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,<br />
ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT: A STUDY ~ I<br />
OF MAJOR IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN KERALA<br />
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE,<br />
THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS,<br />
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE, MYSORE.<br />
FOR THE DEGREE OF<br />
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS<br />
P. K. VISWANATHAN<br />
ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS UNIT<br />
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE<br />
BANGALORE - 560 072<br />
•<br />
JULY 2001
Tele 080-3215468, 3215519<br />
GRAMS 'ECOSOCI', Bangalore - 560040<br />
FAX 91-80-3217008<br />
E-Mail admn@iseckar.nic.in<br />
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE<br />
Nagarabhavi P.O.: BANGALORE-560 072<br />
CERTIFICATE<br />
I certify that I have guided <strong>and</strong> supervised the c<strong>on</strong>duct <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study <strong>and</strong><br />
writing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the present thesis, titled, "Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On-Farm<br />
Development: A Study <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Major Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects in Kerala", completed<br />
by Mr. P K Viswanathan, who worked <strong>on</strong> the topic at the <strong>Institute</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>Social</strong> <strong>and</strong> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Change, Bangalore.<br />
I also certify that this study has not previously <strong>for</strong>med the basis <strong>for</strong> the<br />
award <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any Degree, Diploma or Associate Fellowship <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the University<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mysore or <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>Institute</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Social</strong> <strong>and</strong> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Change or any other<br />
University or Instituti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Date: 16/1/ ",&61<br />
rW fP0lL-~~~~<br />
~ature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the uperVisor<br />
~. M. Venkata Reddy)
DEC LARA TION<br />
I declare that the thesis titled "Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On-Farm Development":<br />
A Study <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Major Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects in Kerala", is the result <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my<br />
own work carried out at the <strong>Institute</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Social</strong> <strong>and</strong> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Change,<br />
, .<br />
under the guidance <strong>and</strong> supervisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dr. M Venkata Reddy, Associate<br />
Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essor, Ecological Ec<strong>on</strong>omics Unit, ISEC, Bangalore. This has not,<br />
either wholly or in part, been submitted <strong>for</strong> any other degree or diploma.<br />
Due acknowledgments have been made whenever anything has been<br />
borrowed from other sources.<br />
, .<br />
(PKVi.an)<br />
,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
It has really been a great privilege that have been able to come all the way from a<br />
remote village in Kerala <strong>and</strong> be part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>/SEC <strong>for</strong> doing my doctoral work under the<br />
guidance <strong>and</strong> supervisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dr. M Venkata Reddy I'm extremely gratejiil to Dr. M.<br />
Venkata Reddy <strong>for</strong> suggesting me to work <strong>on</strong> a topic <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> high relevance in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
developmeni literature <strong>and</strong> motivating me to think <strong>on</strong> the issues pertinent to water<br />
re.sources <strong>development</strong>. Without his c<strong>on</strong>stant encouragement <strong>and</strong> moral support, this<br />
work would not have assumed this shape.<br />
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. T R. Sathish Ch<strong>and</strong>ran <strong>and</strong> Dr. P. V. She nay<br />
<strong>for</strong>mer Directors <strong>and</strong> Dr. M Govinda Rao, the present Director <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ISEC fur<br />
providing me adequate instituti<strong>on</strong>al support during the course <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study<br />
I thank Dr. Ninan <strong>and</strong> Dr. MR. Narayana <strong>for</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fering suggesti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>s as panel members during my pre-submissi<strong>on</strong> seminar. I also thank all<br />
the faculty members <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ISEC <strong>for</strong> their encouragement <strong>and</strong> academic interacti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
many occasi<strong>on</strong>s. Special thanks are due to Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> B.S Bhargava, Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> M. Prahlada<br />
A char, Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Seetharamu, Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rayappa, Sill!. Vani, Dr. Rajasekhar, Dr. Maathai,<br />
AI Vivekan<strong>and</strong>a, Dr. Johns<strong>on</strong> Samuel, Dr. Sharad Lele, Dr. Deshp<strong>and</strong>e <strong>and</strong> Dr.<br />
K V Raju.<br />
f also thank the Academic Staff at the Department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Administrative Staj! at the University <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mysore .Ii)r their help in the sllccessfiil<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this work.<br />
During the course <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my study, f have benefited from the interacti<strong>on</strong>s with Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
M V. Nadkarni <strong>and</strong> Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> R Maria Saleth <strong>and</strong> f thank them <strong>for</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fering critical<br />
inputs in furthering the study at various stages. I'm extremely grateful to Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> B. D.<br />
Dhawan <strong>for</strong> giving me valuable suggesti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> many occasi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> painstakingly<br />
going through some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the chapters. I have immensely benefited by the discussi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kaushik Basu, during the final stage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the work. I sincerely thank Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Basu <strong>for</strong> commenting <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the chapters. The discussi<strong>on</strong>s with Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> T Krishna<br />
Kumar <strong>and</strong> Dr. A. Damodaran have been useful <strong>and</strong> f extend my sincere thanks to<br />
him.<br />
1 place <strong>on</strong> record my sincere thanks to my teacher Mr. Baby Ant<strong>on</strong>y <strong>for</strong> his care <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern <strong>for</strong> me since the days <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my post-graduati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> introducing me to CDS,<br />
where f had my Harisree in the pursuit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> research. At CDS, f thank Dr. KJ Joseph,<br />
Dr. (Mrs.) Mridul Eapen, Dr. KK Subrahmanian, Dr. D. Narayana, Dr. Ch<strong>and</strong>an<br />
Mukherjee, Dr. Mohanan Pillai, Dr. K Pushpangadan <strong>and</strong> Dr. E. T Mathew <strong>for</strong><br />
encouraging me. A special word <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> thanks is due to Dr. V. Sallihakumar <strong>for</strong><br />
extending me support <strong>and</strong> encouragement during my fieldwork. f also thank my<br />
friends at CDS, Sunil, Dennis, Bhaskar, Sanjith, Suresh, Azeez, Hari <strong>and</strong> Kurup. I<br />
also thank the library staff at the CDS, especially, Sri. Anil Kumar.
I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozhikode <strong>for</strong> the velY useful <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
suggesti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> my work <strong>and</strong> giving me an opportunity to participate in the training<br />
programme <strong>on</strong> Water Management. f sincerely thank Dr. KA. Suresh <strong>and</strong> Dr.<br />
(Mrs.) Molly Suresh, Kerala Agriculture University. Vellanikkara. <strong>for</strong> showing<br />
brotherly c<strong>on</strong>cern <strong>and</strong> encouraging me to pursue academics. Thanks are due to Dr.<br />
A.M Jose, KAU,<strong>for</strong> introducing me to fSEC f thank Sri. H. Narayanaswamy, Chief<br />
Engineer (Rtd.) <strong>and</strong> Sri. Kartha, Asst. Ex. Eng.. Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project <strong>and</strong> Mr.<br />
Ani/kumar <strong>and</strong> Mr. Raghunath. Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project <strong>for</strong> helping me access the<br />
project level in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> data sources. f Sincerely pay my tributes to Sri. G.<br />
Somasekharan Nair (Rtd. Director, Bureau <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <strong>and</strong> Statistics), who<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fered me all possible help in my work, till his untimely death. I also thank Dr. KN.<br />
Syamasundaran Nair, <strong>for</strong>mer Vice-Chancellor, Kerala Agriculture University <strong>for</strong><br />
providing me with some very useful in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong>. I remember the timely help<br />
rendered by Sajuchellan <strong>for</strong> making me access to the Kerala Legislative Assembly<br />
Library.<br />
A special word <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> thanks is due to Sri. Kurup Sir <strong>and</strong> wife <strong>for</strong> giving me bread,<br />
butter <strong>and</strong> shelter during the first phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my survey in the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
project. Also, I'm thankful to Sri. Georgekutty, President, <strong>and</strong> the inmates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pazhakulam <strong>Social</strong> Service Society (PASSS). <strong>for</strong> providing me a com<strong>for</strong>table stay<br />
during the sec<strong>on</strong>d phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my fieldwork in the Kallada project. f sincerely thank my<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>dents in the Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada project areas <strong>for</strong> giving me a patient<br />
listening to me.<br />
Coming back to ISEC, I thank all the staff althe library <strong>and</strong> administrati<strong>on</strong> at ISEC<br />
<strong>for</strong> facilitating my study Special thanks are due to Sri. KS Narayana, Sri.<br />
Ramach<strong>and</strong>ran. Mrs. Maragret. Mrs. Santha Kumari, Sri. H. S Sadan<strong>and</strong>a, <strong>and</strong> Sri.<br />
B.S Krishna Moorthy <strong>for</strong> rendering me help in various capacities.<br />
I cannot leave back the sweet memories <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fSEC life nourished by my friends Srijil.<br />
Arun, Samal, Mallick, Raphael. Vibha. Sudha. Shambhavi <strong>and</strong> Anita <strong>and</strong> f<br />
remember them all. I also thank Joseph, Sekhar, Mohanasundaram. Venkat, Govind<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rajendran <strong>for</strong> their encouragement. f also remember my junior friends. PUlta,<br />
Kannan, Amalendu, Gagan, Hrishikesh, Gitanjali, Mini, Deepika <strong>and</strong> Binita <strong>on</strong> this<br />
occasi<strong>on</strong>. While Subodh. Sutapa <strong>and</strong> Lija extended wholehearted support in my<br />
endeavor. f have really been touched by the affecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the real help rendered by<br />
Jyothis <strong>and</strong> Jeena during the final stages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the work. f have no words to express my<br />
sincere thanks to them. I thank Mr. Krishna Ch<strong>and</strong>ran <strong>and</strong> Sat ish Kamath <strong>for</strong><br />
helping me through hardware soluti<strong>on</strong>s. My special thanks are due to Sri. ftagi. who<br />
gave me nice company during my stay in fSEC <strong>and</strong> r<strong>and</strong>om visits, later <strong>on</strong>. I<br />
sincerely thank Sri. V.S Parthasarathy <strong>and</strong> Anil Mascarenhas <strong>for</strong> the meticulollS<br />
reading through the chapters.<br />
f have immensely benefited by c<strong>on</strong>sulting the libraries at the CDS, the Legislative<br />
Assembly lihrary in Tril'<strong>and</strong>rum; KERf, Peechi, KAU. Vellanikkara; <strong>and</strong> the Me.<br />
University. Kollayam: CIVRDM <strong>and</strong> the fIAf. Kozhikode <strong>and</strong> f thank all the staff <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
these libraries.
At the Rubber Research <strong>Institute</strong>, I have many faces to remember <strong>and</strong> express my<br />
gratitude. I thank Dr. N.M Mathew, Director (Research), RRII, <strong>for</strong> enabling me<br />
pursue my studies while <strong>on</strong> job. I am extremely gratefol to Dr. Tharian George,<br />
Deputy Director (Ec<strong>on</strong>omics), <strong>for</strong> his c<strong>on</strong>stant encouragement <strong>and</strong> inspirati<strong>on</strong> as<br />
also <strong>for</strong> his valuable suggesti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the chapters. My sincere thank.s are due<br />
to Mohan, v.P., Lekshmi, Toms Joseph, Rajasekharan, Sree Vidya <strong>and</strong> Ammachi <strong>for</strong><br />
always giving me a feel at home. ! specially thank Mrs. Binni Ch<strong>and</strong>y <strong>for</strong> her<br />
meticulous reading through some porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the thesis. Also, I thank Anish, Biju,<br />
Liza, Ramesh <strong>and</strong> Naveen at the Statistics Divisi<strong>on</strong>, RRII, <strong>for</strong> their timely help in<br />
doing away with the Micros<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>t problems. I thank all the staff at the administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> the accounts secti<strong>on</strong> at the RRI/.<br />
Last, but not the least, I have no words to express my sincere gratitude to my<br />
mother, who toiled her life in bringinK me up, never making me feel sorry about my<br />
father's premature death, a m<strong>on</strong>th be<strong>for</strong>e I was born. I place <strong>on</strong> record, my sincere<br />
thanks to my brothers, sisters, in-laws <strong>and</strong> all the beloved kith <strong>and</strong> kin <strong>for</strong> their great<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern <strong>and</strong> encouragement <strong>and</strong> giving me all possible help during my studies.<br />
Suma has always been a real source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inspirati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> relief during the entire<br />
process <strong>and</strong> I have all wholehearted love <strong>and</strong> care to spare <strong>for</strong> her. With great<br />
affecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> gratitude. I dedicate this life lanK ambiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> mine to the living<br />
memory <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> my brother-in-law. Sri- Adattu Parameswaran Nair. who left us in<br />
between while the study was raking this shape.<br />
PKV~~
CONTENTS<br />
Chapter 1<br />
1.1<br />
1.2<br />
1.3<br />
1.4<br />
L5<br />
1.6<br />
Tables<br />
1.1<br />
1.2<br />
1.3<br />
1.4<br />
1.5<br />
Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
LIST OF CONTENTS<br />
Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Systems in India<br />
The Problems And Status Of Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Development<br />
Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Authority:<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Problems<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Development in Kerala<br />
Need <strong>for</strong> the Study<br />
Organisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Study<br />
Public Investment in Irrigati<strong>on</strong> under Five Year<br />
Plan in India<br />
Development <strong>and</strong> Utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Potential Under the Plans<br />
Status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD Progr
2.4 Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Agricultural Development in Kerala 71<br />
Chapter 3<br />
Objectives, Methodology <strong>and</strong> Analytical<br />
Framework<br />
79-102<br />
3.1 Scope <strong>and</strong> Objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study 81<br />
3.2 Relevance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD 89<br />
3.3 Analytical Framework 92<br />
Charts<br />
3.1<br />
Processes <strong>and</strong> Steps followed in the Selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study Area <strong>and</strong> Sample Farms<br />
86<br />
3.2 Water Instituti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Agriculture Development:<br />
Alternate paradigms<br />
94<br />
3.3<br />
Explaining the Failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Instituti<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
Kerala<br />
98<br />
Chapter 4 A Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ile <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Study Area <strong>and</strong> Sample Households 103-132<br />
4.1 Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project 103<br />
4.2<br />
The Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tree Crops Development<br />
Project<br />
I 10<br />
4.3 Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ile <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sample Holdings <strong>and</strong> Farmers 122<br />
4.1 Envisaged Cropping Pattern in Kallada Comm<strong>and</strong> 116<br />
4.2<br />
Distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sample Farms in the Kallada<br />
Comm<strong>and</strong> Area<br />
123<br />
4.3<br />
Distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sample Farms in Peechi Comm<strong>and</strong><br />
area<br />
124<br />
4.4<br />
Distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the study<br />
districts<br />
125<br />
4.5<br />
Characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sample Farm Households in<br />
Kallada Project<br />
126<br />
4.6<br />
Characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sample Farm Households in<br />
Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
127<br />
4.7<br />
Locati<strong>on</strong>-wise Average Holding Size in the<br />
Comm<strong>and</strong> Areas<br />
127<br />
4.8<br />
Distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Working Populati<strong>on</strong> in the Case<br />
Study Regi<strong>on</strong>s vis-ii-vis State<br />
128<br />
"
4.9<br />
Occupati<strong>on</strong>al Status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sample Farmers in Peechi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Kallada Projects<br />
129<br />
4.10<br />
Occupati<strong>on</strong>al Status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Household Memebrs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Sample Farmers in Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada Projects<br />
130<br />
4.11 Age Classificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sample Farmers in Kallada 130<br />
Charts<br />
Chart 4.1 Functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS 133<br />
Maps<br />
4.1 Locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project 104<br />
4.2 Locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project 105<br />
4.3 Peechi Ayacut 107<br />
4.4 Kallada Ayacut 112<br />
Appendix<br />
4.1 Physical <strong>and</strong> Technical Characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> KIP & PIP 132<br />
Chapter 5<br />
Dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Agricultural<br />
Development in Kerala<br />
5. I Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Development under Five Year Plans 135<br />
5.2 Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Agricultural Development in Kerala 148<br />
5.3<br />
Tables<br />
Organisati<strong>on</strong>al Aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Development in<br />
Kerala<br />
5.1 Plan-wise Public Investment in Irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects 136<br />
5.2A<br />
5.2B<br />
5.3<br />
5.4<br />
5.5<br />
5.6<br />
Completed Major <strong>and</strong> Medium Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects in<br />
Kerala<br />
Ongoing Major <strong>and</strong> Medium Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects in<br />
Kerala<br />
Physical <strong>and</strong> Financial Per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Completed<br />
Projects, 1995-96<br />
Physical <strong>and</strong> Financial Per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ongoing<br />
Projects, 1998-99<br />
Growth Rates in Cropped Area <strong>and</strong> Indicators <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Development in Kerala, 1952-1997<br />
Trends in Crop-wise Area in Kerala, 1960-61 to<br />
1997-98<br />
134-201<br />
172<br />
137<br />
138<br />
142<br />
143<br />
147<br />
lSI<br />
•<br />
iii
5.7<br />
Changes in Relative Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Major Crops in Kerala,<br />
1960 to 1998<br />
5.8 Paddy Area C<strong>on</strong>verted in Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects 159<br />
5.9<br />
Decline in Area in Taluks Covered under Major<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects, 1966-67 to 1986-87<br />
5.10 L<strong>and</strong> Use Pattern in Completed Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects 164<br />
5.11<br />
Envisaged Cropping Pattern in the Peechi <strong>and</strong><br />
Malampuzha Projects<br />
5.12 Trends in Crop-wise Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Ratio, 1981 to 1997 167<br />
5.13<br />
5.14<br />
5.15<br />
Trends in Area <strong>and</strong> Productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Important Crops<br />
in the CAD Projects<br />
Seas<strong>on</strong>-wise Mean Yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Paddy in CAD Projects,<br />
1985-86 to 1997-98<br />
Rise in Labour <strong>and</strong> Material Costs in C<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
1959-60 to 1999<br />
5.16 Major F actors Causing Cost Escalati<strong>on</strong> 183<br />
5.17 Revisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects 184<br />
5.18<br />
5.19<br />
5.20<br />
5.21<br />
5.21 a<br />
5.22<br />
5.23<br />
Appendix<br />
5.1<br />
5.2<br />
Revenue <strong>and</strong> Capital Expenditure <strong>on</strong> Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Projects, 1990-91 <strong>and</strong> 1997-98<br />
Escalati<strong>on</strong> in Revenue <strong>and</strong> Capital Expenditure,<br />
Project-wise<br />
Major Reas<strong>on</strong>s Stated in the Arbitrati<strong>on</strong> Awards in<br />
Kallada Project<br />
Estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Problem Identified Areas in Kuttiadi<br />
Project<br />
Budget Provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Actual Expenditure in<br />
Muvattupuzha Valley Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects got Approval from CWC After<br />
Work Started<br />
State Expenditure <strong>and</strong> Revenue from Public Sector<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Project-wise Share in Total Expenditure <strong>on</strong><br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects in Total Area Under<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
153<br />
160<br />
165<br />
169<br />
171<br />
182<br />
187<br />
188<br />
191<br />
194<br />
196<br />
197<br />
198<br />
200<br />
200<br />
IV
5.3<br />
5.4<br />
5.6<br />
5.7<br />
Financial Investment in Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects- share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Important Comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
Revenue Expenditure in Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects <strong>and</strong> Cost<br />
Escalati<strong>on</strong> in Kerala<br />
Capital Expenditure <strong>and</strong> Cost Escalati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects in Kerala<br />
Project-wise Revenue <strong>and</strong> Capital Expenditure,<br />
1990-91 <strong>and</strong> 1997-98<br />
201<br />
20lA<br />
20lB<br />
2018<br />
Chapter 6<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On-Farm Development: An<br />
Analysis<br />
202-269<br />
I<br />
The status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>OFD in CAD projects in Kerala: An<br />
Aggregate Analysis<br />
204<br />
II<br />
Impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD: Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Projects<br />
240<br />
Tables<br />
6.1 Details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects under CADA in Kerala 207<br />
6.2<br />
Physical <strong>and</strong> Financial Targets <strong>and</strong> Achievements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
CAD Schemes, 1991-1997<br />
210<br />
6.3<br />
Physical Achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD Programmes Related<br />
to Capacity Building Farmers, 1992-93 to 1997-98<br />
213<br />
6.4<br />
Farmers Training Programmes by CADA: Financial<br />
<strong>and</strong> Physical per<strong>for</strong>mance. 1990-91 to 1996-97<br />
214<br />
6.5<br />
Implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD Programmes <strong>and</strong> Financial<br />
Commitments, Project-wise, 1985-86 to 1994-95<br />
215<br />
6.6<br />
Disbursement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Subsidy to Small <strong>and</strong> Marginal<br />
Farmers under CAD Programme 1990-91 to 1996-97<br />
218<br />
6.7<br />
Project-wise Benefit Cost Analysis <strong>for</strong> the Period<br />
1985-86 to 1994-95<br />
219<br />
6.8<br />
Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crops in the Net Additi<strong>on</strong>al Output in the<br />
CAD projects, 1985-86 to 1994-95<br />
220<br />
6.9<br />
Productivity Differences in Paddy in the Peechi<br />
Ayacut vis-a-vis the District<br />
223<br />
6.10<br />
Productivity Differences in Selected Crops in the<br />
Peechi Ayacut vis-a-vis the District<br />
225<br />
6.11<br />
Cost Benefit Analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Paddy in the CAD Projects<br />
in Kerala<br />
226<br />
v
6.12<br />
Impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> Crop Output in Peechi, Benefit<br />
Cost analysis <strong>for</strong> 1985-86 to 1994-95<br />
Details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Revamping <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong><br />
6.13 Programme <strong>for</strong> Old Generati<strong>on</strong> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Projects in 238<br />
Kerala<br />
Works taken up in the Peechi Project as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
6.14 Revamping <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> Programme (1998-99 239<br />
to 2000-0 I).<br />
6.15<br />
Canal Induced Groundwater Recharging in Pee chi<br />
project<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between Various Parameters with<br />
6.16 Respect to OFD in the Peechi Project (inter- 244<br />
correlati<strong>on</strong> matrix)<br />
6.17<br />
6.18<br />
6.19<br />
6.20<br />
6.21<br />
6.22<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between Irrigable Holding Size <strong>and</strong><br />
OFD Expenditure, Peechi Project<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between Groundwater Recharge, Pump<br />
Set Capacity <strong>and</strong> OFD Expenditure, Peechi Project<br />
Costs <strong>and</strong> Returns from Different Crops in the<br />
Peechi Project: Reach-wise (Rs. per acre)<br />
Yield <strong>and</strong> Income Differences in Plots With <strong>and</strong><br />
Without OFD in the Peechi Project<br />
Crop-wise Input Elasticities <strong>and</strong> Returns to Scale in<br />
Pee chi Project<br />
Status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS in the Kallada<br />
Project<br />
6.23 Source-wise Area Irrigated in a Kallada Village 260<br />
6.24<br />
6.25<br />
Farmers Benefited by MCS in the Kallada Project-<br />
Locati<strong>on</strong>-wise<br />
Percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Farmers Having Water Sources <strong>for</strong><br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong>, Including Groundwater-Locati<strong>on</strong>-wise<br />
6.26 Cropping Pattern in the Kallada Study Area 263<br />
6.27<br />
6.28<br />
6.29<br />
Investment in OFD <strong>and</strong> Size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dry holding-<br />
I.ocati<strong>on</strong>-wise<br />
Yield <strong>and</strong> Income Differences Across the MCS <strong>and</strong><br />
OCS Adopted Plots in Kallada Project<br />
Net Income from Different Crops under MCS <strong>and</strong><br />
OCS- Locati<strong>on</strong>-wise<br />
228<br />
243<br />
246<br />
246<br />
249<br />
251<br />
254<br />
260<br />
261<br />
261<br />
264<br />
265<br />
266<br />
VI
Figures<br />
6.1<br />
6.2<br />
Chart<br />
6.1<br />
Appendix<br />
6.1<br />
District-wise CCA under CAD Projects in Kerala<br />
Discharge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water from Peechi Reservoir<br />
Organisati<strong>on</strong>al Set up <strong>and</strong> Activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA<br />
Project-Wise Physical And Financial Per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
CAD Programmes in Kerala, 1985-86 to 1994-95<br />
208<br />
223<br />
206<br />
268-9<br />
Chapter 7<br />
7.1<br />
7.2<br />
7.3<br />
Tables<br />
7.1<br />
7.2<br />
7.3<br />
On-Farm Development: Determinants,<br />
C<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>and</strong> Problems<br />
Farmer Percepti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD: A Multiple Resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
Analysis<br />
Factors Determining OFD: A Regi<strong>on</strong> Specific<br />
Analysis<br />
C<strong>on</strong>straints in the Development <strong>and</strong> Utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Water Resources <strong>for</strong> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> in Kerala<br />
Underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD Am<strong>on</strong>g Farmers. Peechi<br />
Project (% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
Advantages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On Farm Development: Farmer<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>ses in Peechi Project (% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
Advantages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS: Farmer Resp<strong>on</strong>ses in KaIJada<br />
(% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
270 - 313<br />
270<br />
282<br />
289<br />
271<br />
273<br />
274<br />
7.4<br />
7.5<br />
7.6<br />
7.7<br />
7.9<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the N<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in Kallada (%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
275<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the Poor Per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS in<br />
Kallada Project<br />
278<br />
Present Status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hydrants/ wheel Valves in Kallada 280<br />
Farmer Resp<strong>on</strong>ses Towards Irrigati<strong>on</strong> System<br />
Per<strong>for</strong>mance (% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
Determinants <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in Peechi Project: Regressi<strong>on</strong><br />
Results<br />
281<br />
286
7.11<br />
Size-class wise <strong>and</strong> Crop-wise Average Operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Holdings in the Kallada Comm<strong>and</strong> Area<br />
291<br />
7.12<br />
Size-class Wise <strong>and</strong> Type -wise Average<br />
Operati<strong>on</strong>al Holdings in the Peechi Comm<strong>and</strong> Area<br />
292<br />
7.13<br />
Per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Paddy Under Group Farming in Two<br />
Villages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project, 1991<br />
298<br />
7.14<br />
Trends in Wage Rates in Kerala, 1960-97 (Index <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
wages, 1952 =100)<br />
299<br />
7.15<br />
Trends in Agricultural Wages <strong>and</strong> Price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Paddy in<br />
Kerala, 1983-1998<br />
300<br />
7.16 Purchasing Power <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Paddy in Real Terms, 1956-97 301<br />
7.17<br />
Paddy L<strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> in Villages in Kallada<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Comm<strong>and</strong><br />
303<br />
7.18<br />
Trends in Prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Important Crops in Kerala, 1991-<br />
92 to 1997-98<br />
306<br />
7.19<br />
Productivity <strong>and</strong> Gross Income per acre <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Paddy<br />
<strong>and</strong> other Crops in Kerala, 1996-97<br />
307<br />
7.20<br />
Trends in Productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Important Crops in Kerala,<br />
1988-89 to 1997-98<br />
310<br />
7.21<br />
M<strong>on</strong>thly Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Requirement in Kallada Project<br />
(in Mm 3 )<br />
318<br />
7.22 Annual Water Requirements in Peechi Project 320<br />
Figures<br />
7.1 Trends in Paddy Area in Kerala 302<br />
7.2<br />
Trends Input Use <strong>and</strong> Growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Net Irrigated Area<br />
in Kerala<br />
314<br />
Appendix<br />
7.1<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>ship Between Various Parameters (intercorrelati<strong>on</strong><br />
matrix) - Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
322<br />
7.2<br />
Paddy L<strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> in Study Villages in Kallada<br />
Project (%)<br />
323<br />
Chapter 8 Summary <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s 324-363<br />
Bibliography 364-383<br />
viii
Abbreviati<strong>on</strong>s used<br />
ASMO<br />
BFA's<br />
CADA<br />
CADP<br />
CBIP<br />
CCA<br />
CDS<br />
CI<br />
eWC<br />
CWRDM<br />
FYM<br />
GCA<br />
GIA<br />
IDRB<br />
IIMI<br />
INCOLD<br />
IMT<br />
KIP<br />
KI & TCDP<br />
LBMC<br />
LSD<br />
MCS<br />
NCA<br />
NIA<br />
NSA<br />
OFD<br />
OCS<br />
PIM<br />
PIP<br />
RBMC<br />
R&C<br />
R&D<br />
WUAs<br />
- Area Sown More than Once.<br />
- Beneficiary Fanners' Associati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
- Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Agency.<br />
- Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Programme.<br />
- Central Board <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Power.<br />
- Culturable Comm<strong>and</strong> Area.<br />
- Centre <strong>for</strong> Development Studies.<br />
- Cropping Intensity.<br />
- Central Water Commissi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
- Centre <strong>for</strong> Water Resources Development <strong>and</strong> Management.<br />
- Fann Yard Manure.<br />
- Gross Cropped Area.<br />
- Gross Irrigated Area.<br />
- Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Drainage Research Board.<br />
- Internati<strong>on</strong>al Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Management <strong>Institute</strong>.<br />
- Internati<strong>on</strong>al Council <strong>on</strong> Large Dams.<br />
- Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Management Transfer.<br />
- Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project.<br />
- Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tree Crops Development Project.<br />
- Left Bank Main Canal.<br />
- Large Scale Dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
- Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System.<br />
- Net Cropped Area.<br />
- Net Irrigated Area.<br />
- Net sown area.<br />
- On-Fann Development.<br />
- Open Canal System.<br />
- Participatory Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Management.<br />
- Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project.<br />
- Right Bank Main Canal.<br />
- Revamping <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
- Research <strong>and</strong> Development.<br />
- Water Users' Associati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
ix
Chapter 1<br />
Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
The importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture <strong>on</strong> a sustainable<br />
basis had been realised even in primitive societies. For, the fact that no grain can<br />
ever be produced without water is a c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al wisdom. Given the limitati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nature in providing water <strong>for</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops during periods <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> moisture<br />
stress. attempts were made to harvest the rainwater during m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> by storing in<br />
small p<strong>on</strong>ds <strong>and</strong> tanks. Irrigati<strong>on</strong> is, there<strong>for</strong>e, an age-old art <strong>and</strong> technology used<br />
successfully <strong>for</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture. Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> has been perceived not merely as a legacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture<br />
<strong>and</strong> civilizati<strong>on</strong> but certainly as a socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> political <strong>development</strong><br />
strategy I ('.lan:. 1853: Weber. 1927: Wittfogel 1957). The rati<strong>on</strong>ale behind the<br />
<strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems is to ensure that 'water' as a leading input in<br />
the process l)f agricultural producti<strong>on</strong> enhances crop productivity per unit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area<br />
1<br />
<strong>and</strong> provides insurance against the periodic famines-. Ishikawa (1967) refers to<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> as the leading input <strong>for</strong> agricultural growth in Asian countries showing<br />
that yield differences in the early stages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural <strong>development</strong> were<br />
principally explained by basic public investments in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> water c<strong>on</strong>trol.<br />
'While Marx (1853) underscored the technical <strong>and</strong> organisati<strong>on</strong>al compulsi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol [Marx (1853) as cited by Wittfogel, 1957 <strong>and</strong> Chi, 1936], Weber (1927) [cited<br />
in Chi. 1936: 73] drew a similar relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the necessity <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the<br />
prominent role <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> bureaucracy in Ancient Egypt. West Asia ,Ind China.<br />
2 Preventing the outhn:ak <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> famines <strong>and</strong> augmenting food producti<strong>on</strong> (Paustian, 1925:<br />
Gustafs<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Redlinger, 1971; Bhatia. 1965 <strong>and</strong> Tomlins<strong>on</strong>. 1992).
