Injectable Anesthesia and Analgesia of Birds by J. Paul ... - Ufersa

In: Recent Advances in Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia: Companion Animals, R. D. Gleed and J. W.
Ludders (Eds.)
Publisher: International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.
Injectable Anesthesia and Analgesia of Birds ( 5-Aug-2001 )
J. Paul-Murphy and J. Fialkowski
School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
Isoflurane is the anesthetic of choice for most avian anesthetic procedures. However, inhalation anesthesia is not always
available in field situations involving wild birds, although small portable inhalation anesthesia units are available. Certain
surgical procedures, such as tracheal resection, may warrant the use of injectable anesthesia regardless of whether or not an
anesthesia machine is available [1]. Anesthetic gases can escape from the bird during surgical procedures that disrupt air sacs,
or the extension of air sacs into pneumatic bones, and thereby expose staff to anesthetic gases. Advantages of injectable
anesthetic agents include rapid administration, low cost, and minimal equipment. Some anesthetic agents can be reversed, an
important advantage when working in field situations. Injectable anesthetics are frequently used in large, long legged birds,
such as ratites, when physical restraint is impossible or dangerous. Injectable anesthetics used in birds include barbiturates,
chloral hydrate, alpha chloralose, phenothiazines, dissociatives, alpha- 2
adrenergic agonists, alphaxalone/alphadolone and
propofol [2]. Some of these anesthetics, such as barbiturates, chloral hydrate, alpha chloralose and alphaxalone/alphadolone,
are no longer recommended and will not be discussed here.
The greatest disadvantage of injectable anesthetics is individual and species variation relative to drug dose and response to a
specific drug. Elimination of an injected drug depends on distribution, biotransformation and excretion. While we recognize
species differences within domestic animals and tailor drug and dose accordingly, we nonetheless tend to treat all birds as if
they belonged to one genus or species; as if, for instance, the pigeon is the same as an ostrich when in fact these two birds are
as phylogenetically different from each other as the horse is from the cat. Pharmacokinetic studies of antimicrobial drugs in
different species of birds have shown that kinetics vary significantly between species and even between birds of the same
order such as cockatiels and Amazon parrots (both Psittaformes). Therefore data collected on an injectable anesthetic using a
pigeon may not be directly transferable to another species of bird. Nevertheless, information collected on one avian species is
likely to be better for extrapolation to another avian species than are data from mammalian species.
It is important that the overall clinical condition of the bird be considered during selection of an anesthetic protocol. Precise
body weight in grams is essential for accurate dosing. When using injectable anesthetics for birds it is difficult to maintain a
surgical plane of anesthesia. The risk of cardiopulmonary depression is high and warrants careful monitoring during an
anesthetic procedure. Orotracheal intubation of the anesthetized patient allows for supplemental oxygen and positive pressure
ventilation if needed. A ventilation rate of 2 breaths per minute assists the spontaneously ventilating bird. When birds are
apneic, the ventilatory rate should be 10 - 15 breaths per minute. In the bird, both inspiration and expiration require skeletal
muscle activity and most anesthetics depress muscular activity, thus reducing air flow rate and oxygen exchange. Assisted or
controlled ventilation ensures air flow and improves gas exchange at the level of the parabronchus and air capillaries.
Intubation provides a patent airway that permits easy control of ventilation in emergency situations. Nevertheless, intubation
is not recommended in very small birds because dried mucus may obstruct very narrow endotracheal tubes and the
endotracheal tube may increase resistance to airflow because of a significant decrease in tracheal diameter.
It is recommended to calculate and prepare doses of standard emergency and supportive drugs such as epinephrine,
doxapram, lidocaine, and atropine before inducing anesthesia. The small size of many avian patients requires accurate dosing
of very small volumes or dilution of standard concentrations. Having these drugs prepared and in labeled syringes saves time
and anxiety in critical situations.
Rapid anesthetic recoveries are best for birds. Birds appear very disoriented during recovery and tend to flap their wings and
twist their head and neck. Holding the patient in a light towel wrap or rolling the bird into a loose newspaper "burrito"
provides mild restraint to prevent chaotic body movements. Keeping the bird in a warm, quiet, dark place also aids a smooth
recovery.
Injection Sites
In most birds, intramuscular injections are best given in the pectoral muscles. In flightless birds, such as ratites, pectoral

muscle mass is minimal, thus the thigh muscles are preferred. Subcutaneous injections are not advocated because uptake of
anesthetic is slowed, but if selected the recommended site is the inguinal region. Intravenous sites for injection or
catheterization include the right jugular vein, brachial vein, or the medial metatarsal vein. Intraosseous catheters are useful
when venous access is difficult, as occurs with hypotensive birds or very small birds. Intraosseous catheters can be placed in
the proximal ulna or the cranial tibiotarsus. Uptake of the drug is comparable to intravenous injection of the drug [3].
Local Anesthetics
The toxicity of lidocaine is similar for birds as it is for mammals and it has been reported to cause seizures and cardiac arrest
[4]. Toxicity can be prevented by using appropriate concentrations and volumes. Lidocaine (1 - 2 mg/kg) can be used as a
local anesthetic or to treat ventricular arrhythmias [4], and the maximal dose is 4 mg/kg. For the small avian patient this often
requires that the stock concentration of lidocaine (2%; 20 mg/ml) be diluted. Because of reluctance to use local anesthetics in
birds, information regarding long-acting local anesthetics, such as bupivacaine, is sparse. Topical benzocaine has been used
for local analgesia during repair of minor wounds in small birds [5]. A 1:1 mixture of bupivacaine and dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO) was applied to amputated chicken beaks immediately after amputation and feed intake was improved [6]. Intraarticular
bupivacaine, at a dosage of 3 mg in 0.3 ml saline, was reported to be effective for treating arthritic pain in chickens
[7].
Benzodiazepines
Diazepam and midazolam can reduce anxiety during anesthetic induction and recovery. These sedatives work best if given
10 - 20 min prior to further manipulations. The bird’s behavior does not often reflect pre-anesthetic sedation, but birds appear
to struggle less during restraint. High doses of midazolam produced sufficient sedation in geese to facilitate restraint for
diagnostic procedures [8]. This is highly advantageous with dangerous birds such as large raptors, and long-legged birds such
as cranes and ratites. The sedative effect of these drugs is evident during recovery which is slow and smooth. No studies have
been done to determine the duration of effect for diazepam or midazolam. The benzodiazepines provide muscle relaxation
when used in conjunction with ketamine and reduce the level of isoflurane needed for anesthesia [9]. Flumazenil
administered IV, helps to reverse benzodiazepine-induced sedation and restores alertness as long as enough time has passed
so that additional anesthetic agents are no longer effective.
