Baseline information on agricultural practices in the EU ... - Europabio

<strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>information</strong> on agricultural practices in the EU
Maize (Zea mays L.)
July 2011
Study performed for EuropaBio aisbl
Avenue de l’ Armée 6
B- 1040 Brussels
Belgium
Patrick L.J. RÜDELSHEIM & Greet SMETS
PERSEUS BVBA

Table of contents
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 3
2 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 4
3 MAIZE CULTIVATION IN EUROPE ............................................................................... 5
3.1 CROP DESCRIPTION ..................................................................................................... 5
3.2 CULTIVATION AREA ...................................................................................................... 6
3.3 WEEDS, PESTS AND DISEASES .................................................................................... 12
3.3.1 WEEDS ............................................................................................................... 12
3.3.2 PESTS ................................................................................................................. 13
3.3.3 DISEASES ............................................................................................................ 17
4 PREPARATION ............................................................................................................ 19
4.1 SEEDS ...................................................................................................................... 19
4.2 SEED TREATMENT ...................................................................................................... 21
4.3 SOIL PREPARATION .................................................................................................... 22
5 CULTIVATION .............................................................................................................. 28
5.1 SOWING .................................................................................................................... 28
5.2 CROP PROTECTION .................................................................................................... 30
5.2.1 WEED MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................ 30
5.2.2 PEST MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................. 34
5.2.3 DISEASE MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................ 39
5.2.4 PLANT PROTECTION PRODUCTS ........................................................................... 39
5.3 IRRIGATION ............................................................................................................... 40
6 HARVEST AND POST-HARVEST LAND USE ............................................................ 54
6.1 HARVEST .................................................................................................................. 54
6.2 INTERCROPPING ........................................................................................................ 55
6.3 SOIL MANAGEMENT & ROTATION ................................................................................ 56
7 CONSULTED SOURCES ............................................................................................. 57
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1 Introduction
Under the current European legislations for the commercial cultivation of Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs) in the EU it is required to assess the potential environmental impacts of GM
plants, including the assessment of potential environmental impacts of specific cultivation and
management of such plants. This assessment is explained in environmental risk assessment (ERA)
guidance documents, including those developed by the Panel on GMOs of the European Food Safety
Authority (EFSA).
With this project, EuropaBio aimed to collect and structure the dataset on agronomic practices for
maize in Europe. Within the definition of the project, the study is expected to cover:
• cultivation practices with special attention to those practices that can dominate in the future;
• cultivation practices across EU Member States organized by different geographical regions where
the GM crop is likely to be cultivated;
• aspects related to characteristics of the plant and the production systems into which it will be
introduced; and
• <strong>information</strong> that will help applicants to address the requirements laid out in Section D.2.9 of Annex
II of Directive 2001/18/EC.
Similar studies are conducted for other crops.
This study provides applicants with a common baseline for performing the ERA of the cultivation
practice associated with the specific GM plant.
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2 Methodology
This survey of the practices commonly used in European maize cultivation is based on <strong>information</strong>
retrieved from public sites of governments, research institutes, peer-reviewed scientific literature,
farmers’ organisations, seed organisations, seed companies and expert opinions provided by
EuropaBio member companies. Most of the documents represent recommendations from research
institutes and professional organisations. While the practice of an individual farmer will be determined
by different factors and may be different from the recommendations of the public sites mentioned
above, they should also be taken into consideration as they represent an optimal management
situation and should lead to implementation of policy decisions. Therefore, when available,
<strong>information</strong> is included on the actual crop management practices as performed by the farmers. Also it
is recognized that practices may differ within Members States and where applicable, indications on
regional differences have been included. Where available, the <strong>information</strong> was further complemented
with a review of policy statements that would indicate the direction of the future of agriculture in the
EU.
The <strong>information</strong> was organized following the sequence of activities that a farmer performs when
cultivating a maize crop. Furthermore it was structured on a geographical basis, following the
structure implemented in the Regulation on Plant Protection Products 1 . This approach identifies 3
geographical zones as areas where agricultural, plant health and environmental (including climatic)
conditions are comparable (see Table 1).
Table 1: EU geographic zones (based on the Regulation on Plant Protection Products)
Zone Geography Member States
A North Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Sweden
B Centre Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia and the United Kingdom
C South Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal and Spain
Care was taken to collect <strong>information</strong> covering all relevant zones and focusing on the major producers
in order to get a representative view on the range of agricultural practices across the EU.
Where possible and relevant, a distinction has been made between a maize crop grown for silage or
for grain.
1 Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009
concerning the placing of plant protection products on the market and repealing Council Directives
79/117/EEC and 91/414/EEC; OJ 24/11/2009 L 309, p.1-50)
Page 4 of 64

3 Maize cultivation in Europe
3.1 Crop description
Maize is basically a tropical grass, and it requires high insulation and warmth. An average
temperature of 20 – 24°C is optimal, and the temperature should not sink below 14°C at night. The
minimum for germination is 8°C. Nevertheless, maize is cultivated on every continent except
Antarctica. Depending on variety and local climate, maize may need between 70 and 210 days for full
development.
Silage maize is cultivated for feed and is mainly used on-farm. Grain maize may be used for feed
(poultry, corn-cob-mix for pigs), food (maize-meal-products, snacks, cornflakes) or for industrial
purposes (starch, paper industry). Temperature and precipitation are major factors influencing the
type of maize production (see Figure 1). From north to south and from oceanic to more continental
regions, precipitation from April to October decreases and temperature increases. In general, the
shorter and wetter climatic conditions in north-western European regions are more suitable for silage
maize, because it can be harvested for this purpose while still unripe, while grain maize production
dominates in dryer and warmer regions of central and southern Europe.
In addition to climatic conditions, regional needs for specific maize commodities, like on-farm use of
silage for livestock-feeding, or the presence of agro-fuel or gas facilities, can influence the farmers’
decision for production type.
Figure 1: Maize production characteristics in 11 regions in Europe. Pie diagrams: Maize production
type: Silage (green), grain (yellow) and other (white); Numbers in diagrams: total maize
area in the region (in million hectares); Numbers outside diagrams: Average temperature
(°C) and precipitation (mm) from April to October and fertilizer (synthetic and organic)
applied per year (kg nitrogen input per ha); Bar diagrams: Percentage of maize area under
integrated pest management (including organic), crop rotation (no maize after maize), low
tillage (including no tillage) soil management versus ploughing. Full bars represent 100%.
(Source: Endure, 2009, Final report on the maize case studies.)
Next to these there is also the sweet maize type that is harvested for the fresh vegetable market and
the crop intended for energy production:
Page 5 of 64

- In France a stable area of about 25,000 ha of sweet maize is grown, mostly in Aquitaine
(Maizeurop). Hungary is the leading country in the EU with over 30,000 hectares in 2006.
- A number of countries in northern Europe use a proportion of the crop for biogas production:
260,000 hectares in Germany, 20,000 hectares in Austria and 10,500 hectares in Poland
(Maiz’info, Oct-Nov 2009 2 ). The German Maiskomitee communicates on areas between
240,000 and 375,000 hectares for 2009. In 2010 energy maize was grown on an area of
about 530 000 hectares according to the German Federal Minister of Agriculture (BMELV).
The Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe States that in 2010 500,000 hectares were used
for biogas production, which is equal to 22% of the total maize area in Germany.
3.2 Cultivation area
A comparison of the surface of grain and silage maize in the EU Member States is provided in Figure
2 and Table 2. The cropping area within the 27 member states of the European Union (EU) reached
8.3 million hectares in 2007 for grain maize and 5.0 million hectares for silage maize. The annual total
yield was 48.5 million tonnes of grain (Eurostat).
Figure 2: Area for grain and silage maize production, average of 2004-2008 (from Czarnak-Kłos &
Rodríguez-Cerezo, 2010)
The largest maize producers are France, Romania, Germany, Hungary and Italy, where maize is
grown on more than 1 million hectares each. Even within a Member State, important regional
differences may exist in relation to cultivation of maize (Figure 3).
There are indications that the areal of maize cultivation is gradually expanding to the North (Eurostat).
The data in Table 2 illustrate that the area of maize cultivation has increased over the last decade in
the northern countries, while at the same time acreages in southern Europe tend to stabilise or even
decrease. Mainly due to the development of varieties better adapted to the northern regions (early
maturing types) and the warmer climate less yield failures are noticed (DEFRA, 2006; Handboek
Snijmaïs, Olesen & Bindi, 2004 3 ). In the UK there was a fivefold increase from 1989 to 2005 (DEFRA,
2006). In Denmark the area of silage maize has increased from 11,000 ha in 1980 to 118,000 ha in
2003 (Olesen & Bindi, 2004). Also in Germany and Poland, the northern countries of the central zone,
the land used for silage maize has increased. Grain maize that needs to fully ripen within the growing
season becomes an option for farms in the North.
2 http://www.maizeurop.com/pages/iso_album/20091030maizinfoct2009.pdf
3 Olesen J.E., Bindi M. (2004) Agricultural impacts and adaptations to climate change in Europe. Farm
Policy J 1(3): 36–46.
Page 6 of 64

Figure 3: Grain maize production by the EU Member States in 2007 (from Eurostat) (NUTS:
Nomenclature of territorial units for statistics)
Silage maize is usually used on-farm (Defra, 200, Handboek Snijmaïs, Maizeurop). In France about
12 million tons of grain maize out of 15 million produced is sold either to be used as feed or to the
food industry (Maizeurop). This leaves 20% for on-farm use. In Slovakia silage maize is predominantly
used for on-farm purposes – on average, 88% of silage maize was used for fodder production in 2006
and 2007 4 .
Concerning farm size, big differences exist between Member States. Table 3 presents the number of
farms cultivating a certain area of grain maize. In the east European Member States most of the farms
grow grain maize on very small parcels (0-0.5 ha). But very big farms are present as well (>50 ha).
Many small farms are also found in Spain and Portugal. Other countries peak around 2-5 ha.
4 Dillen K., Mitchell P.D., Van Looy T., Tollens E. (2010) The western corn rootworm, a new threat to
European agriculture: opportunities for biotechnology? Pest Management Science 66(9): 956-966.
Page 7 of 64