An attempt has been made in this chapter to present the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in India in a historical perspective. followed by a brief<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the lssues related to deYt.:lllpment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems at the<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al level during the plan period as well as a brief sketch <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lrrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> In Kerala. A critical assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in the post-independence period has also been attempted. which<br />
may hopefully help in identit\ing the pl)liC\ dimensi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> future <strong>development</strong>.<br />
1.1 Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in India<br />
In India. the history <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> could be<br />
broadly classified into three distinct phases. viz .. the pre-col<strong>on</strong>ial. col<strong>on</strong>ial <strong>and</strong><br />
post-col<strong>on</strong>ia(! post-independence periods.<br />
1. L 1 Pre-col<strong>on</strong>ial period:<br />
The pre-col<strong>on</strong>ial period witnessed the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al modes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
harvesting with greater emphasis <strong>on</strong> indigenous technologies based <strong>on</strong> local<br />
needs <strong>and</strong> locally available resources. The available evidence shows that<br />
developm.:nt <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such traditi<strong>on</strong>al watn harv.:sting systems was given importance<br />
since the Vedic times as described in the RiKveda <strong>and</strong> also in Kautilya's<br />
Artlw.\u.\lhru. The archival rt:cords <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tht: Mauryan era reveal that Kalltilya in his<br />
Arllw.\uslhru describt:d that tht: <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> by c<strong>on</strong>structing<br />
rt:servoirs <strong>and</strong> providing assistanct: \0 private individuals in the <strong>for</strong>m <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> suitable<br />
sites <strong>and</strong> n.:ct:ssary matt:rials to c<strong>on</strong>struct irrigatilln works was <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dlltit:s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tht: King (Singh. 1997 27) The irrigati<strong>on</strong> structureS <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Indus ValleY<br />
Civilisati<strong>on</strong> era were mostly in the <strong>for</strong>m <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wells, canals <strong>and</strong> tanks <strong>and</strong> were<br />
2
catering to the needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small household <strong>farm</strong>s operated by individual households<br />
in a highly n<strong>on</strong>-cooperative envir<strong>on</strong>ment (Allchins. 1968: 258; Fairservis, 1971).<br />
During the Mughal 3 period, the introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Persian Wheel to lift water<br />
from the wells by using draught power had brought major changes in agricultural<br />
productivity <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sequent social change. For instance, irrigati<strong>on</strong> technology<br />
was instrumental in promoting large-scale migrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> agricultural settlements<br />
in the col<strong>on</strong>ial Punjab (Habib. 1970). The rulers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Deccan promoted the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> repair <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tanks <strong>and</strong> diversi<strong>on</strong> weirs not <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>for</strong> agricultural<br />
<strong>development</strong> but also to meet the water requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the royal gardens<br />
(Fukazawa, 1982). Thus. it IS<br />
technology were widely used 111<br />
evident that different <strong>for</strong>ms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
India much be<strong>for</strong>e the advent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the British<br />
(Singh. 1997: :;·n<br />
Il istorical evidence reveals the emergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a new class <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> people who<br />
were made dependent entirely <strong>on</strong> the king to get irrigati<strong>on</strong> facilities. An<br />
exchange relati<strong>on</strong>ship was developed between the king <strong>and</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>ers to raise<br />
revenue, maintain his sovereignty <strong>and</strong> support the military. This seems to have<br />
created a plural society. Thus. the state interventi<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong><br />
during the pre-col<strong>on</strong>ial period has led to inequality, perhaps unintenti<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
J The Canal Act (1568) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> "~h"r whih: detailing the Emperor's desire to 'supply the<br />
wants <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the poor' <strong>and</strong> to establish footprints <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> his rule, describes that "god says, sow a<br />
grain <strong>and</strong> reap sevenfold. 1'.h dL',ire is to reap <strong>on</strong>c·hulldn:dfuld that Illy ~wwn may<br />
hecome wealthy <strong>and</strong> that Iht: /:I111I1Hlars (l<strong>and</strong>owners) may obt;lIn double returns"<br />
IBaker (IK49:95) as ~iteJ III l'ill~l.l. 1'!lXI.lllerc ar.: also 'IH;~iti~ r"kr
am<strong>on</strong>g the people <strong>and</strong> the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> alienating the peasants (who were<br />
trans<strong>for</strong>med into petty producers) from irrigati<strong>on</strong> water (Singh, 1997: 29).<br />
1.1.2 Col<strong>on</strong>ial period:<br />
The col<strong>on</strong>ial period witnessed a tremendous trans<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> in the technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water harvesting <strong>and</strong> marked the beginning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the modern hydraulic civilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
based <strong>on</strong> sound civil engineering principles <strong>and</strong> bureaucratic c<strong>on</strong>trol. With the<br />
advent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the British rule, irrigati<strong>on</strong> attained greater importance <strong>and</strong> by the time<br />
the British withdrew, th.: country had built up an unrivalled irrigati<strong>on</strong> system.<br />
Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the works even represented a significant c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to the science <strong>and</strong><br />
technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> (GOI. 1972), Macphers<strong>on</strong> (1972), there<strong>for</strong>e, described<br />
the harnessing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the waters <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India's great rivers <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
great
While there are differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> opIni<strong>on</strong> about the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> col<strong>on</strong>ial<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> strato:gio:s <strong>on</strong> building up <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water c<strong>on</strong>trol instituti<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
India (Whitcombe. 198~:<br />
Ali. 1988. Ludden. 1988: Gilmartin. 1994). there is<br />
unanimity am<strong>on</strong>g the scholars in arguing that the col<strong>on</strong>ial interests were mostly<br />
driwn by enormous revenue potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in India. This is<br />
evident from the statement hv l.t. Gen. Sir Arthur Cott<strong>on</strong> (1854). the architect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
canal cl'llstructi<strong>on</strong> in British India. that 'watn in India is more valuablo: than gold<br />
llf Australia'. Apparently. de\ e!opmo:nt <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canals was reck<strong>on</strong>ed as a commercial<br />
venture This was <strong>for</strong>malised in 1879 by the sekct committee <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the House <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Comm<strong>on</strong>s hy introducing a . productivity test'4<br />
Whltcombe (197~) also points to the 'commercial criteri<strong>on</strong>' as adopted by<br />
the colol1la! rulers In the canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> programmes. The trans<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
the cropping pattern from thL' producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stapk food crops to lucrative<br />
comnl
the Indian state had followed a policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> which was beneficial to the<br />
privileged rich l<strong>and</strong>ed class <strong>and</strong> through loopholes in the system. it even<br />
managed to favour a select clientele which was close to the political. bureaucratic<br />
<strong>and</strong> engineering c<strong>on</strong>glomerate (Singh. 1997: lSI). He reiterates that the objective<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the British policy was to generate more income <strong>and</strong> interestingly, at times <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
drought, the revenue collected reached phenomenal proporti<strong>on</strong>s (Ibid.: 53).<br />
The col<strong>on</strong>ial interest in promoting irrigati<strong>on</strong> in India was not <strong>on</strong>ly to<br />
cultivate commercial crops <strong>and</strong> augment the state revenue, but also to meet<br />
certain other social obligati<strong>on</strong>s. For instance, irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects were intended to<br />
rehabilitate the Sikh army in the Punjab, which was disb<strong>and</strong>ed in 1849 (Aloys,<br />
1967; Islam, 1997). The c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canals provided the soldiers with<br />
employment <strong>and</strong> they were then settled in vast areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> arable l<strong>and</strong> by<br />
introducing irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Islam' 5 (1997) study traces back to the '<strong>development</strong><br />
ethos' that promulgated the col<strong>on</strong>ial powers in patr<strong>on</strong>ising massIve canal<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> programmes In the state. The 'relative dynamism' <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state in<br />
agrarian trans<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> was attributed to the favourable factors that the state<br />
inherited under the col<strong>on</strong>ial patr<strong>on</strong>age in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> massive public investment <strong>for</strong><br />
infrastructure <strong>development</strong>, viz" c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canals, roads <strong>and</strong> railways. The<br />
massive canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the subsequent col<strong>on</strong>isati<strong>on</strong> 5 programmes have<br />
--.-----------------------------------------<br />
cent <strong>and</strong> 6.5 per cenl in different periods (Public Works Comminee. 1879: GOI. 1972: 249-<br />
51 ).<br />
5 The col<strong>on</strong>isati<strong>on</strong> programme as introduced in the Punjab province differed from the<br />
rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, ill tlul. there was no or little resident pllpuiati<strong>on</strong> in the Crown l<strong>and</strong> (vast<br />
tracts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> unou;lIpied l<strong>and</strong> taken over by the British <strong>for</strong> canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
col<strong>on</strong>isati<strong>on</strong> programme) <strong>and</strong> it was necessary to physically transfer communities from<br />
elsewhere tll senic dn\\n al<strong>on</strong>g the canal sides.<br />
6
een effective in revoluti<strong>on</strong>izing the ec<strong>on</strong>omic trans<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state. The<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Famine Commissi<strong>on</strong> (1880) <strong>and</strong> the Indian Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> 6 (1901-03) highlighted the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> as <strong>on</strong>e<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> protecti<strong>on</strong> from frequently occurring famines.<br />
In doing so, the British irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes were said to be based <strong>on</strong> a<br />
sketchy underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural systems, with more emphasis <strong>on</strong> ci vi I<br />
engineering, which was alien to the c<strong>on</strong>cept <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> science <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India<br />
(Sengupta. 1985).<br />
Notwithst<strong>and</strong>ing the divergent views over time about the col<strong>on</strong>ial interest<br />
in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong>, it had many dimensi<strong>on</strong>s. " .... <strong>on</strong> a policy level, it was<br />
simultaneously linked with famine preventi<strong>on</strong>, revenue stability, the settling <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
unruly tribes. expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong>. extended culti\'ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cash crops.<br />
enhanced taxable capacity. improved cultivati<strong>on</strong> practices <strong>and</strong> political stability"<br />
(St<strong>on</strong>e, 1984: 9).<br />
While the military civil eng1l1eers designed, c<strong>on</strong>structed <strong>and</strong> maintained<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> works. the bureaucrats involved themselves in planning, generating<br />
funds <strong>and</strong> collecting revenue. This process deprived the local <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong>lords <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol over water <strong>and</strong> resulted in an increasing dependence <strong>on</strong> the<br />
col<strong>on</strong>ial state (Singh. 1997: II). Al<strong>on</strong>gside, 'traditi<strong>on</strong>alism' evolved as a critique<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the British irrigati<strong>on</strong> policy <strong>and</strong> propagated the traditi<strong>on</strong>al technologies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
('With respect to Punjah. the Irri~:ltioll C(lllll1lissioll (olltl'lllkd that "it is here that the<br />
greak,t prllgress h:b hc'c'" III:lde III IITlg:ltiOIl ,,\Orb <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>thi, (perelllli;dl el.,,< :llld III ,pile<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this fact, it is hen: lhat there IS still the greatest field <strong>for</strong> their further e'pall,i()11<br />
(Report <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Indian Irrigatioll COllll11issioll, 1901-03: I).<br />
7
water harvesting 7 by arguing that these systems have evolved over time through a<br />
dialectical interacti<strong>on</strong> with the geography, ecology, culture <strong>and</strong> people <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area<br />
(Ibid: 15). In c<strong>on</strong>trast, the radical alternatives emphasised that irrigati<strong>on</strong> is an<br />
important factor in agricultural producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>. thereby, the social compositi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its use. distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> access <strong>and</strong> inter-regi<strong>on</strong>al linkages are very important<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
In short, as explained earlier. the col<strong>on</strong>ial state policies in irrigati<strong>on</strong> over<br />
time haye been framed to meet the requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific interests. These have<br />
ranged from the need <strong>for</strong> the expansi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> empires, the<br />
interests <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the upper castes <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>ed, the col<strong>on</strong>ial revenue <strong>and</strong> allied<br />
requirements <strong>and</strong> in the post independence India the needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong>ed educated<br />
elites like the engineers, bureaucrats. politicians, c<strong>on</strong>tractors <strong>and</strong> industrialists<br />
(Singh. 1997: 239-40)<br />
Thus. it is evident that the British imperialist interest in undertaking<br />
massiye canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> activities was mainly guided by the revenue potential<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> works. For instance. by 1892. the British had c<strong>on</strong>structed nearly<br />
~3800 miles <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canals <strong>and</strong> distributaries in India irrigating about 13.4 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
acres at a capital cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 382.6 milli<strong>on</strong>. yielding a net revenue <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4 to 5 per<br />
cent per annum <strong>on</strong> the investmcnt (Singh. 1')')7). By 1945-46. about 7~656 miles<br />
01 canais <strong>and</strong> distributaries ,cr\cd ahout 32.X milli<strong>on</strong> acres. <strong>on</strong>e quarter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
India's cropped area. i\ total "I I{s. 1 )~.f<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> had been expel1lkd nn the<br />
syst
evenue in gross receipts (less working expenses) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 138.3 milli<strong>on</strong>, about Rs.<br />
4.2 per acre (Whitcombe, 1982: 677). It is no doubt that str<strong>on</strong>g foundati<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
laid by the British <strong>for</strong> the massive edifice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> modern irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in India.<br />
1.1.3 The Post-independence period:<br />
The irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector witnessed new vistas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> during the postcol<strong>on</strong>ial<br />
or post-independence period. A major shift in the paradigm <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>development</strong> had taken place with the emergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> big storage dams. The<br />
increasingly high requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> food by the burge<strong>on</strong>ing populati<strong>on</strong> necessitated<br />
the building <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dams to exp<strong>and</strong> the irrigated area, besides encouraging <strong>and</strong> using<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>ally built irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. This had led to state interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a larger<br />
scale followed by an explosi<strong>on</strong> in investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. Subsequently,<br />
the irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential increased from 22.6 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. in 1950 (pre-plan) to 89.6<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> ha. by 1996-97 under major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects (CWe.<br />
1998 ).<br />
The Central Water Commissi<strong>on</strong> has estimated India's total water<br />
availability at 2301 km 3 . Out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this. surface water resources are estimated at<br />
1869 km 3 <strong>and</strong> rechargeable groundwater resources at 432 km 3 . It is expected that<br />
o'nly 690 km 3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> surface water resources (out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1869 km 3 ) can be utilised by<br />
storage. The estimated water utilisati<strong>on</strong> is expected to be 1122 km 3 . At present.<br />
the storage capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all dams in Im.!!:l is 174 km 3<br />
The projects under<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> will have a storage capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> about 75 km' (CWe. 1998). As <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
now. there are 40 I 0 dams in India, excluding thust: dams under c<strong>on</strong>slructiun.<br />
--------------------------------------------<br />
(l'n7): SCllgupta(19S2; 1985; 1991: 19'),). i\tlSra(I')')3; 1(95).<br />
9
(World Register <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dams, 1998) to harvest available v.ater resources. Out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
these. about 250 dams are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pre-independence vint~gc. ~bout 75 dams art: nHHe<br />
than 90 years old. 300 are more than 50 years old <strong>and</strong> 30()() art: bcllm 25 > c~r~<br />
old.<br />
The investment <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> has increased significantly In<br />
the successive Five Year Plans. There was. however, a marked decline III<br />
investment after the Sixth Plan 8 . In absolute terms, the investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
infrastructure <strong>development</strong> in India has increased more than 60 times from Rs.<br />
446 crores in the First Plan (1951-56) to Rs.28391 crores in the Eighth Plan<br />
(1992-97) (Table 1.1). Out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total expenditure <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> flood<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol. more than 55 per cent had been earmarked <strong>for</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major<br />
<strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects during most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plan periods except during the<br />
Third <strong>and</strong> Fourth Plan periods. The cost per hectare <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created<br />
under major <strong>and</strong> medium projects has increased by almost 29 times (from Rs.<br />
1200 per ha. during the First Plan to Rs. 35081 during the Seventh Plan). while it<br />
is 10 times in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects (from Rs. 691 to Rs. 7331<br />
during the same period).<br />
H The oUllay ,HI irrigallnll \\hich cl)nstituted 23 per cent nf the t,)lal Plan outlay in the<br />
First Plan has declined to 10 per (ent in the Sixth Plan. 7.6 per (ent in the Seventh Plan<br />
<strong>and</strong> 7.5 per cent in the Ei"dlth Plan. This decline in public i'1\CSllllelit in irrigati<strong>on</strong> sub<br />
,,-,clor has be(l)nIC a Illajnr Sl\llrCe ,)f debale in vie\\ <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the IIIlj1I""llllilS that would have<br />
<strong>on</strong> the CXl
Table 1.1: Public investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> undel'" Five YeaI'" Plan in India<br />
(Rs. crol'"es)<br />
Plan Period<br />
Major/ Cost! ha.<br />
Maj.l<br />
Minor CAD Gr<strong>and</strong> med. (Rs.)#<br />
Med.<br />
Irrig. Prog. total$ (% Maj.l<br />
Irrig.<br />
Minor<br />
share) med.<br />
I Plan (1951-56) 380 66 ----- 460 83 1200 691<br />
II Plan (1956-61) 380 161 ----- 590 64 1810 2012<br />
III Plan (1961-66) 581 443 ----- I I 10 52 2526 2014<br />
Ann. Plans (1966-69) 434 561 ----- 1039 42 2893 2805<br />
IV Plan (1969-74) 1237 1174 ----- 2583 48 4758 2609<br />
V Plan (1974-79) 2442 14 II 122 4274 57 6075 3713<br />
Ann.Plans (1979-80) 2056 987 88 3359 61 10936 3651<br />
VI Plan (1980-85) 7516 3240 521 11873 63 21610 4544<br />
VII Plan (1985-90) 11107 6427 1428 19904 55 35081 7331<br />
VIII Plan (1992-97) 22414 5977 2510 32525 69 ----. -----<br />
Note: S - Includes expenditure <strong>on</strong> flood c<strong>on</strong>trol.<br />
Source: GOI. various Plan documents; # Ashok K. Mitra 1997: 19.<br />
The ultimate irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential in the country, both surface <strong>and</strong><br />
groundwater, is 139.89 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. The cumulative irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential expected<br />
to be achieved by 1998-99 is 92.79 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. The potential actually utilised was<br />
83.66 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. by the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1998-99 (GOL 2000). Of the total irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
potential created. 34.68 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. (37 %) is c<strong>on</strong>tributed by major <strong>and</strong> medium<br />
surface irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> 58.11 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. (63 %) by minor irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects. In the Ninth Plan, a target IS set <strong>for</strong> creating additi<strong>on</strong>al irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 17.05 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. compnsIng 9.81 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. from major <strong>and</strong><br />
medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> 7.24 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. from minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
(GOI. 2000).<br />
The massive investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent increase in the<br />
number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects has obviously !cd to a perceptible increase ill food security.<br />
Food grain producti<strong>on</strong> increased from 51 milli<strong>on</strong> t<strong>on</strong>nes ill 1951 to 199 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
t<strong>on</strong>nes by 1997, registenng ~I<br />
L'llll1pound annual growth rale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 per cent. The<br />
incremental employment gencratcd by the irrigati<strong>on</strong> potcntial creatcd during the<br />
11
Eighth Plan has been estimated by the government at 8.7 milli<strong>on</strong> man years. A<br />
significant inverse relati<strong>on</strong> between the incidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty9 <strong>and</strong> the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> has been found in several cross-secti<strong>on</strong>al studies based <strong>on</strong><br />
agro-climatic z<strong>on</strong>es (Rao el ai, 1988; Saleth. 1997). Furthermore. <strong>for</strong>ward <strong>and</strong><br />
backward linkages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> across the regi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> sectors tend<br />
to have an impact <strong>on</strong> employment <strong>and</strong> income, apart from several multiplier<br />
effects.<br />
1.2 The problems <strong>and</strong> status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong><br />
In spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the huge investments <strong>for</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large-scale canal-based<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the country, the results have not been encouraging enough<br />
in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the overall<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems <strong>on</strong> the other. The Sixth Plan document has<br />
admitted that huge investments made in irrigati<strong>on</strong> has yielded disappointingly<br />
low results, as is evident from the nati<strong>on</strong>al average food producti<strong>on</strong> per ha. <strong>for</strong><br />
irrigated<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s, which was 1.7 t<strong>on</strong>nes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> grain as against 4.5 t<strong>on</strong>nes at the<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al level. Moreover. the gap between irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created <strong>and</strong><br />
utilised over the plan periods. has increased. which has led to the questi<strong>on</strong>able<br />
validity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the thrust laid <strong>on</strong> major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. A number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
problems <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al level c<strong>on</strong>straints adversely affecting the per<strong>for</strong>mance<br />
9 While the incidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty is as high as 69 per cent in districts with less than 10<br />
per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropped area undn irrigati<strong>on</strong>. it is about 26 per Cellt in districts where<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> covers more than 50 p
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems seem to have emerged over time. Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the widely<br />
debated problems are as follows:<br />
a) widespread under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential;<br />
b) significant lag in the completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects, resulting in time<br />
<strong>and</strong> cost over- runs;<br />
c) inadequate <strong>and</strong> inequitable distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water across the different locati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> areas;<br />
d) large-scale violati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping patterns leading to water shortage <strong>and</strong><br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> problems;<br />
e) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> networks as well as<br />
hydraul ic structures;<br />
f) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> water management measures;<br />
g) envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems like water logging, salinity <strong>and</strong> alkalinity have<br />
adversely affected the fertility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the soil, leading to a decline in productivity<br />
potential over time, apart from giving rise to the spread <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterborne<br />
diseases;<br />
h) n<strong>on</strong>-pricing or under-pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water <strong>and</strong> delivery services.<br />
leading to n<strong>on</strong>-recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al e:-:penses; <strong>and</strong><br />
i) inadequate <strong>and</strong> improper policies <strong>on</strong> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> resettlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
project-Jtlectt:d pt:ople (PAP).<br />
13
One <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the most important widely discussed problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major <strong>and</strong> medium<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> works is the widening gap between the irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created <strong>and</strong><br />
utilised in the successive plan periods. which is termed as under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created. The cumulative statistics <strong>on</strong> the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> utilisati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential already created against the ultimate irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential<br />
show very poor results. While the <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficially reported gap as between irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
potential created <strong>and</strong> utilised (Table 1.2) is in the range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14-15 per cent in the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major! medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects, the overall trends suggest that India<br />
could so far achieve <strong>on</strong>ly 57 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ultimate irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential. The<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> rate is further low at 47 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major! medium<br />
projects.<br />
Table 1.2; Development <strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential under the plans<br />
(Cumulative area in milli<strong>on</strong> ha.)<br />
Major <strong>and</strong> Medium Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Total Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Maj./<br />
Plan periods<br />
med.(%)<br />
PC PU PU (%) PC PU share in<br />
total #<br />
Pre-plan (Till 1951) 9.70 9.70 100.00 22.60 22.60 42.92<br />
1 Plan (1951-56) 12.20 10.98 90.00 26.26 25.04 43.85<br />
11 Plan (1956-61) 14.33 13.05 91.07 29.08 27.80 46.95<br />
III Plan (1961-66) 16.57 15.17 91.55 33.57 32.17 4i .15<br />
Annual Plan (1966-69) 18.10 16.75 92.54 37.10 35.75 46.85<br />
IV Plan (1969-74) 20.70 18.69 90.28 44.20 42.19 44.30<br />
V Plan (1974-78) 24.70 22.11 89.51 52.02 48.46 45.63<br />
Annual Plan (1978-80) 26.61 22.64 85.08 56.61 52.64 43.00<br />
VI Plan (1980-85) 27.70 23.57 85.09 65.22 58.82 40.08<br />
VII Plan (1985-90) 29.92 25.47 8512 76.53 68.59 37.14<br />
Annual Plan (1990-92) 30.74 26.32 85.62 81.09 72.86 36.12<br />
Eighth Plan ( 1992-97) 32.96 28.44 86.28 89.56 80.75 35.22<br />
lJltilllate Irri;oati<strong>on</strong> potential (M ha.) 5846 139.89 41.79_<br />
Utilisatioll:h % <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>llitilllatc potential .j X. 64 57.72<br />
. .<br />
N()te: I'C - Potclltlal (reated; I'll - PotcntlallJtlilscd<br />
..<br />
.<br />
# Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Illajor/ lllCdilllll irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in the total irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential utilised.<br />
Source' COlllpikd frnlll (jOI (2000). Ninth Fivc Year Plan (1997-2002).<br />
14
The per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects was, there<strong>for</strong>e,<br />
unsatisfactory. Apart from the nuances <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the definiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential<br />
created. the fact remains that potential created was unutilised or misutilised. <strong>for</strong><br />
various reas<strong>on</strong>s. needing further empirical analysis. Despite the li<strong>on</strong>'s share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector taken by the major <strong>and</strong> medium projects, its<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to the total potential was lower than that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> minor projects.<br />
This attracted the attenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> planners <strong>and</strong> they started analysing the<br />
problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints, if any, c<strong>on</strong>tributing to the alleged inefficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems.<br />
The Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong> (GO!, 1972) had g<strong>on</strong>e in detail into the<br />
problem <strong>and</strong> attributed the under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential to the<br />
following causes:<br />
a) deficiencies in the design <strong>and</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects. including<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> reservoirs ahead <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal works;<br />
b) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels to carry water from the government-created irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
outlets to the individual <strong>farm</strong>s;<br />
c) inadequate attenti<strong>on</strong> given to proper <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>; <strong>and</strong><br />
d) poor planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping patterns suited to the varying soil <strong>and</strong> drainage<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in different parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
Besides. th~<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Agriculture in its interim Report (GOI,<br />
1974) had als() highlighted the lower levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated<br />
agriculture <strong>and</strong> ~ll1phasised<br />
the need <strong>for</strong> modernising irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems <strong>and</strong><br />
15
integrated <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> comm<strong>and</strong> areas <strong>for</strong> improving water use efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
existing irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. Subsequently, the Commissi<strong>on</strong> suggested setting up<br />
an agency to integrate various programmes with respect to irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector<br />
<strong>development</strong>. Accordingly, the Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Agency (CADA)<br />
was set up during 1974-75 to reduce the time lag between creati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential.<br />
1.3 Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Authority: Functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Problems<br />
The primary objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA was to improve water use efficiency through<br />
"integrated area <strong>development</strong> in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>, including modernisati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the distributi<strong>on</strong> system, the provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> drainage <strong>and</strong> the maintenance <strong>and</strong><br />
operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> both the distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> drainage systems' (GO!, 1984: 20).<br />
Initially. 60 major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects were brought into the ambit<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA. which, later increased to 203 projects with a total comm<strong>and</strong> area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
about 21.4 milli<strong>on</strong> ha in 22 States <strong>and</strong> 2 UTs. As per the Report <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Ninth Five<br />
Year Plan (GO!, 2000). the potential created till March 1995 was 14.95 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
ha <strong>and</strong> the utilisati<strong>on</strong> was 11.98 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. (80.14 %). The cumulative<br />
expenditure <strong>on</strong> CADP till the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Eighth Plan has been Rs. 5238.79 crores.<br />
The objectives <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA, as laid out in the original CAD<br />
programme (GO!, 1984). were. broadly, as follows:<br />
1) Modernisati<strong>on</strong>. maintenance <strong>and</strong> efficient operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> system<br />
up to the outlet <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e cLlsec capacity.<br />
2) Development <strong>and</strong> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1ll~lin <strong>and</strong> intermediate drainage system.<br />
16
3) Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels <strong>and</strong> field drains within the comm<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> each<br />
outlet.<br />
4) L<strong>and</strong> levelling <strong>on</strong> an outlet comm<strong>and</strong> basis <strong>for</strong> the type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated crop that<br />
is to be grown.<br />
5) C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings <strong>and</strong> redrawing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field boundaries <strong>on</strong> an outlet<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> basis.<br />
6) En<strong>for</strong>cement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a proper system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'Warab<strong>and</strong>i' <strong>and</strong> fair distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
to individual fields.<br />
7) Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater to supplement surface irrigati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
8) Selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> suitable cropping pattern.<br />
9) Supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all inputs <strong>and</strong> senices including credit.<br />
10) Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> marketing <strong>and</strong> processing facilities <strong>and</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
II) Preparing individual programmes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
<strong>and</strong> agricultural labourers as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the master plan.<br />
12) Diversificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture <strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> activities like animal<br />
husb<strong>and</strong>ry, <strong>farm</strong> <strong>for</strong>estry, poultry, etc.<br />
13) Soil c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> af<strong>for</strong>estati<strong>on</strong>, where necessary.<br />
14)Town planning.<br />
Till: Comm<strong>and</strong> Art:a lkvt:lopllll:nt Programme (CADP) was, tht:re<strong>for</strong>e,<br />
