for Global Internet Summit, Computer, september 1998.
[14] Michael A. Cavington, Beware of Software Disclaimers, Computer, september 1998.
[15] *** Networked Computing for the 21 st Century, http://www.ccic.gov/pubs/blue
[16] Legal Aspects of Computer-Related Crime in the Information Society,
http://www2.echo.lu/legal/en/comcrime/sieber.html#1
[17] Dr. Maxwell Maltz, ―Psihocibernetica‖, Curtea Veche Publishing, 1999;
[18] Prof.dr.ing. Şt. Iancu, ―Unele probleme sociale, economice, juridice şi etice ale utilizării
tehnologiei informaţiei şi comunicatiilor‖, Volumul ―Societatea Informaţională Societatea
Cunoaşterii - Concepte, soluţii şi strategii pentru România, Coordonator Florin Gh. Filip,
Editura Expert, Bucureşti, 2001

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 293
SCALED BFGS PRECONDITIONED CONJUGATE GRADIENT
ALGORITHMS FOR UNCONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
Neculai ANDREI 1
Abstract. This paper presents a new scaled conjugate gradient based on secant equation
and inexact Wolfe line search. The best spectral conjugate gradient algorithm of Birgin and
Martínez [4] which is a scaled version of the Perry [18], is modified in such a way that the
matrix defining the search direction is positive definite. The main ingredients of this
modification are based on the BFGS updating technology. The algorithm is restarted
according to the Beale-Powell technique. The scaling parameter is computed as the spectral
gradient or using an anticipative formula based on the functions values in two successive
points. For uniformly convex functions the algorithm is global convergent. Intensive
numerical experiments using a set of 500 unconstrained optimization problems prove that
our algorithm outperforms the known nonlinear conjugate gradient algorithms as SCG by
Birgin and Martínez, Fletcher-Reeves, Polak-Ribière and CONMIN by Shanno and Phua
[24].
Keywords: Unconstrained optimization, conjugate gradient method, spectral gradient method, BFGS
formula, numerical comparisons
AMS Subject Classification: 49M07, 49M10, 90C06, 65K
1. INTRODUCTION
The conjugate gradient methods represent an important innovation for solving largescale
unconstrained optimization problems
minf ( x ) , (1)
where : n
f R R is continuously differentiable and its gradient is available. These
methods generate a sequence xk of approximations to the minimum
which
k1 k k
k,
*
x of f , in
x x d
(2)
d g d , (3)
k1 k1 k k
where gk f ( xk),
k is selected to minimize ( ) f x along the search direction d k ,
and k is a scalar parameter. The iterative process is initialized with an initial point
x0 and d0 g0
. A lot of versions of conjugate gradient methods correspond to the
selection procedure of parameter k are already known. When the function f is
quadratic and k is selected to minimize ( ) f x along the direction d k , then all
choices of k are equivalent, but for general nonlinear functions different choices of
k give algorithms with very different convergence performances. A history of
conjugate gradient and Lanczos algorithms from their very beginning until 1976 is
presented by Golub and O‘Leary [11]. An excellent survey of nonlinear conjugate
gradient methods with special attention to global convergence properties is made by
Hager and Zhang [13].
This paper is motivated by a variant of the conjugate gradient algorithm, called
spectral conjugate gradient (SCG), given by Birgin and Martínez [4]. Preserving the
1 Research Institute for Informatics, Center for Advanced Modeling and Optimization, 8-10, Averescu
Avenue, Bucharest 1, Romania. Corresponding member of A.O.S. Romania, nandrei@ici.ro.

294 Neculai Andrei
nice geometrical properties of Perry‘s direction, Birgin and Martinez present a
conjugate gradient algorithm in which the parameter scaling the gradient defining the
search direction is selected by means of a spectral formula suggested for the first
time by Barzilai and Borwein [3]. Numerical experiments with this algorithm proved
that this computational scheme outperforms Polak-Ribière and Fletcher-Reeves and
is competitive with CONMIN of Shanno and Phua [24] and SGM of Raydan [21]. In
this paper we modify the best algorithm of Birgin and Martinez in order to overcome
the lack of positive definiteness of the matrix defining the search direction. This is
done using the quasi-Newton BFGS updating philosophy, thus obtaining a new
descent direction. Using the restart technology of Beale-Powell we get a new scaled
conjugate gradient algorithm in which the scaling parameter is selected as spectral
gradient or in an anticipative manner using the function values in two successive
points. The algorithm implements both Wolfe line search conditions.
The paper is organized as follows:
In section 2 we present the scaled conjugate gradient method with restart. A
complete description of the scaled conjugate gradient algorithm is shown in section
3. The algorithm performs two types of steps: a normal one in which a double quasi-
Newton updating scheme is used, and a restart one where the current information is
used to define the search direction. The convergence analysis of the algorithm for
strongly convex functions is described in section 4. In section 5 we present the
computational results on a set of 500 unconstrained optimization problems and
compare the Dolan and Moré [8] performance profiles of the new scaled conjugate
gradient scheme to the profiles for the Birgin and Martinez‘s method SCG [4] and
CONMIN of Shanno and Phua [24].
2. SCALED CONJUGATE GRADIENT METHOD WITH RESTART
For solving (1) we consider the iterative process (2), where for k 0,1, the step size
k is positive and the directions d k are generated by:
d g s
(4)
k1 k1k1 kk,
in which k 1 and k are parameters which are to be determined.
Observe that if 1 1, k then we get the classical conjugate gradient algorithms
according to the value of the scalar parameter .
k
On the other hand, if 0, then
we get another class of algorithms according to the selection of the parameter k 1
There are two possibilities for k 1
k
.
: a positive scalar or a positive definite matrix. If
1 1 k , we get the steepest descent (Cauchy [6]) algorithm. If
2 1
k1
f( xk1)
, or an approximation of it, then we get the Newton or the quasi-
Newton algorithms, respectively.
Therefore, we can see that in the general case, when 1 0 k is selected in a quasi-
Newton manner and k 0, then (4) represents a combination between the quasi-
Newton and the conjugate gradient methods.
Using a geometric interpretation for the quadratic function minimization Birgin and
Martinez [4] suggest the following expression for parameter k in (4):
T
( k
1yksk) g
k 1
k .
(5)
T
yksk

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 295
With this, the corresponding direction is:
T
( k
1yksk) gk
1
k 1
k 1 k 1
T k
yksk d g s .
(6)
The following particularizations are obvious. If 1 1, k then (6) is the direction
considered by Perry [18]. At the same time we see that (6) is the direction given by
Dai and Liao [7] for t 1. Additionally, if 1 0,
T
sj gj j 0,1, , k,
then from (6) we
get:
T
k
1ykgk1 k 1
k 1 k 1
k,
T
k kgkgk d g s
(7)
which is the direction corresponding to a generalization of the Polak and Ribière
formula. Of course, if 1 1 in (7), we get the classical Polak and Ribière
formula [19]. If 1 0,
T
j j
orthogonal, then from (6)
kk s g j 0,1, , k,
and additionally the successive gradients are
T
k
1gk 1gk 1
k 1
k 1 k 1
k,
T
k kgkgk d g s
(8)
is the direction corresponding to a generalization of the Fletcher and Reeves formula.
Therefore, (6) is a general formula for direction computation in a conjugate gradient
manner including the classical Fletcher and Reeves [10], and Polak and Ribière [19]
formulas. Computational experiments given by Birgin and Martinez [4] on a set of 40
unconstrained optimization problems, show that the algorithm (6) of Perry outperforms
variant (7) of Polak and Ribière and variant (8) of Fletcher and Reeves, and
compare favourable with CONMIN computational scheme by Shanno and Phua [24].
Shanno [22, 23] proved that the conjugate gradient method is exactly the BFGS
quasi-Newton method where at every step the approximation to the inverse Hessian
is restarted as the identity matrix. Now we extend this result for the scaled conjugate
gradient. We see that the direction given by (6) can be written as:
where
If k1 1, we have:
d
I
g Q g
1 1 1 1 1 1 ,
T T
sk yk sksk k kk T T k k k
yk sk yk sk
T T
sk yk sksk k 1 k1k1 .
T T
yk sk yk sk
Q I (10)
d
I
g
1 1 ,
T T
sk yk sksk k
T T k
yk sk yk sk
which is exactly the Perry formula. By direct computation we can prove:
Proposition 1.
(9)
(11)
T T
k k 1 k .
(12)
y Q s

296 Neculai Andrei
Observe that (12) is similar but not identical to the quasi-Newton equation, which
requires that an update of the inverse Hessian Hk1 should be in such a way as to
satisfy:
Hk 1 yk sk.
(13)
A major difficulty with (9) is that the matrix 1 , Qk defined by (10), is not symmetric
and hence not positive definite. Thus, the directions k 1
d from (9) are not necessarily
descent directions and therefore numerical instability can result. Besides, another
difficulty arising from this lack of symmetry is that the true quasi-Newton equation
(13) is not satisfied.
In order to overcome this difficulty and to get a true quasi-Newton updating we first
make the matrix Qk 1 from (10) symmetric as follows:
T T T
sk yk yksk sksk k 1 k1k1 .
T T
yk sk yk sk
Q I (14)
Now, we force Qk 1 to satisfy the quasi-Newton equation (13) yielding to the
following symmetric update:
T T
T
T
yk sk s y y y s s
*
k k
k k k k
Qk 1 k1 I
k1
T 1
k1
T T .
(15)
y s y s y s
By direct computation it is very easy to prove that
equation, i.e.
Proposition 2.
Notice that
k
k
*
k 1 k k
k
k
k
k
*
Qk 1 satisfies the quasi-Newton
Q y s .
(16)
*
k1 k1 k1
d Q g
(17)
*
does not actually require the matrix Qk1 , i.e. the direction dk1 can be computed as:
T T T T
gk 1s k y 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 k y
k gk sk gk y
d k
k k gk
k yk
k 1
k1sk, T
T T (18)
T
yk s
k yk s
kykskyksk
T
involving only 4 scalar products. Again observe that if gk 1sk 0,
to:
T
gk 1yk
k 1 k1k1
k 1
k.
T
yksk then (18) reduces
d g s
(19)
Thus, in this particular case the effect is simply one of multiplying the Hestenes and
Stiefel [14] search direction by a positive scalar.
As we know, the BFGS update to the inverse Hessian, which is currently the best
update of the Broyden class, is defined by:
T T T T
Hky ksk sk yk H
k y
1 1 k Hky
k sks H k
kHk .
T T T
yk sk yk sk yksk
(20)

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 297
Therefore, we can immediately see that the conjugate gradient method (17), where
*
Qk 1 is given by (15), is exactly the BFGS quasi-Newton method, where at every
step the approximation of the inverse Hessian is restarted as the identity matrix
multiplied by the scalar 1 . k
In order to ensure the convergence of the algorithm (2), with dk1 given by (18), we
need to constrain the choice of k . We consider line searches that satisfy the Wolfe
conditions [25, 26]:
where 1 2
0 1.
T
k k k k 1k k k
f ( x d ) f ( x ) g d ,
(21)
T T
k kkk2kk f ( x d ) d g d ,
(22)
Theorem 1. Suppose that k in (2) satisfies the Wolfe conditions (21) and (22), then
the direction dk 1 given by (18) is a descent direction.
Proof: Since d0 g0
, we have
have
T
2
0 0 0 0.
g d g Multiplying (18) by 1 , g we
T 1
2 T 2
T T T
gk 1dk 1
2 k 1 gk 1 ( yk sk ) 2 k 1( gk 1yk )( gk 1sk
)( yk sk
)
T
( yksk)
T 2 T T T 2
( gk 1sk ) ( yk sk ) k1(
yk yk )( gk 1sk
) .
T
1 2 2
( )
Applying the inequality u v
2
u v to the second term of the right hand side
T T
of the above equality, with u ( sk yk ) gk 1
and v ( gk 1sk
) yk
we get:
T 2
T ( gk1sk) k1 k1 .
T
yksk g d
T
But, by Wolfe condition (22), k k 0.
(23)
T
k k
y s Therefore, 1 1 0
g d for every k 0,1,
Observe that the second Wolfe condition (22) is crucial for the descent character of
direction (18). Besides, the estimation (23) is independent of the parameter 1 . k
Usually, all conjugate gradient algorithms are periodically restarted. The standard
restarting point occurs when the number of iterations is equal to the number of
variables, but some other restarting methods can be considered as well.
The Powell restarting procedure [20] is to test if there is very little orthogonality left
between the current gradient and the previous one. At step r when:
T 2
r 1 r 0.2 r 1
,
(24)
g g g
we restart the algorithm using the direction given by (18). Another restarting
procedure, considered by Birgin&Martinez [4], consists of testing if the angle between
the current direction and gk 1
is not acute enough. Therefore, at step r when:
T
3
dr gr 1 10 dr g
2 r 1
,
(25)
2
T k

298 Neculai Andrei
the algorithm is restarted using the direction given by (18).
At step r when one of the two criteria (24) or (25) is satisfied, the direction is
computed as in (18). For k r 1, we consider the same philosophy used to get (15),
i.e. that of modifying the gradient gk 1 with a positive definite matrix which best
estimates the inverse Hessian without any additional storage requirements.
Therefore, the direction dk1, for k r 1, is computed using a double update
scheme as:
d H g
(26)
where
and
1 1 1 ,
k k k
T T T T
Hr 1yk sk sk yk Hr 1 y 1
1 1 1 k Hr yk sks H k
k H
r .
T T T
yk sk yk sk yksk
1
.
T T T T
yr sr sr yr yr yr sr sr
r 1 r 1 r 1
T r 1
T T
yr s
r yr s
r yr sr
H I
As above, observe that this computational scheme does not involve any matrix.
H g H y can be computed as:
Indeed, r1 k1and
r1k and
T
gk 1s
v H r
r 1gk 1 r1gk1
r 1
y
T r
yr s
r
w H y y
y
T
yksr r 1 k r1kr1 T r
yr s
r
T T T
y
1 r y
r gk 1srgk1y r
r 1
r 1 sr
,
T T
T
yr s
r yr sr yr sr
(27)
(28)
(29)
T T T
y
1 r y
r yk sr yk y
r
r 1 r1
sr
,
T T (30)
T
yr s
r yrsryrsr
thus involving 6 scalar products. With these the direction (26) at any nonrestart step
can be computed as:
T T T T
( gk 1sk ) w ( gk 1w ) sk y 1
1
1 k w gk s
d k
k v
sk,
T T T
yk s
k yk s
k yk sk
involving only 4 scalar products. We see that dk 1 from (31) is defined as a double
T
quasi-Newton update scheme. It is useful to note that yksk 0 is sufficient to ensure
that the direction dk 1 given by (31) is well defined and it is always a descent
direction.
We shall now consider some formulas for the computation of k 1 . As we have
already seen, in our algorithm k 1
(31)
is defined as a scalar approximation of the inverse
Hessian. According to the procedures for a scalar estimation of the inverse Hessian we
get a family of scaled conjugate gradient algorithms. The following procedures can be
used.
k 1 spectral. Motivated by the spectral gradient method introduced by Barzilai and
Borwein [3] and analyzed by Raydan [21] and Fletcher [9], we can consider a
spectral gradient choice for k 1 as:

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 299
T
sksk k 1 .
T
yksk (32)
The parameter k 1 given by (32) is the inverse of the Rayleigh quotient. Again we
T
notice that yk sk
0 is sufficient to ensure that k 1 in (32) is well defined.
k 1 anticipative. Recently, Andrei [1], using the information in two successive
points of the iterative process, developed another scalar approximation of the
Hessian of function f obtaining a new algorithm, which compares favourable with
Barzilai-Borwein's. Indeed, in point xk1 xk kdkwe can write
T 1 2 T 2
f ( xk 1) f ( xk ) kgkdkkdk f ( z) dk,
2
where z is on the line segment connecting k x and 1 . xk Having in view the local
character of the searching procedure and that the distance between k x and xk 1 is
small enough we can choose z xk 1 and consider k 1 as a scalar approximation of
2
f( xk1), where k 1 R.
This is an anticipative viewpoint in which a scalar
approximation of the Hessian at point xk 1 is computed using only the local
information from two successive points: x k and 1 . xk Therefore, we can write:
2 1
T
k1f( x
2 k 1)
f ( xk ) kgk dk
.
T
dkdk
k
(33)
Observe that for convex functions 1 0.
T
k If f ( xk 1) f ( xk ) k gk dk
0, then the
T
reduction f ( xk1) f ( xk)
in function value is smaller than kgkdk. In these cases
the idea is to change a little the step size k as k k, maintaining the other
is positive.
quantities at their values, in such a way so that k 1
To get a value for k let us select a real 0, ‖small enough‖, but comparable with
the value of the function, and take
1
T
k f( xk ) f ( xk 1)
kgk dk
,
T
gkd
k
(34)
with which a new value for k 1 can be computed as:
2 1
T
k 1f( x
2 k 1)
( k ) ( k k ) k k .
T
f x g d
dkdk( kk)
With these, the value for parameter k 1 is selected as:
where k 1 is given by (33) or (35).
1 ,
(35)
k 1
(36)
k
1
Proposition 3. Assume that f( x ) is continuously differentiable and f( x)
is
Lipschitz continuous, with a positive constant L . Then, at point 1 , xk

300 Neculai Andrei
Proof: From (33) we have:
(37)
k
1 2. L
,
T T
2 f ( xk ) kf ( k ) dk f ( xk ) k f
( xk ) dk
k 1
2 2
dk
k
where k is on the line segment connecting xk and 1 . xk Therefore
T
2 f ( k ) f ( xk ) dk
k 1
2
dk
k
Using the inequality of Cauchy and the Lipschitz continuity it follows that
k 1
2 f ( k) f ( xk ) 2L kxk2Lxk1xk
2. L
d d d
k k k k k k
Therefore, from (36) we get a lower bound for k 1 as:
i.e. it is bounded away from zero.
3. THE ALGORITHM
k 1
Having in view the above developments and the definitions of g k,
s k and y k,
as
well as the selection procedures for k 1 computation, the following family of scaled
conjugate gradient algorithms can be presented.
Algorithm SCALCG
Step 1. Select x0 R ,
1
,
2L
n
and the parameters 1 2
0 ( 0).
Set d0 g0
and 0 1/ g0
. Set k 0.
g f x
.
0 1. Compute f( x 0)
and
Step 2. Line search. Compute k satisfying the Wolfe conditions (21) and (22).
Update the variables xk1 xk kdk
.
Compute f ( xk1), gk
1 and sk xk1 xk,
y g g .
k k1 k
Step 3. Test for continuation of iterations. If this test is satisfied the iterations are
stopped, else set k k 1.
Step 4. Compute k using a spectral (32) or an anticipative (36) approach.
Step 5. Compute the (restart) direction d k as in (18).
Step 6. Line search. Compute the initial guess of the step length as
k k1 dk1 / d .
2 k Using this initialization compute
2
k satisfying the Wolfe
conditions (21) and (22). Update the variables xk1 xk kdk
. Compute
f ( xk1), gk
1 and sk xk1 xk,
yk gk1 gk.
Step 7. Store ,
k s sk
and y
yk.