Dissociatives
Ketamine is rarely used alone because it is associated with poor muscle relaxation, muscle tremors, myotonic contractions,
opisthotonus and rough recoveries [1, 10-12]. The dose of ketamine depends on body weight, and its dosing follows the
principles of allometric scaling so that large birds (>1 Kg) respond to 10 - 20 mg/kg whereas small birds (< 50 grams) require
much higher doses, e.g. 70 - 80 mg/kg. Additionally, there is inter-species variability in the response to ketamine. For
example, ketamine causes salivation, excitation and convulsions when given to vultures but these signs are rare in other birds
[12]. When effective, anesthesia occurs within 5 - 10 min of intramuscular injection and may last 5 - 20 min depending on the
dose and size of the bird. Recovery from ketamine, until the bird can perch or stand, can take 40 - 100 min, depending on
dose, body temperature, metabolic health, and size of the bird. It is recommended that ketamine not be used alone and be
combined with benzodiazepines or alpha 2
-adrenergic agonists to improve relaxation and depth of anesthesia.
Tiletamine and Zolazepam
Telazol® combines the effects of a dissociative drug (tiletamine) and a benzodiazepine (zolazepam). This combination has
similarities to ketamine plus midazolam, but the smaller volume of Telazol that is typically used for anesthesia can be an
advantage. At doses of 5 or 10 mg/kg it was an effective and safe anesthetic for great horned owls and screech owls although
decreased heart and respiratory rates were noted [13]. Telazol at the same dose was unsatisfactory for anesthesia of red tailed
hawks as they responded with salivation, and elevated heart and respiratory rates [13]. Despite the lack of information on
Telazol in a variety of avian species, the primary disadvantage seems to be that a high dose provides anesthesia of short
duration followed by a long (2 - 4 hour) and sometimes difficult recovery [11].
Alpha 2
-adrenergic agonists
Xylazine, detomidine and medetomidine are usually used in combination with ketamine. The alpha- 2
-adrenergic agonists
provide muscle relaxation, analgesia and sedation which smoothes induction and recovery. The greatest advantage of this
group of drugs is the availability of specific antagonists to reverse the effects, allowing for smooth and rapid recovery.
Atipamezole is recommended to reverse medetomidine and detomidine, and will also reverse the effects of xylazine.
Yohimbine has been used in raptors and psittacines to reverse the effects of xylazine, both alone or in combination with
ketamine [14-16]. Similar results were noted when tolazoline was used in turkey vultures to shorten xylazine plus ketamine
anesthesia [17]. When reversing an alpha 2
-adrenergic agonist used in combination with ketamine, reversal must be timed so

as to avoid the bird recovering under the effects of ketamine alone as this can result in a rough recovery.
Alpha 2
-adrenergic agonist drugs are not recommended as single anesthetic or immobilization agents for birds. In pigeons and
Amazon parrots, high doses of medetomidine had a sedative effect but did not immobilize the birds [18]. Xylazine
administered alone causes respiratory depression, excitation, convulsions and prolonged recovery [12]. All alpha 2
-adrenergic
agonists have profound cardiopulmonary effects. Xylazine and medetomidine cause decreases in HR, RR, blood pH,
hypoxemia, and hypercarbia [4,12,14,18]. The arrythmogenic effects of the alpha 2
-adrenergic agonists can lead to
cardiovascular instability and, when coupled with hypoventilation and hypercarbia, can have an irreversible, fatal effect.
Alpha 2
-adrenergic agonist drugs are a poor choice of anesthetic, alone or in combination, when a bird is highly stressed.
General excitement can effectively over-ride the sedative effects of alpha 2
-adrenergic agonists, although the mechanism for
this effect is not clear. Therefore, when using alpha 2
-adrenergic agonist drugs, approach the bird quietly, inject the drug and
place the bird back into a familiar, quiet and dimly lit enclosure while waiting for the drug to take effect. The induction
period is 5 - 10 min, depending on dose and size of the bird. Ratites, raptors and long-billed birds can have a hood placed
over the head for calming when a dark cage is not available.
Xylazine plus ketamine combinations have been evaluated in several avian species. Blood pressure becomes elevated, heart
rate is decreased, and hypoxemia, hypoventilation, and hypercapnia occur [19-20].
An anesthetic combination consisting of medetomidine, midazolam and ketamine was evaluated and found to be unsafe for
use in ducks [21] as it caused bradycardia, primarily attributed to the medetomidine [21,22]. Medetomidine also decreases
respiratory rate. Apnea followed by a fatal decrease in heart rate and blood pressure was documented in four of twelve ducks
receiving medetomidine [21]. Atipamezole and flumazenil were given intravenously to reverse medetomidine and
midazolam, respectively, and the ducks rapidly regained consciousness and voluntary movement [21].
Propofol
Propofol is an intravenously administered anesthetic with rapid onset, smooth induction, short duration of effect, and smooth,
rapid recovery. Intravenous catheters are highly recommended for its administration because the drug must be given slowly
for induction and often given repeatedly to maintain anesthesia. A maximum of 2 mg/kg bolus every 30 seconds is
recommended for induction, after which 0.5 - 1.0 mg/kg/min is used to maintain surgical anesthesia [1,23]. In a study using
ducks, propofol was given as an initial IV bolus and was constantly bolused at 1 - 4 mg/kg every 5 min to maintain a light
plane of anesthesia [21]. In studies that monitored cardiopulmonary responses to propofol, mean arterial pressure (MAP)
decreased significantly [1,23]. A short period of apnea following induction is a consistent finding [21,22,24] and respiratory
depression can occur during induction and maintenance with propofol [23, 24]. Cardiac arrhythmias including ventricular
premature contractions and ventricular tachycardia, were common in chickens and profound bradycardia was noted in ducks
after the initial bolus of propofol [21,23]. Propofol has a narrow margin of safety in birds and supplemental oxygen and
respiratory assistance must be provided to counteract apnea, hypoventilation and hypoxemia [21,23-25].