Table 2: Maize acreage according to use in 1,000 ha (Source: Eurostat)
Zone Member State Maize type 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001
A Denmark Grain 9.5 0.0 - - - - - - - 0.0
North
Silage 173.7 171.8 158.6 144.6 136.0 135.3 129.3 118.3 95.7 78.8
Estonia Grain 0.0 0.0 - - - - - - 0.0 0.0
Silage 1.7 1.8 1.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.1 0.6 0.4 0.5
Finland Grain - 0.0 - - - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Silage - - - 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Latvia Grain - - - - 0.0 0.0 - - - -
Silage 6.9 9.8 5.9 5.1 3.5 2.9 2.9 1.7 1.2 1.0
Lithuania Grain 7.8 5.5 7.6 5.4 2.0 1.6 1.4 2.7 2.9 -
Silage 17.6 18.6 21.5 21.8 20.3 13.9 15.4 13.4 13.8 11.6
Sweden Grain - 1.3 - - - - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Silage 1 16.5 14.9 12.2 9.3 7.5 5.8 5.2 4.1 3.8 3.2
Total North Grain 17.3 6.8 7.6 5.4 2.0 1.6 1.4 2.7 2.9 0.0
Silage 216.4 216.9 200.0 181.7 168.3 159.1 153.9 138.1 114.9 95.1
All 233.7 223.7 207.6 187.1 170.3 160.7 155.3 140.8 117.8 95.1
B Austria Grain 201.1 178.5 194.1 170.9 159.3 167.2 178,7 173.3 172.2 171.4
Centre
Silage 81.2 80.3 81.1 80.3 78.7 77.0 75,6 72.3 73.7 72.3
Belgium Grain 2 62.5 66.7 72.0 53.2 56.5 54.3 52,2 52.7 47.4 40.6
Silage 3 170.8 180.3 176.7 163.9 161.2 163.8 166.9 171.4 169.9 182.8
Czech Republic Grain 103.3 105.3 107.9 111.7 89.8 98.0 89.9 85.4 70.6 61.9
Silage 178.6 166.0 173.9 161.9 185.7 192.5 213.5 207.2 218.7 216.8
Germany Grain 463.6 464.3 520.5 403.2 401.0 443.1 461.7 463.4 398.7 396.5
Silage 1,845.9 1,646.7 1,566.6 1,470.9 1,345.9 1,262.5 1,248.5 1,172.9 1,119.2 1,132.5
Hungary Grain 1,117.7 1,177.3 1,191.8 1,078.8 1,215.0 1,197.5 1,190.1 1,144.7 1,205.8 1,258.1
Silage 77.0 87.1 94.4 141.0 90.8 93.0 108.1 132.8 120.8 129.1
Ireland Grain 0.0 0.0 0.0 - - - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Silage - 20.9 20.8 20.9 20.2 14.6 13.5 15.6 19.3 19.7
Luxembourg Grain 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5
Silage 13.4 12.7 11.8 11.5 11.0 11.6 12.0 11.4 10.9 11.2
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Zone Member State Maize type 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001
Netherlands Grain 24.1 18.8 22.1 19.3 19.8 20.7 22.4 24.5 23.7 27.2
Silage 229.0 242.0 243.4 221.6 218.0 235.1 224.5 216.9 214.4 203.9
Poland Grain 298,7 274.1 317.2 262.0 303.0 339.3 411.7 356.3 318.7 224.4
Silage 376.9 419.7 415.7 367.5 355.8 325.7 289.5 239.2 196.1 179.5
Romania Grain 2,243.8 2,338.9 2,423.5 2,304.5 2,483.9 2,591.6 3,239.1 3,159.2 2,858.3 2,974.0
Silage 31.4 32.8 39.5 46.1 27.3 24.4 34.3 38.5 48.1 35.4
Slovakia Grain 173.5 139.0 154.2 157.3 153.3 152.5 147.0 150.1 138.5 137.1
Silage 76.5 77.2 75.7 79.4 85.1 88.8 95.9 97.6 100.1 101.8
Slovenia Grain 37.6 38.6 43.7 40.9 39.8 42.4 46.0 44.1 45.5 47.6
Silage - 26.1 26.5 26.0 27.3 31.5 27.0 30.2 23.9 24.5
United Kingdom Grain 4 2.5 0.0 0.0 0,0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Silage - 163.0 153.0 146.0 137.0 130.9 117.6 118.7 121.3 129.2
Total Centre Grain 4,728.8 4,801.9 5,047.4 4,602.1 4,921.7 5,106.7 5,839.2 5,654.0 5,279.7 5,339.3
Silage 3,080.7 3,154.8 3,079.1 2,937.0 2,744.0 2,651.4 2,626.9 2,524.7 2,436.4 2,438.7
All 7,809,5 7,956.7 8,126.5 7,539.1 7,665.7 7,758.1 8,466.1 8,178.7 7,716.1 7,778.0
Bulgaria Grain 5 - 274.2 329.3 214.4 350.3 298.7 383.2 414.7 304.1 353.1
Silage - 23.1 19.0 80.2 - - 29.6 58.5 50.2 43.3
Cyprus Grain 0.0 - 0.0 - - - - - - -
Silage 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1
France Grain 1,520.7 1,679.8 1,758.5 1,530.7 1,503.6 1,658.3 1,821.0 1,684.5 1,830.9 1,916.4
Silage 1,455.3 1,444.5 1,407.2 1,332.0 1,370.5 1,384.2 1,402.4 1,583.0 1,410.4 1,471.7
Greece Grain 170.4 240.0 240.0 190.5 179.0 241.0 251.4 249.8 225.3 210.0
Silage 12.2 2.2 2.2 5.8 5.0 7.5 7.2 5.7 6.4 7.4
Italy Grain 926.0 915.5 991.5 1,053.4 1,108,0 1,119.5 1,196.8 1,163.2 1,112.0 1,109.3
Silage 279.0 261.0 275.7 275.4 274.6 271.3 279.8 281.5 273.6 294.8
Malta Grain - - - - - - - - - -
Silage - - - - - - - - - -
Portugal Grain 97.0 97.0 109.6 104.3 102.8 110.2 137.5 141.6 140.3 155.1
Silage 103.2 103.2 103.2 103.4 105.9 105.9 117.0 116.6 114.0 108.0
Spain Grain 320.3 347.6 371.7 361.0 344.4 417.3 479.8 476.1 465.1 512.5
Silage 94.4 98.4 96.1 92.1 94.5 88.4 87.0 85.3 84.4 83.1
Total South Grain 3,034.4 3,554.1 3,800.6 3,454.3 3,588,1 3,845.0 4,269.7 4,129.9 4,077.7 4,256.4
C
South
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Zone Member State Maize type 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001
Silage 1,944.2 1,933.1 1,903.5 1,888.9 1,850.6 1,857.3 1,923.1 2,130.6 1,939.1 2,008.4
All 4 978.6 5,487.2 5,704.1 5,343.2 5,438.7 5,702.3 6,192.8 6,260.5 6,016.8 6,264.8
European Union 27 Grain 7,780.5 8,362.8 8,855.6 8,061.8 8,511.8 8,953.3 10,110.3 9,786.6 9,360.3 9,595.7
Silage 5,241.3 5,304.8 5,182.6 5,007.6 4,762.9 4,667.8 4,703.9 4,793.4 4,490.4 4,542.2
All 13,021.8 13,667.6 14,038,2 13,069,4 13,274.7 13,621.1 14,814.2 14,580.0 13,850.7 14,137.9
-: figure not available
1
: 2005 figure from the Swedish Board of Agriculture; http://www.jordbruksverket.se/swedishboardofagriculture/statistics
2
: from FAOStat; http://faostat.fao.org and Statbel; http://statbel.fgov.be
3
: from Statbel
4
: from UKAgriculture; http://www.ukagriculture.com/statistics/farming_statistics.cfm
5 : from FAOStat
Table 3: Structure of farms with grain maize in 2007 (Source: Eurostat)
Zone Member State Number of holdings with an area of grain maize of:
0-0.5 ha 0.5-1 ha 1-2 ha 2-5 ha 5-10 ha 10-20 ha 20-50 ha >50 ha
Denmark - - - - - - - -
Estonia - - - - - - - -
A
North
Finland - - - - - - - -
Latvia - - - - - - - -
Lithuania 50 50 30 60 50 40 30 30
Sweden - - - - - - - -
Austria 1,820 2,530 4,480 7,300 5,860 4,330 1,730 170
Belgium 150 350 1,090 2,740 2,210 1,270 450 40
B
Centre
Czech Republic 210 50 90 200 140 190 280 520
Germany 1,040 1,600 4,090 9,730 7,860 6,080 4,030 1,040
Hungary 106,300 21,650 25,350 22,130 9,290 6,140 4,360 3,340
Luxembourg - 0 10 10 10 10 0 -
the Netherlands 40 90 320 1,020 980 630 200 20
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Zone Member State Number of holdings with an area of grain maize of:
0-0.5 ha 0.5-1 ha 1-2 ha 2-5 ha 5-10 ha 10-20 ha 20-50 ha >50 ha
Poland 34,240 7 200 7,850 7,830 2,730 1,610 1,210 1,010
Romania 920,990 734,880 547,820 163,530 15,010 3,730 2,570 2,400
Slovakia 4,730 1,130 950 810 400 310 410 650
Slovenia 13,250 6,490 4,610 3,230 900 280 70 20
Bulgaria 93,130 19,170 10,080 3,690 1,240 930 930 1,360
Cyprus 10 - - 10 - 0 - -
C
South
France 3,080 3,700 9,400 23,500 22,220 22,120 18,380 5,370
Greece 13,260 13,350 19,870 20,940 8,300 2,740 630 30
Italy 37,410 33,950 39,160 53,550 24,160 14,100 7,090 2,060
Portugal 44,990 22,980 12,870 4,410 590 380 280 170
Spain 19,150 6,790 8,970 8,560 8,330 6,140 3,980 870
-: figure not available
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3.3 Weeds, pests and diseases
3.3.1 Weeds
Maize is a late sowing crop and thus late row-closing. This means that some of the seedbed remains
as bare soil, offering ideal conditions for the germination and rapid development of weeds.
Furthermore, developing maize is particularly sensitive to any sort of competition that limits its supply
of nutrients.
The most important monocotyledonous weeds are Poaceae, such as Echinochloa crus-galli (L.)
Beauv. and Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv. which cause problems in all European countries (see Table 4).
The dicotyledonous weed Chenopodium album L. is perceived as most important for all countries.
Furthermore, Amaranthus spp. (Amaranthaceae), different Polygonaceae and Solanum nigrum L.
(Solanaceae) are of significance in most regions. Late germinating and perennial weed species show
increased importance.
Table 4: Maize – main European weeds (Sources: Meissle et al., 2010; <strong>information</strong> provided by
EuropaBio member companies)
Zone Member State Main weed species
A
North
B
Centre
Denmark Chenopodium album; Cirsium arvense; Echinochloa crus-galli; Fallopia
convolvulus; Elymus repens; Gallium aparine; Geranium spp.; Poa
annua; Polygonum spp.; Setaria viridis; Solanum nigrum; Stellaria media;
Tripleurospermum inodorum; Viola spp. and Veronica spp.
Estonia -
Finland -
Latvia -
Lithuania -
Sweden i -
Austria -
Belgium Chenopodium album; Echinochloa crus-galli; Matricaria chamomilla; Poa
annua; Polygonum spp.; Setaria spp.; Solanum nigrum
Czech Republic Agropyron repens; Amaranthus retroflexus; Cirsium arvense; Echinochloa
crus-galli; Polygonum spp.
Germany Abutilon theophrasti; Agropyron repens; Amaranthus spp.; Ambrosia
artemisiifolia; Anthemis spp.; Calystegia sepium; Chenopodium album;
Cirsium arvense; Convolvulus arvensis; Datura spp.; Echinochloa crusgalli;
Fallopia convolvulus; Elymus repens; Gallium aparine; Geranium
spp.; Poa annua; Polygonum spp.; Portulaca oleracea; Setaria viridis;
Solanum nigrum; Stellaria media; Tripleurospermum inodorum; Viola spp.
and Veronica spp.
Hungary Abutilon theophrasti; Amaranthus spp.; Ambrosia artemisiifolia;
Chenopodium album; Cirsium arvense; Convolvulus arvensis; Datura
spp.; Echinochloa crus-galli; Panicum spp.; Setaria viridis; Sorghum
halepense and Xanthium spp.
Ireland -
Luxembourg -
the Netherlands Agropyron repens; Amaranthus spp.; Anthemis spp.; Atriplex patula;
Calystegia sepium; Chenopodium album; Chenopodium spp.;
Convolvulus arvensis; Digitaria sanguinalis; Echinochloa crus-galli;
Elymus repens; Fallopia convolvulus; Geranium spp.; Lamium
purpureum; Matricaria chamomilla; Poa annua; Polygonum spp.; Setaria
viridis; Solanum nigrum; Stellaria media; Urtica urens and Viola arvensis
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Zone Member State Main weed species
C
South
Poland Abutilon theophrasti; Amaranthus spp.; Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Anthemis
spp.; Calystegia sepium; Chenopodium album; Cirsium arvense;
Convolvulus arvensis; Datura spp.; Digitaria sanguinalis; Echinochloa
crus-galli; Fallopia convolvulus; Elymus repens; Gallium aparine;
Geranium spp.; Poa annua; Polygonum spp.; Portulaca oleracea; Setaria
viridis; Solanum nigrum; Stellaria media; Tripleurospermum inodorum;
Viola spp. and Veronica spp.
Romania Agropyron repens; Amaranthus retroflexus; Chenopodium album; Cirsium
arvense; Convolvulus arvensis; Echinocloa crus-galli; Setaria spp.;
Sonchus arvensis and Sorghum halepense
Slovakia Agropyron repens; Amaranthus retroflexus; Chenopodium album; Cirsium
arvense; Echinocloa crus-galli; Polygonum spp.
Slovenia -
the United
Kingdom d
-: no data available
3.3.2 Pests
Bulgaria -
Cyprus -
-
France Abutilon theophrasti; Amaranthus spp.; Calystegia sepium; Chenopodium
spp.; Datura spp.; Digitaria sanguinalis; Echinochloa crus-galli;
Mercurialis spp.; Panicum spp.; Polygonum spp.; Setaria spp. and
Solanum nigrum; Sorghum halepense; Stellaria media; Tripleurospermum
inodorum; Veronica spp. and Xanthium spp.
Greece -
Italy Abutilon theophrasti; Agropyron repens; Agropyron repens; Amaranthus
spp.; Atriplex patula; Calystegia sepium; Chenopodium album;
Chenopodium spp.; Cirsium arvense; Convolvulus arvensis; Datura spp.;
Digitaria sanguinalis; Echinochloa crus-galli; Lamium purpureum;
Matricaria chamomilla; Panicum spp.; Poa annua; Polygonum spp.;
Portulaca oleracea; Setaria viridis; Solanum nigrum; Sorghum halepense;
Stellaria media; Urtica urens; Viola arvensis and Xanthium spp.
Portugal -
Spain Abutilon theophrasti; Agropyron repens; Amaranthus spp.; Chenopodium
spp.; Cirsium arvense; Convolvulus arvensis; Conyza spp.; Cyperos
rotundus; Cyperus esculentus; Datura spp.; Digitaria sanguinalis;
Echinochloa crus-galli; Equisetum spp.; Helianthus (volunteer); Hordeum
(volunteer); Kochia scoparia; Lolium (volunteer); Malva sylvestris; Oxalis
latifolia; Panicum spp.; Polygonum spp.; Portulaca oleracea; Raphanus
raphanistrum; Rumex spp.; Salsola kali; Setaria spp; Sicyos angulatus;
Sinapis arvensis; Solanum nigrum; Sorghum halepense; Spergula
arvensis; Stellaria media; Triticum (volunteer) and Xanthium spp.
A listing of maize pests is provided in Table 5. The following review is based on Meissle et al., 2010.
At present, the most important arthropod pest of maize in Europe is the European corn borer, Ostrinia
nubilalis Hbn. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). In the infested areas, O. nubilalis occurs in a large
proportion of fields ranging from 20% in Hungary to 60% in Spain and estimated yield losses between
5% and 30% are typical without control measures. In the northern parts of its distribution range, it
produces one generation per season; in the southern parts two, or occasionally more, depending on
the climatic conditions in spring and summer.
Page 13 of 64

In France and Spain, the Mediterranean corn borer Sesamia nonagrioides Lefèbvre (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) causes additional economic damage. Between 2 and 4 million ha maize in Europe suffer
from economic damage due to these corn boring pests. Other Lepidoptera from the family Noctuidae
include cutworms (Agrotis spp.) and the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera Hbn.), which cause
problems more in the central and southern countries.
Among Coleoptera, wireworms (Agriotes spp., Elateridae) are reported to cause damage in all
European regions. The western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte), a chrysomelid
beetle that is considered most destructive for maize production in the USA with crop losses up to
90%, caused economic damage in Hungary and other central and eastern European countries.
Diabrotica v. virgifera was first detected in Europe in 1992 and has been invading the continent.
Populations of this pest have established in southwest Poland, southwest Germany and the Po Valley
(see Figure 4). Population management in infested areas as well as eradication programs in regions
where populations have not been established, (e.g. in Germany, France and the UK) help to delay the
spread of this pest. Economic damage remained low until 2007, but yield losses of about 2–3% were
estimated at national level for Italy in 2009. Wesseler & Fall 5 assess the potential damage costs of the
invasive species Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Dvv.) in Europe under a ‘no control’ scenario.
They project economic benefits of control range between 143 million Euro in the best case and 1739
million Euro in the worst case scenario.
Sap sucking pests, like aphids (Aphididae) and leafhoppers (Cicadellidae), as well as the frit fly
(Oscinella frit L.) cause limited economic damage, despite being widespread and regularly occurring
all over Europe. Other pests of regional importance include armyworms such as Pseudaletia
unipuncta Haworth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Diptera species such as Delia platura (Meig.), Geomyza
spp. and Tipula spp., Coleoptera species such as Oulema melanopus L., Glischrochilus
quadrisignatus (Say), Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll. and Melolontha melolontha L., spider mites
(Tetranychus spp.) and thrips (Thysanoptera).
Since 2005, problems with Lepidoptera pests including S. nonagrioides, H. armigera and Agrotis spp.
were observed to increase (Meissle et al., 2010). It has been speculated that populations may have
been expanding because of warmer climatic conditions. With the increased cultivation of maize, O.
nubilalis populations have been expanding since 1965 in Central, Northern and Eastern Europe.
Unlike Diabrotica v. virgifera, the other pest species remained fairly constant, even though increases
may have occurred in some regions with favourable conditions (soil, rainfall, cropping sequence, etc.).
One such example is the wireworm Agriotes sordidus, which increased in France.
Table 5: Maize – main European pests in specific regions (N: north, NE: northeast) (Sources: a
Endure; b Afdeling Duurzame Landbouwontwikkeling – ADLO; c Maiskomitee; d FSE; e
EuropaBio member company; f Meissle et al., 2010)
Zone Member State Main pest species
A
North
Denmark a, f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.
Estonia
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp.
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids
Finland -
Latvia
Lithuania
Sweden -
B Austria -
-
-
-
5 J. Wesseler & E. H. Fall (2010) Potential damage costs of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera infestation in
Europe – the ‘no control’ scenario J. Appl. Entomol. 134, 385–394
Page 14 of 64

Zone Member State Main pest species
Centre Belgium b Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.; (Diabrotica virgifera; around airport)
C
South
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids (e.g. Metopolophium dirhodum)
Others: nematodes; slugs
Czech Republic e Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp.
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids
Germany c, f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp.; Ostrinia nubilalis; Helicoverpa armigera
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids (e.g. Metopolophium dirhodum)
Others: Nematodes (e.g. Pratylenchus penetrans; Ditylenchus
dipsaci); Auchenorrhyncha (Zyginidia scutellaris)
Hungary a, f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera; Tanymecus
dilaticollis
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp.; Ostrinia nubilalis; Helicoverpa armigera
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids
Ireland Others: Auchenorrhyncha (Zyginidia scutellaris)
Luxembourg -
the Netherlands
a, f
Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.; (Diabrotica virgifera; around airport)
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp.
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids
Poland a Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp.; Helicoverpa armigera; Ostrinia nubilalis;
Romania e Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera; Tanymecus
dilaticollis
Slovakia e
Lepidoptera: Ostrinia nubilalis
Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Slovenia -
The United
Kingdom d
Bulgaria -
Cyprus -
Lepidoptera: Ostrinia nubilalis; Helicoverpa armigera
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids (e.g. Metopolophium dirhodum)
Others: non-specific soil pests; molluscs
France a, e, f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Page 15 of 64

Zone Member State Main pest species
Greece -
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp.; Helicoverpa armigera; Mythimna unipuncta;
Ostrinia nubilalis; Scotia segetum; Sesamia
nonagrioides
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids (e.g. Metopolophium dirhodum; Rhopalosiphum
padi)
Others: Nematodes (e.g. Pratylenchus spp.); Auchenorrhyncha
(Zyginidia scutellaris); Archaeorrhyncha (Laodelphax
striatellus); Myriapoda (Scutigerella immaculate); Maize
Rough Dwarf Virus (MRDV)
Italy N a, f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp.; Helicoverpa armigera; Ostrinia nubilalis;
Sesamia nonagrioides
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids
Portugal e Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.
Spain NE a
-: no data available
Lepidoptera: Ostrinia nubilalis; Sesamia nonagrioides
Coleoptera: Agriotes spp.
Diptera: Oscinella frit
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp.; Helicoverpa armigera; Mythimna unipuncta;
Ostrinia nubilalis; Sesamia nonagrioides
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids
Others: Trombidiformes (Tetranychus spp.); Clypeorrhyncha
(leafhoppers); Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus (MDMV);
Maize Rough Dwarf Virus (MRDV)
Page 16 of 64

Figure 4: Distribution of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte in Europe 2010 (IWGO by C.R.
Edwards and J. Kiss, based on data from Bashynska, Baufeld, Bertossa, Cean, Cobos,
Cota, Eyre, Governatori, Grabenweger, Ioannidou, Ivanova, Karic, Kubik, Konefal, Kroutil,
Markotić, Potting, Pulaj,, Ripka, Schaub, Shymanskaya, Sivcev, Streito, Swillens, Symonov
and Urek – February 25, 2011 6 )
3.3.3 Diseases
Pythium and Fusarium are the most important fungi damaging young seedlings (Table 6). Fusarium
also induces ear, stalk and root rot, resulting in significant economic loss. The mycotoxins produced
by the fungus are harmful to both humans and animals. The EU has set threshold levels for these
toxins 7 . The fungus makes use of damaged cells (insect feeding wounds) to penetrate the plant.
Other fungal diseases of high importance in Europe are root and stalk rot caused by Rhizoctonia spp.,
and Acremonium spp. Furthermore, Sclerophthora macrospora (Sacc.) Thirum., C.G. Shaw & Naras,
Sphacelotheca reiliana (Kühn) Clinton, Trichometasphaeria turcica Luttr. (syn. Helminthosporium
turcicum), Ustilago maydis (DC.) Corda and Puccinia sorghi Schw. may cause problems in some
regions.
Table 6: Maize – main European diseases (Source: a Endure; b Afdeling Duurzame Landbouwontwikkeling
– ADLO; c Maiskomitee; d FSE; e EuropaBio member companies; f Meissle et
al., 2010)
Zone Member State Main diseases
A
North
Denmark a,f Fusarium ssp.; Helminthosporium ssp.; Kabatiella zeae; Phoma ssp.;
Puccinia sorghi; Rhizoctonia ssp. and Ustilago maydis
Estonia
Finland -
6 http://www.iwgo.org/
7 Regulation EC/1126/2007, OJ L255, 29.9.2007, p. 14-17.
-
Page 17 of 64