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 301
Step 8. Test for continuation of iterations. If this test is satisfied the iterations are
stopped, else set k k 1.
Step 9. If the Powell restart criterion (24) or the angle restart criterion (25) is satisfied,
then go to step 4 (a restart step); otherwise continue with step 10 (a normal step).
Step 10. Compute
T T T T
gk s y y g
1 k s gk y
v gk y
s,
T T T T
y s y s
ysys
and
T T T T
yk 1s y y y
1 k 1s yk 1y
w y k y
s,
T T T T
y s y s
y s y s
T T T T
( gk sk 1) w ( gk w) sk 1 y
1 k 1w gk s
d k 1
k v
sk
1.
T T T
yk 1s
k 1 yk 1s
k 1 yk1sk1
Step 11. Line search. Compute the initial guess of the step length as
k k1 dk1 / d .
2 k Using this initialization compute
2
k satisfying the Wolfe
conditions (21) and (22). Update the variables xk1 xk kdk
. Compute
f ( xk1), gk1and
sk xk1 xk,
yk gk1 gk.
Step 12. Test for continuation of iterations. If this test is satisfied the iterations are
stopped, else set k k 1 and go to step 9.
It is well known that if f is bounded below along the direction dk, then there exists a
step length k satisfying the Wolfe conditions. The initial selection of the step length
crucially affects the practical behaviour of the algorithm. At every iteration k 1 the
starting guess for the step k in the line search is computed as k 1 dk 1 / d .
2 k 2
This selection, considered for the first time by Shanno and Phua in CONMIN, proves
to be one of the best. Concerning the stopping criterion used in steps 3, 8 and 12 we
consider the following tests:
gk
g or T
kgkdk ff( xk
1)
, (38)
where f and g are tolerances specified by the user.
The second criterion in (38) says that the estimated change in the function value is
insignificant compared to the function value itself.
4. CONVERGENCE ANALYSIS FOR STRONGLY CONVEX FUNCTIONS
Throughout this section we assume that f is strongly convex and Lipschitz
continuous on the level set
n
L x R : f ( x) f ( x ) .
0 0
That is, there exists constants 0 and L such that
and
T
( f ( x) f ( y)) ( x y) x y
(39)
2

302 Neculai Andrei
f ( x) f ( y) L x y ,
(40)
for all x and y from L 0 . For the convenience of the reader we include here the
following lemma (see [12]).
Lemma 1. Assume that d k is a descent direction and f satisfies the Lipschitz
condition
f ( x) f ( x ) L x x ,
(41)
k k
for every x on the line segment connecting k x and 1 , xk where L is a constant. If
the line search satisfies the second Wolfe condition (22), then
T
1
g
2
kdk k .
(42)
L 2
dk
Proof: Subtracting T gkd k from both sides of (22) and using the Lipschitz condition
we have
T T
2 gk dk gk 1
gk dk L k dk
( 1) ( ) .
(43)
Since d k is a descent direction and 2 1, (42) follows immediately from (43).
Lemma 2. Assume that f is strongly convex and Lipschitz continuous on L 0 . If
k 1 is selected by spectral gradient, then the direction dk 1 given by (18) satisfies:
2
2 2L
L
k1
2 3 k1
d g
Proof: By Lipschitz continuity (40) we have
.
2
(44)
yk gk1 gk f ( xk kdk) f ( xk ) Lkdk L sk
. (45)
On the other hand, by strong convexity (39)
Selecting k 1 as in (32), it follows that
T 2
k k k .
(46)
y s s
T
2
sksk sk
k 1 T 2
yksk sk
1
.
(47)
Now, using the triangle inequality and the above estimates (45)-(47), after some
algebra on 1 , k d is given by (18), we get (44).
d where k 1
Lemma 3. Assume that f is strongly convex and Lipschitz continuous on L 0 . If
k 1 is selected by the anticipative procedure, then the direction dk 1 given by (18)
satisfies:
2
1 2L 1 L
k1
2 k1
d g
m m m
.
(48)

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 303
Proof: By strong convexity on L 0 , there exists the constant m 0 , such that
2
f ( x) mI,
for all 0 . x L
see that, for all k ,
With this, like in lemma 2, we get (48).
Therefore, for every k , k 1 m.
Now, from (36) we
1
.
m
k 1 (49)
The convergence of the scaled conjugate gradient algorithm (SCALCG) when f is
strongly convex is given by
Theorem 2. Assume that f is strongly convex and Lipschitz continuous on the level
set L 0 . If at every step of the conjugate gradient (2) with dk 1 given by (18) and the
step length k selected to satisfy the Wolfe conditions (21) and (22), then either
gk 0 for some k , or lim gk
0.
k
Proof: Suppose gk 0 for all k . By strong convexity we have
T
By theorem 1, k k 0.
T T
k k k 1
k k k
k
y d ( g g ) d d .
(50)
g d Therefore, the assumption gk 0 implies dk 0. Since
T k k
k 0, from (50) it follows that y d 0. But f is strongly convex over 0 , L
therefore f is bounded from below. Now, summing over k the first Wolfe condition
(21) we have
k 0
T
kgkdk .
Considering the lower bound for k given by (42) in lemma 1 and having in view
that d k is a descent direction it follows that
2
T
gkdk .
2
k 1
dk
(51)
Now, from (23), using the inequality of Cauchy and (46) we get
T 2
2 2 2
T ( gk1sk) gk 1 sk gk
1
k1 k1
T 2
yksk s
k
g d
Therefore, from (51) it follows that
k 0
gk
dk
4
2
.
(52)
Now, inserting the upperbound (44), or (48), for d k in (52) yields
which completes the proof.
k 0
g
k
2
,
2
.

304 Neculai Andrei
For general functions the convergence of the algorithm is coming from theorem 1 and
the restart procedure.
Therefore, for strongly convex functions and under inexact line search it is global
convergent. If restarts are employed, the algorithm is convergent, but the speed of
convergence can decrease. To a great extent, however, SCALCG algorithm is very
close to Perry/Shanno computational scheme [22, 23]. In fact SCALCG is a scaled
memoryless BFGS preconditioned algorithm where the scaling factor is the inverse of
a scalar approximation of the Hessian. Therefore, when f is bounded from below
with bounded second partial derivatives and bounded level set, using the same
arguments like Shanno in [23] we can prove that the iterates either converge to a
*
*
point x satisfying gx ( ) 0, or the iterates cycle. It remains for further study to
determine a complete global convergence result and if cycling can occur for general
functions with bounded second partial derivatives and bounded level set.
5. COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS AND COMPARISONS
In this section we present the performance of a Fortran implementation of the
SCALCG - scaled conjugate gradient algorithm on a number of 500 test
unconstrained optimization problems.
At the same time, we compare the performance of SCALCG to the best spectral
conjugate gradient algorithm, SCG (betatype=1, Perry-M1), by Birgin and Martinez
[4] and to the CONMIN conjugate gradient package by Shanno and Phua [24]. The
code SCALCG is authored by Andrei, while the SCG is co-authored by Birgin and
Martinez and CONMIN is co-authored by Shanno and Phua. All codes are written in
Fortran using the same style of programming and compiled with f77 (default compiler
settings) on an Intel Pentium 4 1.8 GHz workstation.
The SCALCG code implements both the scaled conjugate gradient with spectral
choice of scaling parameter k 1 , as well as with the anticipative choice of this
parameter. In order to compare SCALCG with SCG we manufactured a new SCG
code of Birgin and Martinez by introducing a sequence of code to compute k 1 in
an anticipative manner, according to (36), and a sequence of code implementing the
Powell restart criterion as in (24). At the same time in CONMIN we introduced a
sequence of code implementing the stopping criteria (38).
The test problems are the unconstrained problems in the CUTE [5] library or the
MINPACK-2 [2] library, along with other large-scale optimization test problems. We
selected 50 large-scale unconstrained optimization test problems (11 from the CUTE
library) in extended or generalized form. For each test function we have considered
10 numerical experiments with number of variables n 1000,2000, ,10000.
Concerning the restart criterion, we implemented both the Powell and the angle
criterion. Both these criteria have a crucial role on the practical efficiency of the
algorithms. We compare the SCALCG algorithm with the Powell restart criterion to
the SCG algorithm with the Powell and angle restart criterion, each of them in two
variants: k 1 spectral and k 1 anticipative, respectively. At the same time we
compare these algorithms to CONMIN.
In all algorithms the Wolfe line search conditions are implemented with 1
0. 0001
and 2 0.9.
SCALCG and SCG use exactly the same implementation of Wolfe
conditions. In CONMIN we use the implementation given by Shanno and Phua which
is very close to that used in SCALCG and SCG.

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 305
The initial guess of the step length at the first iteration is 0 1/ g0
. At the following
iteration, in all algorithms, the starting guess for the step k is computed as
k 1 dk 1 d
2 k 2
/ .
This proved to be one of the best selection of the initial guess of the step length.
In all experiments we stopped the iterations whenever (38) is satisfied, where .
6
denotes the maximum absolute component of a vector and g
10 and
f
20
10 .
It is worth saying that (38) is a gradient-based criterion.
The second criterion in (38) is based on the function‘s values testing if the change in
the function value is insignificant subject to the function value itself.
In our numerical experiments we noticed that the second criterion in (38) is not very
much involved in stopping the iterations.
The numerical results concerning the number of iterations, the number of restart
iterations, the number of function and gradient evaluations, CPU time in seconds, for
each of the methods are posted at the following web site:
http://www.ici.ro/camo/neculai/ansoft.htm/scalcg
In the following we present the numerical performances of all these three codes,
including the performance profiles of Dolan and Moré [8] subject to the number of
iterations, the number of function evaluations and CPU time metrics.
Finally we show a comparison of all these codes including their performances on
some applications from MINPACK-2 library.
In the first set of numerical experiments we compare SCALCG with k 1 spectral ( s )
and SCALCG with k 1 anticipative ( a
) using the Powell restart criterion.
Table 1 shows the global characteristics corresponding to these 500 test problems,
referring to the total number of iterations, the total number of function evaluations and
the total CPU time for these algorithms.
Table 1. Global characteristics of SCALCG with s
versus SCALCG with a
.500 problems
Global characteristics s a
Total number of iterations 120895 116003
Total number of function evaluations 222765 176205
Total cpu time (seconds) 1361.74 1148.63
Out of 500 problems solved in this set of experiments the criterion gk
g
stopped the iterations for 433 problems, i.e. 86.6%, in the case of SCALCG with
and for 410 problems, i.e. 82%, in the case of SCALCG with a .
Table 2 shows the number of problems, out of 500, for which SCALCG with
s
,
s
and
SCALCG with a
achieved the minimum number of iterations, the minimum number
of function evaluations and the minimum CPU time, respectively.

306 Neculai Andrei
Table 2. Performance of SCALCG algorithms. 500 problems
Performance criterion # of problems
SCALCG with s achieved minimum # of iterations in 301
SCALCG with a achieved minimum # of iterations in 336
Both algorithms achieved the same # of iterations in 137
SCALCG with s achieved minimum # of function evaluations in 290
SCALCG with a achieved minimum # of function evaluations in 333
Both algorithms achieved the same # of function evaluations in 123
SCALCG with s achieved minimum cpu time in 271
SCALCG with a achieved minimum cpu time in 341
SCALCG with s and SCALCG with a achieved the same cpu time in 112
Observe that the total number in Table 2 exceeds 500 due to ties for some problems.
The performances of these algorithms have been evaluated using the profiles of
Dolan and Moré [8]. That is, for each algorithm, we plot the fraction of problems for
which the algorithm is within a factor of the best number of iterations and CPU time,
respectively. The left side of these Figures gives the percentage of the test problems,
out of 500, for which an algorithm is more effective; the right side gives the
percentage of the test problems that were successfully solved by each of the
algorithms. Mainly, the right side represents a measure of an algorithm‘s robustness.
s
In Figures 1 and 2 we compare the performance profiles of SCALCG with and
a
SCALCG with referring to the number of function evaluations and CPU time
metrics, respectively.
Fig. 1. SCALCG with Powell restart. Function evaluations metric.

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 307
Fig. 2. SCALCG with Powell restart. CPU time metric.
The top curve corresponds to the algorithm that solved the most problems in a
number of function evaluations (Figure 1) or in a CPU time (Figure 2) that was within
a given factor of the best number of function evaluations or CPU time,
respectively. Since the top curve in Figures 1 and 2 corresponds to SCALCG with
a
, this algorithm is clearly better than SCALCG with s . However, both codes
have similar performances for 1,
SCALCG with a
being slightly more robust.
The second set of numerical experiments refers to the performances of SCG
s
algorithm. Tables 3 and 4 show the global characteristics for SCG with with
versus SCG with a
using the Powell or the angle restart criterion, respectively.
Table 3. Global characteristics of SCG with s
versus SCG with a
. Powell restart. 500 problems
Global characteristics s a
Total number of iterations 137120 140114
Total number of function evaluations 246606 250544
Total cpu time (seconds) 2101.78 2169.70
Table 4. Global characteristics of SCG with s versus SCG with a . Angle restart. 500 problems
Global characteristics s a
Total number of iterations 184686 182999
Total number of function evaluations 287102 297064
Total cpu time (seconds) 2790.61 2731.88
Observe that both codes have similar performances.

308 Neculai Andrei
Since the codes only differ in the procedure for k 1 computation we see that k 1
computed in an anticipative manner, which is based only on the function values in
two successive points, is competitive with the spectral formula which considers the
Hessian average between two successive iterations. It is worth saying that out of 500
a
problems solved by SCG with in this numerical experiment only for 133 (i.e.
26.6%) k 1 in (33) was negative in the case of Powell restart, and for only 124 (i.e.
24.8%) k 1 in (33) was negative in the case of angle restart.
From Tables 3 and 4 we see that SCG with Powell restart criterion, in both
implementations using
s
and a
, is slightly better than SCG with angle criterion.
s
For example, for solving this set of 500 problems SCG with Powell restart and is
with 688.83 seconds faster than SCG with angle restart.
Table 5 shows the global characteristics for SCALCG with a
versus SCG with a
using Powell restart criterion.
Table 5. Global characteristics of SCALCG with a
versus SCG with a
. Powell restart.
500 problems.
Global characteristics SCALCG SCG
Total number of iterations 116003 140114
Total number of function evaluations 176205 250544
Total cpu time (seconds) 1148.63 2169.70
Table 6 shows the number of problems, out of 500, for which SCALCG with a
and
SCG with a
, both using Powell restart criterion, achieved the minimum number of
iterations, the minimum number of function evaluations and the minimum CPU time,
respectively.
Table 6. Performance of SCALCG a
( ) versus SCG a
( ) algorithms.
Powell restart. 500 problems
Performance criterion # of problems
SCALCG achieved minimum # of iterations in 436
SCG achieved minimum # of iterations in 82
SCALCG and SCG achieved the same # of iterations in 18
SCALCG achieved minimum # of function evaluations in 428
SCG achieved minimum # of function evaluations in 145
SCALCG and SCG achieved the same # of function evaluations in 73
SCALCG achieved minimum cpu time in 480
SCG achieved minimum cpu time in 34
SCALCG and SCG achieved the same cpu time in 14
From Table 6 we have computational evidence that SCALCG is about 5.3 times more
effective than SCG when referring to the number of problems solved in a minimum
number of iterations. As for the number of function evaluations it is about 3 times
more effective and about 14 times faster than SCG for this set of 500 test problems
with dimensions ranging from 10 3 to 10 4 . In the third set of numerical experiments we

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 309
a
a
compare SCALCG ( ) with SCG ( ) and with CONMIN in a restart environment
given by the Powell criterion. Table 7 shows the global characteristics corresponding
to these 500 test problems.
Table 7. Global characteristics of SCALCG ( a
), SCG ( a
) and CONMIN.
Powell restart. 500 problems.
Global characteristics SCALCG SCG CONMIN
Total number of iterations 116003 140114 88249
Total number of function
evaluations
176205 250544 950105
Total cpu time (seconds) 1148.63 2169.70 5211.49
Table 8 illustrates the number of problems, out of 500, for which the above
algorithms achieved the minimum number of iterations, the minimum number of
function evaluations and the minimum CPU time, respectively.
Table 8. Performance of SCALCG ( a
), SCG ( a
) and CONMIN. Powell restart. 500 problems.
Number of problems
Minimum number of: SCALCG SCG CONMIN
iterations 192 41 315
function evaluations 261 75 228
cpu time 304 27 254
In Figures 3-5 we compare the performance profiles of these algorithms subject to
the number of iterations, the number of function evaluations and CPU time,
respectively.
Fig. 3. SCALCG versus SCG and CONMIN. Theta anticipative.
Powell restart. Iterations metric.