Anticholinergics
The use of anticholinergics for birds is controversial. Indeed, atropine and glycopyrrolate are effective for the treatment of
vagally induced bradycardia [26]. Some argue, however, that they cause respiratory secretions to become more viscous and
thus more likely to plug narrow endotracheal tubes [27]. Others [28] recommend anticholinergics for their ability to reduce
respiratory mucus production and prevent formation of mucus plugs in small endotracheal tubes [4]. The oculocardiac reflex
has been reported in a cockatiel and suggests that treatment with an anticholinergic prior to or during ocular surgery may
prevent this reflex which is thought to be caused by ocular manipulation resulting in cardiac dysrhythmias [29].
Ratites (Ostriches, Emus, Cassowaries and Rheas)
In these large birds, injectable anesthetics are frequently used for short procedures and for induction of anesthesia prior to
inhalation anesthesia. Several reports have been written on anesthetic protocols for ratites and a recent review compared the
most common protocols [22,30-35]. These bird, when healthy, are too strong and unpredictable for simple mask induction
with inhaled anesthetics. Intravenous injections can be given in the jugular vein or brachial vein, although the emu’s brachial
vein is small and difficult to access. Placing a catheter in the jugular, brachial, or medial metatarsal vein will facilitate IV
injection and induction. Injectable anesthetics most commonly used for ratites include combinations of Alpha 2
-adrenergic
agonists followed by ketamine, or a benzodiazepine followed by ketamine, tiletamine-zolazepam, carfentanil or etorphine
[28,34]. Benzodiazepines given prior to induction help produce smooth inductions and smooth but slow recoveries. Induction
with tiletamine/zolazepam is excellent and rapid, although when given IV, violent recoveries have been reported [30,34].
Benzodiazepines given with tiletamine-zolazepam will smooth recovery [30]. Induction with xylazine-ketamine is adequate,
but recovery can be difficult [34]. Carfentanil is not recommended due to an excitatory response even when used with
xylazine [34]. When etorphine was combined with medetomidine, recumbency occurred rapidly, birds were sedate and
muscle relaxation was adequate [33]. Other etorphine combinations, when given to free-ranging ostriches, caused initial

excitement [33], although darting procedures, regardless of the anesthetic, can create a period of excitement. Medetomidine
as a sole anesthetic agent is ineffective in the ostrich [35]. When medetomidine was combined with ketamine and followed
by intravenous propofol, it was an effective combination for chemical immobilization of captive ostriches, although positive
pressure ventilation was recommended [22]. Apnea is a common occurrence during ostrich anesthesia, regardless of the
induction agents selected. Ventilatory support is highly recommended for this group of birds.
Analgesia
Opioids -
The early literature regarding the use of opioids in birds is confusing and contradictory. For example, one study used two
different strains of chickens to evaluate the analgesic effect of equal doses of morphine. Based on their response to a noxious
thermal stimulus, one strain had a hyperalgesic response while another strain had an analgesic response [36]. With many such
conflicting results in the literature, it was assumed that opioids were not effective analgesics for birds. More recently, the
physiological effects of opioids on birds have been documented using isoflurane-sparing techniques [37-39]. In these studies,
unpremedicated birds are anesthetized with isoflurane. The minimal anesthetic concentration (MAC) is determined in each
bird, after which each bird is injected with an analgesic and MAC is again determined. A significant reduction of MAC
indicates that the drug being tested has analgesic properties. Using this technique, the analgesic effects of butorphanol were
evaluated in cockatoos, African grey parrots, and Amazon parrots. Butorphanol at 1 mg/kg was found to be analgesic in
African gray parrots and cockatoos, but not Amazon parrots [38,39]. Following injection of butorphanol, heart rate, tidal
volume, and inspiratory and expiratory times were all significantly decreased [38,39]. A similar study compared mu and
kappa opioids in chickens and both drugs had isoflurane-sparing effects [37].
Recent studies evaluated the effects of butorphanol and buprenorphine in conscious parrots [40,41]. In African grey parrots,
butorphanol (1 - 2 mg/kg, IM) had an analgesic effect while large doses of buprenorphine had no significant analgesic effect
[41]. In Hispanolian parrots, higher doses of butorphanol (3 mg/kg) were needed to produce a similar analgesic effect (J.
Paul-Murphy, personal observation). Species variability in response to opioids does occur and caution is advised when
extrapolating butorphanol doses from one avian species to another. Fentanyl (0.02 mg/kg, IM), a synthetic mu agonist, was
tested in a similar fashion in cockatoos, and was found to have little analgesic effect; a higher dose (0.2 mg/kg, SQ) was
analgesic (S. Hoppes, unpublished data). This may be due to fentanyl binding both mu and kappa receptors when given at
high doses. An excitement phase was noted in several of the birds shortly after fentanyl was injected (S. Hoppes, unpublished
data). The duration of effect of all of these opioids has only been evaluated empirically and their duration of effect may be as
short as 2 - 4 hours.
Pharmacodynamic studies have demonstrated that pigeons have more kappa opioid receptors than mu opioid receptors [42].
This one piece of information in pigeons is used to explain why birds do not respond as do mammals to mu agonists like
morphine, buprenorphine and fentanyl, and why kappa opioids, such as butorphanol, may be more efficacious analgesic in
birds. Butorphanol is currently recommended for opioid analgesia in birds, and it can be given as a pre-operative and postoperative
analgesic. When butorphanol is used as an induction agent and pre-operative analgesic the concentration of
isoflurane needed for anesthesia will be reduced.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
There are several categories of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), but few have been investigated in birds and
even fewer have been evaluated for clinical application [26,43]. Much of the information about doses and effects for birds has
been gained through practical application. Studies using chickens have provided pharmacokinetic information on oral dosing
of a few NSAIDS and short half-life and low bioavailability were common findings, but pharmacokinetic studies are a poor
predictor of analgesic efficacy [44-46].
In mammalian species, NSAIDS are synergistic with other classes of analgesic agents and may be most effective for perioperative
analgesia when used in combination with opioids [47]. In birds, as in other species, pre-emptive use of NSAIDS
may decrease tissue sensitization caused by surgical trauma and may reduce the period of post-operative opioid therapy.
The most commonly used NSAIDS in avian medicine today are carprofen and ketoprofen. The proprionic acid class of
NSAIDS are analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic in mammals and are expected to have similar effects in birds.