meant <strong>for</strong> executi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On-Farm Developm..:nt (OrD) works sil11ultan":llusly with<br />
the release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> in the canals. For, it was realised that<br />
17
inadequate attenti<strong>on</strong> given to OFD works in canal comm<strong>and</strong> areas was mainly<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> the alleged under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created.<br />
The Central Water Commissi<strong>on</strong> defines On-Farm Development as follows:<br />
"On-Farm Development (OFD) is an integrated process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
levelling <strong>and</strong> shaping the l<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> smooth flow <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structing field irrigati<strong>on</strong> channels, providing drainage<br />
facilities, <strong>for</strong>ming. the <strong>farm</strong> roads <strong>and</strong> realigning the field<br />
boundaries through appropriate c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings" (001,<br />
1984).<br />
Thus, OFD includes works, such as field channels, l<strong>and</strong> levelling, field<br />
drains <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>junctive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> surface <strong>and</strong> groundwater sources; introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rotati<strong>on</strong>al system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> (RWS) to ensure equitable <strong>and</strong> timely<br />
supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water to each <strong>and</strong> every <strong>farm</strong> holding; <strong>and</strong> evolving <strong>and</strong> propagating<br />
crop patterns <strong>and</strong> water management practices appropriate to each comm<strong>and</strong><br />
area. Other ancillary activities like c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> link roads, godowns <strong>and</strong><br />
market centres, arrangements <strong>for</strong> supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inputs <strong>and</strong> credits, agricultural<br />
extensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater <strong>for</strong> c<strong>on</strong>junctive use are also taken up<br />
as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the relevant sectoral programmes in the state plan.<br />
The objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA as menti<strong>on</strong>ed above, are said to be very<br />
comprehensive <strong>and</strong> would help in improving water use efficiency at the field<br />
level, if implemented properly. But in reality, the functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
CADA in improving water use efficiency seem to be far from satisfactory. It is<br />
stated that:<br />
.. Fmlll IiiI' experience gained in implementing the CAD progralllme.<br />
il II/ay he menti<strong>on</strong>ed thaI allhollgh Ih.: CAD programme envisages (//]<br />
inlL'grated programme covering \'(/riolls items, it is felt (hat <strong>for</strong> fhe<br />
presenl, this programme shoilid inclllde primarily <strong>on</strong> On-Farm<br />
DeI'elopment (OFD) work ami Ihat investment <strong>on</strong> items like roads,<br />
markels, etc., should he deferred/or Ihe present" (001, 1984: 29).<br />
18
Accordingly, the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the CAD programmes has been narrowed down to<br />
include On-Farm Development al<strong>on</strong>e. As per the newly proposed CAD<br />
programmes, the CAD activities include:<br />
I) On-Farm Development (OFD) works which involve:<br />
a) <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels <strong>and</strong> field drains within the comm<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
each outlet;<br />
b) l<strong>and</strong> levelling <strong>on</strong> an outlet comm<strong>and</strong> basis;<br />
c) realignment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field boundaries wherever necessary (where possible,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings should also be combined);<br />
d) en<strong>for</strong>cement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a proper system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'Warab<strong>and</strong>i' <strong>and</strong> fair distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water to individual fields; <strong>and</strong><br />
e) supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all inputs <strong>and</strong> services including credit.<br />
2) Strengthening <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> extensi<strong>on</strong> services.<br />
3) Selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> suitable cropping patterns.<br />
4) Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater to supplement surface irrigati<strong>on</strong> (c<strong>on</strong>junctive<br />
usc <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> surface <strong>and</strong> groundwater).<br />
5) Development <strong>and</strong> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the main <strong>and</strong> intermediate drainage system.<br />
6) Modernisati<strong>on</strong>, maintenance <strong>and</strong> efficient operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> system<br />
up to the outlet <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e Cllsee capacity.<br />
In spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a comprehensive instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong> by the CADA,<br />
undt:r-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential c<strong>on</strong>tinues to be a major drag <strong>on</strong> the<br />
19
per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in India. Even after almost two decades <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its<br />
existence. the CADA has not been able to meet even its basic objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
de\clopmem <strong>and</strong> improvement in distributi<strong>on</strong> network in the comm<strong>and</strong> area<br />
especially below the outlet (Mitra. 1983. 1997: 26).<br />
The Eighth Plan also revealed that 'the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes has<br />
turned out to be c<strong>on</strong>siderably narrower than originally envisaged. The progress in<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> improvements <strong>and</strong> drainage facilities has been meagre <strong>and</strong> so has<br />
the ef<strong>for</strong>t <strong>and</strong> research involving <strong>and</strong> propagating cropping patterns <strong>and</strong><br />
agricultural practices <strong>for</strong> optimum use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water under the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s prevailing in<br />
each irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>" (001, 1992: 60-61).<br />
It may also be noted that the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the CAD programme has been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fined mostly to c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels. introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> . Warab<strong>and</strong>i'<br />
<strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> levelling. Accordingly. by the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Seventh Plan. an estimated 8<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> ha. had been brought under ·Warab<strong>and</strong>i'. 2 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. had been levelled<br />
<strong>and</strong> shaped, <strong>and</strong> field channels c<strong>on</strong>structed in an area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 11.3 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. There<br />
was no progress in l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> programmes, <strong>and</strong> in most cases,<br />
achievements had been c<strong>on</strong>sistently below targets. For instance, during the<br />
Seventh Plan, the achievements in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels were<br />
below 48 per cent <strong>and</strong> that in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Warab<strong>and</strong>i it was 54 per cent <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
23 per eent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lal1lllevelling (001, 1992).<br />
The data <strong>on</strong> the status uf per<strong>for</strong>mance in physical <strong>and</strong> tinancial terms under<br />
various CAD programmes in India are presented in table 1.3.<br />
20
Table 1. 3 .Status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> C A DP rOl!.rammes in India, 1974-1997<br />
Type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> programme<br />
Achievement during<br />
Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> each<br />
Total up to<br />
1974-75<br />
item (%)<br />
1992-97 end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> VIII<br />
VIII Plan<br />
plan<br />
I. Phl'sical status (Area in milli<strong>on</strong> fill.)<br />
C<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field<br />
channels<br />
12.19 1.77 13.96 39.35<br />
Warab<strong>and</strong>hi 16.12 2.52 18.64 52.54<br />
L<strong>and</strong> levelling 1.99 0.11 2.10 5.92<br />
Field drains 0.59 0.19 0.78 2.19<br />
Total 30.89 4.59 35.48 100.00<br />
/I. Financial status (Rs. in crores)<br />
Central sector expo 1081.22 607.07 1688.29 32.23<br />
State sector expo 2091.73 1458.77 3550.50 67.77<br />
Total 3172.95 2065.84 5238.79 100.00<br />
Source: GOI, Plannmg CommissIOn, Nmth Five Year Plan (1997-2002).<br />
Since its incepti<strong>on</strong>, the total area covered under different CAD<br />
programmes till the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Eighth Plan was 35.48 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. with an<br />
investment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 5238.79 crores. The achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> targets, as revealed by the<br />
data presented in the table, seems to be encouraging enough in implementing<br />
warab<strong>and</strong>i programmes (53 %) followed by c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels (39<br />
%). It is somewhat disappointing to note that the progress in l<strong>and</strong> levelling <strong>and</strong><br />
field drains has been poor <strong>and</strong> negligible, particularly, since these two aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
OFD are very crucial to ensuring water use efficiency <strong>and</strong> to the avoidance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adverse effects <strong>on</strong> soil in the l<strong>on</strong>g run.<br />
Hence, it is necessary to examme the problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints, if any,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributing to the less efficient per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA in implementing OFD<br />
works in the commanu areas. It is a fact that lack ur systematic <strong>and</strong> scientific<br />
l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> (OFD) works have led to several adverse effects <strong>on</strong> soil <strong>and</strong><br />
the envir<strong>on</strong>ment apart from the under-utilisatioll <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential<br />
21
created. According to the Central Water Commissi<strong>on</strong>. under normal<br />
circumstances. 71 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the water released from the reservoir was lost in<br />
transit. In the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD by the <strong>farm</strong>ers. the field applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
losses tend to be much higher. This. in turn. would adversely affect the<br />
sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the resource base <strong>and</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>ing systems based <strong>on</strong> it.<br />
Given the problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints faced by the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in the<br />
post-independence period. the policy initiatives are c<strong>on</strong>tinued to increase the<br />
positive gain. particularly from large storage dams. from irrigati<strong>on</strong>. For instance.<br />
in the Ninth Plan, emphasis has been laid <strong>on</strong>: a) improving water use efficiency<br />
by progressive reducti<strong>on</strong> in c<strong>on</strong>veyance <strong>and</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> losses; b) strengthening<br />
the CADP, instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms <strong>and</strong> promoting <strong>farm</strong>ers' involvement in<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> management; c) expediting completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects started during the<br />
pre-<br />
<strong>and</strong> post-Fifth Plan periods: d) restorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> modernisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> old<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems which were executed during the pre-independence period <strong>and</strong><br />
after that; e) introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rati<strong>on</strong>al pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water; f) c<strong>on</strong>crete steps<br />
towards comprehensive <strong>and</strong> integrated <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural water resources,<br />
taking into account the possibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inter-basin transfer <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> surplus water; g)<br />
promoting participatory irrigati<strong>on</strong> management; h) encouraging c<strong>on</strong>junctive use;<br />
<strong>and</strong> i) accelerating the <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater.<br />
The escalati<strong>on</strong> in costs <strong>and</strong> gestati<strong>on</strong> are the two important operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints in irrigati<strong>on</strong> develupment in India. It is reported that by the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1996-97,362 major. 1081 medium <strong>and</strong> a multitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
had been undertaken with an investment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 80000 crores. Of these. 200 major<br />
projects <strong>and</strong> 841<br />
medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects have been completed, the<br />
22
achievement being 55 per cent <strong>and</strong> 78 per cent respectively (ewe, 1999). The<br />
cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential at current prices has increased from<br />
Rs. 1200 per ha. during the First Plan to Rs. 66570 during 1990-92. showing a<br />
55-fold increase over time. <strong>and</strong> at c<strong>on</strong>stant prices, it has increased from Rs. 8620<br />
to Rs. 29587 during the above period (GO!, 2000). It is reported that the cost<br />
over runs were due to a change in the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project (leading to 35-43 %<br />
increase in the cost in some projects), followed by <strong>on</strong>e-time provisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong><br />
rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> resettlement (R&R) activities <strong>and</strong> others (40-47 %), increase<br />
due to price rise/ inflati<strong>on</strong> (ranging from 8 % to 63 %) (GO!, 2000: 2.30 I).<br />
The discussi<strong>on</strong>, so far, gives a fairly good idea <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in India, its problems, prospects <strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al support needed to<br />
improve the operati<strong>on</strong>al efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. A brief review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in Kerala State, from where the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects <strong>for</strong> this study have been selected, is presented in the following secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
1.4 Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Development in Kerala:<br />
A brief account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the history <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in Kerala is necessary to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in the proper perspective. It<br />
may also be necessary to examine the divergences, if any, in the pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> experienced by the state compared with the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> scenario at the nati<strong>on</strong>al level.<br />
Kerala is known <strong>for</strong> its abundant natural resources, especially water. The<br />
state has 44 rivers, 27 backwaters (mostly in the <strong>for</strong>m <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lakes <strong>and</strong> ocean inlets),<br />
23
7 lago<strong>on</strong>s, 901 tanks <strong>and</strong> over 30 lakh wells lo . Vembanadu is the bIggest lake.<br />
with an area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 200 square kilometers (sq. km). Manv <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rivers like I'ni\ar.<br />
- .<br />
Pampa. Manimala. Achanko\il. Meenachil <strong>and</strong> Muvattupuzha draIn (lut to<br />
backwaters. Out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 27 backwaters. two are fresh water resources. viz .. Pookot<br />
(Kalpetta in Kozhikode) <strong>and</strong> Sasthamkotta (in Kollam district). Out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 44<br />
rivers, 41 are west flowing <strong>and</strong> three are east flowing which are tributaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Cauvery river. Of the 44 rivers. 33 are less than 100 km l<strong>on</strong>g. with a total length<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1577 kms covering a catchment area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14949 sq. km. The remaining I I riycrs<br />
are above 100 kms in length <strong>and</strong> their total length is 1643 km .. with a catchment<br />
area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25058 sq. km. <strong>and</strong> the effective catchment area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all the river basins is<br />
38864 sq. kmll. Five major rivers, viz .. Periyar, Bhrathapuzha, Pampa. Chaliyar<br />
<strong>and</strong> Chalakudy altogether drain 40 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the geographical area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state.<br />
Apart from rivers. backwaters. tanks <strong>and</strong> wells. springs also c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the<br />
water resources in Kerala. The n<strong>on</strong>-c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al fresh water source in northern<br />
Malabar. viz .. Slirangams (horiz<strong>on</strong>tal wells) is a unique source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> freshwater.<br />
Kerala also has good groundwater potential. The annual utili sable groundwater<br />
10 A survey made by the Centre <strong>for</strong> Water Resources Development <strong>and</strong> Management<br />
(CWRDM) reveals that there are 901 tanks <strong>and</strong> that Kerala has the highest density <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
family based open wells. the density <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wells being 120/ sq. km. Tube wells also <strong>for</strong>m a<br />
major source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. The estimated quantity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater resources in Kcrala is<br />
7900 MeM. (GOK, 1999). There are 236 springs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which. 104 are having a discharge<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 10 to 100 liters per minute <strong>and</strong> 37 having more than 100 liters/ minute. Similarly the<br />
Sural/gall/s in north Malabar are having a discharge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 10 to 12 liters/minute. Thc~ arc<br />
largely used as a water resource in semi-dry an:a <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Malabar <strong>for</strong> drinking purpose,<br />
II Though the total catchment area works out to be 40007 Sq. km .. about 1200 Sq. kill.<br />
is in Tamilnadu <strong>and</strong> the effective catchment area within Kerala is 38864 Sq. km.<br />
24
potential in the state is 6.59 Cu. km, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the net utilisati<strong>on</strong> was <strong>on</strong>ly 1.01<br />
Cu. km (15.32 %) (CWe. 1994)<br />
1.4.1 Pre-independence period<br />
Prior to independence. the potential role <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> in agricultural <strong>development</strong><br />
was not well recognised in Kerala; thus, Kerala does not have a very l<strong>on</strong>g history<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> evoluti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. In<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the gro'W1h <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
facilities in Kerala during the pre-independence period either in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
projects or area irrigated <strong>and</strong> the total number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> beneficiaries is scanty (Joseph,<br />
1983: 16). The Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong> has g<strong>on</strong>e further to note that prior to 1947,<br />
Kerala had no irrigati<strong>on</strong> to speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>. It depended <strong>on</strong> the heavy rainfall <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
South-West m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> to raise <strong>on</strong>e or even two paddy crops in a year. In lowlying<br />
areas. which accumulated water. even a third crop could be grown (GO!,<br />
1972: 17l). This was mainly due to the noti<strong>on</strong> that Kerala is sufficiently<br />
endowed with timely m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong>. Moreover. be<strong>for</strong>e its <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> as a separate<br />
State in 1956. Kerala comprised three independent administrative units called<br />
provinces. viz., Travancore, Cochin <strong>and</strong> Malabar with distinct political <strong>and</strong><br />
administrative cultures 12 , financial resources, outlooks <strong>and</strong> motives with different<br />
policies in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems lJ . Besides, there was no<br />
12 The Malayalam _ speaking Kerala was <strong>for</strong>med as a State in 1956 when most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Indian states were reorganised <strong>on</strong> linguistic basis. The two native princely States <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Travancorc <strong>and</strong> Cochin <strong>and</strong> the Malabar district illal Kasargod taluk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Madras<br />
Presidency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> British India were united to <strong>for</strong>m Kerala.<br />
13 Travancore had a large number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tanks <strong>for</strong> irrigating paddy during the early IS 'h<br />
century itself. King Marth<strong>and</strong>a Varma in the 18 'h century (1729-1758 AD) <strong>and</strong> the rulers<br />
who followed, gave special attenti<strong>on</strong> to the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> works <strong>and</strong> also<br />
25
competent <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sible agency with well-defined functi<strong>on</strong>s to carry out<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> works in the three regi<strong>on</strong>s. This seems to have been compounded by<br />
the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> essential data like rainfall, run-<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>f, catchment area <strong>and</strong><br />
classificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soils <strong>for</strong> planning <strong>and</strong> designing irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. which<br />
resulted in ab<strong>and</strong><strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects half-way through <strong>and</strong> revising their estimates.<br />
In the year 1068 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Malayalam Era (began in 825 AD), <strong>on</strong>ly 15 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
outlay <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> could be expended (Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Travancore, 1068 as<br />
cited in Netto. 1990:54). Thus. administrative bottlenecks as well as the peculiar<br />
agrarian relati<strong>on</strong>s 14<br />
that existed have deterred the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems in Kerala during the col<strong>on</strong>ial era.<br />
1.4.2 Post - independence period<br />
However. the post-independence period witnessed tremendous changes in respect<br />
.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies towards irrigati<strong>on</strong> devclopment in the State. This has been due to the<br />
canals, tanks <strong>and</strong> reservoirs in the Southern taluks <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Travancore (Gazetteer <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India,<br />
1962: 314). The erstwhile Travancore state had an irrigati<strong>on</strong> project in Southern<br />
Travancore, which was transferred to the Madras state at the time <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> State's<br />
reorganisati<strong>on</strong> in 1956 (GOK, 1967). In the Cochin regi<strong>on</strong>, irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> had<br />
marked its beginning <strong>on</strong>ly during the 1860s when the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> embankments <strong>and</strong><br />
drainage canals were taken up by the government. Whereas, the history <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
Malabar since the beginning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 19 'h century is a story <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gross neglect by the Madras<br />
Government (Joseph, 1983: 18).<br />
U With the prevalence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> absentee l<strong>and</strong>lordism <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the defective l<strong>and</strong><br />
tenure system by which the tenants faced the threat <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> evicti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the other in all the<br />
three regi<strong>on</strong>s, there was no sustained interest in improving cultivati<strong>on</strong> through<br />
<strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems.<br />
26
groWing dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> food grains ls in the immediate post-war period. It was<br />
realised that there was a need <strong>for</strong> harvesting the abundantly available rainwater<br />
during the m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> to increase cropping intensity <strong>and</strong> augment agricultural<br />
producti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
As already observed, the state is blessed with 44 rivers. Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rivers<br />
are rainfed <strong>and</strong> are swollen during the m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> dry up during summer. The<br />
two seas<strong>on</strong>al m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong>s l6 , viz., "Edavapathy" (south-west) <strong>and</strong>" Thulavarsham"<br />
(north-east) together provide abundant annual rainfall <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the order <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3000 mm.<br />
However, like other parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the country, there are temporal <strong>and</strong> spatial variati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
in its distributi<strong>on</strong>. The south-west m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> yields almost 70 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
annual rainfall <strong>and</strong> the remaining by the north-east m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> (20 %) <strong>and</strong><br />
occasi<strong>on</strong>al rains (10 %) between these m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong>s. The distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainfall<br />
differs across the regi<strong>on</strong>s in the state as it is uni-modal in the northern districts<br />
(Kannur <strong>and</strong> Kasargod) <strong>and</strong> bi-modal in the southern districts. But the effective<br />
rainfall l7 varies from 40 to 80 per cent between the northern <strong>and</strong> southern<br />
districts. The rest is lost through run<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>f <strong>and</strong> deep percolati<strong>on</strong> due to the<br />
15 The grow-more-food (GMF) campaIgn was galOlOg ground immediately after<br />
independence, which resulted in initiating investment programmes <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong>.<br />
16 The two m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong>s arc referred colloquially as Edavapatlwy <strong>and</strong> Thulavarsham.<br />
Edavapathy <strong>and</strong> Thulavarsham are <strong>for</strong>mally known as South-West m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> North<br />
East m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> respectively. While the Edavapathy spans from June to September,<br />
Thulavarsham is effective during October to December.<br />
17 Effective rainfall is the useful or utilisable rainfall. Rainfall is not necessarily useful<br />
or desirable at the time, rate or amount ill which it is received. Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> it may be<br />
unavoidably wasted while some may even be destructive leading to water logging.<br />
27
physiographic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the State l8 , high intensity <strong>and</strong> uneven distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rainfall. The rainwater collected in the rivers gets drained out to the sea within 24<br />
hours due to the steep slope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Western Ghats as well as the smaller courses<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> river in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> width. Moreover. the rivers due to their smaller cross-secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
cannot accommodate the entire rainwater. These physiographic limitati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the<br />
<strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the abundance as well as the seas<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainfall <strong>on</strong><br />
the other are the <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>t-cited justificati<strong>on</strong>s by the planners <strong>for</strong> a high-cost <strong>and</strong><br />
capital-intensive irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure <strong>development</strong> strategy <strong>for</strong> the state.<br />
Investment <strong>on</strong> infrastructure <strong>development</strong> in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large-scale canal-based<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the state is also justified <strong>on</strong> grounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> food security. Kerala<br />
has been a food- deficit state <strong>and</strong> the per capita food grain producti<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the lowest in the country. It was <strong>on</strong>ly 38.38 kg. per annum against the nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
average <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 175.20 kg. in 1987-88. The annual per-capita producti<strong>on</strong> has further<br />
fallen to 37.34 kg in 1990-91 (GOK. 1993). This works out to a per capita daily<br />
availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly 102.30 gm. which is Jess than the c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> norm <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 370<br />
gm per capita per day. as suggested by the Indian Council <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Medical Research<br />
(lCMR) (Suryanarayana, 1999: 328). In 1990, while the producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rice in the<br />
state was 10.87 lakh t<strong>on</strong>nes, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>f-take through PDS was 14.60 lakh t<strong>on</strong>nes <strong>and</strong><br />
the food deficit was about 26 per cent. The deficit has increased further to 39 per<br />
18 Based <strong>on</strong> the physiographic features, the geographical area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala is divided into<br />
five topographic z<strong>on</strong>es, viz., a) Mountain Peak Area, b) High L<strong>and</strong>s. c) the Mid L<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
d) the Low L<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> e) the Coastal Plains <strong>and</strong> lago<strong>on</strong>s. However. the 1110st comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
used classificati<strong>on</strong> is in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lowl<strong>and</strong>. midl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> highl<strong>and</strong>. Highl<strong>and</strong>s account <strong>for</strong><br />
the highest proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the geographical area in Kerala. which accounts <strong>for</strong> 48 per<br />
cent. followed by midl<strong>and</strong> (42 %) <strong>and</strong> low l<strong>and</strong> (10 %).<br />
28
cent in 1993 <strong>and</strong> to about 46 per cent in 1996, though it declined to 43 per cent in<br />
1997 (GOK, 1998).<br />
Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems was given immediate priority to ensure<br />
self-sufficiency in the producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy, which is the staple food crop <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Kerala. Paddy, which is grown throughout the year l9 , requires p<strong>on</strong>ded water <strong>for</strong><br />
better crop growth <strong>and</strong> yield. The m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> rainfall caters <strong>on</strong>ly to the needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
first crop <strong>and</strong> the sec<strong>on</strong>d crop limited manner. The third crop <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten fails due to<br />
the n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. In the remaining period, no water was available to<br />
grow crops. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited l<strong>and</strong> was available <strong>for</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong>, no extensive<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing was possible. The <strong>on</strong>ly opti<strong>on</strong>, there<strong>for</strong>e, was intensive cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
food crops, which was not possible without irrigati<strong>on</strong>. This being so, it is<br />
expected that with assured irrigati<strong>on</strong> facilities, yield levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>and</strong><br />
third crops could be substantially improved <strong>and</strong> stabilised. Also, as almost 90 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cultivable area has been brought under the plough, the scope <strong>for</strong><br />
extensive method <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> is very limited <strong>and</strong> the <strong>on</strong>ly opti<strong>on</strong> worth<br />
exploring is intensificati<strong>on</strong> through irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other yield augmenting<br />
supplementary inputs.<br />
There were earnest ef<strong>for</strong>ts to build up a str<strong>on</strong>g infrastructure base with<br />
respect to irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the state under the state initiatives. As a result, at<br />
present, the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in the state comprises 29 major/ medium irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
1'1 Paddy is grown three times a year <strong>and</strong> the three crops are known as Virippll.<br />
Mlil/Jukul/ al/d /'/II/chu respectively. These three crops are otherwise known as autumn<br />
crop (May to August), winter crop (September- December) <strong>and</strong> summer crop (January -<br />
April).<br />
29
(14 completed <strong>and</strong> 15 <strong>on</strong>going) projects <strong>and</strong> numerous minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> works,<br />
including groundwater <strong>and</strong> lift irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes. The pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> investment has<br />
been mostly favouring the large-scale canal-based irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems as evident<br />
from the resource allocati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> more than 60 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plan outlays except<br />
during the Third <strong>and</strong> Fourth Plan periods. The cumulative investment <strong>on</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> till the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1998-99 was Rs. 2510 crores, out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which Rs. 1736<br />
crores (about 70 %) have been <strong>on</strong> major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the<br />
corresp<strong>on</strong>ding area brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong> including minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> has been<br />
4.45 lakh ha. (net) <strong>and</strong> 7.25 lakh ha. (gross). The Eighth Plan outlay <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> has been Rs. 692 crores, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the major/ medium irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
sector accounts <strong>for</strong> 63 per cent, compared with 19 per cent <strong>for</strong> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
(table 1.4).<br />
Table 1.4: Sector-wise innstmcnt in irrigati<strong>on</strong> during Eighth Five Year plan in<br />
Kerala (Rs. Crores)<br />
\ Plan! year<br />
Major! Minor Flood CAD<br />
medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol prog.<br />
Total<br />
Plan outlav 437 (631) 130 (IS8) 65(9.4) 60 (87) 692.00<br />
1992-93 SO.SO 15.03 9.32 8.93 I 14.0S<br />
1993-94 103.39 21.17 27.56 10.00 162.12<br />
1994-95 11375 32.11 26.19 I I. 54 183.59<br />
1995-96 146.56 38.68 26.55 Il.3S 223.17<br />
1996-97 130.00 45.35 35.50 12.00 222.S5<br />
Total expo (1992-97) 574.5 152.34 125.12 53.S5 905.S1<br />
Exp. as % <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Plan<br />
131.46 117.IS 192.49 89.75 130.90<br />
outlay<br />
Note: FIgures In parenthesIs are respectIve shares In total EIghth Plan outlay.<br />
Suurce. GOK ( 1999).<br />
The expenditure <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> has been more than the outlay in all the<br />
cases, including flood c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>and</strong> Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development programme. The<br />
cumulative expenditure during the Plan period (1992-97) has becn Rs. 574.5<br />
crorcs in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major/ medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects, compared with Rs.<br />
30
152.34 crores in the minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector, Rs. 125.12 crores <strong>for</strong> flood c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rs. 53.85 crort:, <strong>for</strong> the CAD programme.<br />
However. ,,-, with the nati<strong>on</strong>al scenario the overall per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in Kerala has been far from satisfactory. The extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> utilisati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potentJal created has been the lowest at 47 per cent, ranging between<br />
below 80 per cent In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed schemes <strong>and</strong> 22 per cent in the case<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>going im ""ti<strong>on</strong> projects (table 1.5).<br />
T a hi e 1 . 5 . P er f ormance 0 fM' aJor I rngah<strong>on</strong> . P rOJects In<br />
. K era a, 1999<br />
PhY~lca Achievement Original Exp. Up to<br />
Status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
I target<br />
As % <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> esti.(Rs. March '99<br />
projects<br />
(Ha)<br />
(Ha.)<br />
target crores) (Rs. crores)<br />
205573 163079<br />
I.Completed<br />
79.33 31.74 225.67<br />
(~~) (74)<br />
') 0 . 263625 56848<br />
~. ngolng<br />
21.57 184.59<br />
(S 6) (26)<br />
Total 46'1198 219927 46.67 216.33<br />
Sale: Figures In parentheses arc respective percentages.<br />
Source: GOK (rele'"nt years).<br />
5224.41<br />
5450.08<br />
Cost<br />
escalati<strong>on</strong><br />
(%)<br />
611.00<br />
2730.28<br />
2419.34<br />
The status (If achievement in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed projects has been 79<br />
per cent <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>l:- ~~<br />
per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going schemes. While the cost<br />
escalati<strong>on</strong> in respell <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed schemes has been 611 per cent; it has been<br />
very high at 2730 p~r cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going schemes. A detailed account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the problem <strong>and</strong> prospects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in Kerala has been<br />