310 Neculai Andrei
Powell restart. cpu time metric.
Fig. 4. SCALCG versus SCG and CONMIN. Theta anticipative.
Powell restart. Function evaluations metric.
Fig. 5. SCALCG versus SCG and CONMIN. Theta anticipative.
Relative to the iteration metric in Figure 3, we see that for 1 CONMIN is slightly
better than SCALCG and SCG. However, concerning this metric, for almost all values
of SCALCG and CONMIN have similar performances. Relative to the function
evaluations and CPU time metrics, illustrated in Figures 4 and 5, SCALCG ( a
) is
the top performer for all values of . The Figures indicate that relative to these
metrics, SCALCG ( a
) appears to be the best, followed by SCG ( a
) and followed
by CONMIN. Concerning the robustness, we see that SCALCG appears to be the
most robust, followed by SCG and then by CONMIN. Out of 500 problems

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 311
considered in this experiment, for 79 (i.e. 15.8%) of them CONMIN attained the
maximum number of function evaluations, which was fixed at 10000. Referring to the
total number of function evaluations, from Table 7 observe that SCALCG is about 5.4
times more effective than CONMIN.
In the line search, more function evaluations are needed by CONMIN to achieve the
stopping criteria and the accuracy, while in SCALCG the number of calls of the Wolfe
line search subroutine is substantially smaller than the number of iterations. This has
a great influence on the cpu time. Concerning the total cpu time for solving this set of
500 problems, from Table 7 we see that SCALCG is almost 4.5 times faster than
CONMIN.
An explanation of this behaviour seems to be as follows. As we know, Oren [15],
Oren and Luenberger [16] and Oren and Spedicato [17] modified the Broyden class
of quasi-Newton methods by introducing a scalar parameter in order to make the
sequence of inverse Hessian invariant under multiplication of function f by a scalar
T T
constant. For this scaling parameter Shanno [22] suggests sk yk / yk y k as the value
1
minimizing the condition number of 1 .
Hk Hk
This scaling factor is used in CONMIN.
On the other hand, in SCALCG we use another value for the scaling parameter k 1 ,
as the inverse of a scalar approximation of the Hessian yielding to a more efficient
direction. This factor greatly increases both the computational stability and the
efficiency when the problem size increases, explaining the numerical behaviour of
SCALCG in comparison with CONMIN subject to function evaluations and CPU time
a
metrics. On the other hand, when we compare SCG ( ) with CONMIN (both of
them using the Powell restart criterion) from Table 7 we see that subject to the
number of function evaluations SCG is about 3.8 times more effective than CONMIN
a
and 2.4 times faster. From Tables 4 and 7 we see that SCG ( ) with the angle
restart criterion is about 3.2 times more effective than CONMIN and 1.9 times faster.
Therefore, SCG (Perry-M1) with the Powell restart procedure compares even better
against CONMIN, at least for this set of 500 large-scale test problems. In the fourth
set of numerical experiments we consider some applications from MINPACK-2
collection [2]. Tables 9-14, present the performances of SCALCG, SCG and
CONMIN on 10 MINPACK-2 applications.
Algorithm
Table 9. Performance of SCALCG, SCG and CONMIN:
Elastic-Plastic Torsion Problem.
nx = 100, ny = 100, c = 5., n= 10 000.
# iter # fg cpu (s)
s
a s a
s
a
*
f( x )
SCALCG 217 255 284 338 12.20 14.45 -0.439163196
SCG 282 261 438 396 25.27 23.01 -0.439163173
CONMIN 217 439 17.90 -0.43916320
nx = 200, ny = 200, c = 5., n= 40 000.
SCALCG 398 473 511 614 87.39 104.80 -0.439267742
SCG 472 425 746 668 170.92 153.18 -0.439265832
CONMIN 242 486 78.76 -0.43926781

312 Neculai Andrei
Table 10. Performance of SCALCG, SCG and CONMIN: Pressure Distribution in a Journal Bearing.
nx = 100, ny = 100, ecc = 0.1, b = 10, n= 10 000.
# iter # fg cpu (s)
Algorithm s a s a s a f(x*)
SCALCG 433 461 567 620 23.51 25.71 -0.282840004
SCG 617 483 956 752 53.11 41.69 -0.282839980
CONMIN 396 801 32.74 -0.2828400078
nx = 200, ny = 200, ecc = 0.1, b = 10, n= 40 000.
SCALCG 876 900 1143 1157 189.11 191.14 -0.282892918
SCG 1117 1133 1746 1779 384.21 390.96 -0.282892622
CONMIN 819 1657 270.23 -0.28289243
Table 11. Performance of SCALCG, SCG and CONMIN: Optimal Design with Composite Materials.
nx = 100, ny = 100, = 0.008, n= 10 000.
# iter # fg cpu (s)
Algorithm s a s a s a f(x*)
SCALCG 628 644 801 815 49.49 50.31 -0.011377244
SCG 1519 1249 2309 1907 168.62 139.19 -0.011377230
CONMIN 359 729 40.76 -0.011377240
nx = 200, ny =200, = 0.008, n= 40 000.
SCALCG 1413 939 1753 1157 431.82 285.06 -0.011381240
SCG 3952 3184 6003 4828 1749.27 1407.30 -0.011380973
CONMIN 675 1370 305.28 -0.011381291
Table 12. Performance of SCALCG, SCG and CONMIN:
Inhomogeneous Superconductors. 1-dimensional Ginzburg-Landau problem.
t 7, n = 3000.
# iter # fg cpu (s)
Algorithm s a s a s a f(x*)
SCALCG 7422 5560 9499 7107 141.32 108.04 0.797584e-05
SCG 10001 10001 15724 15664 230.02 229.92 0.218839e-04
CONMIN 9881 20001 270.12 0.1107993-03
Table 13. Performance of SCALCG, SCG and CONMIN: Leonard-Jones Cluster Problem.
ndim=3, natoms =1000, n = 3000.
# iter # fg cpu (s)
Algorithm s a s a s a f(x*)
SCALCG 1252 1583 2002 2007 383.16 384.37 -6622.567428
SCG 4552 4656 7103 7229 1117.24 1137.89 -6634.532271
CONMIN 880 1819 507.07 -6605.458689

Scaled BFGS Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Algorithms for Unconstrained Optimization 313
Table 14. Performance of SCALCG, SCG and CONMIN: Steady State Combustion. Solid fuel ignition.
nx = 100, ny =100, = 0.07, n= 10 000.
# iter # fg cpu (s)
Algorithm s a s a s a f(x*)
SCALCG 312 266 408 348 33.28 28.40 -0.070086367
SCG 340 288 527 445 50.75 42.85 -0.070086356
CONMIN 171 346 28.40 -0.070086368
nx = 200, ny =200, = 0.07, n= 40 000.
SCALCG 546 460 720 586 233.65 190.05 -0.070086331
SCG 589 503 927 787 354.21 300.88 -0.070085961
CONMIN 467 948 310.60 -0.070086374
From Tables 9-14 we see that for solving these 10 MINPACK-2 applications, the top
performer is SCALCG ( a ) followed immediately by CONMIN. Although SCALCG
and CONMIN have a lot of algebra in common, we see that SCALCG is more
effective than CONMIN.
The total number of function evaluations of SCALCG ( a ) is 14749 compared to
28596 required by CONMIN for solving these 10 applications.
At the same time we see that SCALCG is with 479.53 seconds faster than CONMIN.
This is in accordance with performance profiles from Figures 4 and 5, for 1.
CONCLUSIONS
The best algorithm of Birgin and Martinez, which mainly is a scaled variant of Perry‘s,
was modified in order to overcome the lack of positive definiteness of the matrix
defining the search direction. This modification takes the advantage of the quasi-
Newton BFGS updating formula.
Using the restart technology of Beale-Powell, we get a scaled conjugate gradient
algorithm in which the parameter scaling the gradient is selected as spectral gradient
or in an anticipative manner by means of a formula using the function values in two
successive points.
Although the update formulas (18) and (29)-(31) are more complicated the scheme
proved to be efficient and robust in numerical experiments. The algorithm implements
the Wolfe conditions, and we prove that the steps are along the descent directions.
The performance profile for our scaled conjugate gradient algorithm was higher than
those of spectral conjugate gradient method of Birgin and Martinez and CONMIN of
Shanno and Phua for a test set consisting of 500 unconstrained optimization
problems.
R E F E R E N C E S
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March 2004.
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Argonne National Laboratory, Preprint MCS-P153-0692, June 1992.

314 Neculai Andrei
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Programming, 91, pp. 201-213, 2002.
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efficient line search‖, University of Florida, Department of Mathematics, November 17, 2003
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Math. Programming, 10, pp.70-90, 1976.
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PART TEN
SECTION OF MILITARY SCIENCES

Eugen Bădălan
CONTENTS
The Romanian armed forces - present and future 317
H.C. Tudor Cearapin
La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‟ordre public 323
Sorin Ioan
Land forces and the collective defence of the national territory within the
alliance 345
Mircea Mureșan
Romanian military university education. Transformation-modernization. 349

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 317
THE ROMANIAN ARMED FORCES - PRESENT AND FUTURE
Eugen BĂDĂLAN 1
Abstract. Every time, when I'm requested to write an article related to the very complex
processes the Romanian Armed Forces (RoAF) have to face, I have the same dilemma.
Firstly, it is the continuous struggle to not repeat myself and, secondly, how to select,
from the huge amount of information, to provide a concise message. A subject like this
could not start without providing a short overview of the general framework and
conditions in which the RoAF's Transformation process occurs, in its new capacity as one
of the main institutions of a NATO state member. This framework was set by the
characteristics of the global and European security environment at the beginning of the
new millennium. The beginning of the new century coincided with a new international
political era that placed security and economy at the centre of the evolution of the
evolving international world order. Risks and threats to states and international security
are magnified by the internal vulnerabilities and by the current security system. The most
significant of these are associated with the globalization phenomena, the proliferation of
trans-national organized crime and ethnic and religious extremism. One of the most
virulent associative forms of these risks and threats is represented by terrorism which can
be easily considered, the most dangerous challenge human kind must face after the end
of the Cold War" 2 .
Fifteen years after the dissolution of the bi-polar system, characterised mainly by the
balance of power, our politicians, theoreticians, specialists, experts, political and
military analysts, academics and all those having any connection with the security
field still do not have a clear image of what must be the "new international world
order". Security through cooperation, without pretending to be a new concept, affects
all states in a way that requires compromises to benefit other international arena
actors and all of these in a time when national and international security challenges
were coming, merely, from non-state actors. NATO's Expansion towards East,
decided at the Prague Summit, implies an expansion of the Alliance security and
stability area, as well as an important step on the way to establish a unified Europe.
US - Russia and NATO - Russia relations could be considered the ―best" since the
end of the World War II, being moved day by day away from ideological influences.
Despite all this, the 9/11 terrorist attack, the most dangerous and spectacular event
in the beginning of the new millennium, demonstrated that a state, regardless of how
much military and economic power it holds, is not ready to face and counteract, in an
appropriate way, the new security threats. Knowing forces and identifying the
tendencies of the current security environment are very important to understand
―towards what kind of international new order‖, and what the right ways are to
strengthen the global, regional and national security. Forces, acting in the domestic
and international environment, have very often divergent or opposite tendencies. This
could destabilise the security system and could be at the origin of a different kind of
confrontation, including war. Global Change, a concept with many faces, has to have,
as the final goal, the world security and stability built on legitimacy rather than
balance of power - as in the bi-polar old order. We consider it is the right time to have
a new approach to this very serious issue, security, without ideological influences
and abandon mental stereotypes and preconceptions. Tomorrow's world pathway
depends very much on the way ordinary people and political leaders will adhere to
common values and will create the right institutions to defend and promote these
values. The current security environment is different, very dynamic, changing every
1
Chief of Army general Staff, “Lucian Blaga” Sibiu University. Founding, full member of the Academy
of Romanian Scientists.
2
Studii de securitate şi apărare, vol. 1. Editura UNAp. Bucureşti 2005. p. 162-164.

318 Eugen Bădălan
day. We are witnessing a permanent re-configuration of the power relationship
diagram from the bipolar to a global uni-polar or multi-polar system. These two
tendencies in the evolution of the international environment generate important
changes in the way we perceive the national security status. Terrorist organizations
and their actions, due to the major emotional impact on the population and the
political leadership, produce major effects on the relationships between different
international actors. The possibility to start terrorist attacks by using WMD induces
psychosis and proves that the unconventional weapons and asymmetric threats will
find state authorities unprepared. In this context, when risks, dangers and threats get
more and more ambiguous in nature, creating a new extended and comprehensible
security system is the first priority for all European democracies. Today, the
European security is not threatened by a major military confrontation, despite the fact
many crisis and tensions still persist, in areas like Kosovo, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Transnistria, etc. It is expected that, for short and medium term, the non-military risks,
internal vulnerabilities and unpredictable events will prevail. These will affect nations
and the international community capability to react and counteract promptly. The
European security environment is different than other regions of the globe. Europe
has the chance to demonstrate the success of economic and political integration,
assuming responsibilities, based on sharing the common ideas and values. NATO
and EU expansions satisfy welfare and security needs of their citizens and European
states. In the near future the risk focus will change from military to non-military.
Between non-military risks, terrorism associated with organized crime will be the
most dangerous one. Internal vulnerabilities and unpredictable events will be more
evident in transforming the risks from real threats. Over the last few years we were all
witnesses of change or invention of new security concepts. Because of space
limitations, I have no intention to speculate on any major changes to the old security
concepts or on the new evolving ones. To stimulate the research I would like only to
bring to your attention some of them: collateral damages, zero casualties, prevention
and peaceful containment of conflicts, constabulary force, security through
cooperation, niche capabilities, axe of evil, global war on terror, preventive action,
preventive war, etc. All aspects presented above were intended to provide an
overview of the major characteristics of the European and global security
environment in the middle of which the RoAF must perform the difficult transformation
process. Further, I will address some of the strategic considerations and some of
their military implications. Continuous globalization created an increasing
dependence of nations on broad stability elsewhere in the world. The NATO and EU
enlargement had a significant influence on European stability and security. The
current situation highlights that security and defence are not the responsibility of a
single country, requiring a deep involvement of international organizations, with
coherent policies, adequate means and instruments with the possibility to find
solutions for the complex situations of the current security environment. The
increasing risk factors influence requires fast and radical changes in political,
economical, social and cultural environment. This generated the need to readapt the
battle space and to review military and non-military conflicts, including Force
Structure and military Training Systems. We are assisting in significantly decreasing
symmetric threats, and asymmetric ones, from possible enemies, non-states actors
and hostile associated elements, who are trying to compensate for the superiority of
organized military in direct conflicts. The impact of the terrorist phenomena, weapons
of mass destruction proliferation and organized crime require new countering
strategies. As a direct result of the increasing access to new technologies,
asymmetric conflicts became more sophisticated and could result in disproportionate
effects, from unconventional, means, to cause mass destruction effects.

The Romanian armed forces - present and future 319
NATO has adopted a more holistic approach that deals with a full range of potential
missions spanning the full spectrum of conflict from crisis prevention to high intensity
warfare. This reinforces the need for a concerted and co-ordinated political, military,
civil and economic approach. The military forces of the Alliance will operate in close
cooperation and co-ordination with a wide array of international, national and nongovernmental
organizations 1 . Future military operations linked to other informational,
economic, social, legal and diplomatic initiatives will need to be implemented in a
measured, co-ordinated and co-operative fashion.
On long term, a large-scale conventional aggression against the Alliance is unlikely
to occur. Alliance may choose to respond to attacks on its security interests outside
the Euro-Atlantic region or intercede in conflicts between nations requiring the
conduct of high intensity operation. Therefore, although asymmetric threats from
state and non-state actors may constitute the most immediate security risk, the
Alliance must retain the capability to conduct high intensity operations in order to
cope with more demanding conventional threats. Collection, analysis, dissemination
and sharing Intelligence will be critical for early warning, and where possible,
preventing the conflicts. A full understanding of the operational environment, a
proactive approach and involvement of the right decision-makers in the earliest
stages of the emerging crisis will be required. The Alliance is adapting its military
posture to respond to challenges with speed, precision and flexibility, so that forces
can be effectively deployed wherever they are needed. The response posture must
provide the Alliance with a broad set of capabilities that will project stability, assure
nations and Partners, dissuade the adversary, deter aggression and, if necessary,
defeat the enemy across the full spectrum of conflict. NATO forces, in close cooperation
with other organizations, must be capable to counter arms proliferation and
the terrorist asymmetric threats. Therefore, the Alliance member's force structures
are in a full transformation process. The transformation process will produce
command, force structure and capabilities, expeditionary in nature and design, able
to conduct a higher number of smaller concurrent operations inside or outside
NATO's area of responsibility, and self sustained over long term periods of time. The
large majority of Alliance forces will be deployable having the flexibility to change
rapidly between war fighting and peacekeeping. The overall number of Alliance
forces will decrease, but this reduction must be replaced by a corresponding
investment in quality. As a European state, Romania's security can be defined and
promoted only inside of NATO and EU, in accordance with specific policies of those
two organizations. Romania's overall role is connected with its NATO member status
and with political engagements established by strategic partnerships. The
partnerships define common endeavours for acting and promoting security interest.
Ensuring Romanian national security is a continuous and complex process,
extending over a large spectrum of relations arid interdependences and designed to
promote state, society and our citizen's security interest 2 . As a full NATO member,
Romania will consolidate the Alliance policy to project stability into the Balkans,
Caucasus and central Asia, by having a constructive position in South-Eastern
Europe regional initiatives, by connections with the Caspian region and with
exploitations of the Black Sea potential. From the military perspective, for the
Alliance's Southern flank, Romania is counted as a credible force. This is very
important in the regional security and stability equation taking into consideration the
direction of military reforms and national experience in participation with NATO lead
operations in Balkans.
1 Strategic Vision: The Military Challenge, by NATO's Strategic Commanders. Part 2, p. 4.
2 Romanian Military Transformation Strategy, p. 3.