Zone Member State Main diseases
B
Centre
C
South
Latvia -
Lithuania
Sweden -
Austria -
-
Belgium b Fusarium ssp.; Pythium ssp. and Ustilago maydis
Czech Republic e Fusarium spp.; Helmintosporium turcicum; Puccinia sorghi; Rhizoctonia
solani and Ustilago maydis
Germany c,e,f Acremonium spp.; Fusarium ssp.; Kabatiella zeae; Pythium spp.;
Rhizoctonia spp.; Trichometasphaeria turcica and Ustilago maydis,
Hungary a,f Fusarium spp.; Puccinia sorghi; Sclerophthora macrospora and Ustilago
maydis
Ireland -
Luxembourg -
the Netherlands
a,f
Acremonium spp.; Fusarium ssp.; Helminthosporium ssp.; Kabatiella
zeae; Phoma ssp.; Pythium spp.; Puccinia sorghi; Rhizoctonia ssp. and
Ustilago maydis
Poland a,f Acremonium spp.; Fusarium ssp.; Giberella zeae; Helminthosporium ssp.;
Kabatiella zeae; Phoma ssp.; Pythium spp.; Puccinia sorghi; Rhizoctonia
ssp.; Sclerophthora macrospora; Sphacelotheca reiliana;
Trichometasphaeria turcica and Ustilago maydis
Romania e
Slovakia e
Slovenia -
the United
Kingdom d
-: no data available
Bulgaria -
Cyprus -
Fusarium ssp.; Giberella zeae; and Ustilago tritici
Fusarium ssp.; Helminthosporium ssp.; Puccinia sorghi; Rhizoctonia
solani and Ustilago maydis
damping-off diseases
France a,f Acremonium spp.; Fusarium ssp.; Pythium spp.; Puccinia sorghi;
Rhizoctonia spp.; Sphacelotheca reiliana; Trichometasphareria turcica
and Ustilago maydis
Greece -
Italy a,f Acremonium spp.; Fusarium spp.; Pythium spp.; Puccinia sorghi;
Rhizoctonia spp.; Sclerophthora macrospora; Trichometasphaeria turcica
and Ustilago maydis
Portugal Fusarium spp. e and Ustilago maydis e
Spain a,f Acremonium spp.; Fusarium spp.; Pythium spp.; Puccinia sorghi;
Rhizoctonia spp.; Sclerophthora macrospora; Sphacelotheca reiliana;
Trichometasphaeria turcica and Ustilago maydis e
Page 18 of 64

4 Preparation
4.1 Seeds
Breeding goals for maize differ somewhat according to the envisaged use (grain vs silage, energy;
climatic region). Common goals are yield improvement, maturity, standability and pest and disease
resistance.
Maize was first used for human consumption, and only later as an animal feed, first as fresh green
fodder in summer, later ensiled for winter feeding (Barrière et al., 2006 8 ). In the first half of the
twentieth century open pollinated varieties were used. They were gradually replaced by the higher
yielding hybrids.
In Europe for a long time the focus was on grain characteristics rather than on qualities as an animal
feed (Barrière et al., 2005 9 ). First in the Netherlands and later in other countries the digestibility of the
plant was worked on. In 1988, the feeding value became a registration criterion in the Netherlands,
expressed as ‘feed units dairy cows per kilogram dry matter’ (voedereenheden melkvee per kilogram
droge stof, VEM/kg DM). Since then the average feeding value of hybrids increased by 8%, and the in
vitro whole plant digestibility with 30% (Barrière et al., 2005). Today starch content and high cell wall
digestibility are very important.
In the 1980s a significant improvement of earliness was noticed. The acreage of silage maize in
Denmark increased simultaneously (Barrière et al., 2006). The early types combined later silking,
which means more leaves and a higher leaf area index, with faster grain filling and grain drying.
Also a better cold tolerance and early vigour have contributed to this phenomenon.
In more recent years characters such as drought tolerance (better water use efficiency), nitrogen use
efficiency, or stress tolerance in general are becoming important as well.
European legislation requires that every variety undergoes official trials for DUS (Distinctness,
Uniformity, Stability) and VCU (Value for Cultivation and Use) before commercialisation. The
guidelines for the VCU and DUS tests are summarised in Directive 2002/53/EC 10 . For maize, Directive
2003/90/EC 11 refers to the ‘Protocols for distinctness, uniformity and stability tests’ of the
Administrative Council of the Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO)(CPVO-TP 002/3 12 ). For the
VCU the minimum items to test are not defined in detail; i.e. yield, resistance to harmful organisms,
behaviour with respect to factors in the physical environment, and quality characteristics. Since 2007,
the Commission is in the process of reviewing the legislation on the marketing of seeds and plant
propagating material, as part of its better regulation initiative 13 .
The common catalogue is based on the national lists of the Member States. All Member States
compile one or more national catalogues of the varieties accepted for certification and marketing in
their territory. The implementation of VCU testing by the Member States might be different, resulting in
different admission levels between countries. Differences exist in the preparation of the seed, trial layout/field
protocol, evaluated (quality) characteristics, methods of analysis, etc.
8
Barrière Y., Alber D., Dolstra O., Lapierre C., Motto M., Ordas A., Van Waes J., Vlasminkel L.,
Welcker C., Monod J.P. (2006) Past and prospects of forage maize breeding in Europe. II. History,
germplasm evolution and correlative agronomic changes. Maydica 51: 435-449.
9
Barrière, Alber D., Dolstra O., Lapierre C., Motto M., Ordas A., Van Waes J., Vlasminkel L., Welcker
C., Monod J.P. (2005) Past and prospects of forage maize breeding in Europe. I. The grass cell wall
as a basis of genetic variation and future improvements in feeding value. Maydica 50: 259-274.
10
Council Directive 2002/53/EC of 13 June 2002 on the common catalogue of varieties of agricultural
plant species. OJ L 193, 20.7.2002, p. 1-15.
11
Commission Directive 2003/90/EC of 6 October 2003 setting out implementing measures for the
purposes of Article 7 of Council Directive 2002/53/EC as regards the characteristics to be covered as
a minimum by the examination and the minimum conditions for examining certain varieties of
agricultural plant species. OJ L 254, 08.10.2003, p. 7-10.
12
http://www.cpvo.europa.eu/documents/TP/agricoles/TP_002-3_ZEA_MAYS.pdf
13
http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/propagation/evaluation/index_en.htm
Page 19 of 64

New applications are tested against existing ‘standard’ varieties. A quick replacement of standard
varieties allows farmers to always use the most advanced material, but leaves little room for new
registrations. Slower renewal of the standards will permit varieties that are not always an improvement
compared to the currently used varieties.
Usually 2 to 3 years of testing are needed on several locations representing the main maize growing
areas. Varieties are evaluated according to earliness groups. In testing forage maize performance
characters are measured such as germination, early vigour, the silking date, i.e. average date of
female flowering, plant height, the starch content, the metabolisable energy or cell wall digestibility
and the dry matter content. The latter should be at least 25% to prevent effluent losses in the silo, the
optimum is between 30 and 35%. Yield is expressed as total dry matter per hectare. Also
observations for lodging and stalk rot are done.
For grain maize obviously the total grain yield is important, earliness, and again the yield securing
characteristics, i.e. the sensitivity to lodging and stalk rot. The range of dry matter content at harvest
should be between 60 and 73% dry matter in the grains. Thousand kernel weight is measured and
disease and pest resistance is also observed (e.g. Bundessortenamt), especially in regions with a
high disease and pest pressure.
Next to testing for silage or grain maize it is also possible to test for organic maize or energy maize in
e.g. Belgium (Van Waes, 2009 14 ). The German Bundessortenamt does not mention energy types
separately but includes them in the middle-late to late maturing types. In the Netherlands
Praktijkonderzoek Plant & Omgeving (PPO) publishes variety lists for energy maize emphasizing the
importance of methane yield per hectare.
The first Dutch hybrid registered was Goudster, a flint x dent hybrid, in 1952, although it should be
considered as a top-cross variety rather than a hybrid (Barrière et al., 2006). The registration of LG11
in 1970, in France was one of the first three-way cross hybrids. It was highly recommended for
ensiling as it could be planted at high densities. The first German hybrid maize varieties were
registered and released in 1960. Hybrid breeding programs were started in Central Europe in the
1950s. The first hybrids were made between European flint types and US dent lines. These two
distinct pools continue to make up most of the genetic basis for maize hybrids in Europe. The flintdent
hybrids are grown throughout North and Central Europe; in contrast to Southern Europe and the
US, where dent-dent hybrids are prevalent.
Maize varieties are divided in maturity classes, depending on the number of days required for
achieving a harvestable crop. This has usually been defined by a so-called FAO-number, a lower
number meaning earlier ripening. In areas with only a short warm season (e.g. Central Europe), only
varieties with an FAO-number of up to 400 are used, as others would need a longer growth period to
reach maturity than is possible before temperatures fall again in the autumn.
14 Van Waes J. (2009) Maize variety testing for registration on a national catalogue and the impact of
new technologies. Maydica 54: 139-153.
Page 20 of 64

Table 7 provides an overview of maturity classes used in the different Member States for different
applications.
For biogas production late ripening varieties (FAO ca. 600) are the varieties of choice. They make
better use of their potential to produce biomass than medium or early ripening varieties (Amon et al.,
2007 15 ).
15 Amon T., Amon B., Kryvoruchko V., Zollitsch W., Mayer K., Gruber L. (2007) Biogas production
from maize and dairy cattle manure—Influence of biomass composition on the methane yield.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 118: 173–182.
Page 21 of 64

Table 7: Maturity classes of maize used in EU Member States (based on Czarnak-Kłos &
Rodríguez-Cerezo, 2010)
Zone Member State Use Maturity classes
(FAO units)
A
North
B
Centre
C
South
Denmark Silage 170 - 250
Estonia Silage 170 - 250
Finland Silage 150 - 200
Latvia Silage 225 - 230
Lithuania Silage 220 - 230
Sweden Silage 180 - 230
Austria Grain/Silage 200 - 490
Forage 230 - 440
Belgium Grain/Silage 170 - 250; biogas production 260 - 330
Czech Republic Grain/Silage 180 - 440, usually 200 - 350
Germany Grain/Silage 170 - 350
Biomass ~500 - ~600
Hungary Grain/Silage 200 - 500 (600)
Ireland Silage plastic cover: 220 – 270, uncovered: 180 - 230
Luxembourg Grain 200 - 260; energy maize up to 350
Silage 180 - 280
the Netherlands Grain/Silage 180 - 250
Poland Grain/Silage 180 – 290 (300)
Romania Grain 220 - 600
Silage 250 - 700
Slovakia Grain/Silage 200 - 500
Slovenia Grain/Silage 100 - 700 (80% 280 - 400)
the United
Kingdom
-: no data available
Grain/Silage 190 - 240
Bulgaria -
Cyprus Silage 600 - 700
France Grain 180 - 600
Silage 180 - 400
Greece Grain 700
Silage 650 - >700
Italy Grain/Silage 300 (200 in the case of non-irrigated fields) - 700
Portugal Grain 200 - 600
Silage 200 - 700
Spain Grain/Silage 200 - 800
4.2 Seed treatment
Almost all seed (Table 8) is treated with fungicides to protect the seedlings against damping-off
(general term used for a number of different fungus-caused ailments which can kill seeds or seedlings
before or after they germinate).
Page 22 of 64

Insecticides are included in seed treatments (e.g. thiamethoxam, tefluthrin, clothianidin) where frit flies
(Oscinella frit) and wireworms (Agriotes spp.) are a problem. Seed treatments may also reduce
damage by corn rootworms.
Table 8: Maize seed treatment (‘Use’ allows specification of intended use of harvested material (e.g.
silage or grain); figures are percentage of maize crop area treated in specific regions; E:
east part of the country, N: north, NE: northeast, SW: southwest, W: west) (Sources: a
Endure; b Anpromis website; c FERA; d FSE; e EuropaBio member companies)
Zone Member State Use Insecticide
(% of maize crop area
treated)
A
North
B
Centre
C
South
Denmark Not specified 0% a 95% a
Estonia - -
Finland - -
Latvia - -
Lithuania
- -
Sweden - -
Austria - -
Belgium - -
Czech Republic - -
Germany Not specified 60% SW a 100% SW a
Hungary Not specified 20% E a
40% W
Ireland - -
Luxembourg - -
Fungicide
(% of maize crop area
treated)
100% E a
100% W
the Netherlands Not specified 50% a 95% a
Poland Not specified 20% SW a 100% SW a
Romania - -
Slovakia - -
Slovenia
the United
Kingdom
-: no data available
Not specified 95% c
- -
100% d
Bulgaria - -
Cyprus - -
France Not specified 0% a
Greece - -
83% c
100% d
100% a
Italy Not specified 80% a 100% a
Portugal Not specified 80% e
80% e
Spain Not specified 100% NE a 100% NE a
4.3 Soil preparation
The general practice to prepare the soil is ploughing in order to incorporate crop residuals and weeds
in the soil (Table 11). On heavy soils this is done in autumn with the advantage that frost can break
clods. On sandy soils the soil is tilled shortly before preparing the actual seed bed. Local legislation
might restrict soil preparations to prevent erosion.
Page 23 of 64

With minimum or zero-tillage the soil is not or only superficially laboured. In this way, crop residue
from previous crops is left in the surface during the critical soil erosion period, retaining more rain
water and, therefore, diminishing soil erosion and nutrient wash out. The fertile soil is kept in the
upper layers, soil structure is kept intact and soil organisms are not disturbed. Seeds are sown
directly. This practice is useful on slopes and on fields with low carrying capacity. Yields are usually
lower in comparison with tilled fields.
The Sixth Environment Action Programme (6 th EAP) sets out the framework for environmental policy
making in the European Union for the period 2002-2012 and outlines actions that need to be taken to
achieve them. The 6 th EAP calls for the development of seven thematic strategies, including a
strategy on soil protection: the Soil Thematic Strategy. In September 2006 the Commission proposed
a Soil Framework Directive, which is currently under discussion.
In the final report on the project ‘Sustainable Agriculture and Soil Conservation (SoCo Project Team;
2009), conservation agriculture is positioned in the thematic strategy on soil protection. The report
was commissioned by the European Parliament and provides for conclusions and recommendations
on soil degradation processes, soil conservation practices and policy measures at European level.
No-tillage and reduced tillage, in combination with permanent soil cover (cover crops, crop residues)
and crop rotation, are essential practices in conservation agriculture. These practices minimise the
risk of soil degradation by increasing the organic carbon stock, thus improving biological activity, soil
fertility, soil structure and the water-retention capacity of soils. As a consequence, soil erosion and
nutrient runoff are reduced (with positive effects on water quality), and soil resistance to compaction is
improved. In addition, significant cost savings with respect to labour and fuel consumption are
reported.
Fertilisation of the soil needs to be adapted to the needs of the crop taking into account what is
already present in the soil. Also, the length of the growing season, hybrid type and other crops in the
rotation, including green manure crops influence the final fertilisation. The amount of nutrients found in
the harvested parts of silage maize is presented in Table 9. These are the amounts that are retrieved
from the soil. Usually mineral and/or farmland manure is combined for silage maize.
Table 9: Mineral content (in kg/ha) in the harvested product of silage maize at different yield levels
(Source: Maïshandboek)
Nutrient Expected yield in tonnes dry matter/ha
12.0 14.5 17.0
N 150 185 215
P2O5 55 65 75
K2O 185 225 265
MgO 25 30 35
General crop requirements for grain maize are provided in
Page 24 of 64