presented in a separate chapter.<br />
1.5 Need <strong>for</strong> the 5tudy:<br />
The discussi<strong>on</strong> so far highlights the complex nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the<br />
country as they have evolved. The chapter elaborates <strong>on</strong> the evoluti<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
processes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigatIOn systems, the dimensi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> political ec<strong>on</strong>omy influencing<br />
the nature <strong>and</strong> scale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water instituti<strong>on</strong>s, technological <strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
31
interventi<strong>on</strong>s to improve the operati<strong>on</strong>al efficiency, <strong>and</strong> other related issues <strong>and</strong><br />
problems. The importance given to the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in the c<strong>on</strong>temporary<br />
scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> the problems <strong>and</strong> prospects associated<br />
with it have also been discussed at length. While there are several studies<br />
addressing the wide range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues <strong>and</strong> problems allegedly c<strong>on</strong>tributing to the<br />
emergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost ineffective <strong>and</strong> socially less relevant"irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems, quite<br />
a few issues merit the attenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers <strong>and</strong> call <strong>for</strong> an in-depth analysis.<br />
This is more so because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the diverse range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro-c1imatic. socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
<strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems specific to the states <strong>and</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>s, where irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects are c<strong>on</strong>structed.<br />
On-Farm Development (OFD) was c<strong>on</strong>sidered as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the strategies to<br />
improve water use efficiency <strong>and</strong> to reduce adverse effects <strong>on</strong> soil fertility. But<br />
its successful implementati<strong>on</strong> at the field level seems to be far from satisfactory.<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e. it is necessary to address both technical <strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al factors<br />
influencing the adopti<strong>on</strong> or otherwise <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD by the <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong><br />
productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops. This empirical study undertaken in two <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the major<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala. would hopefully help in<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing the<br />
dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD under different agro-c1imatic settings <strong>and</strong> in devising policy<br />
measures to improve water usc efficiency.<br />
1.6 Organisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Study<br />
Chapter I provides an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the history <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
svstems<br />
.<br />
in India with particular reference to Kerala. It also critically examines<br />
.<br />
the problems related to under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources in<br />
32
-,.<br />
canal comm<strong>and</strong>s in India. The chapter extensively draws up<strong>on</strong> the political<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy approach as used by the scholars to explain the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in India during the pre-col<strong>on</strong>iaL col<strong>on</strong>ial <strong>and</strong> postcol<strong>on</strong>ial periods.<br />
[n Chapler 2, a comprehensive review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the studies <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in<br />
India <strong>and</strong> Kerala is attempted. It also brings out the important issues <strong>and</strong><br />
problems identified by researchers, affecting the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems in India. Chapler 3 gives the research design, which includes the need<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>and</strong> scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study, objectives, methodology <strong>and</strong> statistical tools used <strong>for</strong><br />
data analysis. It also presents an analytical framework based <strong>on</strong> the problem <strong>and</strong><br />
issues related to irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong><br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. The analytical approach is based <strong>on</strong> the insights drawn<br />
from the new instituti<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omIcs (NIE) explaining the simultaneous<br />
causati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> heterogeneous instituti<strong>on</strong>s with c<strong>on</strong>flicting interests leading to<br />
failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> weak instituti<strong>on</strong>s. A pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ile <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects c<strong>on</strong>sidered <strong>for</strong><br />
detailed analysis <strong>and</strong> the sample <strong>farm</strong> households is provided in Chapler 4.<br />
Chapler 5 deals with a critical appraisal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the status, prospects <strong>and</strong><br />
problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala. It also<br />
critically examines the role <strong>and</strong> effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA as an overarching<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong> to coordinate <strong>and</strong> implement scientific OFD works <strong>and</strong> water<br />
management in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. Chapter 6 deals with the ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> in the two irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects, the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>and</strong> the its effect <strong>on</strong> crop per<strong>for</strong>mance. Chapler 7 brings out the<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>al, technical, social <strong>and</strong> organisati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints in the <strong>development</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water resources <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> in Kerala. In Chapter 8,<br />
33
a summary <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s is presented, followed by some<br />
suggesti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s to reorient the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in the state in<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> changing scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> the growing<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerns over <strong>development</strong>, distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources <strong>on</strong> a<br />
sustainable basis.<br />
34
Chapter 2<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Agricultural Development: A review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> select literature<br />
Given the strategic importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture<br />
<strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent rural trans<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong>, commendable ef<strong>for</strong>ts have been made<br />
(as discussed in Chapter I) to enhance irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential in India. While<br />
investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector has been <strong>on</strong> the increase over time, it is all the<br />
more important to examine its impact <strong>on</strong> agriculture <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>development</strong><br />
in general <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regi<strong>on</strong>s. Several researchers· have attempted to examine the<br />
impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>on</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social <strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
I. '2<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in the irrigated regi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
? ';.l:'" v<br />
-) \ ,<br />
J I s:.<br />
:\n attempt has. there<strong>for</strong>e. been made in this chapter to critically reVIew<br />
some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important ,;tudie,; ,)n various aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in<br />
India <strong>and</strong> elsewhere in the world. For, it helps to highlight <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong> the<br />
issues <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints. if any. adversely affecting the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong>,<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources in different agro-climatic <strong>and</strong><br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic envir<strong>on</strong>ments. Furthermore. a critical evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> would help in identifying <strong>and</strong> incorporating corrective measures in<br />
the planning. design. operati<strong>on</strong>. maintenance <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems to improve their allocative <strong>and</strong> technical efficiencies with respect to<br />
water usc.<br />
The irrigati<strong>on</strong> literature is repkte \\ith studies cutting across wide range<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> disciplines <strong>and</strong> themes covering <strong>development</strong>. envir<strong>on</strong>mental <strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
aspects. For instance. the <strong>development</strong>al issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>
ec<strong>on</strong>omic analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> projects have been the major thrust <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g>. While the issues relating to externalities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> have <strong>for</strong>med the subject <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> enquiry in the envir<strong>on</strong>mental <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
the aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> governance <strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al arrangements in the water sector have<br />
<strong>for</strong>med the basis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the analytical perspective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the instituti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
There is also a large body <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature examining the organisati<strong>on</strong>al aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> including water management, technological as well as<br />
engineering aspects.<br />
The studies reviewed here cover a broad spectrum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues in an interdisciplinary<br />
perspective. The literature <strong>on</strong> vanous aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in India may be broadly classified in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies pertaining to:<br />
a) impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong>. in general. <strong>and</strong> also <strong>on</strong><br />
employment. rural<br />
trans<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
. .<br />
soclO-ec<strong>on</strong>omlc <strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
implicati<strong>on</strong>s, in particular; <strong>and</strong><br />
b) the operati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> organisati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>for</strong> efficient management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
systems <strong>and</strong> the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> On-Farm<br />
Development (OFD) <strong>and</strong> water management <strong>for</strong> better utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
water <strong>and</strong> the managerial aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such interventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
While the studies coming under the first category try to examIne the<br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. the sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
category is mostly evaluati<strong>on</strong> studies examining the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems, instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong>s by CADA. impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific comm<strong>and</strong> an:a<br />
<strong>development</strong> activities. mainly, OFD <strong>and</strong> water management. A brief discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
36
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important studies <strong>on</strong> the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> In India has been<br />
presented in what follows.<br />
2.1 Studies <strong>on</strong> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
The positive effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the <strong>farm</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omy is widely recognised<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g the researchers. However, researchers, by <strong>and</strong> large, are faced with the<br />
problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> decomposing the irrigati<strong>on</strong> effec{ where a host <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> complementary<br />
<strong>and</strong> intervening variables are to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered. For, the productivity augmenting<br />
effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> is determined by various factors, such as change in l<strong>and</strong> use,<br />
intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping. efficiency in the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fertiliser <strong>and</strong> nutrients, quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> (quantum, assurance <strong>and</strong> timeliness In supply), agro-climatic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainfall <strong>and</strong> its distributi<strong>on</strong>. bio-chemical technology. seed<br />
varieties. chemicals <strong>and</strong> other inputs.<br />
The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> with particular reference to canal irrigati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>on</strong><br />
producti<strong>on</strong>, productivity <strong>and</strong> income from <strong>farm</strong>ing has, however, been analysed<br />
by many researchers, especially since independence. These studies have found<br />
positive associati<strong>on</strong> between income <strong>and</strong> the <strong>farm</strong> size in the canal irrigated<br />
areas. apart from stabilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong> output (Dhawan 1982, 1985, 1988; Rao el<br />
ul.. 1988). The increase in output per unit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated area, though obvious. has<br />
I Dhawan, who has extensively addressed the questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>, with<br />
particular reference to canal irrigati<strong>on</strong>, suggests a pragmatic approach in analysing the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> impact. lie c<strong>on</strong>cludes that: "One interesting way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> skirting the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
output decompositi<strong>on</strong> in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> its complementary inputs is to take<br />
the logic view that irrigati<strong>on</strong>. being an enabling factor <strong>for</strong> the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its complementar)<br />
Inputs like chemical fertilisers <strong>and</strong> HYV seeds. ought to get the entire credit <strong>for</strong><br />
whatever rise in output occurs in the wake <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a switch over from dry to irrigated<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing" (Dhawan, 1988: 31).<br />
37
een brought out by<br />
many scholars in different agro-c1imatic regI<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(Vaidyanathan, 1987; Ray, 1991; Dhawan, 1992; Vaidyanathan et a!.. 1994).<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> the source-wise ratio <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> net irrigated to net sown area across the major<br />
states in India. Vaidyanathan (1999) finds that the coefficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> variati<strong>on</strong> (CV)<br />
has fallen from 77 per cent in the early 1960s to 54 per cent in the late 1980s.<br />
This reducti<strong>on</strong> in regi<strong>on</strong>al disparities has been largely due to a more even spread<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> stimulated by public investment.<br />
The FAO study shows that the well-endowed green revoluti<strong>on</strong> areas (in<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> good soils <strong>and</strong> assured irrigati<strong>on</strong>) have experienced tremendous decline<br />
in poverty levels owing to c<strong>on</strong>sistent agricultural growth. The elasticity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cropping intensity with respect to irrigati<strong>on</strong> has been around 0.3 <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
productivity with respect to irrigati<strong>on</strong> has been above 0.5 (FAO. 1993. as cited<br />
in Alagh. 200 I)<br />
However, the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> spatial <strong>and</strong> temporal variati<strong>on</strong>s in rainfall, spread<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> its quality <strong>and</strong> fertiliser <strong>on</strong> productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops estimated<br />
through multiple regressI<strong>on</strong> analysis by some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scholars. has not been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clusive <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>vincing (Mukherjee <strong>and</strong> Vaidyanathan. 1988; Vaidyanathan et<br />
(1/ (1994). This is mainly because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the estimated coefficients not showing any<br />
pattern owing to the infirmities in irrigati<strong>on</strong> statistics. This shows the inadequacy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> data available <strong>for</strong> reliable estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> impact. Moreover. the<br />
multiple regressi<strong>on</strong> models implicitly assume linear additive relati<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
input <strong>and</strong> output. which is unrealistic in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the complex. n<strong>on</strong>-linear <strong>and</strong><br />
interactive relati<strong>on</strong>ship between variables (Vaidyanathan. 1999:80).<br />
38
Based <strong>on</strong> the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Accounts Statistics (NAS), Dhawan (19983., 1998b,<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2000) makes a prognostic attempt to estimate the benefits <strong>and</strong> costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> in India. It is found that the producti<strong>on</strong> benefits (aggregate irrigated<br />
yield) from canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> (expresses as value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> yield per hectare) increased<br />
from Rs. 4038 in 1980-81 to Rs. 12617 in 1992-93 <strong>and</strong> the yield gain increased<br />
from Rs. 2087 to Rs. 7132. On the other, the total annual cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> has increased from Rs. 909 per ha. to Rs. 4986 during the same<br />
period <strong>and</strong> the unit cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> has increased from Rs. 488 to Rs.<br />
2277 at current prices. However. he cauti<strong>on</strong>s that the reported benefits have not<br />
been rec<strong>on</strong>ciled in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> charges paid by the beneficiary <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong><br />
incremental associated costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> incurred by the individual<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>for</strong> the usc <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong> inputs.<br />
Dhawan (1998b) also points to an important lapse in the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al cost<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal irrigati<strong>on</strong>. which is the n<strong>on</strong>-c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'incidental<br />
benefits,1 caused by the canals. An important incidental benefit is the canal<br />
(seepage) induced artificial groundwater recharging <strong>and</strong> this not <strong>on</strong>ly improves<br />
returns to investments in well irrigati<strong>on</strong>. but also exp<strong>and</strong>s the very base <strong>for</strong><br />
groundwater based agriculture (Dhawan. 1986. 1989). Other incidental benefits<br />
which need serious c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> are reducti<strong>on</strong> in instability in the <strong>farm</strong><br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy. multiple uses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water. like civic needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban <strong>and</strong> rural<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s. especially. drinking water needs. employment benefits. etc.<br />
2 Incidental henefits are akin to pril1lar~ henefit> <strong>and</strong> 'Ieft out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reck<strong>on</strong>ing. either<br />
because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the difficulties in measuring them in m<strong>on</strong>etary terms. or because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
Intangible nature (food security. sense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> self reliance in food grains, poverty<br />
alleviati<strong>on</strong>. etc.) (Dhawan. 1998h 10).<br />
39
While the ec<strong>on</strong>omic benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> are widely appreciated in<br />
the literature, there are also evidences highlighting the c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefit's<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> green revoluti<strong>on</strong> in certain regi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> that too favouring specific <strong>farm</strong>er<br />
groups. In this regard. Singh (1997) shows that the Green Revoluti<strong>on</strong> as a means<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhancing agricultural productivity has, in turn. led to a spurt in agro-based<br />
industrial activities, in the <strong>for</strong>m <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumps, tractors, harvesters, etc. as also<br />
expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> certain sectors like cement <strong>and</strong> steel required <strong>for</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
large irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. The introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large scale canal irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
particularly large dams. could change the ecology <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> provide the<br />
required water <strong>for</strong> water- intensive green revoluti<strong>on</strong> crops that could not have<br />
been grown in the regi<strong>on</strong> earlier. Further. the HYV based new agricultural<br />
strategy (NAS), which was aimed at productivity enhancement, has in the<br />
process. led to the gross neglect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ecological issues which emerged in course <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
time, making agro-ecosystems unsustainable.<br />
In spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> phenomenal increase in investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong>, its impact <strong>on</strong><br />
private investment has been discouraging, particularly, since the early 80s <strong>and</strong><br />
had led to a debate as to how this trend could be tackled. For instance. Mishra<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>and</strong> (1995); Mishra <strong>and</strong> Hazell (1996) <strong>and</strong> Mitra (1996) have shown that<br />
private investment has been rising despite the c<strong>on</strong>tinued decline in public<br />
investment. This problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> movement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> public <strong>and</strong> private investments In<br />
diverse directi<strong>on</strong>s instigated a c<strong>on</strong>troversy regarding the weakening <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
complementarity between the two. Invalidating this positi<strong>on</strong>. Dhawan (1996.<br />
1997. 1998, <strong>and</strong> 2000) brings <strong>for</strong>th an important policy implicati<strong>on</strong> that private<br />
40
investment has acquired aut<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its own so that it can c<strong>on</strong>tinue to grow<br />
without the stimulus <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> public investment J .<br />
Yet another argument in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the debate is that, since the benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> are spread over a l<strong>on</strong>g period, the complementarity would persist,<br />
as l<strong>on</strong>g as the stream <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefits c<strong>on</strong>tinues. In such cases, the reducti<strong>on</strong> in public<br />
investment may not be coincided with a reducti<strong>on</strong> in <strong>farm</strong> level sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
investments by the <strong>farm</strong>ers. In fact, Dhawan (1998) reports a high degree <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
associati<strong>on</strong> between canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> private capital <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> as revealed by<br />
the high correlati<strong>on</strong> coefficient (r= 0.65), followed by the elasticity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> private<br />
fixed capital <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> in canal irrigated areas to the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 0.25.<br />
Thus, a brief review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> important studies <strong>on</strong> the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>farm</strong> output <strong>and</strong> incomc as well as the complementarity between public<br />
investment in canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> private <strong>farm</strong> level investments show that canal<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> has been an important source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> growth to India's rural ec<strong>on</strong>omy in<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its linkage effects. However, canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> in India has not been<br />
without any problems, which has even put the future course <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems at stake.<br />
2.2 Studies <strong>on</strong> organisati<strong>on</strong>al aspects <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints in<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in India:<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in India is c<strong>on</strong>strained by many problems. The challenges<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> growing water scarcity are exacerbated by increasing costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> new water<br />
J Whi Ie Dhawan (1996) <strong>and</strong> Rao ( 1997) indicated a positive relati<strong>on</strong>ship between power/<br />
rural electrificati<strong>on</strong> as well as gross capital <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> in agriculture (GCFA), Ch<strong>and</strong>'s<br />
(2000) analysis fails to capture the inducement effect (Gulati <strong>and</strong> Bathla. 2001).<br />
41
sources, wasteful utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> already developed water supplies, degradati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
soils in irrigated areas, depleti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater, polluti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>and</strong> its<br />
impact <strong>on</strong> human health <strong>and</strong> massive subsidies <strong>and</strong> distorted incentives structure.<br />
Rosegrant (1995), reflecting <strong>on</strong> the growing problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water scarcity,<br />
cauti<strong>on</strong>s that the potential <strong>for</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> new sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water is hard to come<br />
by <strong>and</strong> increasingly expensive to exploit. In countries, including India. Ind<strong>on</strong>esia,<br />
the Philippines, Sri Lanka <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong>, the real capital costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>on</strong> an unweighted average increased from US $ 1744 per ha. in<br />
1966-69 to US $ 4385 per ha. in 1986-88. Further, the average investment cost<br />
<strong>for</strong> medium <strong>and</strong> large-scale irrigati<strong>on</strong> with full water c<strong>on</strong>trol is estimated at US $<br />
8300 per ha. in 1992 (FAO. 1992). This apart, the water use efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ing in most regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the developing world typically ranges from<br />
25 to 40 per cent (Wolf <strong>and</strong> Hubener. 1999).<br />
2.2.1 Under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential<br />
The problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential in India has been<br />
a widely debated issue. Though the <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficially reported estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> underutilisati<strong>on</strong><br />
in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects hover around 15 to 20 per cent over the plan<br />
periods. this has been disproved by many. Especially, the Ninth Plan provides a<br />
realistic explanati<strong>on</strong> as regards the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
potential in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. The plan document states that the data<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficially reported (by the Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong>) does not give a correct picture<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential. mainly because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the different criteria!<br />
norms adopted by the states in reporting the rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> creati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential. A lag <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> few years between potential creati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong><br />
42
is more obvious in canal irrigati<strong>on</strong>, due to the time required <strong>for</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the distributi<strong>on</strong> system as well as switching over from rainfed to irrigated<br />
agriculture involving major changes in techniques, which the <strong>farm</strong>ers take time<br />
to master. Moreover, poh:ntial utilisati<strong>on</strong> also depends <strong>on</strong> several variables,<br />
including, besides, the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> distributi<strong>on</strong> networks, the volume <strong>and</strong><br />
seas<strong>on</strong>al pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water availability, the losses in c<strong>on</strong>veyance, distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
applicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> fields, the extent to which the c<strong>on</strong>junctive use is developed <strong>and</strong><br />
the actual crop pattern <strong>on</strong> ground. In so far as the assumpti<strong>on</strong>s in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these<br />
parameters underlying the project design are not actually realised in full, there is<br />
bound to be divergence between the actual area irrigated <strong>and</strong> potential created<br />
(GOI. 2000: 2.290-0 I). Again. the plan document c<strong>on</strong>siders the reported gap as<br />
dubious as it does not give a correct picture <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential,<br />
mainly because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reas<strong>on</strong> that the criteria! norms <strong>for</strong> reporting the data<br />
adopted by the States are not uni<strong>for</strong>m.<br />
Vaidyanathan (1999) c<strong>on</strong>siders capacity under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects as an outcome <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> complementarity between the state<br />
initiatives in c<strong>on</strong>structing the main reservoir, main <strong>and</strong> branch canals <strong>and</strong><br />
distributaries up to outlets as well as the beneficiary ef<strong>for</strong>ts in c<strong>on</strong>structing field<br />
channels in their own fields necessary <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
2.2.2 Cost <strong>and</strong> time over runs in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong><br />
The escalati<strong>on</strong> in cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> the time lag<br />
involved in completi<strong>on</strong> are the other t\\O important problems widely discussed in<br />
the literature. A pi<strong>on</strong>eering analysis <strong>on</strong> the rise in costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> multipurpose<br />
projects by the Expert Committee (GOI, 1973b) identifies the reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
43
such as rise in pnces, inadequate investigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> provISIOn, change in the<br />
scope, design <strong>and</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al requirements <strong>and</strong> high expenditure fo"r rehabilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
measures as instrumental in cost escalati<strong>on</strong>. Since then, the issue has been<br />
addressed in many studies (Chaturvedi, 1976; INCOLD, 1979; Pant 1982; <strong>and</strong><br />
GOI, 1983).<br />
A more recent study by the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> Integrated Water<br />
Resources Development (GOI, 1999) examines the trends in costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nine<br />
projects, which have been started during the first <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d plan periods. The<br />
estimated cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these projects together was Rs. 922.09 crores during the Sixth<br />
Plan, which increased to Rs. 3220.15 crores as per the revised cost estimates as at<br />
the beginning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Ninth Plan. the increase in estimated cost being 346 per<br />
cent. The corresp<strong>on</strong>ding actual expenditure has increased from Rs. 642.11 crores<br />
to Rs. 1901.22 crores. registering an increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 246 per cent (CWC as cited in<br />
GOI, 1999). Subsequently, there was revisi<strong>on</strong> in the outlay from Rs. 210.14<br />
crores <strong>for</strong> all the projects taken together during the Sixth plan to Rs. 257.56<br />
crores (an increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 23 %) as per the Ninth plan estimates.<br />
The cost escalati<strong>on</strong> in most cases is attributed to the delays in the<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. In most cases. the delay in completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects is caused by change in design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project c<strong>on</strong>sequent <strong>on</strong> the<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use in the comm<strong>and</strong> area 4 . Vaidyanathan (1999) observes that very <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten,<br />
~ For a detailed discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> these issues. see CBI? 1997 <strong>and</strong> Vaidyanathan, 1999: 90-<br />
102. The CBI? study observes that "'In many cases, c<strong>on</strong>tour surveys <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong><br />
area are not carried out. The extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> comm<strong>and</strong> area is not assessed <strong>on</strong> a real istic basis.<br />
The norms <strong>for</strong> the design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> distributi<strong>on</strong> system are not laid down in the project report.<br />
Surface <strong>and</strong> sub-surface drainage requirement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project are not studied. <strong>and</strong><br />
44
the hydrological basis <strong>on</strong> which the initial surveyors favour a specific project,<br />
appear to be altogether different by the time the project is completed. Thus, the<br />
hydrological <strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental parameters are kept static at the planning stage<br />
<strong>and</strong> are not in tune with the changing patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource use. In the process, the<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ards <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scrutiny <strong>and</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong> become lax <strong>and</strong> the project proposals get<br />
approved under political pressure without adequate hydrological data <strong>and</strong><br />
preparatory investigati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects have been initiated by the states without any<br />
approval by the Technical Advisory Committee (T AC) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Central Water<br />
Resources Ministry. This results in frequent changes in the scope, design <strong>and</strong><br />
cost estimates. thus leading to cost escalati<strong>on</strong>. More importantly, political<br />
interests are also successful in making the government commit to new projects<br />
without the necessary technical preparati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> financial <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
justificati<strong>on</strong>. The political pressure also induces the engineers to prepare projects<br />
in a hurry <strong>and</strong> obtain the necessary clearance [later <strong>on</strong>] <strong>and</strong> to start far more<br />
projects than can be accommodated within the available resources<br />
(Vaidyanathan, 1999). In this regard. Singh (1997) explains the inherent<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tradicti<strong>on</strong> between the 'efficiency in the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> available resources' <strong>and</strong> the<br />
'propensity to have more projects' as a populist" measure. The resulting delays in<br />
generally, no provisi<strong>on</strong> there <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> is made in the estimates. Cropping patterns are not<br />
realistic. Benefit-cost ratio is not worked out <strong>on</strong> realistic basis. Specific problems, if<br />
any, <strong>for</strong> the projects, which are likely to be met during c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, are not discussed.<br />
Ifall these cost variables are c<strong>on</strong>sidered, n<strong>on</strong>e uf the projects wuuld yield a better BCR<br />
to speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>(CBIP, 1977: 5).<br />
~ The wide gap between theoretical expectati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the realisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems<br />
in India in the Post-independence period reveals this 'populism' (Ramamurthy, 1995;<br />
45
the completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the works <strong>and</strong> serious imbalances between water supply,<br />
itrigated area <strong>and</strong> crop patterns in the comm<strong>and</strong> area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed projects,<br />
accentuated the c<strong>on</strong>flicts over water allocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> added to uncertainty <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
supply, its cost <strong>and</strong> productivity.<br />
The growing problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost <strong>and</strong> time over-runs have, in turn, created<br />
mounting antag<strong>on</strong>ism towards big dams. followed by c<strong>on</strong>trasting estimates <strong>on</strong> the<br />
comparative cost effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large dams vis-a.-vis smaller <strong>on</strong>es. For instance,<br />
the Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong> arrived at the unit cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major! medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes at Rs.2800 per ha. against Rs. 800 <strong>for</strong><br />