320 Eugen Bădălan
In full accordance with the new security context, a real defensive dimension of the
EU is required, in a complementary manner to the NATO adaptation process. From,
this perspective Romania promotes cooperation between the two organizations in
defence and security fields, based on the principle of transparency, mutual
advantage, avoidance of duplication and competition. Romania's accession into
NATO implied the need to redefine the military missions. The RoAF principal mission
is to defend Romanian national interests, in conditions of constitutional democracy
and democratic civilian control over the Armed Forces. The RoAF must be able to
prevent, deter and counter a possible aggression against Romania and its allies. The
new draft of the Defence Law contains the defence of national territory in response to
a military aggression, participation in defence of the Allied states territory in the
framework of collective defence, participation in Crisis Response Operations, in
accordance with national interests and international commitments assumed by
Romania, and support of the government in emergency situations, other than
defence. It is very important for all of us to understand that the national defence is a
part of collective defence of the Alliance. The constitutional framework allows
participation in collective defence. Romania‘s participation in Crisis Response
Operations is decided by the Parliament, on the proposal of the President and, to
multinational or bilateral exercises abroad, case by case, with approval of the
president or the defence minister. The Romanian Military must transform from
territorial fixed, rigid defence, to deployable, fast and multi-directional defence. The
trans-national threats, asymmetric threats or those generated by low intensity
instability, are no longer appropriate to fixed structures, in the framework of classical
armed forces - interior forces. It requires flexibility and rapid reaction, capable of
multiple levels of cooperation for a variety of intervention situations. Therefore it is
necessary to re-establish priorities in the organization of the force structure and
extent of military training for operations other than war: multinational, joint,
independent small units‘ level, and cooperation with civilian organizations, etc.
Taking into consideration short and medium term changes, Romania is not
threatened by direct military aggression against our own territory and doesn't take
into consideration any state as a potential enemy. In the long term evolution of the
security environment, there is a small possibility to face a large scale conventional
threat, but is maintaining the possibility of new threats, generated by a large variety
of military and non-military risks. The Alliance should face any unpredictable
situation, Article 5 operation, able to conduct Major Joint Operations, both in and
outside its area of responsibility. NATO forces should be capable of projection into a
difficult and hostile environment with/without necessary infrastructure and Host
Nation Support (HNS). RoAF must be able to defend national territory in response to
military aggression, independent or in the Alliance framework, and support public
authorities in case of civilian emergencies and/or natural disaster, NBC incidents etc.
NATO, EU, regional initiatives and ad-hoc coalition commitments will be
accomplished by fulfilling the Force Goals requirements, implementation of the
capabilities package, participation to NRF and EU Battle Groups and multinational
joint operations. RoAF will have a unique force package. This will be developed by
the force transformation process focusing on the organization, fielding, training and
sustainment. RoAF will take part in simultaneous, joint and combined major and/or
low intensity operations, conducted by NATO and/or EU, in a complex security
environment, on national territory or abroad, in ad-hoc coalitions or regional initiatives
and in support of public authorities in emergency situations.
Full NATO integration is one of the most important objectives of Romania's security
policy, complementary of the EU integration process, having a major impact on
domestic reforms, especially in the national defence field. Integration must be

The Romanian armed forces - present and future 321
performed in order for a transforming organization to adapt its tasks and capabilities.
In accordance with the situation, national structures and capabilities must be
developed based on the Alliance provisions, not on the Alliance's existing
capabilities. The military environment transformation represents a continuous
developing process to integrate new concepts, strategies, doctrines and capabilities.
The main goal of the RoAF transformation process is to increase forces efficiency
and interoperability, continue to adapt force structure to the current and future
security environment and to fulfil NATO and EU commitments, in full accordance with
the Alliance transformation process. RoAF transformation required a dedicated
Transformation Strategy. The RoAF Transformation Strategy was approved by the
Supreme National Defence Council on 13 February 2006. The RoAF Transformation
Strategy main objective is the development of a modern, fully professional, mobile,
flexible, deployable and sustainable command and force structure, able to act jointly
and to perform the full spectrum of operations.
The completion of the main objective is sustained by twelve projects:
o Assume and fulfil NATO commitments
o Prepare and participate in EU operations
o Re-design the C2 structure
o Re-design the combat service support structures
o Develop C42ISR system
o Modernize the personnel management
o Increase the military personnel quality of life standard
o Re-design the military education system
o Optimize the PPBES
o Modernize military equipment
o Re-design the Intelligence System
o Re-design Medical Military System
Modernization and completion of the interoperability will be developed in three
distinct phases, determined by the force restructuring, Force Goals target dates, and
NATO and EU integration process requirements. First phase is called the basic
restructuring (2005-2007). In this phase we will accomplish the short term
transformation objectives: restructure and reorganize C2 system at strategic and
operational level, finalize reorganization, affiliation and reduction of the units,
continue to make operational NATO and EU assigned and committed units, finalize
NATO Essential Operational Capabilities. Second phase is called the full operational
NATO and EU integration (2008-2015). In this phase we will accomplish the medium
term transformation objectives: integration of the remaining units, continue the Force
Goals implementation, finalise the restructuring process of the logistic system at the
strategic and operational level, continue the new equipment acquisition programs,
reorganize military education system, extend some Force Goals, increase
participation to NRF and EU contribution with forces and capabilities. The last phase
is called the complete technical integration in NATO and EU (2016-2025).
In this phase we will accomplish the long term transformation objectives: concentrate
the financial and human resources to accomplish Force Goals technical capabilities,
continue the acquisition of new equipment and ensure the full compatibility with

322 Eugen Bădălan
NATO and EU forces, create full conditions for deploying units in military bases. Of
course, the accomplishment of these objectives will depend on sustained political
and financial support. Necessary financial resources will be around 2.38% of GDP
thru 2011 and, will continuously increase until we will reach the same commonality
with other advanced NATO members.
I hope these ideas will be value added in understanding the RoAF transformation
process but I can not end without some conclusion. The Word is changing. The
confrontation strategies are replaced by partnership strategies, developed in
economic and political cooperation and the management of international crisis and
conflicts. The diverse dynamics of the regions in proximity to Romania are not easy
controlled or predicted.
This implies special actions and solutions, which can be developed only by
cooperation and mutual consultations. Differences no longer prevent the effort for
regional stabilization as long as no one state/non-state actor dominates the
complicated processes from the area.
The transformation process must have as a direct result, interoperable military
capabilities, flexible, with increased reaction speed.
From this perspective, RoAF must adequately understand the nature of conflict and
efficiently react.
The current situation gives us the opportunity for experimentation of new concepts
and capabilities which can be developed in transformation objectives.
More over it gives the opportunity for developments in research and doctrine areas.
RoAF must be able to face current security challenges, at the same time with the
internal transformation process associated with Alliance transformation process,
having as its common goal to better respond to the future security environment.
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Romanian Military Transformation Strategy, Strategic Vision: The Military Challenge, by NATO's
Strategic Commanders, Part 2.
[2] General Dr. Bădălan, Eugen, general (r) Dr. Valentin Arsenie, general de brigadă (r) Dr.
Gheorghe Văduva, Eseu despre arta strategică Editura Militară, Bucureşti, 2005.
[3] General Dr. Mihail Popescu, general (r) Dr. Valentin Arsenie, general de brigada (r) Dr. Gheorghe
Văduva, Arta militară de-a lungul mileniilor, CTEA, Bucureşti, 2004.
[4] General Dr. Eugen Bădălan, general (r) Dr. Valentin Arsenie, Strategia militară contemporană,
CTEA, Bucureşti, 2006.

Annales de l‘ASR – Volume anniversaire, 1 – 2006 323
LA DÉMOCRATIE CONSTITUTIONNELLE
ET L'ORDRE PUBLIC
Tudor CEARAPIN 1
1. Considérations Générales et Éclaircissements Conceptuels
On vit dans un temps où chaque question abordée en vue d'un éclaircissement
relève une autre, même plusieurs, car l'une des particularités torturantes de la
connaissance est l'irréversibilité.
Le besoin de connaître et de comprendre les phénomènes est unique, essentiel et
fondamental; donc un paradoxe apparaît: plus nous possédons une connaissance
plus précise et plus profonde dans notre spécialisation, plus nous sommes en
mesure d'apprécier les dimensions de notre ignorance naturelle.
Concernant cette question, le grand maître du peuple roumain, Nicolae Iorga, disait:
"Il y a trois types d'ignorance: ne pas savoir ce qu'on doit savoir; savoir mal ce qu'on
sait; savoir ce qu'on ne doit pas savoir".
Le grand savant précisait encore: "Savoir ce qu'on ne sait pas vraiment, cela n'est
pas une chose facile. Il s'agit peut-être de la connaissance la plus difficile et délicate.
On risque moins d'avoir des désillusions, si l'on confesse qu'on ne sait pas sûrement
certaines choses que si l'on s'imagine savoir avec certitude ce qu'on connaît comme
possible".
On a voulu faire cette introduction parce que le thème abordé, "La démocratie
constitutionnelle et l'ordre public", est si vaste, si complexe et qui dépend d'une
multitude de phénomènes, que pour l'élucider sous tous les aspects qu'elle relève il
est impossible dans le bref espace qu'on a à la disposition.
En vertu des connaissances théoriques et en particulier en vertu de l'expérience
pratique accumulée à travers les dizaines années d'activité dans le domaine de
l'ordre public, on se permet d'opiner que le rapport entre la démocratie et l'ordre
public constitue une question fondamentale de toute société.
La démocratie et l'ordre social ont été, ils sont encore et certainement ils seront des
phénomènes essentiels d'étude, d'analyse et de pro gnose pour beaucoup de
catégories de spécialistes et d'hommes de science, dans les domaines les plus
divers: philosophie, politique, sociologie , psychologie , juridique , militaire et autres.
Si l'on fait une brève analyse de l‘histoire de l‘humanité, on trouvera ces deux options
sous termes actuel ou semblables, comme désidérata principaux de tous les types
de sociétés, à partir des cités anciennes grecques considérées les premières formes
d'état démocratiques jusqu'à nos jours.
D'ailleurs, même les deux termes ont l'origine dans les deux langues universelles du
monde antique: le grec et le latin.
La démocratie, des mots grecs "demos" = peuple + "kratos" = pouvoir, est définie
dans tous les dictionnaires comme "forme d'organisation et de direction d'une société
où le peuple exerce (directement ou indirectement) le pouvoir, et l'ordre, des mots
latins "ordo+inis", qui signifie: type naturel d'établissement, succession, déroulement
des choses, des faits, des phénomènes dans un certain espace et domaine.
1 Police Academy “Alexandru Ioan Cuza". Membre titulaire, fondateur de l‟Académie des Scientifiques
de Roumanie.

324 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
En même temps, les deux désidérata ont représenté les aspirations et les
promoteurs du développement social de l'humanité, depuis les temps anciens jusqu'à
présent, étant étroitement liés aux notions de raison, égalité, équité, liberté, justice
qui à l'époque moderne ont été stipulés comme droits fondamentaux de l'homme,
des droits au nom desquelles on, a déclenché, on déclenche encore et on
déclenchera tous les mouvements, les protestations et les revendications sociales,
par des formes paisibles ou violentes.
On apprécie qu'on ne peut pas faire une analyse juste du rapport entre la démocratie
constitutionnelle et l'ordre public, sans éclairer la troisième notion, à savoir le pouvoir
constitutionnel ou légal.
La notion de pouvoir, rencontrée le plus fréquemment dans la théorie et la pratique
des systèmes constitutionnels, apparaît dans des expressions nuancées, soit:
pouvoir politique, pouvoir d'état, pouvoir public ou tout simplement pouvoir.
Les termes respectifs semblent réfléchir le même contenu, mais ils peuvent être
utilisés aussi pour réfléchir des contenus inconfondables, mais en liaison étroite, et
qui concerne le phénomène général de pouvoir.
Par rapport à cette caractérisation, la catégorie de pouvoir d'état désigne la manière
d'organisation d'état, du pouvoir du peuple.
Le pouvoir d'état représente la partie institutionnalisé du pouvoir politique, c'est-à-dire
l'ensemble systématisé des organes d'état, souvent dénommés les autorités d'état
(publics). Si cette organisation sociale du pouvoir du peuple (politique) est réalisée
par l'intermédiaire de plusieurs groupes des organes à fonctions (mandats,
attributions) et traits clairement définis et une délimitation caractérisée par une
autonomie organisationnelle et fonctionnelle, on se trouve dans la présence du
principe de la séparation des pouvoirs, le principe fondamental de la démocratie.
La fonction fondamentale de l'état (des pouvoirs) est d'exprimer et de réaliser dans la
société, comme volonté générale obligatoire, la volonté du peuple qui s'exprime
concrètement dans les lois établies par ces pouvoirs de l'état, élus par le peuple et
investis de telles attributions.
On sait le fait que la loi de base, fondamentale d'un état est la Constitution de la
Roumanie, qui peut avoir un caractère plus ou moins démocratique, par rapport à la
manière de, réfléchir la volonté du peuple dans son ensemble, ou de la majorité.
L'histoire et la vie démontre qu'on n'a pas atteint une démocratie constitutionnelle
absolue, dans la mesure où une Constitution satisfait entièrement et totalement tous
les droits et les aspirations de chaque individu de la société respective.
C'est pourquoi on parle des "états à grande démocratie" ou "démocratie a\/âncée", et
d'autre part des "états à démocratie limitée" en fonction du "quantum de la
satisfaction des aspirations, des droits et des libertés des individus de la société (de
l'état respectif)".
En vertu de la Constitution (lois fondamentales), les organes fondamentaux, élus par
le peuple, établissent des lois dans les limites et l'esprit de la Constitution, des lois
qui deviennent obligatoires pour la société entière (tous ses membres), sans tenir
compte si ceux-ci sont ou non d'accord.
C‘est pourquoi, on apprécie que, lorsqu'on parle de la démocratie constitutionnelle,
on doit inclure la Constitution et toute la législation en vigueur, existante pendant une
certaine période dans l'état respectif, avec les mentions suivantes:
- la Constitutions doit exprimer la volonté de la majorité du peuple;

La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 325
- les organes autorisés à émettre des lois doivent être Elus par le peuple de
façon dèmocratique ;
- les lois ne doivent être émises qu'en vertu des principes, dans les limites et
dans l'esprit de la Constitution et par la procédure prévue.
Ce seraient, en général, les questions principales de la démocratie constitutionnelle
par laquelle on crée le cadre légal d'organisation, de fonctionnement et de
développement d'une société, un cadre qui, une fois adopté, doit être respecté par
tous les individus de la société respective (de l'état respectif).
Le respect ou le non-respect de ce cadre législatif impliquent le deuxième
phénomène de notre thème, à savoir l'ordre publique qui, selon la majorité des
spécialistes, est défini comme "état de légalité, d'équilibre et de paix social par
laquelle on garantir la tranquillité publique, la sécurité de la personne, de la
collectivité et des biens, la santé et la morale publique et dont la maintenance,
conformément aux principes et aux normes établies parla Constitution, est réalisée
par des mesures spécifiques de contrainte". Selon cette définition l'ordre publique est
conçu comme une synthèse de ses parties composantes, à savoir:
- l‘ordre social - la, cohabitation paisible et la coopération armonieuse entre les
membres de la société, sans léser leurs droits et leurs intérêts et de la société en
général;
- l'ordre d'état -le fonctionnement normal des institutions et des organes de l'état;
- l'ordre naturel - l'état d'équilibre des facteurs naturels et de l'environnement,
comme il a été établi par la nature.
Dans la littérature de spécialité, sauf l'ordre public, on utilise souvent les termes
"ordre constitutionnel" ou "ordre de droit", et dans la législation, y compris dans la
Constitution on utilise le syntagme de "tranquillité et ordre public".
Le terme de "tranquillité publique" ne doit être compris que sous l'aspect du soidisant
"ordre des rues" comme il est utilisé aussi à d'autres pays, en fait le concept
de "tranquillité publique" étant l'un des multiples aspects de l'ordre public.
Sans détailler, on mentionne que, entre l'ordre public, la sécurité nationale et la
sûreté nationale, il y a une correlation, en ce sens que, dans certaines situations, le
trouble de l'ordre publique, peut affecter la sûreté aussi bien que la sécurité
nationale.
C'est pourquoi, au niveau de chaque état il y a une coopération et une collaboration,
y compris des plans d'action, entre les institutions légales, habilitées à défendre les
trois domaines qu'on a désignés ci -dessus.
2. Quelques Aspects Concernant le Rapport entre la Démocratie
Constitutionnelle et l‟Ordre Public
Le rapport d'interconditionnement entre la démocratie constitutionnelle et l'ordre
public est complexe et peut être analysé de plusieurs points de vue, sur le plan
théorique, aussi que sur le plan pratique.
L'économie de l'oeuvre ne permet pas d'aborder plusieurs aspects, bien que chacun
aie son importance. C'est pourquoi, on se rapportera à quelques aspects qu'on
considère comme essentiels du point de vue pratique.
Une première question qu'on veut aborder, se rapporte aux droits et aux libertés
fondamentales de l'homme, vues à travers le prisme du rapport entre la démocratie
constitutionnelle et l'ordre public.

326 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
On a démontré antérieurement que l'essence de toute démocratie consiste dans la
manière où l'organisation de l'état et sa législation répondent à la nécessité
concernant l'octroi, le garantissement et la défense des droits fondamentaux de
l'homme, à ses besoins et à ses aspirations.
En même temps, on a précisé que la législation crée ce cadre où le citoyen
(personne, individu) peut se manifester sous tous les aspects, en bénéficiant des
conditions pour la réalisation de ses aspirations.
Pourtant, on pose les questions suivantes: dans une société, peut-il un individu, une
personne, se manifester sans certaines restrictions, barrières ou limites? Jusqu'où
va-t-elle cette liberté? Y a-t-il une liberté absolue?
La réponse à ces questions a tourmenté l'humanité à travers les siècles et elle a
représenté la pierre philosophale du rapport entre la démocratie et l'ordre social.
Dans la littérature de spécialité il y a une opinion unanime que la liberté personnelle
de l'homme, c'est-à-dire la faculté d'aspirer au plein développement du soi, est
également nécessaire au développement de la société, ainsi qu'au développement
de l'individu.
Cette liberté ne doit connaître d'autres limites que les limites qui imposent,
légalement, le besoin d'un développement égal de ses semblables, c'est-à-dire la
liberté personnelle des autres gens.
Autrement dit, la liberté et les droits de chaque homme vont jusqu'où la liberté et les
droits des autres commencent. Il est nécessaire qu'on s'en rende compte afin de
comprendre que notre liberté ne doit pas prendre la forme d'une euphorie
personnelle ou qu'elle devient anarchique et errante.
La liberté est vraiment une force créatrice des valeurs morales seulement dans un
cadre organisé, où on tient compte de toutes les réalités de la société. Afin d'être
forte et réelle, la liberté doit posséder des limites morales et légales. Ces limites sont
imposées par la nécessité de la solidarité et de la cohabitation humaine.
Dans une société il n'y a pas de liberté absolue.
Le philosophe et le publiciste Albert carnusdisait que "la liberté absolue se moque de
la démocratie et la démocratie nie la liberté. Afin d'être fécondes, les deux notions
doivent trouver l'un à l'autre les limites".
Le philosophe allemand Iosef Dietzgen, démontre également que "la liberté, la
démocratie et la légalité sont étroitement liées entre elles par la nécessité de la
coopération qui nous oblige à laisser les autres vivre à côté de nous.
L'homme ne vit pas isolé, il est soumis à l'influence de la société qui forme son âmemême
par la vie de citoyen.
C'est pourquoi ses désirs et ses aspirations, quoique subjectives, auront toujours une
limite sociale imposée par les désirs et les aspirations de ses semblables".
Peut-être la plus plastique opinion concernant le rapport entre la démocratie, les
droits de l'homme, les institutions de l'état et l'ordre public appartient-elle au lauréat
du prix Nobel au début de l'année 1950, le philosophe anglais Bernard Russel qui
synthétisait: "la démocratie a été inventée comme un moyen de réconcilier la liberté
et le gouvernement afin de garantir un ordre social relatif".
En revenant au rapport entre la démocratie, les droits et les libertés fondamentales
de l'homme et l'ordre public, en précisant que la Déclaration Universelle des Droits
de l'Homme même, art. 28 prévoit: "chaque personne a le droit de bénéficier sur le