Table 10.
Page 25 of 64

Table 10: Mineral content (in kg/ha/tonne) in grain maize (Source: Maiskomitee)
Nutrient Grain maize at 86% dry weight
Grain Straw
N 12-16 5-9
P2O5 6-11 5-7
K2O 4-6 15-25
MgO 2-3 2-4
CaO 2-3 5-7
Nitrogen is generally the most limiting nutrient for maize and is the most frequent applied fertiliser,
sometimes fractionated (before sowing and later in the growing season).
Phosphorous uptake may be problematic early in the season due to cold weather. Phosphorous is
applied in the row to facilitate uptake. With farmyard manure to satisfy the nitrogen requirement soils
often do not need a phosphorous fertilizer. Potassium is applied as a whole at soil cultivation. Maize is
not sensitive to micronutrient deficiencies.
Farmers usually base their calculations for the optimum fertilisation on soil analyses from samples
taken in winter and during the crop season. Several <strong>information</strong> services provide models and advice
to calculate the right dose of fertilisers to apply in the field as this may differ from one field to another.
Examples are: Kennisakker (the Netherlands); Bodemkundige Dienst van België (Belgium); Arvalis
(France); and at the Landwirtschaftskammern 16 (Germany). UK farmers may use the PLANET 3
software to generate recommendations and the ‘Tried & Tested nutrient management plan’ together
with the guidelines issued by DEFRA 17 .
Table 11 gives some examples of amounts of applied fertilisers as found in several publications and
on internet sites. These figures only give a rough idea at the best. Each individual field will require a
tailor-made fertilisation taking into account several factors.
Table 11: Maize soil preparation in relation to tillage (options, complemented with relative importance
% of cultivated maize area), examples for fertiliser (N: nitrogen, P: phosphorus, K:
potassium) and soil application of insecticides, possibly specified per region (E: east part of
the country, N: north, NE: northeast, SW: southwest, W: west) (Sources: a average figures,
from Agreste; b Endure; c Finke et al., 1999; d ILVO; e Maïshandboek, figures for P2O5 will
go down in the coming years (55-85 for 2013); f Baden-Württemberg ‘Umweltgerechte
Landbewirtschaftung‘; g h
Baden-Württemberg ‚Silomais Sortenversuche‘; Bayern,
Sortenversuch Silomais; i IRTA/AGPME for Catalonia; j Ministry of Agriculture (MADR); k
Recommended in Micskei et al., 2010; l Anpromis website; m EuropaBio member
companies)
Zone Member State Use Tillage
A
North
Denmark Not specified 10% no
ploughing
Fertiliser
(kg/ha)
150 N 0%
Estonia - - -
Finland - - -
Latvia - - -
Insecticides
(% applied of
the cultivated
area)
16 E.g. Nordrhein-Westfalen: http://www.nmin.de/nminnrw/
17 http://www.planet4farmers.co.uk/
http://www.nutrientmanagement.org/
http://archive.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/water/waterquality/diffuse/nitrate/help-for-farmers.htm
Page 26 of 64

Zone Member State Use Tillage
B
Centre
Lithuania
Fertiliser
(kg/ha)
- - -
Sweden - - -
Austria - - -
Belgium Silage - 275 N d , or 260 N on
sand (170 N from
manure)
50-85 P2O5
220 K2O
Czech Republic - - -
Germany Not specified Ploughing b
Hungary
Silage
Direct seeding
Superficial,
without turning
the soil
Direct/mulch
seeding f
15-20% no
plough
100 N b
180-200 N c
40-50 P
140-250 K
103 P2O5 f
292 K2O
f
110 P2O5
250 K2O
101-184 N g
0-110 P2O5,
0-180 K2O
90-200 N g
90-200 N g
150 N b
130 N
132 N, 76 P2O5,
150K2O k
Ireland - - -
Luxembourg - - -
the Netherlands Not specified Sometimes direct
seeding in SE b
10% no
ploughing
Poland Not specified 10% no
ploughing
185 N b
140-185 N e
75-85 P2O5 e
0-300 K2O e
Romania Grain 70-110 N g
Insecticides
(% applied of
the cultivated
area)
-
0% SW b
50% E b
60% W b
0% b
120 N b 0% SW b
60-80 P2O5
40-80 K
20-40 tonnes/ha
organic manure
Slovakia - - -
Slovenia
the United
Kingdom
- - -
- - -
Page 27 of 64

Zone Member State Use Tillage
C
South
-: no data available
Fertiliser
(kg/ha)
Bulgaria - - -
Cyprus - - -
France All 84% ploughing a
Grain
Silage
0.2% direct
seeding
15.8%
superficial,
without turning
the soil
232 N SW b
210 N W
220 N NW
156 N a ,
71 P2O5,
97 K2O
78 N a ,
51 P2O5,
87 K2O
Greece - - -
Italy Not specified 30% no
ploughing
Portugal Not specified Ploughing or
Direct seeding l,m
Spain Grain/silage Ploughing;
20% no
ploughing
5% direct drill in
second crop m
Insecticides
(% applied of
the cultivated
area)
42% SW b
32% W
33% NW
200 N b 5% N b
220-230 minus
amount in organic
matter and irrigation
water N l
350 N b
210-350 N (170
from manure) i
10% NE b
For silage maize fertilizer is often applied as semi-liquid manure from cattle with a small row gift of
mineral N at the start of the growing season. Often the manure contains sufficient phosphorus to fulfil
the need.
Not only are the requirements of a specific crop or soil conditions determining the agricultural practice
of applying manure or mineral fertilisers, also laws and regulations are, to a large extend, weighing on
the agricultural practice. As an example the Nitrates Directive 18 aiming to protect water quality across
Europe by preventing nitrates from agricultural sources polluting ground and surface waters, sets a
maximum of 170 kg N/ha originating from livestock manure in "vulnerable zones", amongst other
measurements. Phosphorus application with chemical fertilisers, as a rule, is prohibited unless soil
analysis is performed and a permit is issued by the competent authority.
Some Member States establish codes of good agricultural practice and set up an action programme
for the vulnerable zones. Some examples:
• In the Netherlands the requirements are laid down in the ‘Meststoffenwet’ (1986 and
amendments) and implementing decrees and decisions.
• In Flanders (Belgium), the Manure Decree (Mestdecreet, 2006 and amendments) as worked
out in the ‘Mestactieplan’ (MAP1 in 1996, MAP2 in 1998, MAP3 in 2006 and draft MAP4 in
2010) is applicable.
18 91/676/EEC, OJ L 375, 31.12.1991, p. 1-8
Page 28 of 64

• In Germany the Fertilisation Ordinance (Verordnung über die Grundsätze der guten
fachlichen Praxis beim Düngen vom 26. Januar 1996. BGBL I S. 118, geändert durch VO v.
16.7.1997, BGBL I S. 1835) is interpreted further by the individual governments of each state
(Bundesland).
• In Spain following Regulation (EC) 73/2009, Royal Decree 486/2009 states good agricultural
practices as a condition for farmers that receive community aid. The Autonomous Regions
further elaborate the rules for their territory. In particular, Royal Decree 291/1996 is about
water quality protection against nitrates.
• In France Decree 2001-34 transposing the Nitrates Directive, later modified by Decree 2005-
634, deals with nitrate applications in vulnerable zones. Several Inter-ministerial Circulars
(DE/DPPR/DGS/DGFAR of April 2001, DGFAR/SDSTAR/C2003-5021 of September 2003,
DGFAR/SDER/C2008-5014 of March 2008, etc.) and the inter-ministerial Decision of 6 March
2001, and the “Code des bonnes pratiques agricoles” as established by the Decision of 22
November 1993 further elaborate on the subject.
• In Italy the Decreto legislativo 11 maggio 1999, n. 152 "Disposizioni sulla tutela delle acque
dall'inquinamento e recepimento della direttiva 91/271/CEE concernente il trattamento delle
acque reflue urbane e della direttiva 91/676/CEE” as amended in 2000 and twice in 2003.
Deviations to these requirements have occurred. E.g. Commission Decision of 21 December 2007
granting a derogation requested by Belgium with regard to the region of Flanders pursuant to Council
Directive 91/676/EEC concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from
agricultural sources 19 , allows to apply 250 kg N/ha from livestock manure in parcels cultivated with
grassland and maize undersown with grassland. This is supported by the long growing season and
high N demand by these crops.
For each field, nitrogen needs are calculated taking into account the previous crop, the catch crop, the
type of soil, the organic matter content of the soil, the expected yield and local regulations. Several
<strong>information</strong> services provide models and advice to calculate the right dose to apply in the fields as this
may differ from one field to another; e.g. at http://www.nutrinorm.nl/nl-NL/Berekeningen/Mais.aspx.
Also, limitations in time of spreading manure have been established.
19 2008/64/EC, OJ L 16, 19.01.2008, p. 28-33
Page 29 of 64

5 Cultivation
5.1 Sowing
Maize being a subtropical plant species, demands some warmth for germination and early
development, hence the late sowing in the northern part of Europe. Maize can be sown as soon as
soil temperatures reach 8-10°C. This is earlier in spring on sandy soils compared to heavy clay soils.
In organic farming the crop is usually sown late to obtain a quick establishment of the plants and to
avoid damping-off. Optimal maize sowing dates across the EU are presented in Table 12. Pest
attacks may force farmers to sow beyond optimal dates (Endure, 2009).
Table 12: Maize sowing dates (Czarnak-Kłos & Rodríguez-Cerezo, 2010)
Zone Member State Use Sowing dates
A
North
B
Centre
Denmark Silage 10.04 – 30.04
Estonia Silage 01.05 – 20.05
Finland Silage 15.05 – 06.06
Latvia Silage Southern region 05-10.05
Northern region 10-15.05
Lithuania Silage 01.05 - 20.05
Sweden Silage 20.04 – 10.05
Austria Grain/Silage 10.04 – 05.05 (10.05 in the case of wet land)
Forage 25.04 – 31.05
Belgium Grain/Silage 15-20.04 – 15.05
Czech Republic Grain/Silage Warmer regions (Moravia) 10.4 - 25.4
Other regions 15.4-10.5
Germany Grain/Silage Southern part beginning of April
Northern part mid-April
Hungary Grain 10.04 – 30.04
Silage 10.04 – 20.05
Ireland Silage Plastic cover: 01.04 (early region)/14.04 (late region)
– 08.05
Open cultivation: 14.04 (early region)/21.04 (late
region)– 08.05
Luxembourg Grain/Silage 20.04 – beginning of May
the Netherlands Grain/Silage 20.04 – 10.05
Poland Grain/Silage 20.04 – 10.05
Romania Grain Northern and central regon:10.04 – 10.05
Eastern region: 01.04 – 10.05
Southern and western region: 25.03 – 30.04
Silage Northern and Central regon:15.04 – 15.05
Eastern region: 10.04 – 10.05
Southern and Western region: 01.04 – 30.04
Forage
(as second crop)
Northern and central regon:15.06 – 15.07
Eastern region: 10.06 – 15.07
Southern and western region: 10.06 – 01.07
Slovakia Grain/Silage 20.04 – beginning of May
Slovenia Grain/Silage 10.04 – 25.04
Page 30 of 64

Zone Member State Use Sowing dates
C
South
the United
Kingdom
-: no data available
Grain/Silage Late March (plastic cover) – end of May
Bulgaria -
Cyprus Silage 15.03 – 30.06
France Grain Very early varieties: 15.04 – 15.05
Early to mid-early varieties: 10.04 – 15.05
Mid early to late varieties: 05.04 – 15.05
Silage Very early: 15.04 – 15.05
Early to mid-early: 10.04 – 15.05
Mid early to late: 05.04 – 15.05
Greece Grain 01.04 – 20.04 (only 5% sown 15.03-31.03)
Silage 15.03 – 20.04 (only 5% sown after 20.04)
Italy Grain/Silage Beginning of March – end of May
As second crop: 15.05 - June
Portugal Grain 15.03 – 30.04
Silage 15.04 – 20-25.05
Spain Grain/Silage Beginning of March – mid June
Plant densities depend on the maize variety and its purpose (Table 13). The amount of seeds used is
further dependent by the time of sowing: early sowing requires 10-15% more seeds compared to the
desired plant number per hectare, late sowing 0-5%.
Table 13: Maize sowing - seed use and plant density (Sources: a conventional derived from organic
farming data; b Maiskomitee; c Maïshandboek; d Baden-Württemberg silomais; e Thüringen;
f Endure; g Ministry of Agriculture (MADR); h FSE; i KWS; j EuropaBio member companies;
k Wye College Maize Unit)
Zone Member State Use Seed use
(1,000 kernels/ha)
A
North
B
Centre
Denmark - -
Estonia - -
Finland - -
Latvia - -
Lithuania - -
Sweden - -
Austria - -
Plant density
(1,000/ha)
Belgium Not specified i 60-120 60-120
Czech Republic - -
Germany Not specified b 75-140 60-120
Hungary
Silage d - 80-100
Silage e 70-120 -
Grain e 60-100 -
- -
Ireland - -
Luxembourg - -
Page 31 of 64

Zone Member State Use Seed use
(1,000 kernels/ha)
C
South
Plant density
(1,000/ha)
the Netherlands Not specified c 84-127 80-110
Poland - -
Romania Not specified g 15-25 kg/ha -
Slovakia - -
Slovenia - -
the United
Kingdom
-: no data available
Not specified h
Grain k
100-130
95
Bulgaria - -
Cyprus - -
-
80-90
France Not specified 110 Bretagne a SW f :
70-73 deep soil, 85 on
sandy soil,
80-85 on alluvial soil
Greece - -
Italia - -
Portugal Grain j
Silage j
Spain Grain j
5.2 Crop protection
5.2.1 Weed management
Silage j
70-80 70-80
80-100 75-95
70-80 70-80
80-100 75-95
Weeds are controlled with herbicides in all European regions on more than 90% of the maize
production area. The importance of the area treated with herbicides as well as the average number of
herbicide applications per field and are shown in Table 14. Weed control is usually done by 2
applications of herbicides, the first time after sowing before the maize seedlings emerge (preemergence)
and a second time at the 3-8 leaf stage (post-emergence).
A broad range of active ingredients has been used in Europe, including ureas, triazine, pyridine,
benzoylcyclohexanedione, amide, oxazole, aromatic acid and nitrile herbicides. Examples of
approved herbicide to use in maize in some countries of the EU are shown in Table 15 and Table 16.
Rotation of modes of actions is a key tool to manage weed resistance and is recommended in many
stewardship programmes to prevent the development of resistance to commonly used herbicides.
Alternatively, mechanical cultivation is practised pre-emergence combined with a chemical application
later in the season (Maïshandboek, Endure) (Finke et al., 1999). Also, mechanical methods are used
after emergence between the rows to lower the amount of active ingredient sprayed in the row.
Mechanical weed control in maize has been practiced in several European countries including Italy,
France, Spain and Hungary. For example in the Netherlands, 90% of the conventional farm area was
managed with mechanical weed control between 2000 and 2005 because of a political program
providing subsidies. Tools are also available to remove weeds within rows, but this practice is rarely
used any more. Weeds with rhizomes cannot be eliminated mechanically.
In general, tillage systems without soil inversion rely more on efficient herbicide use.
Page 32 of 64

Table 14: Chemical weed control (pre-emergence & post-emergence) in specific regions (E: east part
of the country, N: north, NE: northeast, SW: southwest, W: west) (Sources: b Endure; c
Maïshandboek; d Bayern, Sortenversuch Silomais / Körnermais; e Anpromis website; f
FERA; g FSE; h EuropaBio member company)
Zone Member
State
A
North
B
Centre
Use Treated area
(% of
cultivated
maize area)
Preemergence
(average
number of
applications
per field)
Preemergence
active
ingredients
Denmark Not specified 97% 0.1 2.3
Postemergence
(average
number of
applications
per field)
Estonia - - - - -
Finland - - - - -
Latvia - - - - -
Lithuania - - - - -
Sweden - - - - -
Austria - - - - -
Belgium - - S-metolachlor
Czech
Republic
Dimethanamid-
P
Isoxaflutole
(IFT)
Linuron
Flufenacet
Terbuthylazine
Pendimethalin
Pethoxamid
Postemergence
active
ingredients
- Cycloxydim
Dicamba
Dimethylammonium
Flufenacet
Foramsulfuron
Terbuthylazine
Mesotrione
dimethenamid
-P
Fluroxypyr
Florasulam
Topramezone
S-metolachlor
Bentazon
Bromoxynil
Pyridate
Nicosulfuron
Rimsulfuron
Sulcotrione
Pethoxamid
Not specified h Not known yes - yes -
Germany Not specified 90% SW 0.2 S-metolachlor 0.9 2,4-D
Silage/Grain
Dimethanamid
-P
Dicamba
Fluroxypyr
Pethoxamid
Sulcotrione
Flufenacet
Mesotrione
Pendimethalin
Tembotrione
Aclonifen
Bentazon
Isoxaflutole
Pyridate
(IFT)
Bromoxynil
Terbuthylazine
Terbuthylazine
Metosulam
Nicosulfuron
Foramsulfuron
Rimsulfuron
Cycloxydim
d 100% - 1-3
Hungary Not specified 100% E
95% W
0.3
0.3
- 1
1.1
Ireland - - - - -
-
Page 33 of 64