Chickens given a 1 mg/kg subcutaneous dose of carprofen had peak plasma levels 1 - 2 hours after injection and pain
thresholds were raised for at least 90 min [48]. When carprofen-treated feed was offered to chickens, lame chickens selected
more drugged feed than sound birds and the amount of carprofen consumed increased with the severity of lameness [49].
Low plasma concentrations of carprofen (0.28 µg/ml) provided some analgesia for birds, but to reach plasma levels of 8.3
µg/ml, similar to therapeutic plasma levels in mammals, an equivalent of 40 mg/kg body weight per bird was needed in the
feed [48].
A documented side effect of NSAIDS in mammals is gastrointestinal ulceration and bleeding due to inhibition of
prostaglandin synthesis. A similar toxic effect in birds was reported when high dosages of flunixin meglumide (10 mg/kg)

caused regurgitation and tenesmus in budgerigars [43]. The most serious complication of flunixin meglumide in birds is renal
ischemia. Bobwhite quail experimentally given daily intramuscular injections of flunixin meglumide for 7 days had
histological evidence of renal damage in all birds, even at doses as low as 0.1 mg/kg. Severity of the lesions was directly
correlated to the dose of flunixin meglumide with acute necrotizing glomerulitis, tophi in the renal tubules and visceral gout
occurring at 32 mg/kg [50]. Renal ischemia and necrosis has been documented in Siberian cranes treated with flunixin
meglumide (5 mg/kg) for muscle and skeletal trauma [51]. The use of flunixin meglumide currently is contraindicated in
cranes and used with great caution with other avian species.
Piroxicam is used in mammals to treat chronic inflammatory conditions such as arthritis. It as been used to treat chronic
degenerative joint disease in cranes and other species of birds and appears to provide mild to moderate improvement and
willingness to bear weight on affected limbs over extended treatment periods.
Drug Dosage (Dose), Route Species / Remarks Reference
Atipamezole
182 - 281 mg/kg (250 mg
dose), IV
Mallard ducks: to reverse medetomidine; rapidly regained
consciousness, struggled & flapped wings; tachycardia and
tachypnea observed.
Machin
[21]
0.2 mg/kg, IV; and 0.2
mg/kg, SC
Ostriches: to reverse medetomidine; half of the total 0.4
mg/kg dose was given IV, the other half SC; recovery was
smooth and ranged from ~14 - 28 min
Langan
[22]
3.75 - 10 mg/kg
Pigeons (Columbia livia) and Amazon Parrots (Amazona
spp.): Used to reverse medetomidine; the dose given was
2.5 or 5 times the medetomidine dose administered. No
differences were seen between the higher and lower doses.
Recovery was smooth and rapid; standing times were all
within 4 min
Sandmeier
[18]
0.25 - 1.0 mg/kg
Various avian species: Recommends a dose 5 times that of
medetomidine to reverse its effects.
Jalanka
[52]
0.5 - 2.5 mg/kg
Various avian species: Recommends a dose 5 times that of
medetomidine to reverse its effects.
Berthier
[53]
Atipamezole (A) /
Diprenorphine (D)
Atipamezole (A)
Flumazenil (F)
(A) 40 - 161 mg/kg (5 - 20
mg dose)
(D) 12 - 20 mg/kg (15 - 25
mg dose), IV
(A) 182 - 281 mg/kg (250
mg dose)
(F) 18 - 28 mg/kg (25 mg
dose), IV
Red-necked ostriches (Struthio camelus): to reverse
meditomidine/etorphine combination; lead to a fast but
violent recovery.
Mallard ducks: to reverse medetomidine/midazolam,
respectively; rapidly regained consciousness, struggled &
flapped wings; tachycardia and tachypnea observed.
Ostrowski
[33]
Machin
[21]
Atropine 0.006 mg/kg, IV Ratite; used to treat bradycardia. Lin [30]
Butorphanol (B)
1 - 2 mg/kg, IM
African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus): 6/11 birds had
an increased pain threshold to a noxious electrical stimulus
after administration of 1 mg/kg B (this may represent the
ED 50
for the drug); higher dosages such as 2 - 3 mg/kg have
been used to treat pain in subsequent studies without
adverse side effects (unpublished findings).
Cockatoos (Cacatua spp.): reduced isoflurane requirement
in cockatoos; heart rate was reduced by 12%; apnea was
not observed; respiratory rate increased by 77%, while tidal
volume decreased by 25%, thus having no significant net
effect on minute ventilation.
Paul-
Murphy
[41]
1 mg/kg, IM
Curro [38]
1 mg/kg, IM
Psittacines: significantly reduced isoflurane ED 50
in
cockatoos (Cacatua spp.) and African grey parrots
(Psittacus erithacus), but had no affect on the isoflurane
ED 50
in blue-fronted Amazons(Amazona aestiva aestiva).
Curro [39]

Drug Dosage (Dose), Route Species / Remarks Reference
Carfentanil
~0.03 mg/kg (3.3 mg
dose), IM
Ostrich (Struthio camelus): darted; marked initial
excitement phase, onset took 2 - 3 min, characterized as
breaking away from the group and running in an
uncontrolled manner; walking backwards, circling or
courtship behavior prior to recumbency; smooth reversal
with naltrexone, 3.0 mg/kg.
Raath, et al.
[31]
Carfentanil (C) /
5% Isoflurane
(C) 0.3 mg/kg, IM
Ratites: initial excitement phase, 5 min; apnea while under
5% isoflurane maintenance anesthesia and after isoflurane
was discontinued.
Cornick and
Jensen [34]
Carfentanil (C) /
Xylazine (X)
(C) 0.03 mg/kg (3 mg
dose) /
(X) 1.5 mg/kg (150 mg
dose), IM
Ostrich (Struthio camelus): darted; initial excitement
phase, onset took 2 - 3 min; recumbency in ~ 5 min;
subjective assessment was that xylazine decreased the
initial excitement level; smooth reversal with
naltrexone/yohimbine, 3.0 / 0.125 mg/kg, respectively.
Raath, et al.
[31]
Carprofen
1.0 mg/kg, SC
Chickens: improved ability of moderately lame birds to
walk.