La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 327
plan social et international, de l'existence d'un ordre qui permet la réalisation
complète des droits et des libertés énoncées dans la présente Déclaration", et dans
les documents de la Conférence O.S.C.E. de Copenhague, du mois de Janvier 1990,
à l'art. 6, on prévoit: "les états reconnaissent la responsabilité qui leur revient de
défendre et de protéger, conformément à leurs lois, les obligations, les engagements
internationaux en ce qui concerne les droits de l'homme et l'ordre démocratique
établi de façon libre, par la volonté du peuple, contre l'activité des personnes, des
groupes ou des organisations qui prennent partie ou réfusent à renoncer aux actes
de violence déroulés pour troubler cet ordre".
En ce qui concerne notre législation interne, la Constitution de la Roumanie consacre
à l'article 20, alinéa l, le principe selon lequel ses dispositions relatives aux droits et
aux libertés des citoyens sont interprétées et elles sont appliquées "conformément à
la Déclaration Universelle des Droits de l'Homme, aux pactes et aux autres traités, la
Roumanie étant partie intégrante".
L'alinéa suivant de cet article est consacré au principe de la norme de droit
international.
S'il n'y a pas de concordance entre les pactes et les traités relatifs aux droits
fondamentaux de l'homme, la Roumanie étant partie intégrante, d'une part et aux lois
internes, d'autre part, les reglèments internationaux prévalent.
L'article 26, alinéa 2 de la Constitution de la Roumanie de 1991 prévoit des mesures
concrètes concernant la limitation des droits de la personne physique au cas où les
droits et les libertés des autres, l'ordre public et les bonnes moeurs seront périclités.
Concernant la limitation de l'exercice de quelques droits, art. 27 de la Constitution
précise les possibilités suivantes: la défense de la sûreté nationale; la défence de
l'ordre; de la santé ou de la morale publique; la défense des doits et des libertés des
citoyens, le déroulement de l'instruction pénale; la prévention des conséquences de
quelques désastres.
Donc, on ne peut pas concevoir l'exercice d'un droit fondamental ou d'une liberté
fondamentale avec le défi de l'ordre public, et quelques droits ne peuvent pas exister
si l'ordre public n'est pas respecté.
Roumanie est un état de droit, comme il est présenté dans l'article l, alinéa 3 de la
Constitution, ce qui signifie qu'à l'origine de toute l'activité de l'état, se trouvent la
Constitution et les lois, un facteur déterminant pour que toute autre action des
autorités publiques, y compris des autorites appelées à maintenir l'ordre public, aie
lieu dans un cadre constitutionnel, légal.
La Constitution de la Roumanie donne le droit au président de la Roumanie
d'instituer, avec le consentement du Parlement, l'état de siège ou l'état d'urgence,
lorsque l'exercice de quelques droits et libertés est restreint, afin d'éloigner, par des
moyens particuliers, les facteurs perturbateurs et de rétablir l'ordre public.
Il résulte que, dans la littérature de spécialité, ainsi que dans la législation
internationale et interne, entre les notions de démocratie, les droits de l'homme et
l‘odre public, il y a un rapport d'interdépendance; en ce sens qu'il n'y a pas de la
démocratie sans les droits de l'homme et ceux-ci ne peuvent se réaliser que dans un
cadre organisé, dans un climat sûr d'ordre social.
Afin de garantir ce climat d'ordre public, chaque état constitue et prépare ses
institutions spécifiques denommées, généralement, des forces d'ordre public. (Sur le
plan international et dans les documents officiels internationaux elles sont
dénommées "forces policières").

328 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
3. Le Système des Forces d'Ordre Public en Roumanie
La notion, le sintagme, le terme, le concept de forces d'ordre public, au sens large,
désignent ces forces investies, autorisées à exercer le droit de police: des institutions
et des autorités ayant des compétences et attibutions concernant l'ordre publique,
ayant le droit de sommer toute personne afin de respecter certaines régIes de
conduite qu'elle a violées, autrement dit, ils ont le droit d'appeller à l'ordre.
Au sens professionnel, restreint, les forces d'ordre public ne comprennent que ces
forces assurent des services d'ordre, de maintenance ou de rétablissement de l'ordre
public, sans tenir compte des actions et des personnes qui provoquent son trouble,
c'est -à-dire les forces, les effectifs de police et de gendarmes.
Le Ministère de l'Intérieur est l'organ d'état habilité à exercer conformément à la loi,
toutes les mesures relatives au respect de l'ordre public dans l'état de droit.
A la rèalisation de ces mesures, il peut aussi participer le Ministère de la 'Défense
Nationale - afin de garder et défendre certains objectifs importants du territoire
national, de maintenir et rétablir l'ordre de droit.
Les forces d‘ordre et de sûreté publique incluent les forces principales, les forces
d'appui, les forces complémentaires et les forces d'exception.
Les forces principales du Ministère de l'Administration et de l'Intérieur sont habilitées,
en vertu de la loi, à exercer le droit de police de l'état, représentant le composant de
base des structures destinés à administrer toute la problématique du domaine de
l'ordre public en temps de paix ou en temps de l'état d'urgence, étant constituées
dans des structures de police et de gendarmes.
Les forces d'appui incluent conformément aux compétences et aux attributions, les
structures spéciales de protection et d'intervention, la police de frontière, la protection
civile, les pompiers et l'aviation qui appartiennent au Ministère de l'Administration et
de l'Intérieur.
Les forces complémentaires incluent les structures du Ministère de la Défense
Nationale, le Service Roumain d'Informations, le Service de Protection et de Défense
ainsi que le Ministère de la Justice, la Garde Financière, la Police Communautaire et
Locale, les services de pompiers civils, les formations de protection civile des
autorités de l'administration publique, l'Agence Nationale Sanitaire et Vétérinaire, la
Garde Nationale d'Environnement, les sociétés spécialisées de protection et de
garde, les institutions et les agents économiques ainsi que les autres catégories de
forces, établies en vertu de la loi, qui participent à l'effort des forces principales et
d'appui, conformément aux compétences.
Les forces d'exception incluent les structures spécialisées du Service Roumain
d'Informations, le Service d'Informations Externes, du Service de Protection et de
Défense et le Ministère de la Défense Nationale et elles n'agissent qu'au cas où les
institutions démocratiques sont en danger et les autres mesures de rétablissement
de l'ordre publique ont été épuisées, et les possibilités des forces principales d'appui
ainsi que les forces complémentaires d'ordre et de sûreté publique ont été
surmontées.
L'organisation des activités d'ordre et de sûreté publique est réalisée afin de
maintenir, de garantir et de rétablir l'ordre public.
La maintenance de l'ordre publique représente l'ensemble des mesures, des activités
et des actions organisées et déroulées quotidiennement par les forces d'ordre et de
sûreté public, pour le fonctionnement normal des institutions de l'état, pour la
protection et le respect des droits fondamentaux des citoyens, des normes de

La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 329
conduite civique, des régles de cohabitation, des autres valeurs suprêmes, ainsi que
des biens publics et privés.
La garantie de l'ordre public comprend les mesures qu'on entreprend afin de
respecter la légalité, de prévenir et de décourager les actions qui visent les troubles
sociaux ou les manifestations de violence pendant les assemblées et les
manifestations publiques, les activités culturales et sportives, ainsi que les autres
manifestations similaires à participation nombreuse, étant garanti par les forces
principales et d'appui, conformément aux compétences.
Le rétablissement de l'ordre public représente l'ensemble des mesures légales
entreprises afin de le faire revenir à la position initiale, s'il a été gravement troublé,
par des moyens paisibles ou par l'usage exclusif de la force.
4. L'exercice d'Ordre Public dans l'État Démocratique et l'Impact sur les Droits
de l'Homme
La nécessité d'aborder cette problématique ample se trouve dans les limites de l'idée
que tout le système du rapport entre les droits de l'homme et les forces d'ordre doit
se dérouler conformément à la trajectoire du triptyque composé par: le respect et la
défense des droits de l'homme; la garantie et la protection de l'ordre public, des
institutions de l'état de droit démocratique et social; la défense des droits et des
libertés des autres.
Une place et un rôle très important, dans le cas de cette configuration générale,
revient à la polarisation des apports invoqués autour de l'état et des fonctions
majeures qui sont attribuée sans forces d'ordre, responsable de l'application des lois,
au sein d'une sôciété démocratique, comme elles ont été convenues et acceptées
sur le plan international, en vertu des standards universels ou régionaux relevants.
Donc, à l'article 1 de l'Annexe du Code de conduite de la personne, responsable de
l'application de la loi il y a la prévision conformément à laquelle "les personne
responsables de l'application de la loi doivent accomplir toujours les taches qui leur
reviennent en vertu de la loi qui sert la communauté et qui defend toutes les
personnes contre les actes illégales, conformément au degré haut de responsabilité
que leur profession réclame".
En conclusion, dans les conditions de normalité et, respectivement, de dysfonctions
sociales, pour le meilleur et pour le pire, l'activité des forces d'ordre a des
implications sur les droits fondamentaux de l'homme, parmi lesquelles on rappelle le
droit à la vie, le droit à la liberté, le droit à la liberté de la personne etc. Cette activité
peut contribuer à la consolidation ou à l'échec des droits essentiels dans un état de
droit et dans une démocratie, comme par exemple un procès équitable, à la liberté et
à la réunion paisible.
En même temps, l'activité des forces d'ordre peut porter ou non atteinte à quelques
droits individuels, et elle peut, donc, générer des effets positifs ou négatifs sur une
communauté ou une autre, dans la mesure où ces forces manifestent ou non, le
respect dû concernant les mesures destinées à la prévention de la discrimination et à
la promotion des droits fondamentaux de l'homme.
Puisqu'on se rapporte aux droits de l'homme et aux forces d'ordre, on doit souligner
le fait que la protection juridique des droits de l'homme est essentielle en vertu de la
tension qui se manifeste parfois, entre le respect de ces droits et les exigences
imposées afin de maintenir l'ordre.
Comme on a déjà démontré, on doit être d'accord qu'il y a une tension entre "l'ordre"
et "la liberté" au niveau du débat philosophique moral, ainsi que de la manière de

330 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
chacun d'organiser sa vie, en particulier lorsqu'on impose certaines options d'ordre
moral. Il y a des cas où les uns d'entre nous perçoivent certaines régIes comme
irréconciliables.
Pourtant, surtout concernant la question où sont impliquées les forces d'ordre
publique, la loi est le garant de la conciliation. Voilà la situation brièvement: les droits
de l'homme sont protégés par la loi, par les prévisions de droits internationales, ainsi
que par des constitutions et les législations des états, pendant que le Ministère de
l'Intérieur, une institution responsable de maintenir l'ordre, doit imposer le respect
des lois qui protège les droits de l ‗homme et les respecter lui-même.
Les forces d'ordre public n'ont pas, évidemment, le droit de violer ces droits au
moment où ils imposent le respect des autres; pourtant, les violations de ce type sont
enregistrées au sein de tous les états, comme il résulte des divers rapports de
certaines organisations non-gouvernementales.
On a démontré antérieurement que les droits de l'homme ne peuvent pas être
exercés à l'absence de l'ordre social et que l'existence d'un niveau tolérable de la
délinquance et l'intensité réduite des tensions et des troubles sociaux dépendent de
l'efficacité des forces d'ordre.
L'action des forces d'ordre, dans le cas des tensions sociales, contribue beaucoup,
du point de vue positif ou négatif, à la fixation du cadre du respect ou du non-respect
des droits de l'homme.
Dans les conditions de certains troubles sociaux, sans tenir compte des causes et de
leur justification, les forces d'ordre sont responsables de surveiller la protection des
droits des personnes impliquées par l'état de droit, mais dans telles conditions cette
responsabilité est difficile à respecter.
Dans le cas des préjudices graves portés à l'ordre public (insurrections, actes
terroristes), les membres des forces d'ordre et des autres institutions responsables
de la défense de la sécurité publique sont exposés à des dangers, et leurs
compétences professionnelles sont mises à l'épreuve.
Parmi les autres, c'est le raison pour lequel ces forces sont justifiées à actionner
dans une manière qui contrevient aux normes éthiques et juridiques que, dans les
situations moins déroutantes, elles les respecteront sans doute. Or, elles risquent à
préjudicier les principes démocratiques et juridiques qui constituent la base de la
légitimité de l'état qu'elles défendent et leur propre légitimité. L'état peut augmenter
les compétences des forces d'ordre, par la déclaration de l'état d'urgence et par
l'acceptation de quelques, dérogations de certaines obligations imposées par les
traités internationales relatives aux droits de l'homme, ratifiées par l'état en question.
Bien que, en principe, aucun état ne puisse se déroger de l'obligation de respecter
les droits, comme par exemple le droit à la vie ou l'obligation de s‘ abstenir de
l'application de la torture, il est très probable que, dans ces cas, les droits qui
n'admettent aucune violation, ne soient pas respectés et que les forces d'ordre
dépassent leurs compétences, même si ces compétences ont déjà été augmentées.
La justification et la nécessite de ces actions ne semblent évidentes que pour les
institutions qui doivent résister devant les troubles graves de l'ordre public.
L'un des effets de ce type de pouvoir consiste dans le fait que ceux qui supportent
les conséquences se radicalisent et ils ont une tendance plus grande d'appuyer les
groupes turbulents.
Un autre effet: les groupes en question exploitent les dérapages graves des forces
d'ordre de l'état.

La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 331
Voilà donc, il y a des raisons éthiques et juridiques, ainsi que des raisons pratiques
pour lesquels les normes relatives aux droits de l'homme doivent être respectées
dans la confrontation avec ces groupes.
Au cas où les troubles civils graves dégénèrent en conflit armé national ou en guerre
civile, on appliquera également les prévisions de droit humain international et celles
de droit des conflits armés.
Actuellement, on fait de grands efforts afin de lever le niveau des normes applicables
aux situations de troubles sociaux qui ne peuvent pas être qualifiées en tant que des
conflits armés. Dans ce but, on utilise également les principes de droit humanitaire
international et les normes concernant les droits de l'homme dans le cadre de
certains projets qui se proposent à imprégner du point de vue "humanitaire" les
situations de troubles et de tensions internes.
Parmi ces principes humanitaires figurent ceux qui interdisent de prendre en otage,
les pillages, les peines collectives et les actes de terrorisme, ainsi que ceux qui
imposent la recherche, l'abri et le soin des blessés et d'autres victimes, ceux qui
interisent l'agression de la personne qui ne participe pas aux actes de. violence, ainsi
que les mesures particulières destinées .à protéger les enfants et à interdire leur
recrutement dans des groupes armés ou la participation à la violence.
Du point de vue technique, les principes de droit humanitaire international ne sont
applicables légalement que dans le cas de conflit armé, mais ils ne dépàssent pas
les régles déontologiques que les forces d'ordre doivent respecter dans le domaine
de la protection de la vie et de la sécurité des personnes, l'assistance acordée en
cas d'urgence, la prévention de l'escaladation de la violence, ainsi que le
rétablissement et la maintenance de l'ordre social.
Le respect des principes humanitaires et des normes relatives aux droits de l'homme
doit constituer un élément important dans la stratégie et la tactique suivies par les
forces d'ordre dans le cas des troubles internes, sans tenir compte s'il y a ou non un
conflit armé. Et dans ce cas, c'est évident que les régIes de conduite, que les
employés du Ministère de l'Intérieur doivent respecter, sont en rapport avec leurs
fonctions et leur exercice ne peut pas être évalué indépendamment de ces régles.
Par la nature des activités qu'elles déroulent, au sein de tout état, les forces d'ordre
sont d'habitude les plus predisposées à la violation des droits et des libertés
fondamentales des citoyens. Dans une lutte continue avec la criminalité sous toutes
ces formes de manifestation, les organes d'ordre, en général, peuvent être tentées à
répondre à la violence par la violence, parfois trop durement.
Une série de facteurs de risque contribue à cet état; ces facteurs peuvent être
examinés de trois points de vue:
- en premier lieu, ce sont les conduites individuelles des employés de M.I. qui
peuvent parfois dépasser les limites de la loi;
- en second lieu, on doit mentionner les circonstances spécifiques des abus des
employés du M.I., quand ils doivenr punir, interpréter correctement une situation et
décider les mesures les plus adéquates qu'ils doivent entreprendre;
- en troisième lieu, on doit considérer le milieu de formation, de l'activité, les
appréciations des collègues ou des chefs de l'employé du M.I.
On doit également considérer un aspect très important, à savoir le fait que l'activité
d'ordre public, qui entre en contact avec les citoyens, est déroulée par les employés
inférieurs, qui arrivent ainsi à établir ,,l‘emblème" de l'institution, dans son ensemble.