Zone Member
State
C
South
Use Treated area
(% of
cultivated
maize area)
Preemergence
(average
number of
applications
per field)
Preemergence
active
ingredients
Postemergence
(average
number of
applications
per field)
Luxembourg - - - - -
the Not specified 99%
Netherlands
b
Combination
of chemical
and
mechanical
treatment c
0.2 Isoxaflutool
S-metolachlor
dimethenamid
-P
Postemergence
active
ingredients
1.1 Fluroxypyr
Dicamba
Bentazon
Florasulam
Rimsulfuron
Nicosulfuron
Iodosulfuron
Foramsulfuron
Terbuthylazine
Topramezone
Tritosulfuron
Poland - - - - -
Romania Not specified h Not known yes - yes -
Slovakia Not specified h Not known yes - yes -
Slovenia - - - - -
the United
Kingdom
Not specified 95% f
98% g
On average 2 treatments
On average 2 treatments
Bulgaria Not specified 80% - - - -
Cyprus - - - - -
France Not specified b 98% SW
99% W
100% NW
1.0
0.7
0.8
Acetochlor
S-metolachlor
Dimethanamid
-P
Pethoxamid
Flufenacet
Pendimethalin
Aclonifen
Isoxaflutole
(IFT)
Greece - - - - -
Italy Not specified 96% N 0.9 Acetochlor
S-metolachlor
Dimethanamid
-P
Pethoxamid
Flufenacet
Pendimethalin
Isoxaflutole
(IFT)
Mesotrione
Terbuthylazine
0.4
1.0
0.7
2,4-D
Dicamba
Fluroxypyr
Sulcotrione
Mesotrione
Tembotrione
Bentazon
Pyridate
Bromoxynil
Nicosulfuron
Foramsulfuron
Rimsulfuron
Cycloxydim
0.5 Dicamba
Fluroxypyr
Sulcotrione
Mesotrione
Bentazon
Pyridate
Bromoxynil
Terbuthylazine
Nicosulfuron
Foramsulfuron
Rimsulfuron
Cycloxydim
Portugal Not specified 100% e 0.8 h - 1.2 h -
Spain Not specified 100% NE 1.0 Acetochlor
S-metolachlor
Pendimethalin
Aclonifen
1.0 2,4-D
Dicamba
Fluroxypyr
Sulcotrione
Page 34 of 64

Zone Member
State
-: no data available
Use Treated area
(% of
cultivated
maize area)
Preemergence
(average
number of
applications
per field)
Preemergence
active
ingredients
Isoxaflutole
(IFT)
Terbuthylazine
Postemergence
(average
number of
applications
per field)
Postemergence
active
ingredients
Mesotrione
Bentazon
Bromoxynil
Terbuthylazine
Nicosulfuron
Rimsulfuron
Table 15: Main actives ingredients and examples of commercial herbicides available for use in maize
in the EU in pre-emergence (Sources: <strong>information</strong> provided by EuropaBio member
companies)
Active
ingredient
HRAC
classification
Acetochlor K3 HARNESS
TROPHEE
France Germany Spain Italy
HARNESS
TROPHY
BOLERO
TROPHY
S-metolachlor K3 DUAL GOLD DUAL GOLD DUAL GOLD DUAL GOLD
Dimethanamid-P K3 SPECTRUM SPECTRUM SPECTRUM
Pethoxamid K3 SUCCESSOR SUCCESSOR SUCCESSOR
Flufenacet K3 DIPLOME (mixed
with metosulam)
CADOU
TERANO
(mixed with
metosulam)
CADOU
DIPLOME
(mixed with
metosulam)
Pendimethalin K1 PROWL STOMP PROWL STOMP
Aclonifen F3 LAGON (mixed
with IFT)
BANDUR LAGON (mixed
with IFT)
Isoxaflutole (IFT) F2 MERLIN MERLIN MERLIN MERLIN
Mesotrione F2 LUMAX
(with Smetolachlor)
Terbuthylazine C1 CLICK
And ready-mixes
CUNA
And ready-mixes
CLICK
And ready-mixes
Metosulam B TACCO - Not specified
Table 16: Main actives ingredients and examples of commercial herbicides available for use in maize
in the EU in post-emergence (Sources: <strong>information</strong> provided by EuropaBio member
companies)
Active
ingredient
HRAC
classification
France Germany Spain Italy
2,4-D O Various Various Various
Dicamba O BANVEL BANVEL BANVEL BANVEL
Fluroxypyr O STARANE STARANE STARANE STARANE
Sulcotrione F2 MIKADO MIKADO MIKADO MIKADO
Mesotrione F2 CALLISTO CALLISTO CALLISTO CALLISTO
Tembotrione F2 LAUDIS LAUDIS
Bentazon C3 BASAGRAN BASAGRAN BASAGRAN BASAGRAN
Page 35 of 64

Active
ingredient
HRAC
classification
France Germany Spain Italy
Pyridate C3 LENTAGRAN LENTAGRAN LENTAGRAN
Bromoxynil C3 Various Various Various Various
Terbuthylazine C1 No CLICK CUNA CLICK
Nicosulfuron B MILAGRO MOTIVEL ELITE GHIBLI
Foramsulfuron B EQUIP MAISTER EQUIP
Rimsulfuron B TITUS CATO TITUS TITUS
Cycloxydim A STRATOS ULTRA FOCUS ULTRA STRATOS ULTRA
5.2.2 Pest management
Seed treatment (see 0 -: no data available
Seed treatment) protects the crop at sowing against soil insects (usually combined with protection
against diseases).
The maize area treated with soil insecticides was highest in France (32–42%) and Hungary (50–60%)
Table 11). At present, commonly used active ingredients in France and Hungary include tefluthrin and
cypermethrin. In France, carbofuran, carbosulfan and benfuracarbe were used until 2009. The main
targets of seed treatments and soil insecticides in most regions are wireworms.
During plant growth insecticides are sprayed if needed and this is usually restricted to one application
(Table 17). Foliar insecticides are used predominantly in southern and central Europe. The most
commonly used active ingredients in spray insecticides are pyrethroids and organophosphates, but
oxadiazine, nicotinoid, carbamate, and diflubenzuron were also used (Table 18) (Endure, 2009).
An alternative to the chemical control is the biological control by means of insects such as the parasite
wasp Trichogramma spp. to biologically control O. nubilalis and H. armigera (Table 18). Furthermore
crop rotation is effective. Sex pheromones can be utilised for mating disruption of stem borers.
Table 17: Maize – use of insecticides and fungicides in on plant sprays in specific regions (E: east
part of the country, N: north, NE: northeast, SW: southwest, W: west) (Sources: b Endure; c
Maiskomitee ; d FERA; e EuropaBio member companies)
Zone Member State Use Insecticides
(% of cultivated maize
area)
A
North
B
Centre
Denmark Not specified 5% 1
Estonia - -
Finland - -
Latvia - -
Lithuania - -
Sweden - -
Austria - -
Belgium - -
Insecticides
(number of
applications)
Czech Republic e Not specified Yes, not specified Yes, not specified
Germany Not specified 35% SW b
0.02% over all c
Hungary Not specified 40% E b
20% W
Ireland - -
1
1
1
Page 36 of 64

Zone Member State Use Insecticides
(% of cultivated maize
area)
C
South
Luxembourg - -
the Netherlands Not specified 0 -
Poland Not specified 20% SW b 1
Romania e
Slovakia e
Insecticides
(number of
applications)
Not specified Yes, not specified Yes, not specified
Not specified Yes, not specified Yes, not specified
Slovenia - -
the United
Kingdom
-: no data available
Not specified 2.2% d -
Bulgaria - -
Cyprus - -
France Not specified 6% SW b
5% W
2% NE
Greece - -
Italy Not specified 11% N b 1
Portugal Not specified 30% e
Spain Not specified 50% NE b 1-2
Table 18: Maize – Occurrence of and plant protection strategies towards coleopteran and lepidoptera
(N: north, NE: northeast, SW: southwest) (Sources: a Endure; b Afdeling Duurzame
Landbouwontwikkeling – ADLO; c Maiskomitee; d DEFRA; e Handboek Snijmaïs; f Meissle
et al., 2010; g Landesanstalt für Pflanzenbau, Baden-Württemberg; h Thüringer
Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; i IWGO; j AGES, k Dillen et al., 2010 20 ; l Konefał & Bereś
21 ).
Zone Member State Main pest species Occurrence Mode of control
A
North
B
Centre
Denmark a, f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. Regionally and
a, f
rare
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp. Regionally and
a, f
rare
Estonia - -
Finland - -
Latvia - -
Lithuania - -
Sweden - -
1
1
1
Seed treatment
Austria Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. - Agritox (chlorpyrifos),
Cruiser (thiamethoxam),
Gaucho (Imidacloprid),
Poncho (clothianidin) j
20 Dillen K., Mitchell P.D., Van Looy T., Tollens E. (2010) The western corn rootworm, a new threat to
European agriculture: opportunities for biotechnology? Pest Management Science, 66(9): 956-966.
21 Konefał T., Bereś P.K. (2009) Diabrotica virgifera Le Conte in Poland in 2005-2007 and Regulations
in the control of the Pest in 2008, Journal of Plant Protection Research 49(1): 129-134.
Page 37 of 64

Zone Member State Main pest species Occurrence Mode of control
Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera i
65% of the
maize area k
Biscaya (thiacloprid),
Cruiser (thiamethoxam),
Force (tefluthrin),
Poncho (clothianidin) j
Belgium b Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. - Oncol (Benfuracarb),
Gaucho (Imidacloprid),
Curater (Carbofuran) b
(Diabrotica
virgifera; around
intl. airport)
Czech Republic e Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. - -
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp. - -
Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera i
Rare Monitoring; crop
rotation;
Patriot and Decis
(deltametrin), Karate (λcyhalothrin)
b
Spread to all
major maize
areas k
Germany c, f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera
Regionally and
a, f
rare
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp. Regionally and
a, f
rare
Ostrinia nubilalis Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Helicoverpa
armigera
Regionally and
a, f
rare
Hungary a,f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera
Tanymecus
dilaticollis
Widespread and
a, f
regularly
- -
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp. Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Ostrinia nubilalis Widespread and
a, f
regularly
-
-
Monitoring; crop
rotation; (soil)
insecticides c
Deep ploughing c
Trichogramma
evanescens
Pyrethroids g
c, g, h
Steward (indoxacarb)
Deep ploughing c
-
-
Crop rotation,
carbofuran,
thiamethoxam,
tefluthrin, terbufos,
imidacloprid and
clothianidin;
λ-cihalotrin,
chlorpirifos,
esfenvalerate, and
acetamiprid a
-
Deep ploughing,
insecticides a
Page 38 of 64
c, h

Zone Member State Main pest species Occurrence Mode of control
C
South
Helicoverpa
armigera
Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Ireland Others: Auchenorrhyncha -
(Zyginidia
scutellaris)
-
Luxembourg - -
the Netherlands
a, f
Coleoptera: Agriotes spp; Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
(Diabrotica
virgifera; around
intl. airport)
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp. Regionally and
a, f
rare
Poland a Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera
Trichogramma on sweet
maize a
Gaucho (Imidacloprid) e
Rare Monitoring, pheromone
traps e
Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp. Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
Helicoverpa
armigera
Regionally and
a, f
rarelv
Ostrinia nubilalis Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Romania e Coleoptera: Agriotes spp -
Slovakia e
Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera
Tanymecus
dilaticollis
Widespread i -
- -
Lepidoptera: Ostrinia nubilalis - -
Coleoptera: Agriotes spp - -
Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera
Lepidoptera: Ostrinia
nubilalis
Helicoverpa
armigera
Slovenia Coleoptera: Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera
the United
Kingdom d
Coleoptera: (Diabrotica
virgifera; around
airports)
Widespread i -
- -
- -
-
Seed treatment a
Crop rotation;
carbofuran;
Poncho (clothianidin),
Karate (λ-cyhalothrin),
Calypso (tiachlopryde);
deep ploughing l
- Crop rotation i
Rare (present
only in 2003,
2004)
Bulgaria e - -
Cyprus - -
-
-
-
Monitoring;
pheromone traps;
crop rotation;
chlorpyrifos
Page 39 of 64

Zone Member State Main pest species Occurrence Mode of control
France a, e, f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp. Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
Helicoverpa
armigera
Mythimna
unipuncta
Regionally and
a, f
rare
- -
Ostrinia nubilalis Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Scotia segetum - -
Sesamia
nonagrioides
Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Greece - -
Italy N a, f Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Diabrotica
virgifera virgifera
Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp. Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
Helicoverpa
armigera
Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
Ostrinia nubilalis Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Sesamia
nonagrioides
Regionally and
a, f
rare
Portugal e Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. - -
Spain NE a
-: no data available
Lepidoptera: Ostrinia nubilalis - -
Sesamia
nonagrioides
- -
Coleoptera: Agriotes spp. Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
Lepidoptera: Agrotis spp. Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
Helicoverpa
armigera
Mythimna
unipuncta
Widespread and
a, f
occasionally
Ostrinia nubilalis Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Sesamia
nonagrioides
Seed treatment
-
-
Trichogramma f
Pyrethroids a
Deep ploughing,
diflubenzuron,
pyrethroids a
Granular insecticides in
soil a
Crop rotation, early
a, i
planting, insecticides
-
-
Deep ploughing, early
sowing; λ-cyhalothrin,
alphamethrin,
chlorpyrifos,
cypermethrin,
deltamethrin a
-
Seed treatment a
Seed treatment a
-
Sporadically a Insecticide spray a
Widespread and
a, f
regularly
Deep ploughing, Btvarieties
a
Deep ploughing, Btvarieties
a
Page 40 of 64

Integrated pest management (IPM) promotes the use of different techniques in combination to control
pests efficiently, with an emphasis on methods that are least injurious to the environment and most
specific to the particular pest (Endure, 2009). For example as a preventative measure, the harvest
residuals are crushed and deeply ploughed in regions where corn borer is present.
5.2.3 Disease management
Fungi are mainly tackled by seed treatment (see 0 -: no data available
Seed treatment). Foliar fungicides are not very often sprayed. Ustilago maydis, a pathogenic plant
fungus causing the maize smut disease, cannot be treated chemically, the use of resistant plant
material remaining the most effective and practical control method.
5.2.4 Plant Protection Products
The placing on the market of plant protection products is regulated by Regulation (EC) No
1107/2009 22 . Whereas the active substance is approved at EU level, the actual plant protection
products (formulations) are authorised at Member State level and the authorisation includes details of
each authorised use. Potential environmental impacts already addressed by that Regulation include
impact on non-target species and the likelihood of resistance development.
A plant protection product must -among other aspects- not have any unacceptable effects on plants or
plant products; and have no unacceptable effects on the environment, having particular regard to its
fate and distribution in the environment, its impact on non-target species and its impact on biodiversity
and the ecosystem.
In addition to management measures, the holder of an authorisation for a plant protection product is
also required to monitor and to report annually to the competent authorities of the Member States
which authorised the plant protection product if the holder has any <strong>information</strong> available relating to the
lack of expected efficacy, the development of resistance and to any unexpected effect on plants, plant
products or the environment. Any agricultural development that would include a change in the use of a
crop protection product, will need to fulfil the requirements imposed by this legislation and will be
evaluated in line with similar products by the relevant competent authorities.
The Sixth Environment Action Programme and the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of
Pesticides, adopted by the Council and Parliament for the period 2002-2012, aims towards a healthier
environment. Amongst the objectives are the reduction of the levels of harmful active substances
used, in particular by substituting the most dangerous with safer alternatives, and the promotion of
low-input or pesticide-free cultivation. This resulted in the 2009/128/EC Framework Directive 23
establishing the framework to achieve a sustainable use of pesticides by reducing the risks and
impacts of pesticide use on human health and the environment and promoting the use of integrated
pest management and of alternative approaches or techniques such as non-chemical alternatives to
pesticides. This Directive obliges the Member States to adopt National Action Plans (NAPs) by 14
December 2012 to set up measures to implement Community legislation and to achieve individual
objectives.
Integrated pest management (IPM) is a key element in the NAPs. The use of disease and pest
resistant or tolerant varieties, may add substantially to the implementation of IPM by farmers.
Examples of pesticide-use reduction programmes include:
- Denmark launched its first pesticide-use reduction programme in 1986. In 2000 the second
pesticide action plan began. It aimed to reduce pesticide use to attain a treatment frequency index
(TFI) of 1.7. This target indirectly remains in a new pesticide action plan (Agreement on green
growth, 2009) which is part of a wider action plan. For 2010-15 the indicator TFI is slightly
changed and now also includes organic cultivated land. The new target is a modified index
(pesticide impact index) of 1.4 by 2013.
22 Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009
concerning the placing of plant protection products on the market and repealing Council Directives
79/117/EEC and 91/414/EEC.
23 Directive 2009/128/EC of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for Community action to
achieve the sustainable use of pesticides, OJ L309, 24.11.2009, p.71-86
Page 41 of 64