groundwater. Kanwar (1988) reports the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater <strong>development</strong> as<br />
hardly <strong>on</strong>e fourth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> surface water <strong>development</strong>. Mitra (1997) shows that the cost<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects per hectare was Rs. 1200 in the First<br />
Plan against Rs. 691 <strong>for</strong> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong>, which increased respectively to Rs.<br />
35081 <strong>and</strong> Rs. 7331 during the Seventh Plan, registering an increase in costs to<br />
the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2834 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>for</strong>mer <strong>and</strong> 961 per cent in the<br />
latter. However, such cost comparis<strong>on</strong> is unrealistic, as these costs are reported at<br />
Mollinga 1998), which, in turn, neutralised potential antag<strong>on</strong>ism between different<br />
classes. For example, in the recent past, there have been various agitati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> <strong>farm</strong>er<br />
rights, mainly representing the interests <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rich peasants <strong>for</strong> subsidised electricity <strong>for</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> pumpsets, higher agricultural support prices <strong>and</strong> the like. Yet the fight is<br />
presented as <strong>on</strong>e between rural <strong>and</strong> urban areas thus masking both class antag<strong>on</strong>isms<br />
within the agricultural sector <strong>and</strong> the rural rich <strong>and</strong> other groups (Ramamurthy, 1995).<br />
46
currant prices prevailing during various plan periods, unadjusted <strong>for</strong> inflati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
the operati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> maintenance costs are kept outside its purview 6 .<br />
C<strong>on</strong>trary to the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al noti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems being cost<br />
effective, Dhawan (1989) states that 'surface irrigati<strong>on</strong> works may score<br />
decisively over well irrigati<strong>on</strong>, possibly by a margin <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3:2. He points out that the<br />
inclusi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> private investments by the <strong>farm</strong>ers at the <strong>farm</strong> level itself would<br />
make the minor systems cost-ineffective. Moreover, the minor works reqUire<br />
energy <strong>for</strong> countering the pull gravity, involving huge operati<strong>on</strong>al cost.<br />
2.2.3 Problems in water distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management<br />
The problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inequitable distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water across the canal comm<strong>and</strong>s has<br />
been widely debated <strong>and</strong> researched (Wade 1982a; Ali, 1986; Mitra, 1986, Rath<br />
<strong>and</strong> Mitra 1989). It has been pointed out that the inequity in the distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water is caused by violati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping pattern by the <strong>farm</strong>ers, resulting in<br />
scarcity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the tail-end. The c<strong>on</strong>sequences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inequitable distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> productivity differentials leading to income inequalities as well<br />
as high cropping intensity in the head reaches have been highlighted by Lint<strong>on</strong><br />
(1982) <strong>and</strong> Padhi <strong>and</strong> Suryavanshi (1982). The power theory <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water has also been indicated as a source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inequality, whereby rich <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
with large holdings arc favourably placed in the head reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal comm<strong>and</strong>s<br />
growing water intensive crops when the poor small <strong>farm</strong>ers are left at the mercy<br />
• In the study by Gulati, Svendsen <strong>and</strong> Choudhury (1995). an attempt has been made to<br />
capture the capital cost per ha in real terms in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major, medium irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
schemes In India.<br />
47
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainfed cropping (GOI, 1961; Thorner, 1962, Vekdem 1971, Reidinger, 1971:<br />
109, Prasad, 1972).<br />
The divergence between planned <strong>and</strong> actual crop patterns <strong>and</strong> between<br />
planned 'localisati<strong>on</strong>" <strong>and</strong> actual distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water intensive crops within the<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> areas have also been widely reported (GOI, 1965; Wade 1978; Ali,<br />
1980). Vaidyanathan (1985) c<strong>on</strong>siders the distributive problem as an outcome <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong><strong>for</strong>mity between distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> allocati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water as envisaged in<br />
the original project design. The assumpti<strong>on</strong>s, ex-ante <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects relate<br />
to: a) availability <strong>and</strong> variability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the system during different seas<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
b) cropping patterns <strong>and</strong> crop water requirement in different reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
comm<strong>and</strong>; <strong>and</strong> c) the losses in c<strong>on</strong>veyance <strong>and</strong> field applicati<strong>on</strong>s. As a matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fact. most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these assumpti<strong>on</strong>s turn out to be err<strong>on</strong>eous or inc<strong>on</strong>sistent due to<br />
n<strong>on</strong>·compliance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the detailed technical <strong>and</strong> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic investigati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
scrutiny, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> political exigencies. Besides, physical c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
structures like channels arc either not properly maintained or are n<strong>on</strong>-existent,<br />
, The problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inequitable distributi<strong>on</strong> in south Indian irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems are more to<br />
do with the specific crop pattern, generally known as 'localizati<strong>on</strong>' <strong>and</strong> water<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management differs across regi<strong>on</strong>s. Whereas the annual operati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the canal systems in west India <strong>and</strong> North India are c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>ed by the supply positi<strong>on</strong><br />
in the reservoir, but deliveries are regulated <strong>on</strong> the basis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area under different crops. [n<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast, South Indian canal comm<strong>and</strong>s are predominated by water intensive rice based<br />
cropping system <strong>and</strong> water is released depending <strong>on</strong> the supply in the reservoir from a<br />
fixed schedule at the beginning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crop seas<strong>on</strong> till the maturity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crop. Given<br />
this, there are no codified procedures <strong>for</strong> ascertaining dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> water <strong>on</strong> a weekly or<br />
<strong>for</strong>tnightly basis. Also, the problems are accentuated by divergence in cropping pattern<br />
even in the head reaches. The divergence between planned <strong>and</strong> actual crop patterns <strong>and</strong><br />
between planned 'localizati<strong>on</strong>' <strong>and</strong> actual distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water intensive crops within<br />
the comm<strong>and</strong> area has been widely reported (GOI. Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong>, 1965; Wade,<br />
1978; Ali, 1980; GOAP, 1982).<br />
48
leading to en<strong>on</strong>nous transmissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> distributi<strong>on</strong> losses. causmg iniquitous<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> rampant corrupti<strong>on</strong> (Vaidyanathan. 1999: 25).<br />
2.2.4 Studies <strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong><br />
There has also been growing antag<strong>on</strong>ism towards the adversities caused by large<br />
canal based irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in India. The multitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ecological issues<br />
emerging out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> point to the failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific,<br />
bureaucratic <strong>and</strong> planning instituti<strong>on</strong>s to recognize the inherent socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
<strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>tradicti<strong>on</strong>s associated with large dams.<br />
The' financial productivity test' applied by the British to test the viability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a project was followed even after Independence up to 1964. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
limited validity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this criteri<strong>on</strong>, the social benefit cost analysis has replaced it<br />
(GOl. I 972a: 256). Apart from this, the envir<strong>on</strong>mental clearance is a necessary<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the approval <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects.<br />
Much <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the envir<strong>on</strong>mental issues reported from irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects relate<br />
to water logging <strong>and</strong> salinity, which are mostly caused by neglect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adequate<br />
l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> works be<strong>for</strong>e the release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal water. The Central Water <strong>and</strong><br />
Power Commissi<strong>on</strong> (CWPC) has estimated way back in 1967 that as much as 71<br />
per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the water is lost in transit from the reservoir to the field (CSE,<br />
1985: III). As per the latest estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Central Water Commissi<strong>on</strong>, the total<br />
degraded area has been reported to be 33.70 milli<strong>on</strong> ha., <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which, 2S per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
area has been affected by water logging, followed by salinity (16 %), acidity (13<br />
%J <strong>and</strong> alkalinity (II %). Besides, the area degraded due to ravines <strong>and</strong> gullies<br />
has been 18 per cent, shifting cultivati<strong>on</strong> 15 per cent <strong>and</strong> other problem affected<br />
49
areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998). Mitra (1996) suggests that the estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential created will have to be discounted to the extent productive<br />
l<strong>and</strong> is going out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> use from agricultural producti<strong>on</strong>. This will make the extent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> much higher than what is reported (Mitra, 1996: A 33).<br />
Thanh <strong>and</strong> Biswas (1990) examine the interface between irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems <strong>and</strong> the envir<strong>on</strong>ment <strong>and</strong> highlight the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>and</strong><br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects with respect to envir<strong>on</strong>mental implicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Singh gives a very comprehensive <strong>and</strong> detailed account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal caused<br />
ecological issues <strong>and</strong> health hazards (Singh. 1997: 133-163) <strong>and</strong> underscores the<br />
necessity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> incorporating ecological impact studies as an integral part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
planning process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. He feels that the problems c<strong>on</strong>cerning the<br />
possibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dam failures, in particular. the occurrence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> earthquakes. etc.,<br />
needs careful empirical probing.<br />
The problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> resettlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project affected<br />
people (PAP)I communities have also been <strong>on</strong> the increase in the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
comprehensive rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> policy. According to the L<strong>and</strong> Acquisiti<strong>on</strong> Act <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1894, the project-displaced people were paid <strong>on</strong>ly cash compensati<strong>on</strong>. Though<br />
this Act was amended in 1984, which allowed the state to provide alternative<br />
l<strong>and</strong> as compensati<strong>on</strong>, this act was not legally binding (Singh, 1997: 183). It is<br />
widely held that large dams do little to alleviate the existing social inequalities,<br />
rather, they further aggravate the already skewed social structure in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
socially, ec<strong>on</strong>omically <strong>and</strong> politically powerful. thus throwing to the winds the<br />
socialist pretensi<strong>on</strong>s laid down in the c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> (Singh. 1997: 203).<br />
50
D' Souzaet a1 (1998) based <strong>on</strong> the study <strong>on</strong> three projects, VIZ., Hirakud<br />
(Orissa), Ukai (Gujarat) <strong>and</strong> Indira G<strong>and</strong>hi Nahar Project (Rajasthan) have<br />
brought out glaring <strong>and</strong> complete dichotomy between pre-c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
projecti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> post-c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> realities. The problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water logging,<br />
salinity, sedimentati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> health hazards have been increasing enormously.<br />
Moreover, the objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> flood c<strong>on</strong>trol, irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> power generati<strong>on</strong> have<br />
not been achieved as envisaged. Cropping patterns have been influenced by the<br />
market <strong>for</strong>ces rather than suiting to the specific irrigati<strong>on</strong> design.<br />
Thus, the studies relating to the envir<strong>on</strong>mental implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects are vast in tenns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues addressed. However, the reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> such<br />
problems are not well explored in many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the studies. The studies, in general.<br />
have c<strong>on</strong>fined to identifying the magnitude <strong>and</strong> veracity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> problems caused by<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> the reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> these problems have not been well<br />
appreciated in the literature.<br />
2.2.5 Studies <strong>on</strong> problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater <strong>development</strong><br />
As the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> unequal distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the canal comm<strong>and</strong>s<br />
increased over time, there have also been earnest ef<strong>for</strong>ts towards the<br />
<strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater irrigati<strong>on</strong> sources. There are three distinct<br />
arguments as to why <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater sources is essential in<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. On the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater sources<br />
become imperative in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water shortage in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s caused primarily by violati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cropping pattern as well as<br />
unauthorized irrigati<strong>on</strong> practices (Reddy, 1994). On the other. the public<br />
51
investment In irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> induces private <strong>farm</strong> level investments,<br />
mainly in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> extracti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater sources (Dhawan, 1995). While the<br />
<strong>for</strong>mer perceives groundwater <strong>development</strong> as an essential comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
. c<strong>on</strong>junctive principle', the latter underlies the' complementarity' principle. A<br />
third <strong>and</strong> most important argument is the logic that groundwater sources act as<br />
. vertical drains' in canal comm<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> helps preventing the adverse effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water logging <strong>and</strong> salinity, thereby arresting the rise <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water table.<br />
In view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the above. there has been greater emphasis <strong>on</strong> groundwater<br />
<strong>development</strong> even in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> by now, the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> extracti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
groundwater sources has reached extensive margin in certain parts, threatening<br />
the sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the resource base. The progressive decline in groundwater<br />
table in several parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tlle country has been extensively discussed (Prihar et al.,<br />
1990; Bhatia. 1992; Sivanappan. et al., 1987; Shah, 1993; Dhawan, 1995;<br />
Janakarajan, 1996; Janakarajan <strong>and</strong> Vaidyanathan. 1998; Vaidyanathan 1999).<br />
A three-pr<strong>on</strong>ged approach to regulate groundwater use in India was<br />
suggested by Vaidyanathan (1999). which includes a mix <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> centralised<br />
regulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the groundwater by the government combined with community<br />
management as well as the introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> competitive groundwater markets.<br />
However, the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such policies calls <strong>for</strong> according legal sancti<strong>on</strong><br />
to private property rights over groundwater <strong>and</strong> the freedom to trade in the same.<br />
There are also apprehensi<strong>on</strong>s regarding the success <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> community management<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the resource base, especially in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sharing the costs <strong>and</strong> benefits am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the beneficiaries. Cost-effective instituti<strong>on</strong>al arrangements are also necessary <strong>for</strong><br />
the distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater corroborated with systematic <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinuous<br />
52
m<strong>on</strong>itoring <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the parameters <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater <strong>development</strong>, viz. average yield per<br />
well, the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dried up wells, area irrigated per well, <strong>and</strong> the cropping<br />
intensity <strong>and</strong> crop pattern in well irrigated areas.<br />
2.2.6 Studies <strong>on</strong> issues related to water pricing<br />
There are growing evidences suggesting that much <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> under<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in India is due to under-pricing or n<strong>on</strong>-pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> water. Though the rati<strong>on</strong>ale <strong>for</strong> fixing up <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water tariff was clearly<br />
spelt out in the report <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Sec<strong>on</strong>d Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong> 8 (GOI, 1972), the<br />
states did not adhere to it, the result being that the actual receipts varied from<br />
less than <strong>on</strong>e percent to a maximum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2.9 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gross income. The Sixth<br />
Finance Commissi<strong>on</strong> observed that the losses due to under-pricing or n<strong>on</strong>-pricing<br />
went up nearly II times from 4.84 crores in 1955-56 to Rs. 56.59 crores in 1967-<br />
68 (GOI, 1973a: 68). The Nati<strong>on</strong>al Water Policy (1987) also insisted <strong>on</strong> fixing up<br />
water rates to c<strong>on</strong>vey its scarcity value to the users as well as to cover annual<br />
operati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> maintenance charges so as to recover part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fixed cost.<br />
Accordingly, though a few states had revised the characteristically low water<br />
rates 9 during 1981-86, in some cases, the rates had been even withheld lO<br />
8 The Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong> argued <strong>for</strong> fixing up water charges based <strong>on</strong> I) quantity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
watet c<strong>on</strong>sumed by particular crops, 2) paying capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigators, 3) assurances<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water supplies, <strong>and</strong> 4) the need to cover the annual costs incurred in providing<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Besides, the Commissi<strong>on</strong> also prescribed optimum level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> charges <strong>for</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> water such that it worked out to be around 5 <strong>and</strong> 12 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gross income<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> food <strong>and</strong> cash crops respectively.<br />
• The Ninth Plan indicates that most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the northeastern states (except Assam <strong>and</strong><br />
Manipur) do not even charge any water rate. Maharashtra is the <strong>on</strong>ly state where the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> water rates are announced <strong>for</strong> a five year period at a time with provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
yearly escalati<strong>on</strong> so as to cover the full 0 & M cost as well as the interest payable <strong>on</strong><br />
53
Subsequently, an Expert Committee was appointed by the Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong><br />
(GOI, 1992) in October 1991 under the Chairmanship <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Vaidyanathan to review<br />
the irrigati<strong>on</strong> pricing policy. The Commissi<strong>on</strong> proposed a three phased transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
in the policy, viz., a) rati<strong>on</strong>alisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the existing system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual<br />
assessment based <strong>on</strong> area under different crops to <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> seas<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> crop-specific<br />
area rates; b) shift to a full-fledged volumetric distributi<strong>on</strong> system with necessary<br />
physical changes; <strong>and</strong> c) reworking <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the operati<strong>on</strong>al rules <strong>and</strong> procedures <strong>for</strong><br />
effective regulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water allocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> deliveries.<br />
However, there was no attempt to implement the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
committee <strong>and</strong> the seriousness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-pricing or under-pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water c<strong>on</strong>tinue to perpetuate inefficiency.<br />
It was found that by 1993-94, the<br />
losses <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> had increased to Rs. 124 billi<strong>on</strong>, about 2.3 times<br />
the plan outlay <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> (MundIe <strong>and</strong> Rao, 1997; Srivastava <strong>and</strong> Sen, 1997,<br />
as quoted in Vaidyanathan, 1999: p.1 0 I). There was also a marked decline in the<br />
cost recovery ratio from 12.60 per cent to mere 4.40 per cent.<br />
Thus, the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> under-pricing or n<strong>on</strong>-pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water acts<br />
as a major c<strong>on</strong>straint in the effective utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water in canal<br />
the public deposits raised through irrigati<strong>on</strong> b<strong>on</strong>ds. The state governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Andhra<br />
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana <strong>and</strong> Orissa have revised the water rates recently (GO!,<br />
2000: 2.293).<br />
10 The Expert Committee (1992) denotes that water rates in Tamilnadu were last revised<br />
30 years back. In Punjab, Kerala, Haryana, Jammu <strong>and</strong> Kashmir <strong>and</strong> Himachal Pradesh,<br />
there has been no change in rates since the mid-70s. Several states (including Andhra<br />
Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh<br />
<strong>and</strong> West Bengal) announced revisi<strong>on</strong>s during 1981-86, but in some cases (Gujarat <strong>and</strong><br />
Karnataka), the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the revised rates was held up by the governments,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Andhra Pradesh, because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stay orders from the courts (GOI, 1992).<br />
54
comm<strong>and</strong> areas in India. All the more, it is important to note that there are not<br />
much emphasIs given to ensure water availability at the right time in adequate<br />
measures. It is also important to note that the <strong>farm</strong>ers are not to be made to pay<br />
<strong>for</strong> the inefficient <strong>and</strong> poor delivery services. All these eventualities invariably<br />
points to the need <strong>for</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms in the water sector in India.<br />
2.2.7 Instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms in Indian irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
There has also been a growing academic interest in underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> explaining<br />
the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the broad framework <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
New Instituti<strong>on</strong>al Ec<strong>on</strong>omics (NIE). Much <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this literature has been necessitated<br />
by the growing realisati<strong>on</strong> that the mainstream (neo-c1assical) ec<strong>on</strong>omists, by <strong>and</strong><br />
large, have tended to neglect the interacti<strong>on</strong> between ec<strong>on</strong>omic policy <strong>and</strong> the<br />
complex instituti<strong>on</strong>al arrangements II as well as the transacti<strong>on</strong> costs in the water<br />
. 12<br />
sector .<br />
In India, the wide range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues <strong>and</strong> problems emerging in the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
sector over a period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time necessitated thinking in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
re<strong>for</strong>ms necessary to ensure efficient <strong>and</strong> productive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>on</strong> a<br />
sustainable basis. Scholars, by <strong>and</strong> large, have addressed these issues <strong>and</strong><br />
II<br />
For an extensive <strong>and</strong> comprehensive revIew <strong>and</strong> discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
arrangements in the water sector <strong>and</strong> the divergent theoretical positi<strong>on</strong>s as well as<br />
experiments, see Runge (1981, 1986); Carruthers <strong>and</strong> Morris<strong>on</strong> (1996); St<strong>on</strong>e et al<br />
( 1996), Alst<strong>on</strong> et al (1996); Thobani (1997); Easter et al (1999); Hearne <strong>and</strong> Easter<br />
(1997); Potkanski <strong>and</strong> Adams (1998); Easter et al (1999); Saleth <strong>and</strong> Dinar (1999);<br />
Kemper <strong>and</strong> Larry D. Simps<strong>on</strong> (1999)<br />
12 Both the rent-seeking as well as game theoretic approaches are used by scholars to<br />
explain this instituti<strong>on</strong>al processes (Repetto, 1986).<br />
55
highlighted the problems related to instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms ll <strong>and</strong> capacity building<br />
in irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in India <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong> water use efficiency.<br />
Vaidyanathan (1999) reviews various approaches to instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>m<br />
in India's irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siders self management by user communities 14<br />
with well defined property rights over water supply, including the freedom to<br />
buy <strong>and</strong> sell these rights as an important step in this regard. According to him, an<br />
appropriate instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>m in India requires the state to undertake part or<br />
full costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> that the system fetches back<br />
the expenses incurred in a specified manner with minimum interference as<br />
regards the rules <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water transacti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Examining the fl?asibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms in India, Saleth <strong>and</strong><br />
Dinar (1999) bring out the c<strong>on</strong>trast that while policy makers realise the heavy<br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevailing instituti<strong>on</strong>al inadequacy within the water<br />
sector, the political ec<strong>on</strong>omy c<strong>on</strong>straints remain as a powerful obstacle <strong>for</strong><br />
initiating any substantive instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>m. This study <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fers an analytical<br />
framework to<br />
identify various layers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al inter-linkages <strong>and</strong><br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>-per<strong>for</strong>mance linkages within the water sector. The Central Water<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> (CWC) <strong>and</strong> the Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong> have also placed the<br />
13 Instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms in the water sector necessarily calls <strong>for</strong> definite principles in<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water law, water policy <strong>and</strong> water administrati<strong>on</strong>, all <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the three having well<br />
laid out instituti<strong>on</strong>al aspects to be strictly adhered to. For a detailed discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water instituti<strong>on</strong>s in India, see Hashim Ali, 1980; Jayaraman, 1981;<br />
Uph<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>f. 1986; APO, 1991; Singh. 1992; Mitra, 1993; Lele <strong>and</strong> Patil, 1994; Mal<strong>on</strong>ey <strong>and</strong><br />
Raju, 1994, <strong>and</strong> Vaidyanathan, 1999.<br />
I' The literature <strong>on</strong> user participati<strong>on</strong> in water management largely rely <strong>on</strong> the<br />
framework <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the collective acti<strong>on</strong> theory [Ols<strong>on</strong>. 1965; Ostrom. 1990; Sengupta, 1991,<br />
Johnst<strong>on</strong> et aI, 1993; Coward Jr. (ed.), 1980).<br />
56
importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instinai<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms <strong>on</strong> the agenda. The instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>:n<br />
measures are perceived in a broad spectrum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities. viz., providing a legal<br />
framework to the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sharing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources, inter-state water<br />
disputes, inter-basin water transfers. c<strong>on</strong>ferring rights to trade in water resources<br />
as well as riparian rights, groundwater regulati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong>er participati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> management (CWC, 1999: 223). However, instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms are yet<br />
tu take a definite shape in India <strong>and</strong> are emerging gradually.<br />
2.3 Studies <strong>on</strong> aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On-Farm Development <strong>and</strong> water management<br />
in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s<br />
The studies addressing the problems related to the efficient use <strong>and</strong> management<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> have highlighted two critical parameters, namely, the<br />
absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> (OFD) in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the<br />
lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> discipline am<strong>on</strong>g stakeholders regarding <strong>development</strong>, distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. The realisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ground realities<br />
that are purportedly affecting water use efficiency have made the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
planners, management specialists <strong>and</strong> technocrats to take both preventive <strong>and</strong><br />
curative measures in canal comm<strong>and</strong>s. Moreover, given the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD<br />
<strong>and</strong> OFWM in the efficient per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems, there have been<br />
commendable ef<strong>for</strong>ts by researchers to examine the <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD as well as<br />
the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water management practices in canal comm<strong>and</strong>s. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these<br />
studies are regi<strong>on</strong>-specific <strong>and</strong> project-specific.<br />
57
2.3.1 Studies <strong>on</strong> tbe impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD<br />
Sen (1955), who examines the <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> In river valley<br />
projects, has made a pi<strong>on</strong>eering attempt in this regard. The study suggests that<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> facilities in an optimum manner with the shortest time lag<br />
could ensure optimum return <strong>on</strong> the large amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> capital invested in major<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects.<br />
According to Chauhan <strong>and</strong> Sewa Ram (1977), l<strong>and</strong> levelling, which is an<br />
essential aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD, is a crucial n<strong>on</strong>-engineering measure <strong>for</strong> efficient<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. They advocate <strong>for</strong> an underground<br />
pipeline system with pre-fabricated channels so as to ensure optimum water use.<br />
The need <strong>for</strong> training the <strong>farm</strong>ers as well as local mas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> fabricati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
moulds, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> channels using these moulds <strong>and</strong> field layout <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such<br />
pre-fabricated channels to ensure cost-effective OFD works have also been<br />
appreciated.<br />
Narayan <strong>and</strong> Reddy (1978) have brought out the role <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong><br />
in water management with special reference to the Ghataprabha <strong>and</strong> Malaprabha<br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s in Karnataka. The study examines the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific OFD in<br />
the better utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential, the problems, both financial as well<br />
as lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> awareness about OFD works, improper deployment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> staff, timely availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> credit facilities from L<strong>and</strong> Development<br />
Banks (LDBs), etc. The study reports the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> distributive inequalities<br />
across the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong> in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the widespread practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> overirrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> violati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping pattern. It is found that the <strong>farm</strong>ers were<br />
reluctant! hesitant in pursuing OFD works in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> their awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
58
incremental yield (due to adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD) <strong>and</strong> financial positi<strong>on</strong>. The study<br />
argues that"the choice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop pattern with weightage <strong>for</strong> less water intensive <strong>and</strong><br />
low value crops (as per the CADA directives) with a more or less determined<br />
seas<strong>on</strong>al fixati<strong>on</strong> makes heavy investment <strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> unec<strong>on</strong>omic. The<br />
total expenditure incurred <strong>for</strong> l<strong>and</strong> levelling per acre in the study villages was Rs.<br />
451 <strong>for</strong> <strong>on</strong>e per cent slope, Rs. 409 <strong>for</strong> two per cent slope <strong>and</strong> Rs. 645 <strong>for</strong> three<br />
per cent slope.<br />
Singh et al (1978) in their study, "An ec<strong>on</strong>omic appraisal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD<br />
programme- a hard core <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ramganga comm<strong>and</strong> area <strong>development</strong> project" in<br />
Uttar Pradesh find the immediate effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> extensi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong>, avoidance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> seepage losses <strong>and</strong> enhanced cropping intensity.<br />
However, the returns <strong>on</strong> investment in OFD works are poor mainly due to the<br />
short-time lag between programme planning <strong>and</strong> achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> results<br />
(producti<strong>on</strong>) <strong>and</strong> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> funds <strong>and</strong> inadequate staffing pattern.<br />
Sisodia (1978) in his . ec<strong>on</strong>omic analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD programme 10 the<br />
Chambal comm<strong>and</strong> area in Madhya Pradesh', examines whether an investment<br />
<strong>on</strong> the project is viable in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> change in cropping pattern, cropping intensity<br />
<strong>and</strong> yield levels in relati<strong>on</strong> to the pre-OFD situati<strong>on</strong>. The study c<strong>on</strong>cludes that<br />
while it is pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itable to undertake OFD, its adopti<strong>on</strong> is justified by the net income<br />