McGeown,
et al. [48]
0.4 - 40 mg/kg/day
Broiler Chickens: Self-selection of three doses of
carprofen coated feed (3.4, 34.3, and 343 mg/kg of feed)
or normal feed; carprofen feeding improved gait in lame
birds; lame birds selected more feed containing carprofen
than did sound birds; consumption of carprofen-feed
increased with the severity of lameness.
Chickens: D diluted to a 0.2% solution prior to use; D
administered prior to K into opposite thigh muscles;
smoothly induced anesthesia within 4 min and lasted ~ 47
min; analgesia evident in 8 min and lasted 28 min; muscle
relaxation good; respiratory rate significantly decreased
from baseline; corneal reflex remained present.
Chickens: duration of analgesia and anesthesia
significantly prolonged with 20 mg/kg vs.10 mg/kg dosage
of K, as noted above; smoothly induced anesthesia within
3 min and lasted for ~94 min; analgesia was evident in 6
min and lasted 63 min
Danbury, et
al. [49]
Detomidine (D) /
Ketamine (K)
(D) 0.3 mg/kg, IM /
(K) 10 mg/kg, IM
Mohammad,
et al. [55]
(D) 0.3 mg/kg, IM /
(K) 20 mg/kg, IM
Mohammad,
et al. [55]
Diazepam
0.13 - 0.41 mg/kg, IV
Ratites: used to smooth recovery from
tiletamine/zolazepam.
Lin [30]
Diprenorphine
~100 - 240 mg/kg (12 - 30
mg dose), IV
Red-necked ostriches (Struthio camelus): to reverse
etorphine; lead to a fast but violent recovery.
Ostrowski
[33]
Doxapram
5 mg/kg, IV or intralingual
Ostriches (Struthio camelus): experiencing respiratory
distress; ventilated mechanically.
Ostrowski
[33]
Equithesin
2.5 ml/kg, IM
Chickens: drowsiness observed 3 - 5 min after
administration; pain reflexes remained and birds were
easily aroused.
Christensen,
et al. [10]
Equithesin (E) /
Diazepam (D)
(E) 2.5 ml/kg, IM /
(D) 2.5 mg/kg, IV
Chickens: D administered 15 min after E resulted in
immediate surgical anesthesia which lasted 60 - 90 min,
for long-duration surgical procedures; depth of anesthesia
increased with increased diazepam doses.
Christensen,
et al. [10]
Etorphine (E) /
Ketamine (K)
(E) 40 - 72 mg/kg (5 - 9
mg dose) /
(K) 1.0 - 1.5 mg/kg (120 -
180 mg dose), IM
Ostriches (Struthio camelus): darted; initial excitation
phase; mean time to recumbency 12 min; deep sedation
but short duration, 9 - 15 min; risk of over-exertion
myopathy, apnea, and bradycardia; reversal with
diprenorphine resulted in quick but violent recoveries.
Ostrowski
[33]

Drug Dosage (Dose), Route Species / Remarks Reference
Etorphine (E) /
Medetomidine (M)
(E) 64 - 72 mg/kg (8 - 9
mg dose) /
(M) 32 - 64 mg/kg (4 - 8
mg dose), IM
Ostriches (Struthio camelus): darted; initial excitation
phase; mean time to recumbency 8 min; deep sedation but
short duration, 8 - 16 min; risk of over-exertion myopathy,
apnea, and bradycardia; reversal with
diprenorphine/atipamezole resulted in quick but violent
recoveries.
Ostrowski
[33]
Flunixin
meglumine (FM),
(NSAID)
4 mg/kg IM
African grey (Psittacus erithacus) and blue-fronted
Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva aestiva): Does not have
an isoflurane-sparing effect.
Curro [39]
0.1 - 32.0 mg/kg, IM
Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus): Six dosage
groups were administered FM, SID, for 7 days; all six
groups had significantly more mineralized deposits in renal
glomeruli than seen in controls and the severity increased
with dosage; no changes in renal function indicators; at
highest dosage, 32 mg/kg, necrosis was observed at the
injection site.
Klein, et
al. [50]
5 mg/kg, IM
Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos): Thromboxane (TBX)
levels significantly suppressed for at least 4 hr; pain
responses were not assessed, so there was no correlation
made between degree of TBX inhibition and degree of
analgesia; muscle necrosis of ~1 - 2 cc at the injection site;
may not be suitable for use in ducks.
Machin et
al., [56]
5.26 mg/liter of drinking
water
Broiler Chickens: survival times improved when treated
water was supplied for three days prior to heat stress;
peripheral prostaglandin F was unaffected by treatment;
mechanism of action unclear.
Oliver and
Birrenkott
[54]
Flumazenil
0.1 mg/kg, IM
Quail (Colinus virginianus): reversal of midazolam (6
mg/kg); time to complete recovery from heavy sedation
averaged 1.6 min; birds progressed from dorsal
recumbency to flight without relapse into sedation.
Day and
Roge [57]
Glycopyrrolate 0.011 mg/kg, IV Ostriches (Struthio camelus): to treat bradycardia
Ibuprofen
Indomethacin
25 mg/kg, IV
50 mg/kg, IM, PO
50 mg/kg, IV
2 mg/kg, IV, PO
Chickens: pharmacokinetic study with no assessment of
analgesic effects; shorter half-life than in dogs; low
bioavailability (F= 46.7% IM and 24.2% PO) compared to
mammals. high pH in the crop may have precipitated the
drug in the g.i. tract; unpredictable crop emptying and
decreased motility of the crop due to handling the birds
could have affected absorption.
Broiler Chickens: Acute toxicity! Exhibited
hyperexcitability, respiratory distress and death within 3
min; these central nervous system signs have not been
reported in other species; postulated that this may be a
nonpharmacological effect such as the displacement of
other albumin bound ions (Ca or Mg) that leads to acute
toxicity.
Chickens: pharmacokinetic study with no assessment of
analgesic effects; a large volume of distribution (suggesting
tissue retention by peripheral tissues and/or high binding to
plasma proteins with a slow return of the drug to the
blood); slow but sustained oral absorption, attributed to
high pH and unpredictable emptying of the crop, lead to
mean residence times that were five times larger with the
PO route than by IV administration; from the oral Cmax
range of 0.5 - 1.1 mg/ml observed, they inferred that this
was an effective anti-inflammatory dose based studies in
mammals.