332 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
Sans tenir compte du point de vue de ces aspects, la question essentielle reste la
même: le citoyen à été lésé en ce qui concerne ses droits et il est nécessaire
l'intervention afin de rémédier les préjudices causées.
Selon les statistiques effectuées, on constate que dans tous les états on commet des
abus et les droits de l'homme sont violés, plus ou moins.
Par exemple, en Angleterre, conformément aux statistiques des dernières 10 années,
les coûts liés aux enquêtes concernant les plaintes contre les forces d'ordre
anglaises, faites par les personnes violentées, sont au montant de 20 millions livres
sterling. On ne doit pas oublier que la police anglaise est considérée l'une des plus
correctes du monde.
Afin de diminuer ces cas, un grand rôle revient à l'éducation des employés du M.I.
dans le domaine des droits de l'homme et du respect des principes de base suivants:
a. La légalité de toutes les actions. Toute action ou activité doit avoir son fondement
seulement dans la loi. Il résulte que toute dérogation représente une violation de la
loi.
b. L'humanitarisme ou le principe du respect et de la défense de la dignité humaine
suppose que la vie, l'integrité physique et psychique, l'honneur et la dignité de la
personne doivent être respecter, sans tenir compte des faits qu'on peut réprocher ou
attribuer à un individu.
c. La non-surprise, la limitation, la proportionnalité et la gradualité de la force.
- la non-surprise suppose la prévention et la sommation préalable, parfois
répétée, en ce qui concerne l'usage des moyens d'intervention;
- la limitation signifie que le recours à la force ne sera fait que si les actions
turbulents n'ont pas été éloignées ou neutralisées par l'usage de quelques moyens
légaux, non-violentes;
- la proportionnalité signifie que le niveau de l'intervention doit être
conformément au niveau réel de l'opposition et il doit cesser dès que l'intervention a
atteint son but;
- la gradualité oblige à l‘usage progressif des formes, des procédés et des
moyens disponibles qui impliquent la force, à partir de ceux les plus simples jusqu'à
ceux les plus violents, et en dernière instance, l'usage des armes de feu.
d. Le principe du risque minimum se rapporte aux turbulents, ainsi qu'aux propres
effectifs et il suppose l'usage des moyens adéquats d'intervention afin d'éviter le plus
possible, l'endommagement de l'intégrité corporale ou psychique.
e. Le principe de la défense de l'être humain trouvé sous la protection des forces
d'ordre public, signifie accorder le premier aide en cas d'endommagement et de nonrecours
à la violence ou aux maux traitements (pressions psychiques, tortures, actes
de cruauté) qui ne se justifient pas envers les personnes retenues ou arrêtées.
f. Le principe de la confidentialité des données obtenues par les policiers et les
gendarmes, sauf le cas où l'accomplissement des taches de service ou les besoins
de la justice réclament de façon stricte autre chose. Ce principe suppose la
protection des données qui peuvent être liées à la vie des personnes, ou elles
peuvent endommager leurs intérêts et leur réputation une fois publiées. Cela
suppose également le secret des données et des informations ayant ce caractère ou
qui ne sont pas destinées à la publication.
g. Le principe de la transparence et de l'ouverture devant les citoyens ou les mass-

La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 333
médias, par l'organisation des conférences de presse périodiques, les interviews,
des réunions avec des groupes de citoyens, des chefs sindicaux ou par d'autres
moyens spécifiques.
On a essayé aborder brièvement quelques aspects de la problématique vaste et
complexe que le rapport entre la démocratie constitutionnelle et l'ordre, sàns
prétendre que les questions respectives sont entièrement élucidées.
Leur solution suppose des mesures amples dans des domaines divers, parmi
lesquels, à notre avis, il y a quelques priorités:
- Le domaine législatif, parce que, selon le renommé professeur universitaire
Octavian Fodor "les lois sont la garantie de la sûreté des citoyens dans un état
démocratique. Nous seront forts si nous avons de bonnes lois. C'est pourquoi on doit
être attentifs lorsqu'on établit des lois. Elles doivent être bonnes et utiles pour la cité
et après leur élaboration on doit les respecter et punir ceux qui les violent, si l'on veut
que notre cité se rejouissedu bonheur".
- Le domaine éducationnel, où, malheureusement, la société roumaine actuelle
est arriérée en ce qui concerne la compréhension de la vraie démocratie
constitutionnelle et la nécessité du respect de l'état de droit. Dans ce cas on ne doit
jamais oublier l'avertissement de Blaga: "la société qui se plaint de ses parasites et
ses infracteurs se condamne elle-même; les parasites et les infracteurs incubent ou
ils trouvent de la salete physique ou morale".
- Le domaine de l'organisation, de la dotation, de la formation et de la protection
sociale des forces d'ordre public, parce que, selon l'opinion du poète national anglais
(W. Shakespeare), il y a 400 ans, le pays ayant la democratie la plus ancienne et la
meilleure police du monde: "là où la vigueur des lois et l'autorité de ses défenseurs
cessent, il n'y a aucune liberté et aucune sûreté pour personne.
5. Le Cadre Juridique pour la Maintenance et le Rétablissement de l‟Ordre
Publique
L'ordre publique est troublé lorsqu'on commet des fait qui ont une résonance
publique, qui créent ou influencent un état de péril ou un état d'esprit négatif,
concernant le public, contre le public ou contre les organes ayant des attributions
relatives à la maintenance et au rétablissement de l'ordre public - le Gendarmerie et
la Police.
Les notions de maintenance et de rétablissement de l'ordre public sont utilisées
fréquemment dans l'activité des organes spécialisés dans l'exécution de ces
missions.
Le maintien de l'ordre public représente l'ensemble de mesures et actions
entreprises afin de prévenir les troubles ou autres manifestations de violence, afin
d'éviter l'utilisation de la force. « La caractéristique principale du maintien de l'ordre
public est la prévention, but pour lequel le recueil et la valorisation des informations
représentent l'élément essentiel aussi bien que les actions concernant l‘assurance
de l'ordre pendant les réunions, manifestations de divers types. »
Conformément à la Loi 218/2002 la Police en collaboration avec la Gendarmerie a le
rôle de maintenir l'ordre et la tranquillité publique et le respect de la loi, et la
Gendarmerie Roumaine, conformément à la Loi 550/2004, avec la police, pour le
maintien et le rétablissement de l'ordre public, la prévention et le combat des
infractions et des autres violations légales en vigueur.
Le rétablissement de l'ordre public peut être défini comme l'action d'établissement de

334 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
nouveau, d'amener de nouveau à l'état de début ou à un autre état meilleur une
situation ou forme détériorée, déformée, troublée à un certain degré.
Le rétablissement de l'ordre public inclut l'ensemble des actions spécifiques,
organisées et réalisées en temps, conformément à la situation, qui est basé sur
l'utilisation des moyens et matériaux techniques disponibles, ayant comme but la
réduction de la situation à l'état de normalité.
Plus précisément, quand l'assemblée publique est en déroulement, l'objectif est la
réalisation des conditions afin de continuer le déroulement normal et civilisé de cetteci;
quand le trouble a eu lieu à la fin de l'assemblée publique, l'objectif est l'assurance
de la diffluence, la délivrance de la zone et la normalisation de la situation, en
conditions de sécurité pour les participants et les organisateurs; si pendant le
déroulement de l'assemblée publique, l'ordre public a été gravement troublé, le
rétablissement impose aussi l'intervention en force des gendarmes, dans les
conditions et respectant strictement les lois en vigueur.
L‘attribution de rétablissement de l'ordre publique revient, conformément à la Loi
550/2004 à la Gendarmerie, en coopération avec la Police et autres organes établis
par la loi. Afin de rétablir l'ordre public il est nécessaire de prendre en considération
les aspects suivants:
- Intervenir quand les troubles prennent des formes violentes, et les moyens
paisibles n'amènent pas à des résultats escomptés;
- L‘appel à l‘intervention en force doit avoir un caractère d'exception;.
- L'évaluation du caractère grave doit être fondée sur des éléments concrets,
objectifs;
- L'établissement du seuil à partir duquel il est nécessaire l'intervention, les
possibilités des forces d'ordre, aussi bien que le seuil à partir duquel il est nécessaire
l‘utilisation des forces d'exception;
- L'action doit prendre place conformément aux nécessités concrètes avec
discernement, on doit éviter la réalisation des conséquences graves (morts, blessés,
préjudices, etc);
- L'intervention en force afin de rétablir l'ordre public, doit être faite par écrit, par
le préfet ou par le maire ou leurs représentants, de la localité où le grave trouble de
l'ordre public a eu lieu, à la demande du commandant de l'action et en présence du
procureur délégué, respectant les procédures légales de sommation et
avertissement;
- L‘'utilisation des moyens techniques d'intervention sera faite graduellement et
elle ne doit pas dépasser les besoins réels pour l'empêchement ou la neutralisation
des actions agressives et elle finira au moment le but de la mission sera réalisé;
- L'utilisation des armes sera faite en conformité avec la Loi 295/2004.
Les deux notions concernant le maintien et le rétablissement de l'ordre public sont
seulement apparemment différentes, elles se complétant réciproquement, parce que
le maintien de l'ordre public inclut aussi des mesures destinées au rétablissement.
Pourtant, le spécifique de l'activité de maintien de l'ordre public représente le
caractère préventif des mesures qu'elle inclut, pourtant que le rétablissement de
l'ordre se caractérise par le caractère prépondérant répressif, fondé sur la force de
coercition. L‘utilisation de la force doit avoir un caractère d'exception, seulement si un
péril menace les institutions democratiques de l'état, l'ordre public, les valeurs de la
démocratie constitutionnelle.

La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 335
Le cadre juridique concernant le maintien et le rétablissement de l'ordre public a été
créé et il a été amélioré en permanence par des modifications et additions ainsi que
maintenant il y a une base légale de l'activité spécifique développée par les organes
autorisés par la loi.
La Constitution de Roumanie, adoptée en 1991 qui est la loi fondamentale du pays
réglemente les droits et les libertés des citoyens ainsi: le droit de vie et d'intégrité
physique et psychique, la liberté individuelle, la liberté de la circulation, l'inviolabilité
du domicile, la liberté de la conscience, la liberté d'expression, la liberté des
réunions, le droit à la grève, etc.
La dignité de l'homme, les droits et les libertés des citoyens, le libre développement
de la personnalité humaine sont élevés au rang des valeurs suprêmes et ils sont
garantis par la Constitution. Tous ces droits, libertés et inviolabilités, au tour desquels
gravite le système entier des réglementations juridiques, dont la finalité est la
protection de la personne et de ses droits, concernant la vie par l'intermède des
organes d'état de spécialité, où un rôle important revient à la Gendarmerie
Roumaine.
La Gendarmerie Roumaine est l'institution militaire spécialisée de l'état qui exerce,
conformément à la loi, les attributions qui lui sont attribuées exclusivement sur la
base et dans l'exécution de la loi, étant appelée pour défendre les valeurs
mentionnées dans la loi fondamentale, avec la police et les autres organes autorisés.
La Loi 39/1990'concernant la constitution, l'organisation et le functionnément du
Conseil Suprême de Défense du Pays prévoit que celui-ci analyse et approuve les
documents de coopération entre les différentes institutions de l'état pour le maintien
et le rétablissement de l'ordre de droit.
La Loi 604/2004 concernant l'organisation et le fonctionnement du Ministère de
L'intérieur prévoit que celui-ci est "l'organe central du pouvoir exécutif qui exerce, en
conformité avec la loi, les attributions qui lui sont attribuées en ce qui concerne le
respect de l'ordre public". Parmi autres attributions, le Ministère de L'intérieur a le
devoir de "conduire et coordonner l'activité des unités de Police et de Gendarmerie,
subordonnées, qui participent directement ou en coopération avec autres forces
légitimes de l'état, au combat des manifestations violentes et au rétablissement de
l'ordre public".
La loi 218/2002 concernant l'organisation et le fonctionnement de la Police prévoit
que cette-ci « assure le maintien de l'ordre et de la tranquillité publique et le respect
de la loi ». La Loi 60/1991 concernant l'organisation et le développement des
assemblées publiques prévoit qu'au moment où les assemblées publiques perdent
leur caractère paisible et civilisé, la Gendarmerie et la Police interviendront afin
d'empêcher ou neutraliser les manifestations qui troublent gravement l'ordre et la
tranquillité publique, qui mettent en péril la vie, l'intégrité corporelle des citoyens, des
forces d'ordre ou menacent avec des ravages des bâtiments ou autre biens d'intérêt
public ou privé.
La Loi 61/1991 concernant la sanction des faits de violation de quelques normes de
cohabitation sociale, de l'ordre et de la tranquillité publique modifiée par la Loi
132/1996 et la Loi 2/2000, amène au contexte analysé des éléments de nouveauté
concernant la sanction contraventionnelle de quelques faits antisociaux.
La Loi 2/2000 présente un intérêt spécial pour la Gendarmerie Roumaine parce que
les officiers, les maîtres militaires, les sous-officiers ou les militaires embauchés avec
contrat sont autorisés à constater les contraventions prévues par la Loi 61/1991 et
dans le cas des procès-verbaux dressés par ceux-ci, envers lesquels on considère

336 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
que la sanction de l'amende n'est pas suffisante, le procès-verbal de constatation est
envoyé rapidement au plus proche organe de police pour l'instrumentation.
La Loi 69/1991 concernant l'administration publique locale réglemente les attributions
des conseils et des organes locaux, en ce qui concerne l'assurance de l'ordre et de
la tranquillité publique, sur le territoire de compétence.
La Loi 41/1990 concernant l'organisation et le fonctionnement M.Ap.N. prévoit aussi :
les attributions concernant l‘assurance de la mise en application du plan de
coopération avec M.A.I en ce qui concerne l'intervention pour la protection et la
défense de quelques objectives importantes situés sur le territoire national, le
maintien et le rétablissement de l'ordre de droit.
La Loi 295/2004 concernant le régime des armes à feu et des munitions autorise les
gendarmes responsables avec le maintien et le rétablissement de l'ordre public, de
prendre l'armement et la munition qui font partie de l'équipement pendant les
missions. Cette loi réglemente aussi l'utilisation de l'armement sur les personnes et
les biens, respectivement les situations et les conditions dans lesquelles on peut
utiliser les armes afin de se soumettre aux attributions de service. La loi prévoit aussi
les limitations et les interdictions de l'utilisation des armes.
La Loi 140/1996 pour la modification et les additions au Code Pénal, apporte des
additions concernant l'incrimination des infractions: "actions envers l'ordre constitutionnel"
et "diffamation du pays et de la nation". Cette loi clarifie et définit des
concepts comme "fonctionnaire public", "conséquences très graves".
Afin d'augmenter la protection des fonctionnaires publics, spécialement les
gendarmes, la Loi 140/1996 classifie comme "assassinat très grave" l'assassinat
réalisé envers ceux-ci, quand ils exercent leurs attributions de service ou en ce qui
concerne les obligations de service. Dans le même contexte, l'assassinat réalisé en
public est assimilé comme "assassinat qualifié".
La Loi 550/2004 concernant l'organisation et le fonctionnement de la Gendarmerie
Roumaine idyllique que: "La Gendarmerie Roumaine est l'institution militaire
spécialisée de l'état" qui a comme rôle attributions, le maintien et le rétablissement
de l'ordre public, la prévention et le combat des infractions et la prévention et la
neutralisation des actes de diversion ou terroristes sur le territoire de Roumanie.
La loi d'organisation et de fonctionnement de la Gendarmerie Roumaine
réglement~des droits et les obligations des gendarmes, la modalité d'agir à
l'intervention en force, l'utilisation des moyens techniques qui font partie de
l'équipement, inclusivement l'utilisation de l'arme.
L'ordre du ministre de l'intérieur S/ 837 du 16.02.1999 établit par la Méthodologie
d'organisation et exécution de quelques missions d'assurance de l'ordre public, la
modalité d'assurance de la' direction des forces responsables du maintien, aussi bien
que du rétablissement de l'ordre public pendant des situations de graves troubles de
celui-ci. L'ordre mentionne aussi les mesures qui peuvent être prises afin d'assurer
l'ordre à l'occasion des rencontres et des manifestatioIis - aussi bien que le
rétablissement de l'ordre public dans le cas des graves troubles de celui-ci.
6. Formes de Retablissement de l'Ordre Public
Par forme de rétablissement de l'ordre public on comprend l'ensemble de procédés
tactiques avec des traits caractéristiques, utilisés par les forces d'ordre afin
d'accomplir les attributions spécifiques.
Comme il résulte de la définition en baut une forme au sens tactique du mot, inclut

plusieurs procédés tactiques.
La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 337
Le procédé tactique représente une modalité d'actionner, en fonction d'une certaine
situation afin de réaliser le but proposé. Le procédé tactique constitue aussi la
modalité dans laquelle les sous unités et les unités de gendarmes actionnent afin
d'accomplir les attributions spécifiques.
Les procédés d'action utilisés par les unités et les sous unités de gendarmes,
spécifiques au rétablissement de l'ordre public, peuvent être non violents et violents,
en fonction de la riposte de l'adversaire.
Les procédés non violents, paisibles sont l'avertissement et la sommation.
Conformément à la loi, l'avertissement et la sommation impliquaient l'utilisation des
signales sonores ou lumineuses et l'avertissement des personnes qui se trouvaient
dans des situations de violation de l'ordre public, par des moyens d'amplification
sonore, sur l'obligation de disperser et de respecter les dispositions légales.
Les procédés qui impliquaient l'utilisation effective parlent des moyens techniques
disponibles, conformément à la loi. Les moyens techniques incluaient des boucliers
de protection, des casques avec des viseurs, des cannes de caoutchouc, des
cannes à énergie électrostatique, des moyens qui contiennent des substances
irritantes-lacrymogènes, des armes blanches, des jets d'eau ou colorants, chaînes,
chiens de service, dispositifs sonores et lumineux, moyens blindés de protection,
aussi bien que l'armement disponible.
Les situations dans lesquelles on fait appel aux procédés violents sont prévues par la
Loi 550/2004, ainsi :
- Pour l'empêchement et la neutralisation des actions agressives des personnes
qui troublent gravement l'ordre public, actions qui n'ont pas pu être enlevées ou
annihilées par l'utilisation des autres moyens légaux;
- Contre ceux qui entrent, sans droit, aux sièges des autorités publiques, des
parties ou des autres institutions d'intérêt public ou privé et qui, avertis ou sommés
ont refusé de quitter immédiatement ce siège, aussi bien que contre les groupes
organisés qui empêchent le déroulement normal des activités par les moyens de
communication, aux lieux publics et autres objectives importants;
- Pour l'immobilisation et la retenue des personnes ou groupes des personnes
qui provoquent le désordre et entreprennent des actions qui mettent en danger la vie,
l'intégrité corporelle ou la santé des personnes, propriété publique ou privée,
personnes qui outragent les forces d'ordre ou autres personnes ayant des fonctions
qui impliquent l'exercice de l'autorité publique ou personnes qui troublent gravement
l'ordre public, par des actes de violence. En ce qui concerne l'utilisation de la force
on doit prendre en considération la procédure réglementèe les articles 38-39de la Loi
550/2004.
Dans le procès complexe de rétablissement de l'ordre public, les gendarmes utilisent
une multitude de procédés spécifiques, dont la plus grande partie représentent
l'expression de l'expérience reçue pendante la période après décembre 1989.
Les procédés d'action des unités et sous unités de gendarmes sont concrétisés dans
des dispositifs spécifiques, d'action, adoptés selon les situations complexes avec
lesquelles elles se confrontent dans l'accomplissement des attributions offertes par la
loi. Par les dispositifs d'action on comprend le groupement des forces et moyens
constitué pour le déroulement des actions spécifiques et l'accomplissement des
missions reçues.