earned by <strong>farm</strong>ers through increase in producti<strong>on</strong>, input use efficiency <strong>and</strong><br />
managerial ability <strong>for</strong> realising the full potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water resources.<br />
Wade (1976) in his study <strong>on</strong> Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Programme<br />
observes that the emphasis <strong>on</strong> mechanized l<strong>and</strong> shaping <strong>and</strong> furrowing in the<br />
59
comm<strong>and</strong> area has reduced the labour input <strong>and</strong> favours the rich fanners in the<br />
matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> redistributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefits.<br />
The importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> incorporating Research <strong>and</strong> Development (R&D) in the<br />
process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> has been c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be essential to bridge<br />
the gap between techno-centric modem fann technology <strong>and</strong> traditi<strong>on</strong>al approach<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the users (<strong>farm</strong>ers) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such technology (Wade, 1976; Biggs, 1981). Wade<br />
(1976) indicates the emulative model <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chambal basin near Kota in Rajasthan,<br />
wherein, an integrated OFD involving a full-scale rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> surfaces<br />
<strong>and</strong> water distributi<strong>on</strong> structures as well as ownership by means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings <strong>and</strong> realignment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> boundaries is widely acclaimed. However, such a<br />
model needs c<strong>on</strong>siderable reworking be<strong>for</strong>e getting replicated elsewhere. Biggs<br />
(1981) emphasises the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> R&D at the grass root level to m<strong>on</strong>itor<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> works. He also proposes a <strong>for</strong>mal <strong>and</strong> in<strong>for</strong>mal R&D <strong>for</strong> river basin<br />
<strong>development</strong>.<br />
Kumar (1978) examines the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels <strong>on</strong> cropping pattern,<br />
cropping intensity, input use, <strong>farm</strong> income, elasticity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong><br />
inputs in different <strong>farm</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Hirakud canal system. Using a logarithmic<br />
regressi<strong>on</strong> model with r<strong>and</strong>om coefficients to express the relati<strong>on</strong>ships between<br />
the explanatory <strong>and</strong> dependent variables, he c<strong>on</strong>cludes that the field channels<br />
have led to an overall increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 13 per cent in the irrigated area <strong>and</strong> 9 per cent<br />
increase in the cropping intensity. The field channels lead to a reducti<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> family labour per acre' <strong>and</strong> also an increase in the utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
casual labour.<br />
60
Ouncan (1979) analyses the factors affecting <strong>farm</strong>ers' willingness <strong>and</strong><br />
ability to operate <strong>and</strong> maintain <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. He also refers to the<br />
organisati<strong>on</strong>al aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local irrigators groups.<br />
Joshi <strong>and</strong> Agnihotri (1984) examines the magnitude <strong>and</strong> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soil salinity <strong>and</strong> waterlogging in the canal comm<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
suggests measures, such as drainage, canal lining, <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> water management,<br />
etc., to overcome such problems.<br />
Tripathi (1984) examines the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical improvements In<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong> through OFO <strong>on</strong> agricultural productivity. The impact <strong>on</strong><br />
productivity has been measured by comparing 'be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>and</strong> after implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO' <strong>and</strong> also 'with <strong>and</strong> without OFO'. According to him, the latter approach,<br />
i.e., 'with <strong>and</strong> without OFO' provides a realistic measure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the impact as it takes<br />
into account the various aspects <strong>and</strong> other programmes operating simultaneously<br />
with the main CAO programmes. He indicates that the yield differential in the<br />
'be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>and</strong> after OFD' approach may not reflect the realistic picture <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the simultaneous causati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other related<br />
programmes having a bearing <strong>on</strong> productivity, <strong>and</strong> the possibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> overestimati<strong>on</strong><br />
in the yields due to the OFO interventi<strong>on</strong>. Moreover, most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects lack in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprehensive benchmark surveys to compare<br />
<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trast the comparative per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated <strong>farm</strong>s be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>and</strong> after<br />
implementing OFO.<br />
61
Nanjundappa (1988), while examining the financial aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD,<br />
argues <strong>for</strong> integrating financing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works with the CAD programme so as to<br />
facilitate the co-ordinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities at a single point.<br />
Yousuf (1988) c<strong>on</strong>siders the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD causing c<strong>on</strong>siderable reducti<strong>on</strong><br />
In the utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential. The departure from the localised<br />
cropping pattern in favor <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water intensive crops especially in the head reaches<br />
is yet another problem affecting water availability across the canal system <strong>on</strong> a<br />
uni<strong>for</strong>m basis. As a result, a declining trend in adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD has been<br />
observed while moving from the head to tail-end.<br />
Gopinath <strong>and</strong> Kalro (1991) examines the per<strong>for</strong>mance objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> system in relati<strong>on</strong> to sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> managerial interventi<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
upgrade the system per<strong>for</strong>mance. A clear distincti<strong>on</strong> is made with respect to<br />
managerial interventi<strong>on</strong>s in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> hardware measures <strong>and</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware measures,<br />
which together signify the relevance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in attaining the goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
productivity, equity, reliability, flexibility, envir<strong>on</strong>mental stability <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
viability.<br />
The study identifies various per<strong>for</strong>mance objectives <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> management. These objectives are: i) attaining l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water<br />
productivity through reducti<strong>on</strong> in water losses, ii) better crop yields <strong>and</strong> shift in<br />
cropping; iii) ensuring equity, dependability, stability <strong>and</strong> sustainability as well<br />
as ec<strong>on</strong>omic viability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. These objectives are expected to be<br />
achieved through management interventi<strong>on</strong>s in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> hardware <strong>and</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware<br />
measures, involving OFD works (Gopinath <strong>and</strong> Kalro, 1991: 160-61).<br />
62
The Eighth Plan also reiterates the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works <strong>and</strong> water<br />
management programmes based <strong>on</strong> detailed soil surveys <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use capability<br />
(GOI, 1992: 59). The poor per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD implementati<strong>on</strong> in different<br />
states was clearly brought out in the Ninth Plan document. The survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> relevant<br />
legal provisi<strong>on</strong>s in the existing Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Acts in various states shows that most<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the states do not have OFD works included in their ActslS. The<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD entails willful possessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> from the c<strong>on</strong>cerned<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers, <strong>for</strong> which no compensati<strong>on</strong> is paid, which may have serious<br />
implicati<strong>on</strong>s. C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings is yet another activity, which is not being<br />
undertaken by many states.<br />
2.3.2 Evaluati<strong>on</strong> studies <strong>on</strong> CAD programmes <strong>and</strong> OFD<br />
There are a few evaluati<strong>on</strong> studies <strong>on</strong> the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the CAD programmes <strong>on</strong> the<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential created <strong>and</strong> adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> desired cropping patterns as well<br />
as the c<strong>on</strong>straints in the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
studies have covered the organisati<strong>on</strong>al aspects <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>straints in the<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> certain physical programmes <strong>for</strong> improvements in the system.<br />
Reddy (1991) extensively discusses the problems <strong>and</strong> prospects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development programmes with particular reference to the<br />
Ghataprabha <strong>and</strong> Malaprabha irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Karnataka. It is found that the<br />
low progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> programme<br />
1~ For instance. the North India Canal <strong>and</strong> Drainage Act, 1873 (as applicable to Punjab,<br />
Haryana <strong>and</strong> Uttar Pradesh), the Bengal Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Act 1876 (applicable to Bihar <strong>and</strong><br />
West Bengal), the Bombay Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Act 1979, the Rajasthan Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Drainage<br />
Act, 1954 <strong>and</strong> Orissa Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Act do not provide <strong>for</strong> direct! effective OFD works as<br />
63
y the CADA have led to low productivity. The study brings out a str<strong>on</strong>g case <strong>for</strong><br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD by the <strong>farm</strong>ers, which is essential <strong>for</strong> the effective utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential as also <strong>for</strong> ensuring sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system. The study<br />
throws light <strong>on</strong> a good number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues c<strong>on</strong>cerning OFD, like the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> <strong>farm</strong> business, <strong>farm</strong>ers' percepti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong>,<br />
distributive inequalities in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>, problems in the n<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> localizati<strong>on</strong> pattern by the <strong>farm</strong>ers, issues in water management <strong>and</strong><br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental issues. The study c<strong>on</strong>cludes that " ... the future research <strong>on</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g other issues, should c<strong>on</strong>centrate more <strong>on</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-water factors,<br />
particularly, l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong>".<br />
Pant (1992) examines the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works in the Shard a Sahayak<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uttar Pradesh <strong>and</strong> found that the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficient field irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
channels within the outlet comm<strong>and</strong> has been resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential. The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works <strong>on</strong> increasing the area under<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> has been found to be marginal, being positive III some outlets <strong>and</strong><br />
negative in some others. Again, it is noted that in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
investment <strong>on</strong> OFD works, the overall increase in comm<strong>and</strong> area has been <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
43 acres per year which represents an increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly 10.7 per cent. However.<br />
the study is silent about the reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the poor status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD adopti<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
Reddy (1998) has made a comprehensive attempt to underst<strong>and</strong> the<br />
problems <strong>and</strong> prospects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in canal comm<strong>and</strong>s The<br />
----------------------------------------------------<br />
well as involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> beneficiaries In overall management <strong>and</strong> administrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems (GOl, 2000: 2.308).<br />
64
approach <strong>and</strong> thrust given in the study are different from c<strong>on</strong>temporary studies<br />
as: a) it is a l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal study; <strong>and</strong> b) the focus is <strong>on</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ers' underst~nding <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the various irrigati<strong>on</strong> related factors <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong> the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
CAD programmes. The study identifies perceptible gap between area notified <strong>for</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the area actually irrigated <strong>and</strong> this has been <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a host <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
factors as reported by the <strong>farm</strong>ers including n<strong>on</strong>-levelling <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> be<strong>for</strong>e the<br />
actual release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water (40.7 %), followed by lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adequate water in the canal<br />
(32.2 %), undependable <strong>and</strong> untimely supply (27.1 %) <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
labour (24.7 %). The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> water use efficiency in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
crop output per unit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water used <strong>and</strong> productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops have also been<br />
examined. The productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops grown in the plots where OFD is d<strong>on</strong>e<br />
scientifically is invariably higher than those grown in undeveloped plots. The<br />
empirical results discussed in Reddy (1998) <strong>on</strong> localizati<strong>on</strong> in the comm<strong>and</strong> area<br />
appear to be very interesting. While the project envisages localizati<strong>on</strong> pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Rabi (40 %), Kharif (40 %) <strong>and</strong> two seas<strong>on</strong>al crops (20 %), the actual pattern<br />
found in 1975-76 was Rabi (77.7 %), Kharif (8.9 %) <strong>and</strong> two seas<strong>on</strong>al (13.4 %).<br />
The pattern changed further to Rabi (42.5 %), Kharif (19 %) <strong>and</strong> two seas<strong>on</strong>al<br />
crops (38.5 %) in 1984-85.<br />
The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> (<strong>and</strong> OFD) <strong>on</strong> <strong>farm</strong> business income has been<br />
found to be significant as dem<strong>on</strong>strated by the increase in return <strong>on</strong> investment in<br />
irrigated <strong>farm</strong>ing from 9.6 per cent in 1975-76 to 49 per cent in 1984-85. Thus,<br />
the hypothesis that irrigati<strong>on</strong> helps increasing income per acre 'has been wellfounded<br />
(Reddy, 1998: 220). On the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> extensi<strong>on</strong> activities, it is found<br />
that <strong>on</strong>ly 36 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers have c<strong>on</strong>tact with the extensi<strong>on</strong><br />
65
agents as against 90 per cent or more in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> big <strong>farm</strong>ers. The study<br />
highlights the un<strong>for</strong>tunate aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Indian irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong>, wherein, the<br />
crucial elements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated <strong>farm</strong>ing, viz., l<strong>and</strong> levelling <strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong>,<br />
drainage facilities <strong>and</strong> adverse effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> over irrigati<strong>on</strong> do not figure<br />
prominently in the extensi<strong>on</strong> counseling (Reddy, 1998: 20 I).<br />
Vaidyanathan (1999) c<strong>on</strong>tends that, in large reservoir based irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems, the ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system managers to ensure efficient water distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
is c<strong>on</strong>strained by the rigidity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the distributi<strong>on</strong> networks, the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sophisticati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol structures to regulate the volume <strong>and</strong> timing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> flow to<br />
different parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> area, the capacity to collate <strong>and</strong> analyse the<br />
enormous amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> available bearing <strong>on</strong> crop water needs at<br />
different times in different segments <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> area <strong>and</strong> the ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
system managers to en<strong>for</strong>ce the allocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the ground (Vaidyanathan, 1999).<br />
Attempts to bring about improvements at the user level by c<strong>on</strong>structing field<br />
channels, c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> levelling have also not made much<br />
headway. The uncertainty <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> returns <strong>on</strong> investment as well as the bureaucratically<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ceived <strong>and</strong> implemented programmes with <strong>on</strong>ly marginal involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
users <strong>and</strong> the organisati<strong>on</strong>al weakness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state apparatus are some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
important c<strong>on</strong>straints.<br />
2,3.3 Studies <strong>on</strong> user participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> management transfer<br />
O'Mara (1984) c<strong>on</strong>siders beneficiary participati<strong>on</strong> as an important measure to<br />
resolve much <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water utilisati<strong>on</strong>. A system which is resp<strong>on</strong>sive<br />
to <strong>farm</strong>er's dem<strong>and</strong> is far more likely to achieve an efficient allocati<strong>on</strong> than any<br />
66
system which presupposes superior in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong>-making capacity <strong>on</strong><br />
the part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> bureaucracy <strong>and</strong> neglects feedback from <strong>farm</strong>ers.<br />
It was thought that the effective management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal systems could be ensured through the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Water<br />
Management projects (NWMPs). But, in reality not much improvement had taken<br />
place after introducing NWMP. This underscores the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> user<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> management. Vaidyanathan (1999) points out that so<br />
far, the ef<strong>for</strong>ts to ensure user participati<strong>on</strong> have been c<strong>on</strong>fined to the <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
such groups at the tertiary level, without effective management in the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water transacti<strong>on</strong> at the field level.<br />
There are studies highlighting the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Participatory Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Management (PIM). Country level experiences suggest that the principle <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> PIM<br />
has been effective in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>: a) getting <strong>farm</strong>ers assistance in water distributi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
b) in facilitating the maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong> level facilities <strong>and</strong> improvements or<br />
repair <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canals; <strong>and</strong> c) in resolving irrigati<strong>on</strong> related c<strong>on</strong>flicts, previously being<br />
dealt with by the government authorities (Ferrer <strong>and</strong> Lucero, 1988). Kolawole<br />
(1993) argues that high crop productivity is a requirement to achiev~ <strong>and</strong> sustain<br />
the required level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> user participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Vaidyanathan (1999), like Patel <strong>and</strong> Lele (1995), c<strong>on</strong>cludes that 'the<br />
success <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> active user involvement in water management at the outlet level<br />
depends to a greater extent <strong>on</strong>: a) credible assurance regarding the quantum <strong>and</strong><br />
durati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water supply that each group can expect; b) giving users' groups the<br />
freedom to create local storage below the outlet <strong>and</strong> to determine allocati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
67
am<strong>on</strong>g their members; c) insisting that these groups assume resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <strong>for</strong><br />
maintenance <strong>and</strong> ensuring that users pay <strong>for</strong> the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> providing them; d)<br />
vesting the powers <strong>for</strong> regulating c<strong>on</strong>j unctive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater in the outlet<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> to the respective user groups; <strong>and</strong> e) direct participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> user groups<br />
<strong>and</strong> their representatives in the management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system with aut<strong>on</strong>omy to<br />
decide, m<strong>on</strong>itor <strong>and</strong> en<strong>for</strong>ce operati<strong>on</strong>al rules at all levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system to levy<br />
<strong>and</strong> collect water rates <strong>and</strong> apply them <strong>for</strong> better operati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> their system.<br />
The case <strong>for</strong> efficiency in water use emanates from the fact that already a<br />
large porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential is exploited <strong>and</strong> the scope <strong>for</strong> new systems is<br />
limited. The main source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> incremental water supplies will thus have to come<br />
from saving water through dem<strong>and</strong> management <strong>and</strong> more efficient use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
existing water supplies. Dick <strong>and</strong> Mendoza (1996) focus <strong>on</strong> the comparative<br />
analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> three types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternative water allocati<strong>on</strong> mechanisms, VIZ., a)<br />
administrative allocati<strong>on</strong>; b) user-managed allocati<strong>on</strong>; <strong>and</strong> c) the market<br />
allocati<strong>on</strong> l6 . Mitra (1997) calls <strong>for</strong> a critical review <strong>and</strong> examinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
management systems in its technical, organisati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al aspects as<br />
well as in its financial parameters including pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the poor<br />
status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> system in India (Mitra, 1997: 2).<br />
Pant (1998) examines the c<strong>on</strong>troversy over centralised -<br />
decentralised<br />
authority structure in the management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water. While Steward (l949)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Wittfogel (1957) argues in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a centralised co-ordinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
1. See, IFPRI (1994) <strong>for</strong> a detailed descripti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these mechanisms. There are numerous<br />
anecdotal reports <strong>and</strong> a growing number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water markets in UP. Haryana,<br />
Punjab, Bihar. West Bengal. Orissa <strong>and</strong> AP in India [Shankar. 1992; Pant. 1991;<br />
68
directi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water harvesting leading to greater political integrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
emergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> powerful bureaucracy, Pant (1998) shows evidences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> success <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
decentralised governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>and</strong> management systems. Narrating<br />
the success story <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the' Ahar - Pyne' system in South Bihar, Pant c<strong>on</strong>cludes that<br />
the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> indigenous irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems is more effective in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ensuring better <strong>farm</strong>er coordinati<strong>on</strong> in management, collective acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
sustaining equitable distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. However, the indigenous systems<br />
declined owing to: 1) the instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms resulting in the aboliti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
zamindari system; 2) alternative canal <strong>development</strong> schemes in the postindependence<br />
<strong>and</strong> post-green revoluti<strong>on</strong> era; <strong>and</strong> 3) n<strong>on</strong>-integrati<strong>on</strong> between<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> modern systems in the post-independence phase.<br />
Pant (1999) shows that the management transfer to the WUAs in<br />
Maharashtra is effective in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area expansi<strong>on</strong> under irrigati<strong>on</strong> as well as<br />
water use efficiency_ The WUAs have c<strong>on</strong>siderably improved the recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water charges thereby bringing revenue to the government. Moreover, by<br />
charging much higher amount from the water users, the WUAs have accumulated<br />
funds <strong>for</strong> the maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> their microstructures <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinue to survive <strong>and</strong><br />
thrive even after management subsidy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the government has ceased to exist.<br />
Vermili<strong>on</strong> (1997) states that irrigati<strong>on</strong> management transfer in the<br />
Philippines has resulted in substantial increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> over 50 per cent in the water<br />
fee collecti<strong>on</strong> rate, improvements in O&M <strong>and</strong> a rise in cropping intensity.<br />
----------------------------------------------------<br />
Kolavalli <strong>and</strong> Atheeq, 1990; Kolavalli, Kalro <strong>and</strong> Asopa, 1989; Saleth, 1991; Shah <strong>and</strong><br />
Raju, 19881_<br />
69
Ansari (1989) shows that there have been changes in cropping pattern <strong>and</strong> an<br />
increase in cropping intensity by 75 per cent in Nepal due to PIM.<br />
Brewer 1'1 al (1999) give a more comprehensive analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the processes<br />
<strong>and</strong> the present status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> management transfer (IMT) in India. The<br />
stuqy based <strong>on</strong> experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> IMT in six states, viz., Bihar,<br />
Haryana. Gujarat. Maharshtra, Tamilnadu <strong>and</strong> Kerala shows that the IMT as<br />
currently practices in India is not' dem<strong>and</strong> driven', as there is no pressure from<br />
the <strong>farm</strong>ers as well as political interest groups. Rather, it is a policy devised by<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>als. bureaucrats <strong>and</strong> academics c<strong>on</strong>cerned with irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in India.<br />
However. it needs further empirical probing that how far the ef<strong>for</strong>ts to<br />
ensure beneficiary participati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> management through lMT could be<br />
successful in Indian c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. where much <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s are<br />
characterised by dominance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>ed aristocracy <strong>and</strong> divergence in cropping<br />
patterns. etc. The Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong> appears to be pessimistic about the<br />
success as revealed by its observati<strong>on</strong> that... "the area covered by these<br />
initiatives [beneficiary participati<strong>on</strong>] is vcry small. less than <strong>on</strong>e per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
area irrigated at present. .... For the most part, the outlet <strong>and</strong> canal committees<br />
are there <strong>on</strong>ly in name; their functi<strong>on</strong>s are vague; they seldom meet; they are not<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sulted <strong>on</strong> substantive issues; nor are department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficers required to follow<br />
their advice. There is also c<strong>on</strong>siderable reluctance, if not oppositi<strong>on</strong>, from the<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al staff <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> departments to involving users in management: <strong>and</strong><br />
even users themselves tend to be apathetic to the idea" (GOl, 1992: 126-7).<br />
70
Since the study area under reference is in Kerala, an attempt has been<br />
made to review some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the studies, which are few <strong>and</strong> far between. dealing<br />
exclusively with the <strong>on</strong>e to <strong>on</strong>e corresp<strong>on</strong>dence between irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
agricultural <strong>development</strong> as well as the status <strong>and</strong> problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in<br />
the state.<br />
2.4 Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Agricultural Development in Kerala<br />
In Kerala, the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> agriculture <strong>development</strong> has not been<br />
realised by the scholars, in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the high intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainfall, progressive<br />
agrarian policies <strong>and</strong> the resultant commercialisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture l7<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
topography IS. There seems to be no established evidences to dem<strong>on</strong>strate that<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> has significantly influenced the agrarian prospects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regi<strong>on</strong> 19<br />
(George <strong>and</strong> Nair, 1982; Narayana <strong>and</strong> Nair, 1983; Kannan <strong>and</strong> Pushpangadan,<br />
1989). Joseph (1984) examines the relative efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> under two<br />
different types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala, lifts <strong>and</strong> cross bars, in terms<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> input use, output, productivity <strong>and</strong> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability. It is found that the output per<br />
17 Varghese (1972) points out that redistributive public agrarian policies in Kerala dates<br />
back to the 19 th Century <strong>and</strong> they had a significant role in promoting commercialisati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
18 Kerala's terrain <strong>and</strong> topography prevented cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its staple grain, i.e., paddy <strong>on</strong><br />
the hills <strong>and</strong> slopes which have been utilised <strong>for</strong> other crops, mainly cash crops<br />
(Kieniewies, 1989 as cited in Tharakan, 1997). Mateer (1991) notes that at the<br />
beginning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 19 th century, Travancore, which was a larger exports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rice, had<br />
changed into a net importer <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rice by the last decades c<strong>on</strong>sequent to the import <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> duty<br />
free rice. And the import <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cheap rice discouraged investments in paddy <strong>and</strong> shifted<br />
resources to commercial crops (Umadevi, 1984).<br />
19 For a detailed discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e to <strong>on</strong>e corresp<strong>on</strong>dence between<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> investment <strong>and</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in the state, see, Chapter 5.<br />
71
unit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> cultivated (Net Sown Area) is higher by 24 per cent under lift<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> than cross bar irrigati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> improper financial planning <strong>and</strong> problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> have been discussed in Netto (1990), KSSP (1988). Santhakumar el<br />
at (1995) indicates the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>-specific agrarian <strong>and</strong> hydrologic<br />
features in the technological planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state.<br />
Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the studies addresses the price <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-price factors that<br />
influences the paradigm shift in cropping pattern in the state, characterised by a<br />
tremendous decline in paddy, a principal crop in most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in<br />
Kerala. Kannan <strong>and</strong> Pushpangadan (1988 <strong>and</strong> 1990) have brought out the impact<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> decline in area under paddy in Kerala <strong>on</strong> employment. The study says that<br />
around 35 milli<strong>on</strong> man-days between 1970s <strong>and</strong> early 1980s were lost due to fall<br />
in the area under paddy. The reas<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the decline in area under paddy, am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
others, is a gradual secular reducti<strong>on</strong> in the relative pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
[Parthasarathy (1983); Radhakrishnan, 1983; Thomas et. al (1991, 1992); Babu et<br />
at (1993); Sreeja, 1998). In the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>, the level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fertilizer<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong> was lower in the state 20 than the recommended dosage.<br />
Shortage in the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour as well as the changing labour<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>s have also been cited as important factors that influence the agrarian·<br />
activities in the regi<strong>on</strong>. In a study <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the agricultural labour households in a wet<br />
l<strong>and</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala, Francis (1990: 86) finds that the participati<strong>on</strong> rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
20 The level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fertilizer c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> has been reported to be at 53 kg. per ha. in Kerala<br />
in comparis<strong>on</strong> to 159 kg. in the Punjab, 96 kg. in Tamilnadu <strong>and</strong> 75 kg. in U.P. during<br />
1986-87 (Geethakutty, \993).<br />
72
younger age group (16-30) in agricultural activities is <strong>on</strong>ly 51 per cent, as against<br />
over 70 per cent <strong>for</strong> the other higher age groups. Of the total unemployed, 88 per<br />
cent are in the young age group (1990:91). Labour shortage has been felt in<br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut plucking as well as cashew-processing factories <strong>for</strong> shelling (Oeepa,<br />
1994). The preference <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labourers, especially those in the younger age groups,<br />
has been clearly dem<strong>on</strong>strated to be <strong>for</strong> stable employment even if that involves a<br />
compromise <strong>on</strong> the level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> earnings (Kannan, 1998: L-68).<br />
Kannan (1999) dem<strong>on</strong>strates that the militant labour uni<strong>on</strong>ism in the state<br />
has been effective in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> putting in place a system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wage payment to<br />
agricultural labourers even when the labour was not actually employed as in the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> head load services. This system is en<strong>for</strong>ced in paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
wet l<strong>and</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kuttanad in Southern Kerala (which still retains powerful<br />
labour uni<strong>on</strong>s). In this case, <strong>farm</strong>ers are made to agree to make payments to<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al ploughmen (who do animal ploughing in the fields) when tractors are<br />
introduced <strong>for</strong> such ploughing. He points to the c<strong>on</strong>trast that though the uni<strong>on</strong><br />
strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> securing better c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> work <strong>and</strong> enhancing wage rates could be<br />
successful, it fails to prevent a decline in employment as there is no <strong>farm</strong> level<br />
investment <strong>for</strong>thcoming <strong>and</strong> a shift to less labour absorbing cropping pattern in<br />
agriculture. This dilemma he explains as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'wage gain <strong>and</strong> job loss'.<br />