Ostrowski
[33]
Roder, et
al. [44]
Roder, et
al. [44]
Cristofol,
et al. [45]

Drug Dosage (Dose), Route Species / Remarks Reference
Ketamine
30 mg/kg, intraosseous
Chickens: tendency towards decreased heart rate and
systolic blood pressure after administration; failure rate for
cannulation and induction of anesthesia was 21% (3/14);
some thrashing during induction; time to induction ~ 20
seconds; time to recovery ~ 19 - 34 min
Valverde, et
al. [3]
Ketamine, D (+), L
(-), or D/L (+/-)
racemic mixture
10 mg/kg (+), IV; or
20 mg/kg (+/-), IV; or
30 mg/kg (-), IV
Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus): The (+) isomer
provided an equal duration of immobility and significantly
greater muscle relaxation compared to a three-fold greater
dose of the (-) isomer. Apnea and cardiac irregularities
occurred only with the (-) isomer and the racemate.
Redig, et al.
[58]
Ketamine (K) /
Diazepam (D)
(K) 75 mg/kg, IM /
(D) 2.5 mg/kg, IV
Chickens: K administration brought on a tranquilized state,
arousal from which elicited excitation; pain reflexes
remained and handling brought on muscle contractions or
tremor; D administration after 10 min deepened the
tranquilized state but did not reach a surgical plane of
anesthesia; heart rate was significantly decreased during
the anesthetized period.
Christensen,
et al. [10]
10 - 50 mg/kg, IM / 0.5 -
2.0, IM or IV
Pet Birds: (K) doses can be halved for IV use; less cardiac
depressant effect than a ketamine/xylazine combination;
good choice for very sick birds, but only if isoflurane
anesthesia is not available.
Wheler [59]
Ketamine (K) /
Diazepam (D) /
Atropine (A)
Ketamine (K) /
Medetomidine (M)
(K) 30 - 40 mg/kg /
(D) 1.0 - 1.5 mg/kg /
(A) 0.05 mg/kg, IV
(K) 2 mg/kg, IM /
(M) 80 mg/kg, IV
(K) 3 - 5 mg/kg / (M) 50 -
100 mg/kg, IM; or
(K) 2 - 4 mg/kg / (M) 25 -
75 mg/kg, IV
(K) 3 - 7 mg/kg / (M) 75 -
150 mg/kg, IM
(K) 2 - 5 mg/kg / (M) 50 -
100 mg/kg, IV
(K) 5 - 10 mg/kg / (M)
100 - 200 mg/kg, IM or IV
Raptors: diazepam decreased the ketamine dosage; owls
may require < half of this dosage; overweight individuals
need divided doses; if the total dose of ketamine exceeds
50 mg it should be given in divided doses of < 50 mg at 2 -
3 min intervals
Ostriches (Struthio camelus): preanesthesia: profound
sedation & sternal recumbency in 6/8 birds, two birds were
moderately sedated but remained standing; provided
immobilization; reversed with atipamezole (after propofol
anesthesia was discontinued)
Raptors: induction 2 - 7 min, IM, and 10 - 30 sec., after IV
administration; induction period was calm; injection
volumes were small; respiration deep and regular;
myorelaxation was good; owls were especially susceptible
to the anesthetic effects; spontaneous recoveries were calm
and began ~10 - 20 min after injection; Reversal with
atipamezole was rapid.
Psittacines: induction 2 - 7 min, IM, and 10 - 30 sec., after
IV administration; induction period was calm; injection
volumes were small; respiration deep and regular;
myorelaxation was good; spontaneous recoveries were
calm and began ~10 - 20 min after injection; Reversal with
atipamezole was rapid.
Geese: induction 2 - 7 min, IM, and 10 - 30 sec., after IV
administration; induction period was calm; injection
volumes were small; respirations deep and regular;
myorelaxation was good; spontaneous recoveries were
calm and began ~10 - 20 min after injection; Reversal with
atipamezole was rapid.
Redig &
Duke [60]
Langan [22]
Jalanka [52]
Jalanka [52]
Jalanka [52]
(K) 4.6 - 28.0 mg/kg / (M)
93 - 500 mg/kg, IV
16 avian species with 1 - 11 birds/species (60 birds total);
the median dosage of ketamine was 8.2 mg/kg and the ~
median dosage of medetomidine 250 - 300 mg/kg;
Reversal with atipamezole
Berthier
[53]

Drug Dosage (Dose), Route Species / Remarks Reference
Ketamine (K) /
Medetomidine
(Me) /
Midazolam (Mi)
(K) 7.3 - 11.2 mg/kg (10
mg dose) / (Me) 36.5 - 56.2
mg/kg (50mg dose) / (Mi)
1.46 - 2.25 mg/kg (2 mg
dose), IV
Mallard ducks: 20 min duration; transient hypertension,
bradycardia, and apnea; decreased respiratory rate after
induction; resuscitation often required; survival risk;
reversal with atipamezole, 0.25 mg, and flumazenil, 0.025
mg, IV
Machin
[21]
Ketamine (K) /
Midazolam (M)
(K) 10 - 25 mg/kg / (M)
0.5 - 1.0 mg/kg, IM
Pet Birds: (M) is short-acting & contraindicated when
severe hepatic disease is present.
Wheler
[59]
Ketamine (K) /
Propofol (P)
(K) 20 mg/kg, IM / (P)
4.1 - 8.6 mg/kg (to effect),
IV
Pigeons (Columbia livia): ketamine followed by repeated
doses of propofol provided ~ 3.5 min loss of muscle tone
and pedal reflexes for each dose of propofol. Increased
heart rate and decreased respiration within first minute
after propofol administration. Apnea occurred after 62% of
the propofol incremental doses. Assisted ventilation was
necessary to revive the bird if the apnea was prolonged.
Budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus): no response to toe
pinch within 5 min; anesthesia was effective for 45 + min
2/14 birds died; one at 44 min and the other at 220 min
after ketamine/xylazine administration. Reversal with
yohimbine.
Fitzgerald
& Cooper
[25]
Ketamine (K) /
Xylazine (X)
(K) 40 mg/kg / (X) 10
mg/kg, IM
Heaton
and
Brauth
[16]
(K) 50 mg/kg / (X) 4
mg/kg, IM
Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis): lethal dose!