- In Germany, the Plant Protection Product Reduction Programme was devised and published in
2004. This National Action Plan on Sustainable Use of Plant Protection Products builds on that
programme (2008). The leitmotiv is the use of the necessary minimum of plant protection
products when all other practicable options to prevent and deter harmful organisms have been
exhausted.
- In 2008, France set a 50% reduction, where possible, by 2018 in the ‘Ecophyto 2018’. It also
banned the 53 most problematic substances, 30 of which would have been banned by the end of
2008.
Any change in agricultural practice will need to be evaluated against these objectives. New
developments may offer alternatives to existing products and present options for lower levels of
application of active ingredients with an improved environmental profile. Additionally, integration of
genetic tolerances or resistances to pests or diseases may expand IPM strategies.
Pest populations have the potential to develop resistance to the crop protection products used against
them, particularly if they are regularly treated with a single product. The result is that once effective
products are no longer able to control the pest and have to be replaced. Resistance is a natural
phenomenon but its development is an important threat for sustainable crop protection that must be
tackled proactively, through resistance management programmes.
Resistance management is undertaken within the context of an Integrated Pest Management
Strategy. It is possible that resistance management programmes require a change in agricultural
practice, e.g. by implementing diversification of protective measures in adjacent field zones.
The 2000/60/EC Water Framework Directive 24 states that aquatic environments throughout the EU will
have to achieve good ecological status by 2015. Pesticides are one of the main sources of water
pollution and aquatic environment degradation. The Groundwater Directive 2006/118/EC 25 has been
developed to elaborate further on the requirements of the Water Framework Directive. Member States
have developed national laws and regulations, prohibiting the use of some products, limiting the
application of others. E.g. in Belgium, buffer zones between the last treated row and water bodies are
required for certain weed control products. Denmark established a mandatory 10 m non-sprayed, nonfertilised
and unfarmed buffer zones on all water courses (by 2012) and a mandatory 25 m sprayingfree
buffer zones around public drinking water sources (PAN Europe 26 ). Buffer zones are also
recommended near streams or dams in Portugal (Anpromis). It is expected that for new crop
protection products a similar consideration will determine if a specific buffer zone is required.
5.3 Irrigation
In EU-27 the total agricultural area equipped for irrigation in the year 2003 accounts for 16 million ha
on a total of 182 million ha of agricultural land (Eurostat, Farm structure survey data 2000, 2003 27 ).
The majority of irrigated areas are concentrated in the Mediterranean region. France, Greece, Italy,
Portugal and Spain account for 12 million ha corresponding to 75% of the total area equipped for
irrigation in EU-27 (JRC, 2008, Water Requirements for Irrigation in the European Union). Whereas in
the Central and Northern European countries agriculture is generally rain-fed and irrigation is only
temporarily used to overcome water shortages during summer optimizing crop yields, in Southern
Europe it is an essential element of agricultural production (Figure 5).
24
Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for
the Community action in the field of water policy, OJ L 327, 22.12.2000, p. 1-72.
25
Directive 2006/118/EC of 12 December 2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and
deterioration, OJ L372, 27.12.2006, p. 19-31.
26
http://www.pan-europe.info/Resources/Reports/NAP_best_practice.pdf
27
http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=ef_lu_ofirrig&lang=en
Page 42 of 64

Figure 5: European Irrigation Map (EIM) - Irrigation intensity in the EU as irrigated area in % of total
area calculated over a 10x10 km raster, composed from 2000 and 2003 data (source: JRC,
2008, Water Requirements for Irrigation in the European Union)
Maize is irrigated in regions with low rainfall during the growing season (Table 19, Table 20). The
actual water use (intensity) at the farm level is not known. However, the total irrigable area as the
maximum area which could be irrigated in the reference year using the equipment and the quantity of
water normally available on the holding (Eurostat) can be used as an indication, although actual
irrigated area is generally lower than the irrigable area.
For southern Europe, Eurostat provides <strong>information</strong> on selected crops that are irrigated at least once
a year. The most important irrigated crop is grain maize. Table 19 and -: no data available
Page 43 of 64

Table 20 list the number of maize hectares that were irrigated at least once in 2003 compared to the
total of harvested maize areas per region. Discrepancies may arise because of differences in the
figures for sown and harvested areas or because grain and silage maize do not represent the total
crop (energy, corn-cob-mix, seed production are not systematically included). Figure 6 shows a map
of the proportion of irrigated maize in France, Greece, Italy and Spain for the year 2000.
Table 19: Irrigation in specific regions (E: east part of the country, N: north, NE: northeast, SW:
southwest, W: west) (Sources: a Endure, b EuropaBio member companies; c Eurostat)
Zone Member State Use Irrigation % of maize
area in 2003 c
A
North
B
Centre
C
South
Denmark Silage Mostly not 0%
Estonia - 0%
Finland - 0%
Latvia - 0%
Lithuania - -
Sweden - 0%
Austria - 4%
Belgium Grain/Silage Sometimes on sandy soil 0.16%
Czech Republic Not specified Mostly not -
Germany Not specified 0 - 7% of cultivated maize area -
Hungary Grain/Silage Not in E and W a 0.45%
Ireland - 0%
Luxembourg - 0%
the Netherlands Grain/Silage Sometimes on sandy soil 0.25%
Poland Not specified Mostly not -
Romania Not specified 0 - 25% of cultivated maize area 2.76%
Slovakia Not specified None 7.7%
Slovenia - 0.22%
the United
Kingdom
-: no data available
- 0%
Bulgaria Not specified 20% of cultivated maize area 4.8%
Cyprus - -
France Not specified SW: on sandy soil (Aquitaine) and
Garonne valley a
22.8%
Greece - 85%
Italy Grain/silage 80% of maize area in N a 46%
Malta - 0%
Portugal Not specified 97,5% of cultivated maize area;
N: approx. 80% b
Spain Grain/Silage NE: 100% of cultivated maize area
(of which 50% by sprinklers) a
NW: approx. 90% b
39.3%
84.7%
Page 44 of 64

Table 20: Irrigation of maize in Bulgaria, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Romania,
Slovakia and Spain in 2003 (Eurostat)
Zone Member State
Region
B
Centre
C
South
grain maize
production
Total area (1,000 ha) of irrigated
silage maize
production
irrigated
maize
as % of
maize area
Hungary 1,144.6 132,7 5,74 0.45
Közép-Magyarország 49,2 8,8 0,16 0.28
Közép-Dunántúl 133.1 21,9 0,10 0.06
Nyugat-Dunántúl 117.9 21,3 0,19 0.14
Dél-Dunántúl 282.6 17,3 0,00 0.00
Észak-Magyarország 55.8 10,2 0,02 0.03
Észak-Alföld 262.4 25,8 2,35 0,82
Dél-Alföld 243.6 27,4 2,84 1.05
Romania 3,159.0 38.5 88.17 2.76
Nord-Vest 308.6 3.6 0.21 0.07
Centru 172.1 9.1 0.05 0.03
Nord-Est 576.6 6.4 6.51 1.12
Sud-Est 635.2 4.5 43.89 6.86
Sud - Muntenia 622.2 3.1 21.65 3.46
Bucuresti - Ilfov 28.2 1.9 3.05 10.13
Sud-Vest Oltenia 460.6 2.2 11.64 2.52
Vest 355.5 7.7 1.15 0.32
Slovakia 146.0 99.0 18.99 7.75
Bratislavský kraj 8.0 5.0 2.25 17.31
Západné Slovensko 97.0 45.0 16.37 11.53
Stredné Slovensko 15.0 25.0 0.36 0.90
Východné Slovensko 26.0 24.0 0.00 0.00
Bulgaria 414.7 58.5 19.89 4.20
Severozapaden - - 2.70 -
Severen tsentralen - - 1.25 -
Severoiztochen - - 1.82 -
Yugoiztochen - - 3.41 -
Yugozapaden 6.2 2.6 2.21 25.11
Yuzhen tsentralen - - 8.50 -
France 1,684.5 1,583.0 746.18 22.84
Île de France 39.6 2.2 4.38 10.48
Champagne-Ardenne 41.8 42.2 0.88 1.05
Picardie 44.6 48.2 3.64 3.92
Haute-Normandie 11.5 55.9 0.05 0.07
Centre 142.4 38.3 83.42 46.16
Basse-Normandie 11.7 181.4 0.06 0.03
Bourgogne 44.8 39.8 4.67 5.52
Nord - Pas-de-Calais 12.7 69.7 0.00 0.00
Lorraine 7.1 78.1 0.00 0.00
Alsace 135.1 21.2 47.13 30.15
Page 45 of 64

Zone Member State
Region
grain maize
production
Total area (1,000 ha) of irrigated
silage maize
production
irrigated
maize
as % of
maize area
Franche-Comté 25.2 27.9 1.67 3.15
Pays de la Loire 136.3 285.2 58.14 13.79
Bretagne 116.2 329.5 1.10 0.25
Poitou-Charentes 196.2 68.5 118.04 44.59
Aquitaine 354.8 68.9 186.72 44.07
Midi-Pyrénées 203.0 79.7 155.92 55.15
Limousin 4.3 28.6 0.32 0.97
Rhône-Alpes 115.2 79.3 53.86 27.69
Auvergne 30.3 35.5 16.30 24.77
Languedoc-
Roussillon
4.7 2.0 4.50 67.16
Provence-Alpes-
Côte d'Azur
6.2 0.8 4.39 62.71
Corse 0.9 0.1 0.85 85.00
Greece 239.9 5.7 217.21 88.44
Anatoliki Makedonia 67.4 0.5 60.88 89.66
Kentriki Makedonia 55.2 2.8 51.46 88.72
Dytiki Makedonia 20.3 0.2 22.15 108.05*
Thessalia 29.9 0.2 27.90 92.69
Ipeiros 15.4 0.1 12.20 78.71
Ionia Nisia 0.8 0.2 0.13 13.00
Dytiki Ellada 37.1 0.4 32.06 85.49
Sterea Ellada 9.0 0.3 7.53 80.97
Peloponnisos 4.4 0.4 2.79 58.13
Attiki 0.0 0.0 0.06
Voreio Aigaio 0.2 0.0 0.02 10.00
Notio Aigaio 0.1 0.4 0.01 2.00
Kriti 0.1 0.2 0.01 3.33
Italy 1,163.2 281.6 666.72 46.15
Piemonte 189.7 25.6 128.62 59.74
Valle d'Aosta 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00
Liguria 0.5 0.1 0.11 18.33
Lombardia 275.5 115.5 253.87 64.93
Provincia Autonoma
Bolzano/Bozen
0.0 1.2 0.00 0.00
Provincia Autonoma
Trento
0.3 1.8 0.00 0.00
Veneto 306.3 43.6 123.03 35.16
Friuli- Venezia Giulia 108.3 5.1 45.65 40.26
Emilia-Romagna 140.0 23.1 64.95 39.82
Toscana 31.5 3.6 13.44 38.29
Umbria 17.9 3.5 9.67 45.19
Marche 15.1 3.8 3.47 18.36
Lazio 31.1 20.2 11.03 21.50
Abruzzo 6.7 0.7 1.46 19.73
Molise 2.9 1.4 1.58 36.74
Page 46 of 64

Zone Member State
Region
grain maize
production
Total area (1,000 ha) of irrigated
silage maize
production
irrigated
maize
as % of
maize area
Campania 23.3 17.8 4.51 10.97
Puglia 1.7 1.2 0.25 8.62
Basilicata 2.2 1.9 0.99 24.15
Calabria 6.9 2.7 2.49 25.94
Sicilia 0.5 3.5 0.08 2.00
Sardegna 3.0 5.5 1.54 18.12
Portugal 141.6 117.0 101.38 39.20
Norte 42.6 49.8 30.27 32.76
Algarve 1.2 0.2 0.73 52.14
Centro 46.4 45.9 31.06 33.65
Lisboa 6.4 2.6 2.72 30.22
Alentejo 44.3 8.9 36.51 68.63
Spain 476.1 85.3 475.61 84.72
Galicia 23.9 44.8 3.13 4.56
Principado de
Asturias
1.2 9.0 0.00 0.00
Cantabria 0.1 2.2 0.00 0.00
País Vasco 0.5 1.1 0.15 9.38
Comunidad Foral de
Navarra
15.2 2.3 11.99 68.51
La Rioja 1.6 0.1 0.85 50.00
Aragón 88.3 0.8 85.58 96.05
Comunidad de
Madrid
9.6 0.0 12.68 132.08*
Castilla y León 127.1 9.9 144.98 105.82*
Castilla-la Mancha 51.8 1.1 71.74 135.61*
Extremadura 61.6 0.9 64.32 102.91*
Cataluña 41.7 9.3 33.23 65.16
Comunidad
Valenciana
0.9 0.1 0.13 13.00
Illes Balears 0.8 0.3 0.49 44.55
Andalucía 50.8 3.0 - -
Región de Murcia 0.3 0.1 0.15 37.50
Canarias
-: no data available
0.6 0.4 0.15 15.00
*: As data from two different Eurostat tables were combined, the figure for irrigated potato may be
higher than for the total area of production. It was then assumed that 100% of the area was
irrigated.
Page 47 of 64

Figure 6: Water use in grain maize in France, Greece, Italy and Spain in 2000 (source: EEA report,
No 6/2005, Community Survey on the Structure of Agricultural Holdings (FSS), Eurostat)
Water may be available as ground water or as surface water either on-farm (ground water, water
basins) or off-farm (rivers, canals). Sometimes water from public water supply networks is used.
Studying the figures for irrigation methods and sources in general (Table 21), it is clear that most often
sprinklers are used to irrigate fields. In the southern countries surface irrigation also takes an
important part. Ground water is the dominating source for water in the northern countries. More to the
south surface water and water from water supply networks is used.
Page 48 of 64

Table 21: Irrigation methods and sources of irrigation water for agricultural land in general expressed in hectares irrigated at least once in 2003
(Eurostat)(crops under glass and in kitchen gardens are not included)
Irrigation methods
Zone Member
State
Several
irrigation
methods
Drip
irrigation
Sprinkler
irrigation
Irrigation source Total Surface
irrigation
Denmark Total 201,480 0 199,780 350 1,340 a
A
North
ground water 201,480 0 199,780 350 1,340 a
Latvia Total 0 0 0 0 0
Finland Total 0 0 0 0 0
Sweden Total 53,440 0 53,440 0 0
ground water 11,830 0 11,830 0 0
on-farm surface water 9,310 0 9,310 0 0
off-farm surface water 14,250 0 14,250 0 0
off-farm water from water supply networks 1,280 a 0 1,280 a 0 0
ground and surface water 8,450 0 8,450 0 0
ground water and public network 450 a 0 450 a 0 0
mixed surface water 1,680 0 1,680 0 0
surface water and public network 770 a 0 770 a 0 0
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 5,950 0 5,950 0 0
Austria Total 34,230 a 2,310 c 24,680 a 2,830 a 4,400 a
ground water 24,200 a 1,980 c 17,690 a 1,540 b 2,990 a
B
Centre
on-farm surface water 580 c 110 c 260 c 120 c 90 c
off-farm surface water 1,280 c 100 c 1,090 c 60 c 0
off-farm water from water supply networks 1,440 b 50 c 310 c 930 b 150 c
ground and surface water 2,760 b 0 2,350 c 0 340
ground water and public network 2,050 c 0 1,350 c 110 c 590 b
surface water and public network 220 c 0 160 c 40 c 10 c
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 1,090 b 0 910 c 20 c 0
Page 49 of 64

Irrigation methods
Zone Member
State
Irrigation source Total Surface Sprinkler
Drip Several
irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation
methods
Belgium Total 1,850 200 1,350 150 150
ground water 1,030 90 760 110 70
on-farm surface water 420 40 350 0 0
off-farm surface water 280 20 190 0 0
off-farm water from water supply networks 50 0 0 0 0
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 70 0 0 0 0
Total 16,860 280 c 14,060 1,310 1,210
ground water 1,000 b 40 c 740 b 190 b 30 b
Czech
Republic
on-farm surface water 530 a 110 a 280 a 140 0
off-farm surface water 14,800 130 c 12,760 970 940
off-farm water from water supply networks 110 b 0 100 b 10 c 0
ground and surface water 210 a 0 40 b 0 170 a
surface water and public network 20 a 0 0 0 20 b
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 190 0 0 0 0
Hungary Total 148,690 10,850 111,920 8,830 17,090
ground water 27,990 3,200 16,960 6,040 1,780
source: on-farm surface water 6,950 1,100 4,480 1,250 b 0
off-farm surface water 20,640 800 a 18,020 820 1,000
off-farm water from water supply networks 76,150 5,430 64,220 660 5,840
ground and surface water 4,170 250 b 2,150 40 b 1,720
ground water and public network 2,730 50 b 1,490 10 c 1,180
surface water and public network 9,100 0 3,810 0 0
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 940 20 b 760 0 160
Ireland Total 0 0 0 0 0
Luxembourg Total 0 0 0 0 0
Page 50 of 64