Another important factor indicated has been the decline in operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings due to sub-divisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> fragmentati<strong>on</strong>. This has serious<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences affecting scale ec<strong>on</strong>omies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>s in the state. The NSS<br />
estimates show that while the percentage share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> marginal holdings increased<br />
from 89 per cent during 1971-72 to 93 per cent in 1992, the area held by this<br />
73
subgroup increased from 40 per cent to 54 per cent. The increase in proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
marginal holdings has been far above the nati<strong>on</strong>al level, as it increased from 62<br />
to 72 per cent (NSSO. 1971-72: 1992).<br />
There are also apprehensi<strong>on</strong>s about the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water availability, in<br />
spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> massive investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure <strong>development</strong> in the state.<br />
Using a physical infrastructure <strong>development</strong> index (PIDI), Ghosh et aI., (1998),<br />
examine the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> public investment <strong>on</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>development</strong> in<br />
the Indian states. It is found that in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> overall physical infrastructure<br />
<strong>development</strong> index. Kerala's positi<strong>on</strong> declined from 4th rank (1971-72) to 10 th<br />
rank (1994-95) in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual values <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical infrastructure<br />
<strong>development</strong> indicators. With respect to the per capita c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> electricity<br />
(peE) <strong>and</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>. the ranks slide down from 11 to 13 <strong>and</strong> 11 to 24<br />
respectively during the abo\C period. t>.loreover, the state has been identified as<br />
lagging behind in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure. Similar finding has been<br />
reported by Lall (1999). However. it is wr<strong>on</strong>g to c<strong>on</strong>clude that the state has been<br />
lagging behind in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure facilities. Rather, the<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irngati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure has been weak, resulting in various<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al level problems.<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the major problems discussed. the cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> time lag in<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> arc the most important <strong>on</strong>es. It may be argued that the reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong><br />
such e\entualitics could be regi<strong>on</strong> specific as well. The INCOLD study reports a<br />
delay <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ahout 160 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> the highest<br />
lag in compil:tlOn has been 466 per cent in the Malampuzha project in Kerala as<br />
it took almost 17 years <strong>for</strong> completi<strong>on</strong>. The puhlic accounts committee (PAC)<br />
74
Report has been extremely critical in stating that not a single project has been<br />
completed since independence within the stipulated target date (as cited in<br />
CBIP), 1977: I). Swaminathan's study specific to Kerala puts the cost escalati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>for</strong> major <strong>and</strong> medium projects at about 675 percent, the highest being 2260 per<br />
cent in the Kaillada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> project as <strong>on</strong> 31.8.1988 (Swami nathan, 1990).<br />
As labour comp<strong>on</strong>ent is an important aspect, higher wage rates may lead<br />
to higher costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>. In this regard. Viswanathan (2000) examines the<br />
problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> time lag in the completed <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>going major <strong>and</strong><br />
medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala 21 ,<br />
where wage rates in general <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> wages in particular are relatively higher. The cost escalati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14 completed major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects has been estimated at<br />
611 per cent as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1995-96.<br />
There have not been many studies examining the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> developnlent in the specific irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s in the<br />
state, except Varadan (1989). Chackecherry (1995), Varadan (1998) <strong>and</strong><br />
Madhavach<strong>and</strong>ran (1999). Madhavach<strong>and</strong>ran<br />
(1999) shows that in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Malampuzha <strong>and</strong> Chitturpuzha irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala, the productivity<br />
levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated paddy have been 3200 kg. per ha. <strong>and</strong> 2750 kg. per ha. against<br />
the potential yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> about 5000 kg. per ha. As a result, the user participati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> incurring expenses <strong>on</strong> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD structures is 50 per cent in<br />
the Malampu/ha scheme <strong>and</strong> 56 per cent in the Cheerakuzhi project. The study<br />
also brings out the following evidences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> user participati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
management in Kerala:<br />
75
1) The maIn activity being undertaken by most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BFAs related to<br />
maintenance work <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field channels using the management subsidy from<br />
C ADA al<strong>on</strong>g with <strong>farm</strong>er c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
2) A system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> earthen or c<strong>on</strong>crete <strong>farm</strong> channels in c<strong>on</strong>tinuati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field<br />
channels (<strong>for</strong> effecting channel to field irrigati<strong>on</strong>) ha been implemented by<br />
less than 20 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> BF As in both the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects.<br />
3) The absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong> channels deterred the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rotati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Water Supply System (RWS) in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Brewer (1997) reports that many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Beneficiary Farmer Associati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
under CADA in Kerala are not functi<strong>on</strong>ing, where, the canal! project level<br />
committees are severely weakened because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers'<br />
representatives. Reportedly. many canal committees do not exist at all. The poor<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> BF As in Kerala c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s could also be attributed to the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
supportive instituti<strong>on</strong>al envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
A sample survey c<strong>on</strong>ducted by the CADA covering 255 <strong>farm</strong>ers in eight<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala during 1994 has reported the BFA membership as 64<br />
per cent. But <strong>on</strong>ly 42 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the members are benefited out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BF As. The<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers have a feeling <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> shortage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water during summer m<strong>on</strong>ths <strong>and</strong> the major<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the shortage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water have been: a) water scarcity in the reservoir; b)<br />
lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> proper repairs/ maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> branch canals <strong>and</strong> field channels; c)<br />
insufficient coverage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD works; d) the level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fields being above the field<br />
channels; <strong>and</strong> e) silt! damages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field/ <strong>farm</strong> channels (CADA, 1997).<br />
----------------------------------------------------<br />
21 A detailed discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> these issues is presented in Chapter 5.<br />
76
Given the range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Issues <strong>and</strong> problems associated with irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in the country. it is important to note that that scholars tend to<br />
address them in isolati<strong>on</strong>. depending up<strong>on</strong> the locati<strong>on</strong>-specific problems. As<br />
shown in the review. studies have covered the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic,<br />
social <strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in different agro-climatic <strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts where the projects are located. But, not many studies have examined the<br />
linkages. ground realities <strong>and</strong> stakeholders' capacities to adopt themselves to<br />
irrigated <strong>farm</strong>ing. Though OFD is <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the major objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA. its<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance c<strong>on</strong>tinues to be poor as brought out by the limited studies <strong>on</strong> this<br />
important issue. It has been proved bey<strong>on</strong>d doubt that neglecting OFD is <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the main reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the potential created <strong>and</strong> to the<br />
increasing adverse effects <strong>on</strong> soiL waterlogging. salinity <strong>and</strong> alkalinity. There are<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated evidences. though limited. to show that productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops in<br />
plots with OFD is much higher than the plots without it, besides ensuring water<br />
use efficiency. Even so. this problem has not adequately been addressed by the<br />
planners <strong>and</strong> the kind <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance <strong>and</strong> attenti<strong>on</strong> it deserves is not given in the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> planning process.<br />
In Kerala, the studies <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong> socioec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are few <strong>and</strong> far between. N<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the studies address the<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> poor per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state, particularly, the<br />
impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes <strong>on</strong> productivity as well as effecting better utilisati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. There is no single study where the problems <strong>and</strong><br />
. .<br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints with respect to adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD are given even m a passmg<br />
reference. Given the topography <strong>and</strong> other geographical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in the state,<br />
77
which are unique in several ways, the OFD should have <strong>for</strong>med as an integral<br />
part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> planning <strong>and</strong> design. In this backdrop, the study makes a<br />
modest attempt to examine the <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On-Farm Development as an interface<br />
between divergent processes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in<br />
the state. The problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints in the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD at the <strong>farm</strong> level<br />
in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects have been examined in greater detail with reference to<br />
two major irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. which are diverse in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro-c1imatic <strong>and</strong><br />
geographical setting. This study. there<strong>for</strong>e. will have greater relevance to the<br />
policy <strong>for</strong>mulati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong>, especially in the wake <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emerging re<strong>for</strong>ms in<br />
the water sector. It may also hopefully help delineating policy guidelines <strong>for</strong><br />
incorporating corrective measures in the completed projects <strong>and</strong> preventive <strong>and</strong><br />
promoti<strong>on</strong>al measures in the new <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>-going irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects.<br />
78
Chapter 3<br />
Objectives, Methodology <strong>and</strong> Analytical Framework<br />
A detailed review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important studies <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in India in<br />
general. with special reference to Kerala <strong>and</strong> the studies <strong>on</strong> per<strong>for</strong>mance<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes with respect to On-Farm Development (OF D) in<br />
particular. discussed in Chapter 2, highlights the range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> problems <strong>and</strong> issues<br />
associated with the promoti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. Though<br />
scholars have addressed the research issues related to the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems, there are still some dimensi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
which need further probing empirically.<br />
I. The analyses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD \vorks have been broadly perceived to examine the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD. While some studies are mere case<br />
studies. some have <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fered more theoretical explanati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the potential<br />
benefits from OF D at the <strong>farm</strong> level.<br />
2. A positive relati<strong>on</strong>ship between OFD <strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential<br />
created has been established by several research studies. But, the interface<br />
<strong>and</strong> linkages between supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> water which influences the<br />
pattern, scale <strong>and</strong> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD have not been adequately discussed in the<br />
Ii terat ure.<br />
3. There are not many studies which have identified the operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints<br />
in implementing OFD at the <strong>farm</strong> level except the studies by Narayan <strong>and</strong><br />
Reddy (1978) <strong>and</strong> Reddy (1990, 1998). There is a need <strong>for</strong> more such studies
across the states in different agro-climatic <strong>and</strong> social settings where the<br />
present study regi<strong>on</strong> is located.<br />
4. No study has examined the relati<strong>on</strong> between the cropping pattern envisaged<br />
in a project <strong>and</strong> the kind <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works suitable to it, taking the topographical<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s into account. This dimensi<strong>on</strong> is important to <strong>for</strong>mulate locati<strong>on</strong>specific<br />
<strong>and</strong> need-based operati<strong>on</strong>al plans in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas.<br />
5. The issues. other than water per se, like the socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers. instituti<strong>on</strong>al, technological <strong>and</strong> hydrological c<strong>on</strong>straints governIng<br />
water distributi<strong>on</strong> in a given irrigati<strong>on</strong> system as well as the agro-climatic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. which may directly or indirectly influence the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD<br />
by the <strong>farm</strong>ers, have not been well appreciated by the researchers.<br />
6. While the aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> complementarity or the causality between public <strong>and</strong><br />
private investments have been discussed in the literature, there is no menti<strong>on</strong><br />
as to how the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> integrati<strong>on</strong> between massive public investment <strong>for</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> distributi<strong>on</strong> policies would lead to instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
failure as well as crowding out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong> level sec<strong>on</strong>dary investments.<br />
The review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies attempted in the <strong>for</strong>egoing chapter also identifies some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the research issues need to be studied further, given their importance in the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>temporary <strong>development</strong> scenario. Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the questi<strong>on</strong>s are as follows:<br />
I. Why the instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong>s by the agency, based <strong>on</strong> top-down<br />
approach in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> have not been successful enough?<br />
80
2. Why the complementarity (as anticipated by the irrigati<strong>on</strong> planners) between<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong> level investments <strong>on</strong> OFO has<br />
been far from the expected levels?<br />
3. How the regi<strong>on</strong>-specific factors could be integrated in the project design to<br />
overcome the operati<strong>on</strong>al level c<strong>on</strong>straints with a view to make water<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>s more successful in implementing scientific l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water<br />
management practices in canal comm<strong>and</strong>s?<br />
4. How to rec<strong>on</strong>cile the c<strong>on</strong>trast between irreversibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> public investment in<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> the irreversibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping decisi<strong>on</strong>s (as is the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala)?<br />
3.1 Scope <strong>and</strong> objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study<br />
Given the seriousness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential<br />
increasing in the successive plan periods <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent problems in terms<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost-ineffectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> investments. impact <strong>on</strong> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
<strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in the regi<strong>on</strong>, the need <strong>for</strong> identifying the factors<br />
necessary to improve irrigati<strong>on</strong> efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects was <strong>on</strong> the increase.<br />
Several scholars. as brought out by the review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature, have been trying to<br />
diagnose the reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the poor per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. But, still<br />
quite a few issues, as menti<strong>on</strong>ed above, need further enquiry to underst<strong>and</strong> the<br />
local dynamics to <strong>for</strong>mulate nppropriate strategies. There<strong>for</strong>e, this study tries to<br />
focus <strong>on</strong> the problems nnd prospects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD, an important <strong>and</strong> critical strategy to<br />
improve water use efficiency. In doing so, it tries to identify the design <strong>and</strong><br />
technical c<strong>on</strong>straints, if any, <strong>for</strong> the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in a given agro-climatic<br />
81
<strong>and</strong> social setting In which a project IS located. The study covers two major<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala. namely. Kallada In Kollam district <strong>and</strong> Peechi in<br />
Thrissur district.<br />
The broader objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study is to examine the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in Kerala, in general, with special emphasis <strong>on</strong> the emerging l<strong>and</strong><br />
use dynamics in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> the implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
\\ ater management at the <strong>farm</strong> level. The major thrust is. however. <strong>on</strong> the issues<br />
<strong>and</strong> problems related to OFD in the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. Furthermore,<br />
the study aims at identifying the ground realities in the c<strong>on</strong>temporary irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> scenario by c<strong>on</strong>ducting an indepth field survey in the two major<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects menti<strong>on</strong>ed above. The specific objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study are to:<br />
I. analyse the pattern <strong>and</strong> tTl:nds in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in Kerala <strong>and</strong> its<br />
impact <strong>on</strong> agricultural de\e]opment:<br />
')<br />
critically examine the Instituti<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> organisati<strong>on</strong>al strategies In the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s to accomplish scientific On-<strong>farm</strong> Development <strong>and</strong><br />
water management practIces:<br />
3. assess the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> yield <strong>and</strong> Income <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers in the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s;<br />
4. examine the factors determining adopti<strong>on</strong> or n<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD In<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects: <strong>and</strong><br />
5. bring out the instituti<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al level c<strong>on</strong>straints In the<br />
<strong>development</strong>, distributIOn <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
in Kerala.<br />
82
3.1.1 Hypotheses<br />
The objectives as presented above have been examined by <strong>for</strong>mulating the<br />
following hypotheses. They are based <strong>on</strong> the apparent mismatch between<br />
creati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure <strong>and</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in Kerala as<br />
broadly discussed in the <strong>development</strong> literature specific to the state.<br />
I. The agricultural <strong>development</strong> in Kerala has not been commensurate with the<br />
scale <strong>and</strong> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> public investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong>.<br />
2. Organisati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al strategies (especially, CAOA) have not been<br />
effective in accomplishing scientific OFO <strong>and</strong> ensuring better water<br />
management.<br />
3. The adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO has led to higher yields <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sequent higher<br />
net returns at <strong>farm</strong> level.<br />
4. Farmers are motivated to adopt scientific OFD <strong>and</strong> water management<br />
practices not necessarily by water availability per se. but by vanous<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>al factors <strong>and</strong> other operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints including reglOnspecific<br />
issues.<br />
3.1.2 Methodology <strong>and</strong> sample design<br />
In order to study the problems <strong>and</strong> prospects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO, two major irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects in Kerala , namely, Kallada <strong>and</strong> Peechi have been selected. However, in<br />
order to underst<strong>and</strong> the problems in generaL the analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD at<br />
the macro level covers all the 14 irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects completed in the state so far.<br />
83
The indepth study to examine the factors influencing OFD at the micro level<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fines <strong>on</strong>ly to two irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects menti<strong>on</strong>ed above. The multi-stage<br />
sampling has been followed to select the sample units, the stages being selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>: (a) comm<strong>and</strong> area, (b) main canals, <strong>and</strong> (c) locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal reach, (d)<br />
villages, <strong>and</strong> (e) households.<br />
3.1.3 Selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s<br />
The two comm<strong>and</strong> areas under reference have been selected based <strong>on</strong>: (a) the<br />
total life <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scheme; (b) potential area expected to be irrigated; (c) level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong>s; (d) cropping pattern; <strong>and</strong> (e) topography <strong>and</strong> other<br />
specifics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> areas. Both the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are old generati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects in the state. While the Peechi project was started in 1947, Kallada was<br />
started in 1961. The Peechi project is commissi<strong>on</strong>ed fully <strong>and</strong> is brought under<br />
the Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Programmes (CADPs). It is technically<br />
designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating paddy. The groundwater recharge is reported to be <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the highest am<strong>on</strong>g the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. Whereas, the Kallada is still an<br />
<strong>on</strong>going scheme (<strong>and</strong> partially commissi<strong>on</strong>ed), in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> it being started more<br />
than 40 years ago. It is designed <strong>for</strong> providing irrigati<strong>on</strong> to garden <strong>and</strong> tree crops.<br />
The Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System (MCS) designed <strong>for</strong> water distributi<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area is unique. The topography <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the two projects is distinctly<br />
different. While Peechi comm<strong>and</strong> is plain <strong>and</strong> levelled, Kallada has highly<br />
undulating topography.<br />
The Right Bank Main Canal (RBMC) systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> both the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects have heen selected based <strong>on</strong> the area covered <strong>and</strong> number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> villages<br />
benefited. The RBMC has been selected purposively because the MCS <strong>for</strong> water<br />
84
distributi<strong>on</strong> in an undulating terrain. The RBMC <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada covers a wide ayacut<br />
area. The RBMC <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi comm<strong>and</strong>s 23 villages as against <strong>on</strong>ly 89 villages in<br />
the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> LBMC.<br />
3.1.4 Selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sample villages <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong> households<br />
After selecting the right bank main canals from the two sample projects, the<br />
entire canal system is divided into three z<strong>on</strong>es, viz., the head reach, middle reach<br />
<strong>and</strong> the tail-end. This is based <strong>on</strong> the distance from the head regulator <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
main canal to the tail-end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal l . The list <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> villages coming under each <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the reaches has been prepared based <strong>on</strong> the in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> available from the<br />
respective project reports. There are 22 villages coming under RBMC <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area <strong>and</strong> 17 villages under RBMC <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi comm<strong>and</strong>. The selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample <strong>farm</strong> households <strong>for</strong> the study from villages was has bcen <strong>on</strong><br />
stratified r<strong>and</strong>om sampling. The strata being small <strong>and</strong> marginal medium <strong>and</strong> big<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers. The different processes involved in the sample selecti<strong>on</strong> are explained in<br />
Chart 3.1.<br />
From the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, 200 <strong>farm</strong>ers have been selected- 78<br />
from the head, 65 from the middle reach <strong>and</strong> 57 <strong>farm</strong>ers from the tail end. From<br />
the Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, a total <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lIS <strong>farm</strong>ers have been selected- 50 from<br />
the head, 45 from the middle <strong>and</strong> 20 from the tail reach. The sample <strong>farm</strong><br />
holdings have been drawn from a wider coverage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the entire canal systems.<br />
'For instance, if the total length <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the main canal is 12 kms from the reservoir to the tail<br />
ehd, the first 4 kms stretch <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal is called as head reach, from 5 th to 8 th kms as<br />
middle reach <strong>and</strong> from 9 th to 12th kms as tail-end.<br />
85
\,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana sl.eps lUlluweu IlL l.ll.e ~'CJ.'C~l..J.VJ.1. VI. .... 014 ..... y Q. ...... Q. Q. .........<br />
sample area <strong>farm</strong>s<br />
STUDY AREA AND IRRIGATION PROJECTS<br />
MIDDLE REACH<br />
... .. MIDDLE REACH<br />
(8/65)<br />
~<br />
... (5/45)<br />
~ If , •<br />
KALLADA IRRIGATION PROJECT<br />
(Kollam! Alapuzha & I'EECHlIRRIGA TlON I'HOJECT<br />
Path3namthitta Districts) (Thrissur District)<br />
..<br />
~ ..<br />
RIGHT BANK MAIN CANAL SYSTEM<br />
HEAD REACH<br />
..... .. ilEAl) I~EACH<br />
(10178) '"<br />
~<br />
(8/50)<br />
TAIL REACH<br />
..... .. TAIL REACH<br />
(5/57) ...<br />
( 4120)<br />
86
For instance, in the KalJada project, 23 villages have been covered out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
total number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 92 villages <strong>and</strong> in Peechi, 17 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 23 villages have been<br />
covered. However, there were some problems in identifying the ultimate<br />
beneficiaries from each reach <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal system. Because, the l<strong>and</strong> records are<br />
not updated., though the properties were sold <strong>and</strong> transferred more than <strong>on</strong>ce.<br />
A pre-tested <strong>and</strong> structured schedule has been used <strong>for</strong> eliciting<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> from the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers. The ficld level in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> gathered<br />
include: details as regards cropping pattern, input use. returns from <strong>farm</strong>ing,<br />
water availability, problems in adopting <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> <strong>development</strong> works, besides<br />
others like age, educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the head <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the household <strong>and</strong> demographic details<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the family, including occupati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> other related in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Apart from the <strong>farm</strong>ers. the local leaders who are knowledgeable about<br />
the l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> water management related problems, have been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sulted to underst<strong>and</strong> dimensi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> problems. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Department, CADA, field staff, Agriculture Officers, etc. have also been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tacted <strong>and</strong> discussed about the operati<strong>on</strong>al level c<strong>on</strong>straints at the field level<br />
<strong>and</strong> the water management problems.<br />
The reference year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the survey was 1997-98 agricultural year <strong>for</strong> both<br />
the comm<strong>and</strong> areas. The survey was carried out from October 1998 to April<br />
1999. The in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> gathered pertained to previous crop seas<strong>on</strong>s, viz., Virippu<br />
(autumn), Afundakall (winter). <strong>and</strong> PU/lchll (summer) sea~<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1997-98. The<br />
field survey was deliberately extended 10<br />
summer period to observe <strong>and</strong><br />
87
underst<strong>and</strong> the problems related to water use <strong>and</strong> management by \i~iting<br />
the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>s.<br />
3.1.5 Sec<strong>on</strong>dary data<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>dary data <strong>for</strong> all-India have been collected mainly from \'anous plan<br />
documents <strong>and</strong> other sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> from the Central Water<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong>. Irrigati<strong>on</strong> department <strong>and</strong> CADAs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala.<br />
besides all India reports. The Expert Committee Report <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Water: Evaluati<strong>on</strong> reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA: crop cutting survey reports from the<br />
respective irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects: Audit Review Reports pertaining to IrngatlOn<br />
department by the Comptroller <strong>and</strong> Auditor General <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India (CAGI):<br />
Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala. the publicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala (Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
Review. Statistics <strong>for</strong> Planning): Perf<strong>on</strong>nance Budget <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Department; Plan documents. etc. have also been perused. The project-wise timeseries<br />
data <strong>on</strong> the trends in area. producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> important crops<br />
have been collected <strong>for</strong> the period 1985-86 to 1994-95 in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops other<br />
than paddy <strong>and</strong> from 1985-86 to 1999-2000 in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy.<br />
3.1.6 Data Analysis<br />
Simple <strong>and</strong> descriptive statistical tools have been used to analyse the scale <strong>and</strong><br />
intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area expansi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> cropping pattern <strong>and</strong> other related factors at a<br />
given level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Multiple regressi<strong>on</strong> analysis has been<br />
used to determine tbe factors intluencing the <strong>farm</strong> level adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OrD in the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. The Cobh-Douglas producti<strong>on</strong> functi<strong>on</strong> bas heen applied to<br />
determine the scale cc<strong>on</strong>omi.:s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different crops grown in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas.<br />
88
The c<strong>on</strong>cept <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> "Incidental Benefits" approach as discussed in Dhawan (1998)<br />
has been used to explain the phenomen<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'canal seepage induced'<br />
groundwater potential <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> exploited by the <strong>farm</strong>ers by the <strong>farm</strong>ers in<br />
the Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project. The c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al life-cycle approach to project<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> has been used to explain the phenomen<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost <strong>and</strong> time oveT-Tuns<br />
<strong>and</strong> delays in completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects,<br />
3,2 Relevance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>cept, On-Farm Development (OFD) is widely understood in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> water management literature as the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>for</strong> the smooth flow <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the field leading to its uni<strong>for</strong>m <strong>and</strong><br />
efficient applicati<strong>on</strong> in the crop root z<strong>on</strong>e, ensuring the growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plant.<br />
According to the Central Water Commissi<strong>on</strong> (ewC), "On-Farm Development<br />
(OFD) is an integrated process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> leveling <strong>and</strong> shaping the l<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> smooth flow<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water, c<strong>on</strong>structing field irrigati<strong>on</strong> channels. providing drainage facilities.<br />
<strong>for</strong>ming the <strong>farm</strong> roads <strong>and</strong> realigning the field boundaries through appropriate<br />
c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings". Since l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water are the critical factors in the<br />
agricultural producti<strong>on</strong> process. efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water use or efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> system (irrespective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scale) <strong>and</strong> the resultant efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> system is largely determined by the way in which l<strong>and</strong> is developed<br />
<strong>and</strong> managed, Given this, the c<strong>on</strong>cept <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD has much wider implicati<strong>on</strong>s in the<br />
agricultural <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any regi<strong>on</strong> (both under rainfed <strong>and</strong> irrigated<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s) <strong>and</strong> its relevance cut across natural, physical <strong>and</strong> social sciences.<br />
Various agr<strong>on</strong>omic practices involving scientific l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> water<br />
management at the <strong>farm</strong> level results in increase in crop yield <strong>and</strong> sustainability<br />
89
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crop producti<strong>on</strong> system trough agr<strong>on</strong>omic measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soil <strong>and</strong> water<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> adequately supplemented with mechanical measures such as<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tour bunding. bench terracing. etc. Agr<strong>on</strong>omic measures help c<strong>on</strong>serving<br />
water <strong>and</strong> reducing the evaporati<strong>on</strong> losses from the soil surface, improving soil<br />
structure, soil fertility, etc. The choice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate vegetati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> cropping<br />