338 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
Le dispositif d'action est établi par le commandant de l'action par Le Plan d'action
dressé par le commandement établi de son sous-ordre et celui-ci inclut: l'échelon
d'action, le point logistique, la réserve et le point de commande.
L'échelon d‘action est l'élément principal de dispositif et il est formé des éléments
suivants:
- detachements de barrages et cordons d'ordre, d'isolation de la zone;
- equipages de circulation routière;
- équipes de recherche, sécurité et surveillance dans la profondeur de la zone
adjacente;
- sous unités de force variable pour l'assurance des flancs et des intervalles;
- équipes de tournage et photographie;
- équipes de négociateurs et psychologues;
- équipes d'extinction des incendies;
- point pour trier et embarquer les personnes détenues;
- postes d'observation.
Le point logistique se constitue et il est destiné pour l'assurance technique -
matérielle et médicale des effectifs participants à l'action.
La réserve inclut les sous unités organiques de gendarmes de valeur variable et elle
est constituée en fonction du caractère et l'ampleur de l'action. Elle est utilisée à
l'ordre du commandant de l'action pour la solution de quelques situations critiques,
imprévues qui peuvent apparaître pendant le déroulement de l'action.
Le point de commande assure la direction de l'action, la solution des; situations qui
peuvent apparaître pendant son déroulement et le maintien de la liaison permanente
avec l'échelon supérieur, avec les forces avec lesquelles on coopère, aussi bien que
avec les organes de l'administration d'état avec lesquelles on collabore.
7. Particularites Generales Concernant l'Assurance de l'Ordre Public
L'activité d'assurance de l'ordre public doit se dérouler d'une manière organisée,
ordonnée, conformément aux lois en vigueur et aux règles internes établies dans des
règlements spécifiques à chaque catégorie de forces participantes.
On doit prendre en considération que l'activité entière des forces d'ordre public doit
être gouvernée dans le plan des idées, aussi bien que dans le plan actionnel par le
respect de quelques principes fondamentaux nés de la Constitution de Roumanie et
les autres lois organiques spécifiques, aussi bien que des conventions
internationales concernant le respect de quelques principes humanitaires.
Les principes qui se trouvent à la base de l'assurance de l'ordre public sont:
La légalité de toutes les actions. Toutes les actions ou activités spécifiques doivent
trouver leur fondement seulement dans la loi et c'est d'ici que résulte que toute
dérogation constitue une violation de cette-ci.
Aucun des organismes de l'état et d'autant moins les forces d'ordre public ne
puissent actionner que seulement dans la base de la loi et seulement dans les cas et
les limites prévus par cettê-ci. L'augmentatIon de l'autorité des forces publiques
dépend de la modalité les forèes agissent dans les relations avec les citoyens, de
l'opérativité et la modalité de résoudre les doléances de ceux-ci en stricte conformité
avec la loi.

La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 339
On a prévu dans la Constitution de Roumanie les droits, les libertés et les
inviolabilités des citoyens, et la Loi 550/2004 et la Loi 218/2002 prévoient des
normes d'action pour les forces d'ordre public.
Le droit international humanitaire prévoit les normes de conduite obligatoires polir les
forces d'ordre, article 2 de la Résolution 141169 du 17.02.1979 indique, que "les
policiers respecteront et défendront la dignité humaine et ils encourageront les droits
de l'homme envers toutes les personnes".
L'activité de défense de l'ordre public demande la prise de quelques mesures
urgentes, rapidement, qui ne permet plus une documentation profonde de la situation
parue, et c'est d'ici la nécessité d'une préparation professionnelle, juridique et de
spécialité sérieuse, aussi bien que l'entraînement pour la formation des habitudes
d'action.
On doit retenir l'article 16 de la Constitution de Roumanie qui indique que tous "les
citoyens sont égaux devant la loi et les autorités publiques, sans privilèges et sans
discriminations" et "personne n'est au-delà de la loi".
La prévention des actions de trouble de l'ordre public réfléchit la capacité des forces
d'ordre de prendre à temps les mesures nécessaires envers le phénomène
infractionnel, de ne pas arriver à son amplification et à la dégénération dans des
actions violentes.
Un rôle important revient à mass media qui par la popularisation des lois, des autres
actes normatifs dans le domaine peuvent contribuer à la prévention de quelques faits
qui portent atteinte à l'ordre public. Une contribution décisive peut être apportée par
les forces d'ordre à travers leur comportement, par leur participation à des diverses
actions éducatives dans les écoles, radio et télévision.
Un rôle important revient aussi à l'organisation adéquate des mesures d'ordre
pendant le déroulement des assemblées publiques par la collaboration avec les
organisateurs de ces actions en ce qui concerne la prévention de la violation de
l'ordre public.
Prenant en considération les événements de nature à porter atteinte à l'ordre public,
comme les conflits interethniques, quelques contacts avec les représentants de
quelques ethnies sont nécessaires, ethnies prédisposées à la réalisation des faits
antisociales et la prévention de quelques mécontentements parmi la population
majeure d'état.
Le principe de l'utilisation de la force pour le rétablissement de l'ordre public. Ce
principe est appliqué seulement quand les autres moyens concernant le maintien de
l'ordre ont été épuisés et quand l'ordre public et les instituts démocrates de l'état sont
en grave danger.
Le code de conduite du policier, adopté par l'Assemblée Générale de ONU en 1999
prévoit que les policiers peuvent utiliser la force seulement si cette chose est
strictement nécessaire et dans la mesure dans laquelle cette chose est demandée
par la situation pour l'accomplissement du devoir. Quand on utilise la force les règles
suivantes doivent être respectées, règles prévues par ce document:
- L'utilisation de la force pour le rétablissement de l'ordre public se fait à la
proposition du commandant permanent et seulement après l'approbation par écrit
donnée par le préfet (sous-préfet) ou maire (son représentant) ;
- L'utilisation de la force doit être faite exceptionnellement quand les autres
moyens légaux n'ont pas donné des résultats;

340 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
- L'utilisation de la force doit être faite proportionnellement avec l'intensité et la
gravité de l'attaque;
- L'utilisation de la force doit être faite graduellement et seulement après avoir
réalisé les sommations légales, suivies par des signales sonores et lumineuses;
- Cessation de l'utilisation de la force, si cette-ci n'est plus imposée et l'ordre
public a été rétabli.
L'humanisme ou le principe du respect et de la défense de la dignité humaine
implique que la vie, l'intégrité physique et psychique, l'honneur et la dignité de la
personne, doivent être respectées, indifféremment les faits qui sont reprochés ou qui
peuvent être attribués à une personne.
L'attitude envers ceux qui ont violé l'ordre public doit être normale, ils doivent être
regardés comme des personnes, sans être soumis aux humilités ou violences
physiques ou psychiques de tous les types.
La non surprise, la limitation, la proportionnalité et la gradualité dans l'utilisation de la
force. La non surprise implique l'avertissement et la sommation préalable, parfois
répétée en ce qui concerne l'utilisation des moyens d'intervention.
La limitation implique que, l'utilisation de la force se fait seulement si les actions
turbulentes n'ont pas pu être enlevées ou neutralisées par l'utilisation de quelques
moyens légaux non violents.
La proportionnalité signifie que le niveau de l'intervention doit être strictement en
conformité avec le niveau réel de la composition et elle doit s'arrêter dès qu'elle a
atteint son but.
La gradualité oblige à l'utilisation progressive des formes, des procédées, et des
moyens disponibles qui impliquent la force, à partir des plus simples jusqu'à ceux qui
impliquent un niveau élevé de violence, et dernièrement l'utilisation de l'armement
disponible.
Le principe du risque minimum fait référence aux turbulences aussi bien qu'aux
effectifs propres et il implique l'utilisation des, moyens adéquates d'intervention afin
d'éviter le plus possible d'endommager l'intégrité corporelle ou psychique.
L'équidistance des forces d'ordre public. Ce principe implique la prise des mêmes
mesures de sanction envers les personnes ou les groupes de personnes
indifféremment leur position sociale ou l'origine politique. Le non respect de ce
principe peut avoir des conséquences graves, allant jusqu'à la discréditation, la perte
du prestige et de l'autorité du fonctionnaire public dans la société ou même de
l'institution qu'il représente.
Le principe de la défense de la force humaine qui se trouve sous la protection de la
police, signifie accorder le secours d'urgence en cas de préjudice et la non utilisation
de la violence ou maux traitements (pressions psychiques, tortures, actes de
cruauté, etc.) qui ne sont pas justifiés envers les personnes retenues ou enfermées.
Le principe de la confidentialité des données obtenues par les policiers ou
gendarmes.
L'exception est le cas où l'accomplissement des obligations de service ou les
nécessités de la justice, réclame strictement une autre chose. Ce principe
présuppose la protection des données qui peuvent être liées aux vies des personnes
ou qui peuvent endommager leurs intérêts et réputation, une fois publiques. Il
implique aussi le secret des données et des informations ayant ce type de caractère
ou qui ne sont pas destinées à la publicité.

La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 341
Le principe de l'utilisation des forces d'ordre public dans les limites du territoire
national. Les forces d'ordre public accomplissent les obligations respectives
conformément aux lois d'organisation et de fonctionnement sur le territoire de notre
pays, conformément aux compétences territoriales.
Pourtant, conformément à la Loi 550/2004 à la demande du Président de la
Roumanie et avec l'approbation du Parlement, la Gendarmerie Roumaine peut
participer, en dehors du territoire national, avec des effectifs et la technique
disponible, à la création des force internationales destinées à l'accomplissement de
quelques missions d'instruction, assistance et coopération dans le domaine de l'ordre
public et pour des actions humanitaires.
Le principe de la transparence et de l'ouverture devant les citoyens ou mass média
par l'organisation des conférences de presse par les structures habilitées à faire
cette activité. Cette action constitue l'expression de la transparence des institutions
qui ont comme attribution la défense de l'ordre public et elle représente un aspect de
la collaboration avec les autres institutions de l'état et citoyens, dans les limites de la
loi, sur des problèmes concernant l'assurance de l'ordre de droit.
La transmission de quelques messages courts et clairs concernant le déroulement
de quelques actions spécifiques aux forces d'ordre vers les postes nationaux ou
locaux de télévision et radio contribue à l'affirmation de ce principe.
8. Particularite de l'Assurance de l'Ordre Public au Milieu Rural
L'assurance de l'ordre public au milieu rural se réalise à l'aide des organes
spécialisés de l'état, la Police et la Gendarmerie par ses deux aspects distincts: le
maintien de l'ordre et son rétablissement. Dans l'accomplissement de la miss.ion de
maintien de l'ordre public, la Police Roumaine, est organisée adéquatement à la
division administrative du territoire du pays.
Ainsi, au milieu rural, dans les communes il y a des postes de polices, et dans les
communes ayant une grande surface, des villages et hameaux dispersés il y a des
bureaux de polices.
Les postes de police qui fonctionnent dans les communes respectent les attributions
qui dérivent de la Loi 218/2002 concernant l'organisation et le fonctionnement de la
Police Roumaine, dont on peut énumérer: ils assurent le maintien de l'ordre et de la
tranquillité publique et le respect de la loi, ils défendent la vie, l'intégrité corporelle et
la liberté des personnes, le bien privé et public, les autres droits et intérêts légitimes
des citoyens et de l'état, ils surveillent et dirigent la circulation routière sur le territoire
de compétence, ils gardent l'évidence de la population et l'évidence nominale des
citoyens roumains ayant des obligations militaires, ils constatent et appliquent des
sanctions pour les contraventions aux dispositions légales données à la compétence
des policiers.
Conformément aux compétences établies par la loi, la réalisation des recherches en
ce qui concerne les faits prévus par la loi pénale, appartient aux officiers
spécialement nommés de L'Inspectorat Départemental de Police qui arrondit
plusieurs communes.
La Gendarmerie Roumaine participe au maintien de l'ordre public au milieu rural par
le détachement d'un nombre variable de militaires gendarmes en fonction de la
situation opérative et de l'étendue des localités respectives, spécialement dans le
département de Ilfov. Conformément à la Loi concernant l'organisation et le
fonctionnement de la Gendarmerie Roumaine, on peut créer des sous unités de
gendarmes au milieu rural quand la situation opérative impose cette chose, dans la

342 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
limite des effectifs et des fonds approuvés par l'ordre du ministre de l'intérieur. Le
rétablissement de l'ordre public au milieu rural, aussi bien qu'au reste du territoire
national, est assuré au présent par la Gendarmerie Roumaine, la Police participant à
cette activité émettant à la disposition quelques cadres spécialisés (circulation; ordre
public) et des informations qu'elles détiennent en ce qui concerne les situations
créées.
Après 1990, à cause de la dynamique sociale et économique, des aspects nouveaux
concernant le trouble de l'ordre public au milieu rural sont parus. Les causes qui ont
déterminé le grave trouble de l'ordre public et ont nécessité l'intervention de la
Gendarmerie au milieu rural ont été:
• l'empêchement du déroulement des élections locales par des groups de
personnes (Sapânta, Maramures);
• l'application incorrecte ou l'application préférentielle de la Loi 18/1991
concernant le fond foncier en défaveur d'un grand nombre des habitants et la
favorisation des autres;
• conflits entre la population majoritaire et les minoritaires gitans comme
conséquence de la réalisation des faits de nature contraventionnelle ou rurale
appartenant aux gitans (Bolintin, Ogrezeni, Département de Ilfov. Département de
Constanta, Département de Bihor, Département de Braila);
• le non respect par la majorité des habitants d'une localité rurale de quelques
décisions judiciaires (Ighin et Ighizel du Département de Alba, Bacău, Département
de Satu Mare, Almajul de Sus, Département de Maramures);
• les abus de quelques citoyens, organisés en groupes, concernant l'exploitation
de quelques forets, spécialement après l'application de la loi concernant la
rétrocession des forets vers les anciens propriétaires;
• conflits entre les divers cultes religieux, spécialement dans les départements de
Transylvanie;
• grandes agglomérations aux pbiiltsde passage de la frontière qui ont
dégénérées en actions ayant un caractère violent;
• occupation des mairies et éloignement des maires et des travailleurs de la
police (Sapanta, Maramures et Almajul de Sus, Maramures);
• le pâturage abusif sur la propriété d'une autre localité, suivi d'actes violents,
entre les groupes de personnes.
Dans le cas de l'apparition de quelques événements graves qui affectent l'ordre
public, le chef de l'organe de Police de la commune où les troubles ont lieu, annonce
le Commandement Départemental des Gendarmes qui a la compétence territoriale
pour la solution de la situation créée. Si les turbulences prennent des formes plus
graves, alors des affectifs augmentés seront utilisés du Commandement de
Gendarmes Territorial, qui agiront conformément aux lois en vigueur.
Dans la structure de la Gendarmerie Roumaine il y a deux unités sous ordonnées
obligatoirement au Commandement National de la Gendarmerie, destinées à
exécuter indépendamment ou en coopération avec les autres unités du Ministère de
L'Intérieur, missions pour l'accomplissement des attributions spécifiques sur l'entier
territoire national.
Suite à la dynamique sociale et économique de notre pays certaines observations
s'imposent en ce qui concerne l'accroissement des attributions de la Gendarmerie
Roumaine au milieu rural.

La démocratie constitutionnelle et l‘ordre public 343
Au milieu rural, la règle n'est pas le rétablissement de l'ordre public, mais, avec
priorité son maintien et son consolidation. Ils peuvent être solutionnés par une
structure ayant un caractère militaire et une capacité numérique suffisante, pour lui
permettre l'adoption d'une attitude préventive - décourageante, en premier lieu, et
d'intervention, au deuxième lieu.
Prenant en considération la restructuration du Ministère de L'Intérieur où la Police
sera démilitarisée, on considère qu'il est nécessaire le passage des postes de police
du milieu rural dans la structure de la Gendarmerie Roumaine.
Dans les conditions .actuelles, par l'accroissement des convulsions sociales dans le
milieu rural, des faits antisociaux, des violences, l'accroissement du nombre de la
population dans les localités rurales, il est nécessaire l'existence d'une force crédible
et capable de faire face avec succès et efficience au maintien et au rétablissement
de l'ordre public.
On peut affirmer que, la Police a diminué ses possibilités opérationnelles dans le
milieu rural en ce qui concerne la maîtrise de l'infraction et d'intervention dans la
solution des conflits.
La prise des obligations de police rurale par la Gendarmerie mène à éviter
l'implication de l'armée et de la police dans les cas de rétablissement de l'ordre
public.
Les actions de la Gendarmerie, efficientes, assez combattantes et ayant un haut
degré d'urgence, appartiennent à la formation spéciale des effectifs dans la plus
grande partie professionnels pour la solution de quelques situations spéciales.
L'accroissement de l'opérativité, le perfectionnement de la direction des forces
imposent une commande unique des effectifs participants, au maintien de l'ordre et
de la tranquillité publique, aussi bien qu'à leur rétablissement, l'élimination de
confusions, des superpositions et parallélismes entre la Gendarmerie et la Police.
Le futur proche confirmera cette considération.
R É F É R E N C E S
[1] Constitution de la Roumanie (republiée).
[2] Stratégie M.A.I. de réalisation de l'ordre et de la sûreté publique, pour l'accroissement de
la sûreté du citoyen et la prévention de la criminalité des rues, publiée au Moniteur Officiel
243/2005.
[3] Cearapin, Tudor, Camarasan, Petru, Metodologii manageriale, Editura Bren, Bucuresti,
2004.
[4] Loi 604/2004 concernant l'approbation de l'Ordonnance D'Urgence no. 63 du 28.06.2003
concernant l'organisation et le fonctionnement du Ministère de L‘Administration et de
L‘Interieur.
[5] Le règlement de la Gendarmerie Roumaine - projet 1998.
[6] Loi no. 550/2004 concernant l'organisation et le fonctionnement de la Gendarmerie
Roumaine.
[7] Cearapin, T., Securitatea si apararea nationala a României - curs - 2002, Fundatia
Revista landarmeriei, Bucuresti, pp. 241-255.
[8] Velicu, George, Dreptul asigurarii apararii nationale, Ed. Scrisul Românesc, Craiova 2002,
pp. 172-193.
[9] Cearapin, T., Toma, Ghe., Managementul Ordinii publiee la lnceput de secol si de mileniu,
Editura Bioterra, 2001, pp. 136-157.

344 H.C. Tudor Cearapin
[10] Andreescu, A., Aspecte privind adunarile publice ln România, Editura Transilvania Expres,
1998, pp. 61-69.
[11] Ordinea publica, componenta a securitatii nationale, Editura M.I., 1996.
[12] Ion, N., Cearapin, T., Managementul resurselor umane ln domeniul ordinii publiee, Editura
Universitas, București, 2000.
[13] Toffler, Alvin, Razboi si antirazboi, Editura Antet, Bucuresti, 1996.
[14] Toffler, Alvin, Toffler, Heidi, Razboi si antirazboi. Supravietuire ln zorii secolului XXI,
Editura Antet, Bucuresti.
[15] Toffler, Alvin, Toffler, Heidi, Puterile în mișcare, Editura AlI, Bucuresti 1996.
[16] Beaufre, Andre, Introducere ln strategie, Strategia actiunii, 1974.
[17] Beaufre, Andre, Strategie despre viitor, 1991.
[18] Toffler, Alvin et Heidi, Razboi si antirazboi, Editura Antet, Bucuresti, 1995.
[19] BettinelIi, P., Elementi di strategia, Scuola de Guerra Aerea, Firenze, 1998.
[20] Burke, R., Project Management Planning and Control, Editura Wilez, 1993.
[21] Hailes, Col., Support schematic. Dimensiunea militară a noii ordini mondiale în viziunea
strategică a SUA, 1993.
[22] Larousse, Dictionar de sociologie, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucuresti, 1996.
[23] Dictionar de sociologie, Editura Babel, Bucuresti, 1993.
[24] Lexicon militar, Editura Saka, Chisinău, 1994.
[25] Dictionar de drept international public (coordonator Dr. Ionel Closea), Editura Stiintifică si
Enciclopedică, 1982.
[26] Tratat de stiinta militara, Editura Militară, Bucuresti, 2001.