Irrigation methods
Zone Member
State
Several
irrigation
methods
Drip
irrigation
Sprinkler
irrigation
Irrigation source Total Surface
irrigation
Total 62,190 0 56,910 1,600 3,670
The
Netherlands
ground water 36,090 0 33,710 820 1,570
on-farm surface water 3,040 0 2,370 300 370
off-farm surface water 22,710 0 20,710 300 1,700
off-farm water from water supply networks 340 0 130 180 40
Poland Total 46,910 - - - -
Romania Total 400,520 24,040 341,620 570 34,290
ground water 25,510 6,470 17,210 140 1,690
on-farm surface water 66,250 1,720 64,000 60 470
off-farm surface water 44,240 1,980 38,420 30 3,800
off-farm water from water supply networks 220,870 11,080 189,830 320 19,640
ground and surface water 2,610 180 730 10 1,690
ground water and public network 9,860 660 7,830 0 1,370
mixed surface water 2,110 20 1,870 0 210
surface water and public network 26,160 1,910 19,570 0 4,690
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 2,900 30 2,140 0 730
Slovakia Total 104,560 37,580 49,830 1,310 15,830
ground water 4,580 1,720 1,760 600 500
on-farm surface water 8,140 2,880 5,030 0 0
off-farm surface water 60,060 18,500 33,040 270 8,240
off-farm water from water supply networks 1,140 780 350 0 0
ground and surface water 2,940 480 1,170 0 0
ground water and public network 60 a 10 c 0 0 0
mixed surface water 70 0 0 0 0
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 27,520 13,150 8,430 350 5,590
Page 51 of 64

Irrigation methods
Zone Member
State
Several
irrigation
methods
Drip
irrigation
Sprinkler
irrigation
Irrigation source Total Surface
irrigation
Slovenia Total 1,880 a 70 c 1,280 a 250 a 270 c
ground water 140 a 0 50 50 b 30
on-farm surface water 190 a 10 c 30 c 110 b 40 a
off-farm surface water 1,390 a 40 c 1,180 a 80 b 90 b
off-farm water from water supply networks 10 a 0 0 0 0
ground and surface water 120 c 10 b 0 0 90 c
mixed surface water 20 c 0 10 c 0 0
surface water and public network 10 c 0 0 0 0
United Total 227,120 - - - -
Kingdom
Bulgaria Total 79,370 65,920 7,170 1,250 5,030
C
South
ground water 13,980 12,500 830 280 380
on-farm surface water 2,090 1,370 710 0 10
off-farm surface water 15,280 12,280 2,490 290 210
off-farm water from water supply networks 38,950 32,790 2,430 430 3,290
ground and surface water 1,410 930 260 90 130
ground water and public network 4,640 3,820 330 0 480
mixed surface water 310 110 0 0 0
surface water and public network 2,170 1,650 100 0 270
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 550 470 0 0 0
Cyprus Total 35,410 3,440 6,760 15,860 9,340
France Total 1,938,730 70,480 1,647,270 49,880 164,950
ground water 617,790 4,780 b 573,930 12,090 a 26,910 a
on-farm surface water 133,350 1,180 c 121,600 3,830 b 6,610 b
off-farm surface water 135,460 11,270 b 113,880 2,260 b 6,990 b
Page 52 of 64

Irrigation methods
Zone Member
State
Several
irrigation
methods
Drip
irrigation
Sprinkler
irrigation
Irrigation source Total Surface
irrigation
off-farm water from water supply networks 466,020 39,230 a 356,250 19,530 a 47,050 a
ground and surface water 132,560 a 310 c 115,490 a 2,090 b 14,630 a
ground water and public network 130,650 a 880 c 109,770 a 2,820 b 17,170 a
mixed surface water 44,500 a 50 c 40,160 a 1,420 c 2,860 c
surface water and public network 129,910 11,060 a 100,060 a 2,220 b 15,770 b
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 148,490 1,690 c 116,120 a 3,630 a 26,960 a
Greece Total 1,294,400 216,660 323,890 232,220 521,630
ground water 351,160 37,140 123,310 95,930 94,770
on-farm surface water 16,590 a 3,390 b 5,260 b 2,380 b 5,560 a
off-farm surface water 129,830 48,560 53,110 6,740 a 21,430 a
off-farm water from water supply networks 438,750 91,510 90,680 100,690 155,870
ground and surface water 54,080 6,330 b 12,320 a 3,420 b 32,010 a
ground water and public network 210,140 14,910 a 25,580 19,470 150,180
mixed surface water 930 b 380 c 350 c 20 c 190 c
surface water and public network 63,050 11,520 a 7,840 a 2,410 b 41,270
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 29,870 2,920 b 5,430 b 1,170 b 20,350 a
Italia Total 2,732,730 892,720 881,810 387,940 a 406,260
ground water 648,240 98,890 a 213,500 a 205,960 a 63,360 b
on-farm surface water 156,900 a 33,650 b 62,250 a 31,650 b 17,240 b
off-farm surface water 820,350 381,350 274,290 35,910 c 106,600 a
off-farm water from water supply networks 510,360 191,130 a 159,490 a 46,770 b 76,100 b
ground and surface water 245,320 94,910 a 73,850 a 15,220 b 58,000 a
ground water and public network 146,200 a 26,970 b 37,580 b 35,730 c 33,080 b
mixed surface water 75,170 a 21,070 c 30,230 b 3,610 c 17,890 b
surface water and public network 88,050 a 33,100 a 23,160 b 6,670 c 18,960 c
Page 53 of 64

Irrigation methods
Zone Member
State
Several
irrigation
methods
Drip
irrigation
Sprinkler
irrigation
Irrigation source Total Surface
irrigation
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 42,140 a 11,640 b 7,490 b 6,420 c 15,030 b
Malta Total 2,130 50 c 220 c 710 a 1,100 a
ground water 1,770 a 30 c 150 c 620 a 930 a
off-farm water from water supply networks 10 c 0 0 0 10 c
ground water and public network 20 c 0 0 0 10 c
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 330 b 20 c 80 c 90 b 140 b
Portugal Total 248,040 106,470 63,580 36,650 41,080
ground water 95,490 41,280 20,430 21,980 11,630 a
on-farm surface water 28,440 7,350 a 11,650 a 2,720 a 6,720 a
off-farm surface water 21,100 12,100 a 5,090 a 1,440 a 2,450 a
off-farm water from water supply networks 15,110 a 6,290 a 4,890 b 870 b 3,060 b
ground and surface water 53,830 24,050 13,730 7,030 a 8,980
ground water and public network 5,760 a 2,060 b 1,020 c 870 b 1,790 a
mixed surface water 9,160 a 6,930 a 1,270 b 350 b 600 b
surface water and public network 7,650 b 1,860 b 2,290 c 60 3,450 b
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 11,490 a 4,550 a 3,200 a 1,330 b 2,410
Spain Total 3,437,370 1,302,780 956,360 1,178,220 0
ground water 1,272,200 135,860 a 486,670 a 649,670 0
on-farm surface water 100,650 a 19,960 b 29,310 b 51,370 b 0
off-farm surface water 405,650 a 179,170 a 123,460 b 103,030 a 0
off-farm water from water supply networks 1,650,350 964,700 314,820 a 370,830 0
other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 8,520 b 3,090 c 2,110 b 3,320 b 0
-: figure not available
a
: sampling error: 5-

The main overall objective of EU water policy is to ensure access to good quality water in sufficient
quantity for all Europeans, and to ensure the good status of all water bodies across Europe. While
Europe is by large considered as having adequate water resources, water scarcity and drought is an
increasingly frequent and widespread phenomenon in the EU, as it is worldwide. This major challenge
has been recognised in the Communication “Addressing the challenge of water scarcity and droughts"
from the European Commission 28 adopted in 2007.
Based on the results of a workshop on farm advisory and water protection organized by DG
Environment in October 2009 in Brussels, a handbook of ideas for administrations about integrating
water issues in farm advisory services was developed. The handbook 29 confirms that as the use of
water for irrigation contributes to increase water scarcity, especially in southern Europe. Crop
selection (water needs of the plants) irrigation technology and irrigation management are identified as
sources of the problem.
Good farming practices in relation to irrigation methods and equipment are addressed in the codes of
good farming practice as part of their rural development programmes in Spain, Greece, Portugal and
France where the scale of irrigation is significantly greater than in northern countries (EEA, 2005). For
instance, in Spain the National Irrigation Plan (PNR), which was passed by Royal Decree 329/2002
(valid until 2008), followed by an Emergency Plan (Royal Decree 287/2006), aimed to modernise
Spanish irrigation. As a result 41.6% of irrigation area currently uses drip irrigation. More than 60% of
irrigated land in Spain has improved its efficiency in recent years (OECD, 2008).
28 COM (2007)414
29 Berglund M., Dworak T. (2010) Integrating water issues in Farm advisory services - A Handbook of
ideas for administrations.
Page 55 of 64

6 Harvest and post-harvest land use
6.1 Harvest
The harvest timing depends on the purpose of the crop, the maturity class and the climatic conditions
of the site (Table 22). For silage maize the right time to harvest is determined in function of the
optimal feed uptake, utilisation (digestibility) by the cattle and energetic value (DM content about 30-
35%). Grain maize needs to be fully mature. Harvesting maize for grain usually occurs after the kernel
moisture is below 25%. Kernels need to be dried to 16% moisture within 24 hours after harvest.
Several organisations give directions to determine the optimal harvest time (e.g. Maïshandboek,
GNIS). Maize is generally harvested between late August and early December.
Silage maize is harvested mechanically using a maize silage cutter / header. The length of the pieces
depends on the dry matter content; dryer plants are chopped in shorter pieces. Chopped maize is
packed in a horizontal silo or bunker for partial fermentation under anaerobic conditions. To remove
all the air from the silo the maize silage is compacted by driving a tractor after each load and over and
over until the surface is firm. Finally the silage is sealed with a plastic cover to prevent air returning.
Silage maize is predominantly used on-farm for dairy cattle. Specific inoculants (lactic acid bacteria,
enzymes) can be used to improve fermentation quality and reduce energy and dry matter losses.
Grain maize is mechanically picked using a combine / maize sheller that cuts the maize plants and
shells and threshes the maize cobs in one operation. Traditionally the maize cobs are hand harvested
and threshed. Also small handheld or powered machines are used for threshing. The remaining plant
parts are used for ruminant feeding. This practise is still applied on small farms in central and
southern Europe. Manually picked maize cobs are commonly stored in their unhusked form. To
improve their drying the husks are removed from the cobs. Grain maize for trade is usually
immediately transported to the trader and dried for storage.
Corn-cob-mix is harvested at a grain DM content of 55-60%. The cobs are picked mechanically and
cobs and grains are grinded on the field or transported and chopped at the silo. The mix is
immediately ensiled similar to whole plant silage. The mix is used mainly for feeding pigs.
Table 22: Harvest date (Sources: a Maizeurop; b Bayern, Sortenversuch Silomais / Körnermais; c
Maïshandboek; d Ministry of Agriculture (MADR); e FSE; f EuropaBio member companies)
Zone Member State Use Harvest date
A
North
B
Centre
Denmark a
Estonia e -
Finland -
Latvia e -
Lithuania e
Sweden -
Austria -
Belgium Silage September – mid-October
Czech Republic -
Germany Silage b Mid-September – October b
Hungary e
Grain b October b
Ireland -
Luxembourg -
the Netherlands Silage c September – mid-October c
-
-
-
Page 56 of 64

Zone Member State Use Harvest date
C
South
Poland -
Romania Grain September – October d
Slovakia
Slovenia -
the United
Kingdom
-: no data available
-
Not specified August – November e
Bulgaria -
Cyprus -
France Silage a October a
Grain November
Greece -
Italy -
Portugal Grain f
Spain Grain f
6.2 Intercropping
October to November
Silage f September to November
From September (South Spain) to early March
(North Central Spain)
Silage f September to November
Sowing grasses (e.g. Italian ryegrass) into established maize stands can reduce the amount of residual
nitrate in the soil at the end of the vegetation period. Alternatively, a catch crop (winter wheat or rye) is
sown after harvest to catch the nitrate still present in the soil. Intercropping is also a remedy against
weed growth thereby reducing the amount of herbicide sprayed in fields and preventing herbicide
contamination of the groundwater. It also decreases soil erosion in winter time since it maintains the soil
covered.
Some examples are presented in Table 23.
Table 23: Post harvest management - intercropping with green manure crop (Sources: a
Maiskomitee; b Maïshandboek; c Anpromis website; d EuropaBio member companies)
Zone Member State Use Sowing date Intercropping
B
Centre
C
South
-: no data available
Germany Not specified Sowing July-August summer intercrops a
Not specified September winter intercrops
the Netherlands Not specified Summer Intercrop b
Not specified October Green manure crop
mandatory on sand and
löss
Portugal Not specified Recommended c Recommended
Not specified Summer d
Spain Not specified Winter/spring d
Beans growing jointly with
maize (very small
surface)
Lolium (before planting
maize)
Page 57 of 64

6.3 Soil management & rotation
Crop rotation and soil ploughing to bury the crop residuals are very helpful to maintain the nutrient
status.These practices are recommended in many stewardship programmes to prevent or at least delay
the development of resistance to commonly used herbicides and to combat insect pests such as western
corn rootworm, wireworms and cutworms. In regions with high corn rootworm infestation such as
Hungary, these measures are mandatory.
The most common crop included in a rotation with maize is wheat (or barley) in a 2-year cycle. However,
a range of different rotations with 2–5 crops, including maize, wheat, alfalfa, sunflower, temporary
grassland, soybean, beets, oilseed rape, rice and potato is practiced in Europe.
Table 24 shows some examples of soil management and rotation practices.
Table 24: Post-harvest soil management & rotation in specific regions (NE: northeast, SW:
southwest) (Source: a Endure; b EuropaBio member companies)
Zone Member State Management of the soil Crop rotation
(% of cultivated maize area)
A
North
B
Centre
C
South
-: no data available
Denmark - 50% under rotation
Germany - 60% under rotation
Hungary Mandatory destruction of stubble
(ploughing or otherwise) a
40-80% under rotation
Max. 3 years continuous culture a
the Netherlands - 50% under rotation
Poland - 80% under rotation
France SW: grinding of crop residues SW: continuous
20-70% under rotation
Italy - 70% under rotation a
Portugal - 50% under rotation b
Spain NE: removal of crop residues NE: 83% under rotation a
Page 58 of 64

7 Consulted sources
The following table provides an overview of the different sources that were consulted. When no <strong>information</strong> useful for this analysis was found, this was
indicated.
Europe
Eurostat http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association http://www.efma.org/, Information is too general, not specific for maize
(EFMA)
European Crop Protection Association http://www.ecpa.be/, Information is too general, not specific for maize
Endure, EU network for the durable exploitation http://www.endure-network.eu/
of crop protection strategies (FP6, 2007-2010) Final report on the maize case study: Key pests and options to reduce pesticides in eleven European
regions, 2009: http://www.endurenetwork.eu/content/download/5458/42972/file/ENDURE_DR3.7&DR1.18&DR1.19.pdf
And: http://www.endurenetwork.eu/about_endure/all_the_news/innovative_ipm_for_maize_five_new_leaflets
Deliverable DR2.17 SWOT analysis of existing MBCSs in the four regions; and other publications:
http://www.endure-network.eu/endure_publications/deliverables
and
Meissle M., Mouron P., Musa T., Bigler F., Pons X., Vasileiadis V.P., Otto S., Antichi D., Kiss J.,
Pálinkás Z., Dorner Z., Van der Weide R., Groten J., Czembor E., Adamczyk J., Thibord J.-B.,
Melander B., Cordsen Nielsen G., Poulsen R.T., Zimmermann O., Verschwele A. and Oldenburg E.
(2010) Pests, pesticide use and alternative options in European maize production: current status and
future prospects. J. Appl. Entomol. 134(5): 357–375.
Joint Research Centre (JRC) Wriedt G., Van der Velde M., Aloe A., Bouraoui F., 2008, Water Requirements for Irrigation in the
European Union, 70p.
http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/111111111/7527
European Coexistence Bureau (ECoB) Czarnak-Kłos & Rodríguez-Cerezo, 2010, Best Practice Documents for coexistence of genetically
modified crops with conventional and organic farming. 1. Maize crop production. EUR 24509 EN
http://ecob.jrc.ec.europa.eu/documents.html
European Environmental Agency (EEA) Agriculture and environment in EU-15 — the IRENA indicator report, EEA report, No 6/2005
http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/eea_report_2005_6
Pesticide Action Network (PAN) NAP Best Practice. Sustainable use of pesticides: Implementing a National Action Plan,
http://www.pan-europe.info/Resources/Reports/NAP_best_practice.pdf
SoCo Project Team (2009) Final report on the project ‘Sustainable Agriculture and Soil Conservation (SoCo), Editors: Geertrui
Page 59 of 64