Lumeij
[20]
(K) 15 mg/kg / (X) 0.15
mg/kg, IM
Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus): immobilization
noted within five min; transient apnea during initial 5 min;
normal ventilation returned after 10 min Advise caution in
using repeated doses due to an observed deterioration in
cardiopulmonary stability. Supplemental oxygen improved
cardiopulmonary performance.
Raffe, et
al. [19]
(K) 50 mg/kg / (X) 4
mg/kg, IM
Pigeons: no satisfactory induction of anesthesia was
observed at this dosage.
Lumeij
[20]
(K) 4.4 mg/kg / (X) 2.2
mg/kg, IV
Red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis): adequate anesthesia
for ~ 15 min of diagnostic or surgical procedures;
significant respiratory and cardiovascular depression;
reversal with yohimbine, 0.10 mg/kg, IV
Degernes
[14]
(K) 5.0 mg/kg / (X) 1.0
mg/kg, IV
Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks (9 - 10 weeks): rapid
induction; corneal reflexes remained present while pedal
reflexes were lost in 3 of 4 birds for 2 - 7 min; anesthesia
maintained with the use of alphaxalone/alphadolone
Gandini,
et al. [32]
(K) 10 mg/kg / (X) 1
mg/kg, IM
Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura): Induction was observed
in ~5 min and anesthesia (dorsal recumbency) lasted ~110
min; good muscle relaxation was observed; reversal with
tolazoline was rapid.
Allen and
Oosterhuis
[17]
Ketoprofen
5 mg/kg, IM
Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos): Thromboxane (TBX)
levels significantly suppressed for at least 4 hr; pain
responses were not assessed, so there was no correlation
made between degree of TBX inhibition and degree of
analgesia.
Machin et
al., [56]
2 mg/kg, PO
Quail: pharmacokinetic study (poor predictor of NSAIDS
efficacy); "extremely short" half life and low
bioavailability (F= 23%) when administered orally.
Graham
[46]
Lidocaine
2 mg/kg, IV
Birds > 2 kg: local anesthetic; standard formulary must be
diluted prior to use to accurately measure usable volumes.
Ludders
[4]
0.5 mg/kg, IV
Chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus): Used to treat
ventricular tachycardia causing an arrhythmia in one bird.
Lukasik
[23]

Drug Dosage (Dose), Route Species / Remarks Reference
Medetomidine
Metomidate
Metomidate (M) /
Diazepam (D)
Midazolam
2.0 mg/kg, IM
2.0 mg/kg, IM
~18 mg/kg (2 g dose), IM
(M) 20 mg//kg, IM / (D)
2.5 mg/kg, IV
2.0 mg/kg, IM
6 mg/kg, IM
Amazon Parrots (Amazona spp.): Sedation characterized
by laying on sternum and just able to support their head;
birds could be placed in dorsal recumbency were they
remained if undisturbed. If disturbed they would stand up,
open their eyes, and lift their heads. A 1.5 mg/kg dose did
not allow placing the birds in dorsal recumbency. An
anesthetic state was not acheived. The sedation level may
facilitate radiography, venipuncture, or beak and nail
trims. Reversal acheived with atipamezole.
Pigeons (Columba livia): Sedation was characterized by
laying on their sternums and just able to support their
head; birds could be placed in dorsal recumbency were
they remained if undisturbed. If disturbed they would
stand up, open their eyes, and lift their heads. A 1.5 mg/kg
dose allowed placing only 3 out of 4 birds in dorsal
recumbency; the other pigeon remained standing. Reversal
acheived with atipamezole.
Red-necked ostriches (Struthio camelus) (two sub-adults):
Darted; showed no signs of sedation or behavioral
abnormalities
Chickens: rapid tranquilization & loss of consciousness by
~ 1 min; pain reflexes remained but were diminished;
duration of action was short, ~ 5 - 10 min; adverse
reactions to M in 2/8 birds, one bird recovered after 1 min
of apnea, the other died; respiration & blood pressure
increased, while heart rate decreased after M admin;
diazepam administered 10 min after M resulted in surgical
plane of anesthesia for ~15 min in the majority of the
birds; 3 birds’ pain reflexes were abolished; 2 birds never
reached a surgical plane of anesthesia.
Canada geese (Branta canadensis): moderate sedation at
15 - 20 min; 1.0 mg/kg was inadequate for sedation;
significantly increased respiratory rate at 10 - 30 min post
injection; did not significantly affect blood pressure, heart
rate, or temperature
Quail (Colinus virginianus): induced heavy sedation
(defined as being in dorsal recumbency with both wings
easily extended) in 9/10 birds, and mild sedation in one
bird; peak time to heavy sedation was at 10 min but ranged
from 5 - 30 min; no arousal due to noise was observed.
Dosages of 2 & 4 mg/kg were tested but the level of
sedation varied and inadvertent noise aroused the birds.
Naloxone 0.02 mg/kg, IV Ratites to reverse Carfentanil, fair recovery
Sandmeier
[18]
Sandmeier
[18]
Ostrowski
[33]
Christensen,
et al. [10]
Valverde
[8]
Day and
Roge [57]
Cornick
[34]
Naloxone (N) /
Diprenorphine (D)
(N) 0.02 mg/kg, IV / (D)
0.04 mg/kg, IM
Ratites to reverse Carfentanil, good recovery
Cornick
[34]
Naltrexone (N) /
Yohimbine (Y)
(N) 3.0 mg/kg / (Y) 0.125
mg/kg, IV
Ostrich (Struthio camelus): reversal of
Carfentanil/xylazine mixture
Raath, et al.
[31]

Drug Dosage (Dose), Route Species / Remarks Reference
Propofol
4 - 12 mg, IV, for
induction / 0.5 mg/kg/min,
IV, maintenance
Barn Owl (Tyto alba): induced anesthesia with 4 mg given
in 1 mg boluses at 30-sec intervals; an additional 8 mg was
given over the next 10 min due to bird’s response to feather
plucking; a constant infusion of propofol was used to
maintain a stable plane of anesthesia; transient decrease in
SAP, DAP, and MAP observed immediately after
induction; after infusion was stopped wing movement
occurred within 5 min and ability to lift head up and
maintain sternal posture within 30 min; appropriate for
short surgical procedures (in this case a tracheal resection)
(case report).
Mama, et
al. [1]
4.5 - 9.7 mg/kg, IV
Chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus); maintained by
constant infusion of propofol, 0.5 - 1.2 mg/kg/min;
arrhythmias common; significant respiratory and
cardiovascular depression; hypoxemia also common;
narrow margin of safety, 3 times the induction dose was
fatal.