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 345
LAND FORCES AND THE COLLECTIVE DEFENSE OF THE
NATIONAL TERRITORY WITHIN THE ALLIANCE
Sorin IOAN 1
Abstract The aim of this article is to study the role that the Land Forces play within the
collective defence of the national territory alongside the allied forces of the NATO member
states, in the light of the major geo-political and geo-strategic changes. It considers the
framework, the principles as well as the specific situations and conditions for the
employment of the Land Forces units as part of the collective effort to defend the territory of
Romania. It also underlines the legal and doctrinal implications on military actions and the
importance of interoperability.
Key words: common defence, collective defence, integration, synchronization, command and control
of multinational forces, transformation, cooperation, interoperability
1. Introduction.
Their profound changes in the geopolitical and geo-strategic environment implicitly
affect the land forces, their strategic role, their organizational structure, their missions
and use. One of the major worldwide problems today, faced by most armed forces, is
the reconstruction of the land forces within the newly reshaped geopolitical
framework.
2. The general framework and the principles by which the NATO member land
forces can act to collectively defend Romania‟s territory.
The main purpose of the NATO is to ensure the freedom and security of all its
members, by means pertaining both to the political and the military, according to the
North-Atlantic Treaty and the principles stated in the U.N. Charter. The framework for
the process of NATO defense planning is provided by the basic principles of
collective defense in general:
Political solidarity between the member states;
The promotion of collaboration and of the close relationships between the
countries in all the fields wherein these serve their mutual and individual purposes;
The distribution of roles and responsibilities and the recognition of the
common commitments;
A common effort to maintain the military forces necessary to support the
strategy and the policy of the Alliance.
Common and collective defense
The attentive analysis of the specialized literature suggests significant differences
between the texts referring to common and collective defense. The common
defense implies the common will and effort of the participating states to build the
instruments – institutions, human, material, financial, judicial and regulatory
resources etc. - designed to protect their fundamental interests, to defend their
territory, their independence. Specific to the common defense also is that the military
structure constituted on this purpose acts under the command of the alliance
organisms, not of each of the member states. Moreover, the structure designed for
the common defense is permanent, being always ready to exercise the role for which
it has been created. The European Union itself can be an example in this sense.
1 Deputy chief of the General Staff, National Defense University.

346 Sorin Ioan
In a certain sense, by contents, assignments, ways to solve the problems arising
from the ever-changing national and international security environment etc., common
defense becomes a substitute to the national defense, whose role it will overtake
completely, with the passage of time. Collective defense represents the commitment
of all states to mutually defend against any external aggression.
―The collective defense organization mainly aims at defending all its members
against any external aggression‖. The North-Atlantic Treaty, the Warsaw Treaty, the
South-East Asia Treaty Organization SEATO, are examples of such treaties. At their
basis lies a convention stipulating mutual defense in the case that a member state is
threatened or is the subject already of a military attack from another state or group of
states non-members of the treaty. Meanwhile, collective defense is the expression of
the responsible attitude of the states to the protection and promotion of their national
interest. The realistic approach to the individual capabilities to defend one‘s own
national territory, independence, population etc., leads to the search for viable
solutions, and collective defense is one of them. Besides, collective defense
supposes the constitution of military structures adequate to the threats they must
answer immediately, but also to effective decision-making mechanisms. It also
signifies the awareness of those interested of the role of guarantee of their territorial
integrity, independence, etc., that the organization with such a mission undertakes.
The new paradigm of the collective defense imposes a renewed thinking, projection
and draft of the conceptual apparatus meeting the coordinates of the common
system of understanding of the principles of land warfare, as well as the
corresponding techniques and procedures, in order to achieve the unitary action of
the allied forces within the Romanian national warfare space. The knowledge and
correct use of the common contents stated in the NATO framework, of the
characteristics of the doctrine, tactics and land actions planning, preparation and
procedures inside the warfare space are the essential condition for maximal success
and efficiency. Within this framework, a distinct role is played by the principles by
which the allied forces of the NATO member states can act, together with the
Romanian land forces, for the collective defense of Romania‘s national territory.
Among these principles we can mention: freedom of action, effort-saving,
concentration of forces, maneuver, security, taking by surprise, simplicity.
3. Situations and conditions for the passage of the formations and units within
the Land Forces to the defense of the national territory, within the Alliance.
Juridical and doctrine implications as regards the actions
The accession to the North-Atlantic Treaty Organization strengthens the rights of the
Romanian citizens provided by Article 1, 3 rd paragraph, in the Constitution 1 ,
stipulating that ―Romania is a status-quo, democratic and social, wherein the human
dignity, the citizen‘s rights and liberties, the free development of the human
personality, fairness and political pluralism are supreme values guaranteed by the
state‖. The Preamble in the North-Atlantic Treaty provides that the signatories
endeavor to ―safeguard liberty, their common patrimony and the civilization of their
peoples, on the basis of the principles of democracy, individual freedom and
supremacy of law.‖ Romania‘s accession to the NATO imposes the harmonization of
the basic juridical framework, consisting of concrete provisions of the legal
mechanisms to operate the optimal transfer to sovereignty to the benefit of the
efficient support of the common defense. At present the Romanian Armed Forces are
undergoing a complex process of implementation of the reform, adopted to meet
1 The Romanian Constitution Review Law, no.429/2003, art.1 (Legea de revizuire a Constitutiei
Romaniei).

Land forces and the collective defence of the national territory within the alliance 347
NATO standards, by creating a modern force, with effective modular structures,
flexible and compatible with those in the other NATO member states, capable to
answer both to the national needs of security and as well as the strategic
expectations of the NATO Alliance. In order to meet the requirements for the effective
membership to NATO, the Romanian Armed Forces are putting in a constant effort to
renew the system of doctrines, of training and education. The situations when the
Land Forces can be engaged in operations are the following:
a. In the case that an aggression is produced aiming at the national security and
defense, or in the case of imminence of such an aggression;
b. In the case that a crisis affects that regional/global stability or in order to
provide specific support to the population or the central/local authorities of state;
c. In order to fulfill the duties regarding the collective defense 1 .
Even though these situations may occur, the Land Forces can be engaged in
operations - of defense, in our situation - only under the fundamental condition that
the higher echelon has ordered it, according to the decision of the civil lawful
constitutional authorities. 2 The military actions of the Alliance need the approach and
solution to the following main problems:
a. The coordination of the political, economical, military, technical and scientific
efforts, and the achievement of the logistic compatibility and the development of the
infrastructure;
b. The establishment of ―command arrangements‖ and the constitution of the
multinational command organisms;
c. The creation of multinational forces 3 .
According to these provisions, it is clear that the formations and the units can
proceed to the collective defense of the national territory, within the alliance, only if
the following conditions are met:
a. The existence of a political-military treaty and of an achieved interoperability
and logistic capability - already achieved by Romania‘s ratification of the Washington
Treaty in March 2004, and by the ongoing ―The Romanian Armed Forces - 2007
Force‖ programs;
b. Romania‘s accession to the structure of forces and multinational NATO chain
of command;
c. The existence of the Alliance Forces in NATO, composed according to the
Common Doctrine of the allied forces, of allied, national and multinational forces.
The priority for the engagement into operations of the Land Forces is the armed
battle, while the engagement into the other types of operations shall take place only if
they don‘t affect the operations specific to the ongoing or imminent armed battle, and
under the condition that the actual fighting power of the units engaged is maintained.
The formations in the Land Forces shall assure that the exercise of the direct and
continuous control over the territory and resources, paths of access to the special
importance objectives in the area of responsibility, as well as the protection of the
transportation and communication. If the formations have passed to the defense of
the national territory, they will be timely introduced into the Alliance Plan for
1
Land Forces 1- Land Forces Operations Doctrine, Bucharest, 2004. p. 13-18 (F.T.1-Doctrina
operatiilor Forțelor Terestre).
2
Multinational Joint Operations Doctrine, Bucharest, 2001, p. 12.
3 Ibidem, p. 13.

348 Sorin Ioan
Integrated Defense, so that after the gradual operationalization they put at the
disposal of the operational Romanian commandments, and deploy independent or
joint operations, according top the concrete situation, till the intervention of the
Integrated Allied Forces – in about 30 days. After the intervention of the allied forces
the units will execute multinational operations for the achievement of the general
strategic military NATO purposes. The administrative military structures shall
continue the process of force generation and regeneration, to make them available
for the Allied Commandment. The formations in the Land Forces shall most probably
execute operative missions, for the achievement of the military objectives of an area
of operations by means of battle-type operations. Later they shall execute strategic
operations, within the Integrated Alliance Forces, according to the strategic
objectives established by the multi-national commandment. The actions performed
by the Land Forces units shall be phased as follows:
a. The assurance of the strategic border security and of the objectives of vital
importance;
b. Direct exercise of the control over the territory, the resources, the paths of
access to certain objectives of vital importance in the area of responsibility, protection
of the transports and communications;
c. The action of the structures ready for short-term deployment, for the first
answer in case of surprising attack, till the intervention of the Allied Forces.
The main requirements for the success of the operations shall be: the initiative, the
depth and the synchronization. The decentralization of the decision shall be an
element characteristic of the initiative, though it may produce the risk of loss of
synchronization. The depth shall allow the commanders to maintain the rhythm of the
operations considering its effects over the density of the forces, all through the area
of responsibility. The main task for the commanders will be to continually adapt the
main effort, to profit from the favorable situations and move the operations to the
depth of the enemy territory, permanently maintaining the reserve prepared to
intervene in the case of unforeseen situations.
R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Analiza securitatii internationale, http://www.studii de securitate.ro.
[2] Moştoflei, C, Duţu, P., Apărarea colectivă şi apărarea naţională în contextul integrării
României în NATO şi aderării la Uniunea Europeană, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de
Apărare, Bucureşti, 2005.
[3] Dicţionarul de termeni, STANAG 5062, Terminologie militară generală, Editura Militară,
Bucureşti, 2002, partea a treia.
[4] Manualul NATO – Office of Information and Press - 1110 Bruxelles, Belgium, 2001.
[5] F.T.1 Doctrina Forţelor Terestre, Bucureşti, 2003.
[6] Stăncilă, L., Toma, Gh., Ţenu, C., Arta operativă între contrarii, Editura AISM, Bucureşti, 2001.
[7] Doctrina pentru planificarea operaţiilor întrunite, Bucureşti, 2003.
[8] Col. Mateescu, Gheorghe, Operaţiile aeropurtate prin materializarea manevrei pe verticală în
operaţiile Forţelor Terestre, Buzău, 2002.
[9] Colectiv de autori, Studii de securitate şi apărare – vol. 3, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de
Apărare, Bucureşti, 2005;
[10] Doctrina pentru operaţii întrunite multinaţionale, Bucureşi, 2001;
[11] Legea de revizuire a Constituţiei României nr 429/2003.

Annals of the ARS – Anniversary volume, 1 – 2006 349
ROMANIAN MILITARY UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.
TRANSFORMATION-MODERNIZATION
Mircea MUREŞAN 1
Abstract. One of the most complex coordinates of an army force and evolution is that of
the education quality and especially of the university education quality. And we must say
from the beginning that Romania‟s Army has always had a superior university education,
the National Defence University, initially called the War School 2 .
This was one of the first institutions of this kind in Europe. Along the centuries it has formed
very good commanders and staff officers. The Romanian military has always been proud of
its military university education. The commanders‟ exceptional behaviour during the two
world wars and other difficult moments such as the revolution in December 1989 is a
remarkable example of this quality.
However the military university education must change to keep up with the big
challenges of the present and especially the future; it must be flexible and adapted to
the new demands.
The War School prepared officers in the spirit of last century physiognomy and
philosophy.
The Military Academy prepared officers for the last half of the 20 th century getting rid
little by little (not completely) of the Soviet and the Warsaw Treaty restrictions and
turning to national, European and world military values.
The Academy of Advanced Military Studies was not only a change in name but a true
reform of military university education, a transition from an education under the
Military Academy 3 authority to a new system, achieved today within the National
Defence University.
The old education was rigid based on the requirements of that time, the Warsaw
Treaty and a national defence doctrine.
The present system is a system open to universities and the national, European,
Euro-Atlantic and world environment.
It‘s a demand of the present and the future as well.
At present, the Romanian military university education undergoes a dynamic and
complex transformation process based on three major coordinates: national,
European and trans-European and Euro-Atlantic.
These three coordinates are not divergent but convergent, absolutely necessary and
unitary.
One couldn‘t speak today about a national system in education or other fields without
including the European and Euro-Atlantic component.
The education integration degree has increased enormously and the ―Bologna
Process‖ demands show that the education problems of any type and level are not
national.
They are in great need of a European and world dimension and a Euro-Atlantic one
for NATO countries. The world interacts very strongly.
1 Commandant of the National Defence University “Carol I”.
2 Monitorul oastei, nr. 55, august 1889, p. 892.
3 Istoricul Academiei Militare, 1889-1989, Proiect. Biblioteca UNAp “Carol I”, manuscris, p. 71-79.

350 Mircea Mureșan
The information, economy and international relationships are already world-wide and
the security and defence problem is no longer national and needs viable international
solutions.
Today the dangers and threats are common and affect all of us.
That‘s why we must coordinate the processes of our evolution and education is the
first one because it is a human investment for the future.
The transformation we‘re talking about is not only an updating but also a development,
transparency, interacting with the university environment, understanding the
processes and mechanisms of the present, the challenges of the future and, based
on that, modernization.
The education prior to 1990 was rigid, sequential, divided on branches and
specialties.
The Academy of Advanced Military Studies made the first step towards an integrated
joint-type education.
From the multitude of branches and specialties in the past, the University has today
only five specialties corresponding to the army and its logistics force categories.
The whole process of reforms and transformation (modernization) of the University
education and other military institutions went on correctly, responsibly, in the spirit of
rigour, seriousness and thoroughness that have always been characteristic to our
institution. In a first phase, all the 300 subjects were reduced to about 120 and the
process went on subsequently.
The graduation education has now only 13 subjects. From 3 or 4 teaching loads, a
teacher has now about 2.
The teachers were in a variety of functional education structures (faculties, colleges,
departments). We have now eight departments, all within the Command and Staff
Faculty.
The teachers are in all the University education forms (graduation, master, doctoral
and post-University degrees) and education is focussed no longer on the teacher but
on the student.
The command and the educational and administrative management, unclear in the
past, are now clearly defined in the National Defence University Charter.
The present education doesn‘t deny the former one but continues it. We combine
tradition (extremely rich and valuable) with modernity (extremely necessary) and
strive to find adequate answers to all the problems we deal with, problems that aren‘t
few.
The National Defence University general educational mission is to form military
specialists and experts in the fundamental field of ―Military Sciences and
Information‖, as called by the national academic evaluation and accreditation
standards.
In 2004, the National Defence University was accredited, for the next five years, by
the Ministry of Education and Research.
The leading document for us is ―The National Defence University Strategic Plan‖.
The essence of this document is the fact that it perfectly integrates the educational
strategy of the military university education into the national, European and, for our
institution, Euro-Atlantic strategy.

Romanian military university education. Transformation-modernization 351
These are the fundamental educational strategic directions.
The strategic objectives focus on the continuity and integration of the graduation
education into the doctoral, post-University and the master degree education (starting
with 2005/2006) and, in the future, into the post-doctoral education.
The demands of organizing the university studies stipulated in Law no. 288/2004 1
and those of the ―Bologna Process‖ 2 come into force starting with this university year.
From the strategic point of view, we shall pass, this very year, to the educational
system 3-2-3 (graduation, master and doctoral degrees).
As for the educational process of continuous forming, we shall continue to develop
the post-University education.
The master degree education will have four branches: security and national defence,
defence resource management, educational management, crisis and multinational
operations management, communication.
In the future, depending on the new accreditations, we will promote other master
degree fields such as: land forces inter-arms management; air and naval forces,
economic and financial management, logistics management, acquisition management,
armed forces right and other subjects we‘re working at.
We will also develop joint master degree courses with foreign partners (Italy, Greece
etc). These will be organized in a modular system with mutual university
acknowledgement.
We have a special relationship with NATO partners regarding the development of
university cooperation, very important especially from the strategic point of view,
including teachers and students exchange, joint education and research projects,
mutual studies acknowledgement based on graduation, master and doctoral degree
diplomas and diplomas supplements based on the European transferable credits
system.
Another characteristic of the new education system is its close link with the scientific
research.
Within the National Defence University there are: Centre for Security and Defence
Strategic Studies, Land Forces Studies and Research Centre, Educational and
Management Research Centre, this one not yet accredited.
We have two accredited magazines – The National Defence University Bulletin and
Strategic Impact – already known and appreciated, and other publications.
The National Defence University Publishing Department has published valuable
books in the past years, books which contribute to the effort to transform and
modernize the Romanian military university education.
1 Legea nr.288/2004 privind organizarea studiilor universitare, p. 4.
2 Declaraţia de la Bologna, iunie 1999, p.1-3.

352 Mircea Mureșan
[1] Monitorul Oastei, nr. 55, august 1889.
[2] Declaraţia de la Bologna, iunie 1999.
[3] Declaraţia de la Berlin, 2003.
[4] Declaraţia de la Sorbona, mai 1998.
R E F E R E N C E S
[5] General prof. univ. Dr. Mircea Mureşan, Învăţământul militar superior românesc – transformare,
modernizare, RSM, nr.2/2005, Bucureşti.
[6] Strategia de securitate naţională a României, Bucureşti, 2001.
[7] Legea învăţământului nr. 84/1995 republicată 1999.
[8] Legea nr. 87/2006 pentru aprobarea OUG nr. 75/2005 privind asigurarea calităţii educaţiei.
[9] Legea nr. 288/2004 privind organizarea studiilor universitare.
[10] Legea nr. 128/1997 privind statutul personalului didactic.
[11] Istoricul Academiei Militare, 1889-1989, Proiect. Biblioteca Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare
„Carol I‖, manuscris.