Louwagie, Stephan Hubertus Gay, Alison Burrell Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities EUR – Scientific and Technical Research series – ISSN 1018-5593 / ISBN
978-92-79-12400-6 / DOI 10.2791/10052
http://www.lebensministerium.at/
10% of the farmers are organic farmers
www.ages.at
The Manure Decree (Mestdecreet) ‘Decree for the protection of water against pollution by nitrates
from Agricultural sources’ adopted on 22 December 2006 (Belgisch Staatsblad of 29.12.2006 p.
76368) http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi/article.pl
Austria
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and
Water Management (Lebensministerium)
Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety
(AGES)
Belgium
Vlaamse Overheid, Departement landbouw en
visserij
Statistics Belgium http://statbel.fgov.be
Landbouwcentrum voor Voedergewassen vzw Applied research on fodder crops, mainly maize and grasses. http://www.lcvvzw.be/
(LCV)
Instituut voor Landbouw- en Visserijonderzoek http://www.ilvo.vlaanderen.be/
(ILVO)
Research on e.g. the influence of culture techniques on agricultural and horticultural productions, see
Beperking van het nitraatresidu in de maïsteelt
Scientific and practical publications in e.g. magazines edited by the farmers’ organisation
Boerenbond.
Bodemkundige Dienst van België Publications appear in e.g. magazines edited by the Boerenbond: e.g. Stikstofmineralisatie in de
maïsteelt.; Bemesting van maïs en grasland.; Humuszuren als bodemverbeteraar in de maïsteelt.
Vlaamse landmaatschappij http://www.vlm.be/algemeen/Pages/default.aspx
KWS-maïsmanager http://www.kwsmaismanager.com/KWSMa%C3%AFsmanager/1Teelt/12Zaai/126Benodigdehoeveelheidzaaizaad/ta
bid/544/Default.aspx
Bulgaria
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry http://www.mzgar.government.bg
National Agency for Advices in Agriculture http://www.naas.government.bg
Technical data for maize cultivation available only in Bulgarian:
http://www.naas.government.bg/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_details&gid=272&Itemid=
37
Agricultural University Plovdiv http://www.au-plovdiv.bg/en/
Czech Republic
Ministry of Agriculture http://eagri.cz/public/web/en/mze/
Page 60 of 64

Křístková M., 2010, Experience with Bt maize cultivation in the Czech Republic 2005-2009.
http://eagri.cz/public/web/file/52756/CZ_experience_with_Bt_maize_2005_2009.pdf
Crop Research Institute http://www.vurv.cz/, no relevant <strong>information</strong> found
Research Institute for Fodder Crops http://www.vupt.cz/basic-<strong>information</strong>, no relevant <strong>information</strong> found
Denmark
Danish Ministry of Environment
Agreement on Green Growth:
Miljøministeriet
http://www.mim.dk/NR/rdonlyres/54887891-D450-4CD7-B823-
CD5B12C6867A/0/DanishAgreementonGreenGrowth_300909.pdf
Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries http://www.fvm.dk/
France
Association Générale des Producteurs de Maïs www.maizeurop.com
(AGPM)
Ministère de l'Alimentation, de l'Agriculture et de Agreste, La statistique, l'évaluation et la prospective agricole
la Pêche
SCEES 2006, 2007, survey of farming practice,
http://agreste.agriculture.gouv.fr/enquetes_3/pratiques_culturales_465/index.html
Ecophyto 2018
http://agriculture.gouv.fr/ecophyto-2018,510
Chambre d’Agriculture Loir-et-Cher, directive http://www.loir-et-cher.chambagri.fr/dyn2/data/102310-Ferti-Mais-tournesol-ZV2.pdf
Nitrates
Organic maize culture in Brittany http://www.interbiobretagne.asso.fr/f.t.-prairies-fourrages-2-465.html
Institut National de Recherche Agronomique http://www.inra.fr/ scientific publications, theses, lectures, abstracts
(INRA)
Groupement National Interprofessionnel des http://www.gnis.fr/
Semences et plants (GNIS)
Maïs fourrage : les clés de la réussite,
Le maïs toute l'année pour la performance de votre élevage,
Sécurisez votre maïs pour mieux le conserver : le maïs grain humide
Centre national de la recherche scientifique http://www.cnrs.fr/ focus on fundamental research
(CNRS)
Institute of Biological Sciences (INSB) http://www.cnrs.fr/insb/ and the Institute of Ecology and
Environment (INEE) http://www.cnrs.fr/inee/
Association générale des producteurs de blé represents the interests of the cereal growers at the level of the French government and the EU,
(AGPB)
no technical <strong>information</strong> on cultivation http://www.agpb.com/
Fédération française des Producteurs
Part of the Fédération nationale des syndicats d'exploitants agricoles (FNSEA),
d'Oléagineux et de Protéagineux (FOP)
http://www.fnsea.fr/sites/webfnsea/
represents the interests of its members at the level of the French government and the EU,
no technical <strong>information</strong> on cultivation
Page 61 of 64

Germany
Deutsches Maiskomitee (DMK) http://www.maiskomitee.de
maize culture: http://www.maiskomitee.de/web/public/Produktion.aspx/Anbau
Publications • Finke C., Möller K., Schlink S., Gerowitt B., Isselstein J. (1999) The environmental impact of
maize cultivation in the European Union: Practical options for the improvement of the
environmental impact. - Case study Germany
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/agriculture/pdf/mais_allemange.pdf
• Weber, W. and T. Bringezu. (2005): Coexistence and Maize – experiences and results from the
German “Erprobungsanbau” 2004. Proceedings of the Conference on Coexistence of GM and
non-GM Crops, 9-10 Juni 2005, Zurich, Schweiz.
• Weber W.E., Bringezu T., Broer I., Eder J. and Holz F. (2007) Coexistence Between GM and
Non-GM Maize Crops – Tested in 2004 at the Field Scale Level (Erprobungsanbau 2004). J.
Agronomy & Crop Science 193(2): 79-92.
Scientific publications, theses: http://www.jki.bund.de/nn_807080/
Julius Kühn-Institut – Bundesforschungsinstitut
für Kulturpflanzen (JKI) (formerly part of
Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landwirtschaft
(FAL))
Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung http://www.ble.de/cln_090/DE/00__Home/homepage__node.html?__nnn=true
(BLE)
Statistische Bundesamt, Deutschland http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/
Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft The German National Action Plan on Sustainable Use of Plant Protection Products, 2008
und Verbraucherschutz (BMELV)
http://www.bmelv.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/741738/publicationFile/40210/NationalActionPlan2008.p
df
Bundessortenamt Test protocol for maize variety trials:
http://www.bundessortenamt.de/internet30/fileadmin/Files/PDF/RILI_0803_Mais.pdf
Information on Länder • Baden-Württemberg: Ministerium für Ländlichen Raum, Ernährung und Verbraucherschutz:
Infodienst Landwirtschaft - Ernährung - Ländlicher Raum, http://www.landwirtschaft-mlr.badenwuerttemberg.de/servlet/PB/menu/1034707_l1/index.html
Maize culture: http://www.landwirtschaft-mlr.badenwuerttemberg.de/servlet/PB/show/1048143/mb_mais.pdf
Variety trials: e.g. silage maize: http://www.landwirtschaft-mlr.badenwuerttemberg.de/servlet/PB/show/1295703_l1/IfPSM09.pdf
en
• Bayern: Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten,
http://www.stmelf.bayern.de/
Info about maize: http://www.stmelf.bayern.de/landwirtschaft/pflanzenbau/mais/
Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft (LfL): http://www.lfl.bayern.de/ipz/
Page 62 of 64

Bayerischer Bauernverband; http://www.bayerischerbauernverband.de
• Brandenburg: Landesamt für Ländliche Entwicklung, Landwirtschaft und Flurneuordnung (LELF):
http://www.mil.brandenburg.de/cms/detail.php/bb1.c.218891.de
Variety recommended list:
http://www.mil.brandenburg.de/sixcms/media.php/4055/Silomais%20K%C3%B6rnermais.pdf
• Mecklenburg-Vorpommern: Landesamt für Landwirtschaft, Lebensmittelsicherheit und Fischerei
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (LALLF M-V), http://www.lallf.de/
About weed management:
http://www.lallf.de/fileadmin/media/PDF/ps/Broschueren/brosch_kapitel/04-mais-10.pdf , a few
pages in http://www.lallf.de/fileadmin/media/PDF/ps/Broschueren/eBookAB08.pdf
• Niedersachsen: Niedersächsisches Ministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft,
Verbraucherschutz und Landesentwicklung http://www.ml.niedersachsen.de
Landwirtschaftskammer Niedersachsen; http://www.lwk-niedersachsen.de/
Landwirtschaftskammer Hamburg; http://www.lwk-hamburg.de/
Landwirtschaftskammer Bremen; http://www.lwk-bremen.de/
• Nordrhein-Westfalen: Landesamt für Natur, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz NRW,
http://www.lanuv.nrw.de/home.htm
Landwirtschafskammer Nordrhein-Westfalen http://www.landwirtschaftskammer.de/
• Rheinland-Pfalz: Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland-Pfalz, http://www.lwkrlp.de/index.jsp?jsessionid=4BFA9ACA2693233&kontext=main
Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland-Pfalz; http://www.lwk-rlp.de/
• Saarland: Landesamt für Agrarwirtschaft und Landentwicklung,
http://www.saarland.de/64551.htm
Landwirtschaftskammer für das Saarland; http://www.lwk-saarland.de/
• Sachsen: Sächsisches Landesamt für Umwelt, Landwirtschaft und Geologie,
http://www.smul.sachsen.de/lfulg/index.html
About soil erosion: http://www.smul.sachsen.de/landwirtschaft/11940.htm
• Sachsen-Anhalt: Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Forsten und Gartenbau, http://www.llg-lsa.de/
• Schleswig-Holstein: Ministerium für Landwirtschaft, Umwelt und ländliche Räume,
http://www.schleswig-holstein.de/UmweltLandwirtschaft/DE/LandFischRaum/ein_node.html
Landwirtschaftskammer Schleswig-Holstein: http://lwksh.de/cms/
• Thüringer Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft (TLL) http://www.thueringen.de/de/tll/
On grain maize: http://www.tll.de/ainfo/pdf/ll_kmais.pdf ;
silage maize: http://www.tll.de/ainfo/pdf/sima0807.pdf
http://www.nagref.gr/ publishes the “Journal of the National Agricultural Research Foundation”
Greece
the National Agricultural Research Foundation
(NAGREF)
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the Benaki Phytopathological Institute (BPI) http://www.bpi.gr/pages/category.asp edits twice a year the “Hellenic Plant Protection Journal”
Michaelakis A.N., Papadopoulos N.T., Antonatos S.A., Zarpas K.and Papachristos D.P., 2010, First
data on the occurrence of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in
Greece, Hellenic Plant Protection Journal 3: 29-32.
Hungary
Hungarian seed association http://www.vszt.hu/nyito.php?lang=a, no relevant <strong>information</strong>
Agricultural Research Institute of the Hungarian Maize breeding and crop research, http://www.mgki.hu/maize-research
Academy of Sciences Martonvásár
Acta Agronomica Hungarica publishes a.o. on crop research,
http://www.akademiai.com/content/119692
Micskei G., Jóczák I., Berzsenky Z., 2010, Studies on the farmyard manure and mineral fertiliser on
the growth of maize (Zea mays L.) in a long-term experiment. I. Using the classical form of plant
growth analysis. Acta Agronomica Hungarica 58(3): 227–238.
Cereal Research Non-Profit Ltd. Szeged http://www.gk-szeged.hu/
Cereal Research Communications, http://akkrt.metapress.com/content/0133-3720/
Central Agricultural Office www.mgszh.gov.hu operates as a plant production authority, soil protection authority, food-chain
inspectorate, breeding authority, forestry authority, hunting authority, fishing authority, wine-growing
authority, agricultural managerial authority, pálinka (brandy) controlling authority and an agricultural
damage assessment organization.
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development www.fvm.hu
Agricultural and Rural Development Agency www.mvh.gov.hu
Association of Hungarian Plant Breeders www.plantbreeders.hu
Italy
Ministry of Agriculture http://www.politicheagricole.it/default.html
Agricultural Research Council (CRA)
http://sito.entecra.it/
Unità di ricerca per la maiscoltura
http://www.maiscoltura.it scientific publications, Journal ‘Maydica’
National Research Council (CNR) www.cnr.it
The Netherlands
Landbouw, Natuur en Visserij (LNV)
Information on manure:
(Ministerie van Economische Zaken, Landbouw http://www.hetlnvloket.nl/portal/page?_pageid=122,1780591&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL
en Innovatie)
Tables for 2010-2013:
http://www.hetlnvloket.nl/portal/page?_pageid=122,1785923&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&p_do
cument_id=289200&p_node_id=6547617&p_mode
Ministerie van Economische Zaken, Landbouw en Nota Duurzame gewasbescherming – Beleid voor gewasbescherming tot 2010
innovatie
http://www.minlnv.nl/portal/page?_pageid=116,1640743&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&p_docum
ent_id=109845&p_node_id=10412638&p_mode=
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Wageningen UR Livestock Research http://www.asg.wur.nl/NL/
http://www.bemestingsadvies.nl/
Van Schooten H., Philipsen B. and Groten J. (2009) Handboek snijmaïs, Wageningen UR Livestock
Research, 190p.
http://www.handboeksnijmais.nl/
Van der Lans, M., Dekking A., Rovers J., De Haan J., 200, Best practices gewasbescherming
akkerbouw en vollegrondsgroenten. Praktijkonderzoek Plant en Omgeving B.V., 68p.
http://documents.plant.wur.nl/ppo/agv/330-1-agv.pdf
LTO Nederland (Land- en Tuinbouw Organisatie) Entrepreneurial and employers' organization for the agricultural sector. No guidelines/studies on the
topic found. http://www.lto.nl/templates/dispatcher.asp?page_id=25222754
Productschap akkerbouw Organization of and for the arable industry, starting with the basic materials sector to the retail
(processed) agricultural produce, mainly cereals, potatoes and sugar. Recommendations about
preventing diseases. No guidelines/studies on the topic found.
http://www.productschapakkerbouw.nl/algemeen/welkom
Kennisakker http://www.kennisakker.nl/kenniscentrum/goedepraktijk
Poland
Ministry of Agriculture http://www.minrol.gov.pl/ , no relevant <strong>information</strong> found
Polski Związek Producentów Kukurydzy (PZPK) www.kukurydza.info.pl, no translations
Portugal
Associação Nacional dos Produtores de Milho e www.anpromis.pt
Sorgo (ANPROMIS)
recommendations on how to cultivate maize
Ministry of Agriculture, of Rural Development and Code of good agricultural practices (1997, under review) on fertilisation and protection of surface and
Fisheries (MADRP: Ministério da Agricultura, do groundwater, irrigation management
Desenvolvimento Rural e das Pescas)
Basic Guide to Agricultural Practices (2000) in management of irrigation, the use of pesticides and
fertilizers
Romania
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development http://www.madr.ro
AgroWeb Romania http://www.farmnet.eu/
Slovakia
Zväz pestovateľov a spracovateľov kukurice www.zpsk.sk aim to create the appropriate business conditions for its members
(ZPSK) Association of corn growers and no relevant <strong>information</strong> found
processors
Slovenia
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food http://www.mkgp.gov.si/en/
National chamber of agriculture and forestry of Agricultural advisory service; to represent and to protect the interests of agriculture, forestry and
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Slovenia fishery; Provides free technical aid in agricultural, forestry, legal and economic consultancy.
Spain
Asociación general de productores de maiz de http://www.agpme.es/
España (AGPME)
IRTA, a research institute of the Government of http://www.irta.cat/en-US/Pages/default.aspx
Catalonia attached to the Department of
Agriculture, Food and Rural Action
Ministerio de medio ambiente y medio rural y Good agricultural practices
marino (MARM)
http://www.marm.es/es/agricultura/temas/condicionalidad/cuadroguia.aspx
United Kingdom
DEFRA / FERA http://ww2.defra.gov.uk/
Statistics on pesticide use
‘Pesticide usage survey report 232: grassland and fodder crops in Great Britain 2009
http://www.fera.defra.gov.uk/plants/pesticideUsage/documents/grassland2009.pdf
Drew Associates, 2006, Assessment of the agronomic impact of Directive 91/414/EEC (and a draft
regulation intended to replace it) and legislation on maximum residue levels, final report to DEFRA
http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/uploadedfiles/Web_Assets/PSD/Agronomic_impact.pdf
Maize growers Association http://www.maizegrowersassociation.co.uk/ no relevant <strong>information</strong>, members only?
FSE Champion G.T., May M.J., Bennett S., Brooks D.R., Clark S.J., Daniels R.E., Firbank L.G., Haughton
A.J., Hawes C., Heard M.S., Perry J.N., Randle Z., Rossall M.J., Rothery P., Skellern M.P., Scott R.J.,
Squire G.R., and Thomas M.R., 2003, Crop management and agronomic context of the Farm Scale
Evaluations of genetically modified herbicide–tolerant crops. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B, 358:1801-
1818.
SCIMAC, 1999. Guidelines for growing newly Not relevant for this survey
developed herbicide tolerant crops. May 1999
Environmental performance review of Spain, January 2008,
http://www.marm.es/es/estadistica/temas/estadisticasambientales/spainmidtermva_webconclusionesocde2008_tcm7-15373.pdf
International
OECD, Working Party on Environmental
Performance
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