Mallard ducks; 1 to 4 mg IV bolus maintenance doses
(0.7 - 4.5 mg/kg) at ~ 5 min intervals; apnea after induction
bolus, but increased in respiratory rate with time; risk of
severe bradycardia; light plane of anesthesia; intraoperative
analgesia required
Ostriches (Struthio camelus); ketamine/medetomidine
(preanesthetic) allowed sufficient sedation to place IV
catheter; propofol induction & maintenance (0.2
mg/kg/min constant rate infusion); apnea & bradycardia
observed; anesthesia rated good
Pigeon (Columbia livia): bolus dose produced a smooth,
rapid induction, with good muscle relaxation, and loss of
voluntary reflexes lasting 2 - 7 min. Lethal Dose
determined to be ~ 20 - 26 mg/kg if ventilation was not
assisted.
Wild Turkeys; maintained surgical plane of anesthesia with
0.5 mg/kg/min of propofol, IV; apnea immediately after
induction lasted 10 - 30 sec; risk of hypoxemia; smooth
recovery
Lukasik
[23]
7.3 - 11.2 mg/kg (10 mg
dose), IV
Machin
[21]
3 mg/kg (induction), IV
Langan
[22]
14 mg/kg, IV
Fitzgerald
& Cooper
[25]
5 mg/kg (in 20sec), IV
Schmacher
[24]
Thiopental
20 mg/kg, intraosseous
Chickens: time to induction was ~12 - 21 seconds; allowed
intubation; increased respiratory rate; time to recovery ~
13 - 20 min; failure rate for cannulation and induction of
anesthesia was 21% (3/14).
Valverde,
et al. [3]
Tiletamine (T) /
Zolazepam (Z)
5 mg/kg, IM
Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus): Induction times
ranged from ~5.5 - 12 min; times to standing ranged from
~60 - 77 min. Rapid decrease seen in heart rate within 2
min after induction then remained constant. Respiration
rates decreased for the initial 20 min of anesthesia.
Inductions and recoveries were smooth.
Kreeger, et
al. [13]
10 mg/kg, IM
Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus): Induction times
ranged from ~3.2 - 4.0 min; times to standing ranged from
~81 - 95 min. Heart rates within first 2 min after induction
remained higher than after a 5 mg/kg dosage but decreased
over time. Respiration rates decreased for the initial 20 min
of anesthesia. Inductions and recoveries were smooth.
Total recover times ranged from ~210 - 283 min.
Kreeger, et
al. [13]
2.3 - 5.8 mg/kg, IV
Ratites: used to induce sternal recumbency; rapid and
smooth; 3.4 - 4.9 mg/kg for emus; 3.0 - 5.8 mg/kg for
rheas; 2.3 - 4.0 mg/kg for ostriches
Lin [30]

Drug Dosage (Dose), Route Species / Remarks Reference
2.3 - 4.9 mg/kg, IV
Ratites: induced with tiletamine/zolazepam; maintained
with isoflurane, 1 - 4%; bradycardia & apnea observed;
diazepam (0.21 - 0.41 mg/kg, IV) administered post-op to
smooth recovery
Lin [30]
10, 15, 20, or 40 mg/kg,
IM
Red Tailed Hawks: None of these doses induced a loss of
consciousness.
Kreeger,
et al. [13]
10 mg/kg, IM
Screech Owls(2): Induction times ranged from 1.5 - 2.7
min; time to first raise their heads ranged from ~60 - 63
min. Total recover times were > 5 hours.
Kreeger,
et al. [13]
Tolazoline
15 mg/kg, IV
Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura): to reverse the effects of
xylazine (see ketamine/xylazine combination above);
regained consciousness in ~ 2 - 6 min; normal standing
postures were observed in under 20 min but appeared to
have a dull mentation and moderately sedated for 30 - 60
min after administration.
Allen and
Oosterhuis
[17]
Xylazine
~1.1 - 1.3 mg/kg (150 mg
dose), IM
Ostrich (Struthio camelus) (n=1): darted; marked excitation
but no immobilization and the bird was unapproachable
Ostrowski
[33]
Xylazine (X) /
Butorphanol (B)
(X) 1.06 - 2.03 mg/kg / (B)
0.10 - 0.14 mg/kg, IM
Ostriches & emus: produced a calming effect; drowsy and
ataxic 10 - 15 min after injection
Rheas: higher dosages of xylazine/butorphanol needed to
produce a similar tranquilizing effect as seen in ostriches
and emus; maintained on isoflurane, 1 - 5%; midazolam
(0.15 mg/kg, IV) or diazepam (0.33 mg/kg, IV)
administered post-op to smooth recovery
Lin [30]
(X) 2.26 - 2.75 mg/kg / (B)
0.12 - 0.20 mg/kg, IM
Lin [30]
Xylazine (X) /
Butorphanol (B) /
Tiletaminezolazepam
(Tz)
(X) 1.06 - 2.21 mg/kg / (B)
0.10 - 0.55 mg/kg, IM /
(Tz) 3.5 mg/kg, IV
Ratites: tranquilized with X/B; induced with Tz;
maintained with 1 - 3.5% isoflurane; bradycardia & apnea
observed; diazepam (0.13 - 0.40 mg/kg, IV) administered
post-op to smooth recovery
Lin [30]
Xylazine (X) /
Carfentanil (C)
(X) 0.5 mg/kg, IM / (C)
0.15 mg/kg, IV
Ratites: Xylazine given prior to carfentanil. good induction
allowing intubation; apnea, hypercapnia, IPPV needed;
Cornick
and
Jensen
[34]
Yohimbine
0.11 mg/kg, IM
Ostrich; used to reverse xylazine during a prolonged
recovery period
Lin [30]
0.10 mg/kg, IV
Red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis): optimal dosage to
significantly reduce standing times after 20 min anesthesia
with a 4.4 mg/kg ketamine and 2.2 mg/kg xylazine without
causing profound cardiovascular or respiratory responses
Degernes
[14]
Yohimbine
0.275 mg/kg, IM
Budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus): reversal of
ketamine/xylazine combination. Significantly reduced
recovery times indicated by a head lift, standing unaided
without ataxia, and perching.
Heaton
and
Brauth
[16]
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