system depending up<strong>on</strong> the l<strong>and</strong> capability necessitates adequate l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> works. L<strong>and</strong> preparati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> leveling including post harvest<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> preparatory tillage results in enhanced water intake <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the soil ami<br />
sustains soil moisture status. The <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate seed bedsl ridges <strong>and</strong><br />
furrows matching the spacing requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops help c<strong>on</strong>trol erosi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
increase water use efficiency.<br />
The physiological parameters affecting plant growth necessitates<br />
replenishment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soil moisture <strong>and</strong> thereby help avoiding soil moisture loss due<br />
to evapo-transpirati<strong>on</strong> (ET). The moisture availability in the crop root z<strong>on</strong>e is<br />
positively related to the nutrient status. The total quantity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water required <strong>for</strong><br />
the essential physiological functi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plantl crop is usually less than five<br />
per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total water absorbed <strong>and</strong> this entails three stages, viz., absorpti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
translocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> transpirati<strong>on</strong>. This metabolism requires adequate <strong>and</strong> timely<br />
supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water to the crop root z<strong>on</strong>e, sufficiently c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>ed by OFD works.<br />
From the engineering perspective, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water c<strong>on</strong>trol structures<br />
is essential <strong>for</strong> water delivery according to the crop water requirements per unit<br />
area as well as <strong>for</strong> the timely removal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> excess water from the fields. On-Farm<br />
Development (OFD) works involving surface drainage. sub-surface or pipe<br />
drainage in adequate depth <strong>and</strong> width are important to let out water to the ayacut<br />
90
comm<strong>and</strong>ed by an irrigati<strong>on</strong> system <strong>and</strong> the scale <strong>and</strong> magnitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such OFD<br />
works would depend <strong>on</strong> the size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> system being designed. The<br />
absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such water c<strong>on</strong>trol structures leads to problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water logging, soil<br />
salinity <strong>and</strong> alkalinity. Moreover, the OFD structures are invariably influenced<br />
by factors, such as climate, topography, soil texture <strong>and</strong> water permeability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
soil.<br />
From the<br />
. .<br />
soclo-ec<strong>on</strong>omlc perspective, OFD assumes much more<br />
importance as it involves substantial investment from the part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state as well<br />
as individual <strong>farm</strong>ers. More importantly, adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific OFD works<br />
would result in increased crop yield <strong>and</strong> income to the <strong>farm</strong>er <strong>and</strong> the state <strong>and</strong><br />
improved water use efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> system, thus help sustain the<br />
resource base <strong>for</strong> the future. For the society. it amounts to effective <strong>and</strong> equitable<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water across the comm<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
It is important to note that achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water use efficiency or<br />
optimum utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential in an irrigati<strong>on</strong> system (irrespective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
scale) warrants OFD as an integral part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water management at the field level. In<br />
other words, integrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>and</strong> On-Farm Water Management (OFWM)<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stitutes the crux <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any strategy towards planning <strong>for</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water resources <strong>and</strong> sustaining the resource base <strong>for</strong> the future.<br />
However, given the agro-ec<strong>on</strong>omic, physiological <strong>and</strong> englneenng<br />
importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD as an essential activity in achieving water use efficiency,<br />
increase in productivity <strong>and</strong> income. its adopti<strong>on</strong> is largely c<strong>on</strong>strained in terms<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> factors at the <strong>farm</strong> level. Moreover, there is bound to happen<br />
91
greater differences between the theoretically perceived OFD measures <strong>and</strong> the<br />
actual OFD <strong>and</strong> water c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> practices at the <strong>farm</strong> leHI. This mismatch is<br />
quite likely as the <strong>farm</strong>ers are diverse in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping practices. resource<br />
endowment positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the very attitude towards <strong>farm</strong>ing as a major ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
activity. Keeping this empirical reality in mind. we c<strong>on</strong>ceptualise On-Farm<br />
Development by <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fering an operati<strong>on</strong>al definiti<strong>on</strong> as follows:<br />
"On-Farm Development is Ihe process in which Ihe <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
prepare Iheir l<strong>and</strong>s be<strong>for</strong>e irrigali<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> Ihe smoolh flow <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
<strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong> preparati<strong>on</strong> is n<strong>on</strong>-mechanical <strong>and</strong> involves minimum<br />
inputs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour <strong>and</strong> other factor use ".<br />
This operati<strong>on</strong>al definiti<strong>on</strong> is based <strong>on</strong> the filed level percepti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s in Kerala in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the various socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> technical c<strong>on</strong>straints involved in the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing, in generaL <strong>and</strong> uti lisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> Water, in particular.<br />
3.3 Analytical framework<br />
An important theoretical c<strong>on</strong>tenti<strong>on</strong> behind the promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> public investment in<br />
agriculture <strong>and</strong> infrastructure <strong>development</strong> is the complementarity hypothesis,<br />
which suggests that the private investment always increases with the increase in<br />
public investment, which is termed as 'crowding in' effect Farm level investment<br />
by individual <strong>farm</strong>ers, particularly, to undertake On-Farm Development depends<br />
a great deal <strong>on</strong> the quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> service provided to the <strong>farm</strong>ers. Merely<br />
building the physical infrastructure to store <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>vey water to the fields by<br />
itself may not induce <strong>farm</strong>ers to invest in OFD works. There are empirical<br />
evidences to prove that scientific adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO prior to or c<strong>on</strong>currently with<br />
the release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water results in improved <strong>farm</strong> productivity <strong>and</strong> incremental<br />
92
eturns per unit area <strong>and</strong> ensures water use efficiency In irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems 2<br />
(Reddy. 1998).<br />
Theoretically. the complementarity hypothesis may hold good as l<strong>on</strong>g as<br />
the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> leads to changes in cropping pattern from low<br />
value inferior varieties to high value superior varieties <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> grain or commercial<br />
crops. with an assured <strong>and</strong> sustainable increase In income to the beneficiary<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers. It would then automatically lead to a rise in factor use intensity <strong>and</strong><br />
output expansIOn (Dhawan. 1998a; 1999b: Winpenny. 1997). An antithetical<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> would emerge, if the changes are not <strong>on</strong> the expected lines. This<br />
implies. as already menti<strong>on</strong>ed. that mere <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical infrastructure<br />
<strong>for</strong> providing irrigati<strong>on</strong> water need not or may not automatically increase<br />
effectiye dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> water <strong>and</strong> corroborate with <strong>farm</strong><br />
level sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
imestments <strong>on</strong> OFD related structures to protect l<strong>and</strong> from adverse effects in the<br />
l<strong>on</strong>g run <strong>and</strong> to improve water use efficiency.<br />
The agricultural <strong>development</strong> experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala needs to be examined<br />
in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this antithetical process as discussed above. Because, in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
str<strong>on</strong>g infrastructure base <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong>, the utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
potential already created has not been very encouraging. This aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
problem is critically reviewed in chapter 2 <strong>and</strong> empirically verified in the<br />
subsequent chapters. The increasing under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential in the<br />
completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> less or no potential to meet the effective<br />
dem<strong>and</strong> in a majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>-f!oing irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes in the: state need to be<br />
explained in nn nntitheticnl framcwork <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrignti<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> (Chnrt 3.2).<br />
I A detailed discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the beneficial effed <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> <strong>farm</strong> output <strong>and</strong> water use<br />
efficiency in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s is given in Chapter 2.<br />
93
Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Instituti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Ag,rinlltuntl ()eve!oJ)llll'lIl: Alternate p"I·"dil!llls<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastrUl'lure Agricultural Devciopmenl<br />
de\Tloprnenl<br />
1 Ir 1 ..<br />
E ffic i l' II c\ In Instituti<strong>on</strong>al Per<strong>for</strong>mance Institutilln:t1 Faililre<br />
~<br />
,<br />
-<br />
(' .. upping Pallenl Challgt.'s<br />
~ ~<br />
\\'ater intensive / High I>r~'/ Rainfedl Pl"'ennial Cash<br />
Value crops crops<br />
- -<br />
• r , ,.<br />
Effective Dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> water Lad;, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> F:ffectivc Dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
from Farmers- Regular 0 & :\1 \\':lIl'r- Neglect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wall'" courses, Time &<br />
Wo,.ks- Reli:lble Water supply cost over runs<br />
1)4
Further, the hypothesis that the irrigati<strong>on</strong> water instituti<strong>on</strong>s In the state have<br />
failed in motivate the stakeholders. viz .. irrigati<strong>on</strong> planners/ designers. project<br />
implementing agencies <strong>and</strong> field staff at the system level <strong>and</strong> beneficiary <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
at the micro lewl to adhere to a cropping pattern designed <strong>for</strong> a given project.<br />
need empirical testing. It is in this c<strong>on</strong>text that the instituti<strong>on</strong>al base available at<br />
the field level <strong>and</strong> its ineffectiveness in coordinating <strong>and</strong> motivating the<br />
stakeholders to adopt <strong>and</strong> implement modern <strong>farm</strong> technology needs to be<br />
analysed. Given this. it is quite likely that this problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
between the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure <strong>and</strong> the processes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
agriculture <strong>development</strong> in the state have made the instituti<strong>on</strong>al arrangements in<br />
the water sector ineffective. And this. in turn. have resulted in sub-optimal<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance. characterised by under/ n<strong>on</strong>-utilisati<strong>on</strong> or under/ n<strong>on</strong>-<strong>development</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential. time ami cost over runs <strong>and</strong> the det.:riorati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the water<br />
de!i\'ery! c<strong>on</strong>veyance systems. thus leading to instituti<strong>on</strong>al failures.<br />
~ .. ....<br />
The dimensi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al failure need a clear underst<strong>and</strong>ing in terms<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the causality <strong>and</strong> simultaneous interacti<strong>on</strong> between various factors as well as<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>s affecting thc process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture <strong>development</strong> in the state.<br />
characterised by paradigm shi ft III cropping pattern. These intervening factors<br />
<strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al linkages an: necessary to Improve the<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
agriculture in the state needs to be analysed properly.<br />
The analytical srhere \\e examine is the broad spectrum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture as<br />
an aggregate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> various crorring systems. interacting <strong>on</strong> a small or marginal<br />
holding. The cropping syslt:1ll followed by the small/ marginal <strong>farm</strong>er is<br />
intlucllced hy scveral factors <strong>and</strong> is induced mostly by thc incentive linked crop-<br />
9S
specific promoti<strong>on</strong>al programmes undertaken b, ,'arious instituti<strong>on</strong>s with distinct<br />
strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inlt:r\'enll<strong>on</strong> to Increase producti<strong>on</strong> through timely suppl~<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Inputs.<br />
marketing <strong>and</strong> prict: policies The analytical frame IS d,:veloped <strong>on</strong> tht: baSIS <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
certain axioms <strong>and</strong> they are as follows,<br />
Axiom 1: There ar!' \'arious institllli<strong>on</strong>s opl'r(ltinR simultaneously ami tht!<br />
interactioll <strong>and</strong> co-ordinati<strong>on</strong> between these inslilllli<strong>on</strong>s is c<strong>on</strong>iiwllded hI<br />
{<br />
various c<strong>on</strong>straillts.<br />
Axiom 2: Water instituti<strong>on</strong>s (Ire <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ihe insrirllli<strong>on</strong>s complemellling rht! paddl<br />
based food crop producli<strong>on</strong> system.<br />
Axiom 3: The occurrence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> axiom I has iliadI' paddy cU/limli<strong>on</strong> cosl-inerfeclil'/!<br />
<strong>and</strong> there 11'(1.1'<br />
perceptible decline in Ihe area under podell' ill rhe<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> COIIIIIIOIit/I'<br />
Axiom ./: Simul/al1l'o/l.I·/.I" rhere \I'as also cOl1Sideruhie dn'lin!' in liIe operatHIIlo/<br />
holdings J (ll1d rhis (/(h'ersely aJlt'Cf!'d rile ('COllOlllles <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scale III<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>. As a resu/I, rhere emerged a t,\pical homesread based<strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
system~,<br />
dOlllil1(1/ed hy dr)'lperennial crop orietlled mixed! lIIultiple ('Yops.<br />
) The high populati<strong>on</strong> density cuupled with the prevalence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the law <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inheritance has<br />
resulted ill the sub-diVisi<strong>on</strong> Jilt! fragmentati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings leading tn prnliferati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
small/marginal <strong>and</strong> sub-marginal holdings in the stale!. The average size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
holding which was OA6 ha. in 1980-81 has declined to 0.3-1 in 19X5-XC) <strong>and</strong> further to<br />
0.31 ha. in 1990-91 (GOK, 1(97).<br />
4 The home garden agricult ure. mostly refem:d to as 'homl'stl'ad !;lrIll i ng'. \\ here. a<br />
small/ marginal hulding is illtl'rspl'rsed with annual/ $e3s<strong>on</strong>al as \\cll as pcrl'nilial cwps.<br />
requiring less labour <strong>and</strong> other inputs, including water. This ,ystem l)f l<strong>and</strong> use is aimed<br />
at deriving maxillluill helletit out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the limited l<strong>and</strong> resource hase both spatially <strong>and</strong><br />
96
Axiom 5.-<br />
Farming ceased to be a major ec<strong>on</strong>omic activity <strong>and</strong> this adversely<br />
atrected <strong>farm</strong>-ln'el im'cstmenls (or accomplishing OFD in the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s. This \1'(1.1'<br />
also coincided lI'ith lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
\\'ater <strong>for</strong> growing food crops, leading to IInder-lItilisali<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lI'mer<br />
resollrces.<br />
Axiom 6.-<br />
The technical c<strong>on</strong>straints in lhe existing instilU/i<strong>on</strong>al arrangements do<br />
nOl permit crop-diversificati<strong>on</strong> based <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> Imter <strong>and</strong> this<br />
accel1llloted the process inslifllli<strong>on</strong>alfailure.<br />
The processes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> simultaneous interacti<strong>on</strong> between vanous instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>straints arising there <strong>on</strong> are schematically shown in Chart 3.3, The<br />
important axioms dcveloped <strong>and</strong> the specific features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the various instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>straints are discussed in some detail in the following.<br />
The important instituti<strong>on</strong>s that complement the o\erall <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
agricultun: are: (i) \\al
Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water instituti<strong>on</strong>s in Kerala<br />
CROP-SPECIFIC PROMOTIONAL INSTITUTIONS<br />
Note: DoHed lines indicate weak relati<strong>on</strong>ship due to technical problems in the design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
schemes <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints in the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water resources<br />
98<br />
, ~<br />
, ~<br />
, II'<br />
PADDY (Group COCONUT<br />
Farming) •<br />
, r , Ir ..<br />
..<br />
PLANTATION<br />
Commodity specific L<br />
.... CROPS<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
,Ir •<br />
• ..<br />
~<br />
• SMALL & MARGINAL<br />
• .. ....<br />
• • HOLDINGS<br />
WATER INSTITUTIONS }·······················f························:<br />
l+<br />
-- Labour instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
-- Market as an instituti<strong>on</strong> ...<br />
-JIll'<br />
__ <strong>Social</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
•<br />
W High cost. less remunerative paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
{/j<br />
.'<br />
High transacti<strong>on</strong> costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
~ Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> water <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
VXJ'<br />
+ Neglect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>watcr distributi<strong>on</strong> systems<br />
v}::.! Failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water instituti<strong>on</strong>s
3.3.1 Water instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
By water instituti<strong>on</strong>s. it is meant to include the state managed irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems<br />
in the state. viz.. major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. The irrigati<strong>on</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
in the state are characterised by bureaucratic dominati<strong>on</strong> with minimum or no<br />
users participati<strong>on</strong> in <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the resources.<br />
Instituti<strong>on</strong>al arrangements in the water sector call <strong>for</strong> certain strict rules<br />
<strong>and</strong> regulati<strong>on</strong>s to ensure fair transacti<strong>on</strong>'-<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e. the problems <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints need to be analysed in the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing norms <strong>and</strong> procedures<br />
like user rights. rigid cropping pattern <strong>and</strong> canal operati<strong>on</strong>. It may be argued that<br />
the water instituti<strong>on</strong>s in the state are widely known <strong>for</strong> the inefficient<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance due to various factors. viz.. under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
potential already created. cost <strong>and</strong> time o\'er-runs <strong>and</strong> other operati<strong>on</strong>al level<br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints as widely reported hampering the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems<br />
within <strong>and</strong> outside the countr~.<br />
The process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On-Farm Development under the Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development<br />
programmes <strong>for</strong>ms the major instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong> at the micro level <strong>and</strong> this<br />
needs to be examined in the framework <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stipulated rules.<br />
~ Instituti<strong>on</strong>al arrangements in the water sector require specific rules, <strong>development</strong><br />
strategies, poli\:ies <strong>for</strong> water Ji,tributi<strong>on</strong>. water rights entitlements to the <strong>farm</strong>ers. More<br />
importantly. there arc different activities that need to be carried out in the water sector,<br />
which includc colledi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/ or abstracti<strong>on</strong>, water share allocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> resource<br />
mobilisati<strong>on</strong> ti,r lllailltcn
3.3.2 Crop specific promoti<strong>on</strong>al instituti<strong>on</strong>s/ agencies<br />
The crop specific promoti<strong>on</strong>al instituti<strong>on</strong>s are the various interventi<strong>on</strong>s by the<br />
state <strong>for</strong> promoting crop-based activities. They are various crop-based activIties.<br />
which are aimed at stabilising <strong>and</strong> augmenting crop producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> productivity.<br />
Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these instituti<strong>on</strong>s are mutually exclusive <strong>and</strong> competitive in the sense<br />
that the promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular crop by the respective instituti<strong>on</strong> may be at the<br />
cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other 6 . In certain cases. this instituti<strong>on</strong>al intermediati<strong>on</strong> also involves<br />
policies <strong>for</strong> protecting the price from falling bey<strong>on</strong>d a level. The various cropspecific<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong>s are:<br />
I. 'Group Farming' <strong>and</strong> the Group Approach <strong>for</strong> Locally Adjusted<br />
Sustainable Agriculture (GALASA) <strong>for</strong> revampmg paddy producti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
7<br />
the state.<br />
11. The various commodity boards <strong>for</strong> the promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> specitic crops. These<br />
crop-specific agencIes are Rubber Board <strong>for</strong> expansI<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>. the Spices Board <strong>for</strong> promoting cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> spices, Coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
Development Board <strong>for</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Kerala Horticulture<br />
Development Project aimed at the promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> horticultural crops. These<br />
crop-specific promoti<strong>on</strong>al agencies! instituti<strong>on</strong>s promote crop producti<strong>on</strong><br />
6 The crop-specific promoti<strong>on</strong>al agencies functi<strong>on</strong> in isolati<strong>on</strong>. As most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
promoti<strong>on</strong>al schemes are incentive-linked. they recommend the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the specific<br />
crop, <strong>for</strong> which the agency st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>for</strong>. This very <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten c<strong>on</strong>tradicts with the functi<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other instituti<strong>on</strong>s as well.<br />
1 lIowever. these interventi<strong>on</strong>s also havc becomc ineffective as they failed in the prime<br />
objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>solidating the otherwise fragmented small <strong>and</strong> marginal holdings.<br />
100
acked up by financial incentives <strong>and</strong> subsidies, research <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> (R&D) support <strong>and</strong> extensi<strong>on</strong> activities.<br />
3.3.3 Labour instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Labour instituti<strong>on</strong>s are otherwise called labour uni<strong>on</strong>s! organisati<strong>on</strong>s have<br />
emerged to ensure better wage <strong>and</strong> improved working c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the<br />
agricultural labourers. It needs to be examined as to how these instituti<strong>on</strong>s have<br />
influenced the agricultural operati<strong>on</strong>s in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. The labour<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>s act as wage setters. irrespective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the producti<strong>on</strong> gains to the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
from <strong>farm</strong>ing activities. Labour instituti<strong>on</strong>s also affect the producti<strong>on</strong> process<br />
through various push <strong>and</strong> pull factors.<br />
3.3.4 Development interventi<strong>on</strong>s by the state<br />
The <strong>development</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong>s by the state as a social instituti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> its impact<br />
<strong>on</strong> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> needs to be examined. These interventi<strong>on</strong>s have been<br />
mainlY in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> re-distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong> re<strong>for</strong>ms in the state;<br />
ensuring food security through an effective public distributi<strong>on</strong> system; <strong>and</strong> the<br />
labour oriented social welfare programmes. These <strong>development</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
have also been instrumental in enhancing the reserve price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour in most<br />
cases (Kannan. 1999). Further. the effective implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> system in the state as well as the cheap import <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> food grains. mainly<br />
rice had depressing effect <strong>on</strong> the price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rice in the open market <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
have become reluctant to c<strong>on</strong>tinue the otherwise cost-ineffective paddy<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>. This sounded the gradual but definite withdrawal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers from the<br />
Moreover. the group ef<strong>for</strong>ts at various stages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> from sowing to harvesting<br />
a[1d processing have also failed.<br />
101
n<strong>on</strong>-viable paddy. Even the <strong>farm</strong>ers preferred keeping paddy l<strong>and</strong> fallow <strong>for</strong><br />
years together rather than pursuing paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
3.3.5 Market as an instituti<strong>on</strong><br />
Market signals playa vital role in the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a specific cropping pattern by<br />
the <strong>farm</strong>ers in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. The price incentives <strong>for</strong> commercial crops<br />
tend to change cropping pattern from the originally designed to market friendly<br />
<strong>on</strong>es. Thus. the c<strong>on</strong>sistent remunerative prices <strong>and</strong> the resultant pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cash cropsl perennial <strong>and</strong> dry crops influenced the cropping decisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers. who always preferred a less labour intensive cash crop producti<strong>on</strong><br />
system as an alternative to the high-cost <strong>and</strong> labour intensive paddy. The<br />
attractive prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial crops may also boost the l<strong>and</strong> values leading to<br />
enormous capital gains to l<strong>and</strong>owners. Thus. the peasant rati<strong>on</strong>ality plays a vital<br />
role in deciding a crop pattern.<br />
It is in this instituti<strong>on</strong>al framework that the problems <strong>and</strong> prospects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> are analysed. The details presented above may help<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing the results presented in the subsequent chapters In proper<br />
perspective.<br />
The process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al failure as theoretically argued out above<br />
needs to be critically examined in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> explaining the empirical scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the state <strong>and</strong> its effect <strong>on</strong> the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
agricultural <strong>development</strong> in the state. This has been presented in chapter four,<br />
where a detailed <strong>and</strong> critical analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e to <strong>on</strong>e corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
between irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in Kerala is attempted <strong>and</strong> the<br />
missing links highlighted.<br />
102
Chapter 4<br />
A Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ile <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Study Area <strong>and</strong> Sample Households<br />
This study has been undertaken in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> two major irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects in Kerala State, namely, the Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project located in Central<br />
Kerala (Map 4.1) <strong>and</strong> the Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tree Crop Development Project<br />
(K1& TCDP) located in Kollam district in Southern Kerala (Map 4.2). The<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> areas haw been selected based <strong>on</strong> the life <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> project,<br />
potential irrigable area, instituti<strong>on</strong>al strategies <strong>for</strong> effecting On-Farm<br />
Development (OFD) <strong>and</strong> geographical locati<strong>on</strong>. Other important c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>for</strong> selecting these two projects under reference are the l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> water<br />
management practices. especially, OFD measures (see Appendix 4.1).<br />
4.1 Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
I) The Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Pruiect (PIP) is situated in Thrissur district. The<br />
ultimate irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project is 45700 ha. The ayacut includes an<br />
area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14000 ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> single cropped paddy to be brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
I
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strictly adhered to the directi<strong>on</strong>s by the CADA.<br />
4) The right bank main canal (RBMC) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Peechi project comm<strong>and</strong>s 23<br />
\'illages spread over 23 miles <strong>and</strong> the left bank main canal (LBMC) covers 9<br />
villages spread over 88 miles.<br />
5) The irrigati<strong>on</strong> scheme is envisaged <strong>for</strong> irrigating two crops <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy. More<br />
emphasis is given <strong>for</strong> irrigating Kale l<strong>and</strong>s during summer.<br />
6) Farmers resorted to c<strong>on</strong>junctive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal <strong>and</strong> groundwater <strong>on</strong> a larger<br />
scale in the comm<strong>and</strong> area. Since the canals are unlined, seepage <strong>and</strong><br />
percolati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water enabled substantial groundwater recharge which is being<br />
exploited by the <strong>farm</strong>ers to grow garden crops.<br />
4.1.1 History <strong>and</strong> salient features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
The Peechi dam is c<strong>on</strong>structed across the Karuvannur river having a total length<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 48 kms. The catchment area is 1054 sq km. The Peechi project benefits 32<br />
\illages in the Thrissur district (see, Map 4.3 <strong>for</strong> Peechi ayacut).<br />
The project investigati<strong>on</strong> took place as early as 1930-35 al<strong>on</strong>g with other<br />
projects such as Chalakudy <strong>and</strong> Cheerakuzhi in Trichur district. The<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, was. however. not taken up <strong>for</strong> executi<strong>on</strong> owing to financial<br />
difficulties. It was <strong>on</strong>ly after the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sec<strong>on</strong>d World War that the then Cochin<br />
government seriously c<strong>on</strong>sidered taking these projects <strong>for</strong> executi<strong>on</strong>. By about<br />
1946-47. the increasing food scarcity <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent high cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> food grains<br />
prompted the government to undertake the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi reservoir <strong>and</strong><br />
the Chalakudy river Diversi<strong>on</strong> schemes. Thus, prior to independence. the district<br />
had no major irrigati<strong>on</strong> system except the salt exclusi<strong>on</strong> work <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Enamakkal dam<br />
(Kcrala State Gazetteer. 19(2).<br />
106
Map 4.3: Peechi Ayacut<br />
,. 5 ~o p" ... v J\<br />
. ,<br />
fIg. AYACUT MAP - F~£c::..Hl- f>R.C JE:c.:r<br />
107
4.1.2 Financial aspects<br />
The total estimated cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scheme was Rs. 235 lakhs. An amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 229<br />
lakhs was spent till the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Sec<strong>on</strong>d plan. Deducting the amount expected<br />
from betterment levy (Rs. 144 lakhs). the net cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scheme was estimated to<br />
be Rs. 85 lakhs. After deducting maintenance charges. an amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 2.80<br />
lakhs was expected annually by way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water cess (1.2% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total cost). Thus.<br />
the annual return from the scheme \\as targeted at Rs. 3.29 per cent (GOK.<br />
1967b). The project was estimated to irrigate. as menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier. an area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
about 0.46 lakh acres with an estimated output <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>25000 t<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy per year.<br />
4.1.3 Crops <strong>and</strong> crop seas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The project was originally designed to irrigate <strong>on</strong>ly paddy in all the three<br />
seas<strong>on</strong>s. viz .. r·irip!,11 I Kharin . .\/rmdilk<strong>on</strong> (Rabi) <strong>and</strong> 1'1I1lcha (Summer). The<br />
r ·irippII seas<strong>on</strong> spreads o\er June-<br />
September. there<strong>for</strong>e. does not require<br />
irril.!ati<strong>on</strong><br />
-<br />
because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> I.!ood rainfall durinl.! the South-West m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong>. The sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
~ -<br />
crop (}vlundaknn) is grown between September- January <strong>and</strong> requires adequate<br />
supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water if the ~orth-Fast<br />
m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> fails. Summer paddy (I'linchil) IS<br />
grown in limited area by using the seepage water from the canals as water IS<br />
released in the canals <strong>for</strong> irrigating the J\o/(' l<strong>and</strong>s. J\o/(' l<strong>and</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>stitute almost<br />
60 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ayacut area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the "eeehi project. It was reported that as a<br />
result <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sch':Jl1':. the productivity per acre has incr.:ascd<br />
by 1104 Ibs. Based <strong>on</strong> this. the total incr.:as.: in th.: producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy p.:r<br />
annum was estimat.:d to h.: 21.1XII luns p.:r year against th.: original estimated<br />
increase in producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 250()1I tun~ tWill 433llO acr.:s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
108
As per the studies c<strong>on</strong>ducted by the CADA in the Peechi ayacut, paddy is<br />
cultivated in 62 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area, followed by crops like coc<strong>on</strong>ut, arecanut,<br />
tapioca, banana, pulses <strong>and</strong> other crops cultivated in 20 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area.<br />
4.1.4 Kole l<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Kale l<strong>and</strong>s are a typical l<strong>and</strong><strong>for</strong>m lying two meters below the mean sea level. As<br />
cultural operati<strong>on</strong>s are possible under rainfed c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong> being<br />
below the mean sea level. growing any crop was risky <strong>and</strong> thus emerged the<br />
colloquial terminology. Kale. meaning 'bumper crop at chance'. Historically.<br />
Kole l<strong>and</strong>s were reclaimed from Thrissur lake <strong>for</strong> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>. Kale l<strong>and</strong>s<br />
remain submerged with water during June to January. Adequate amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
freshwater was necessary to do any cultural operati<strong>on</strong>s. As the Kale l<strong>and</strong>s remain<br />
waterlogged during most part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the year. dewatering is essential to make the<br />
entire area fit <strong>for</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong> which requires adequate amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> freshwater. The<br />
water from the Peechi project \\as expected to bring the entire kole l<strong>and</strong> under<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> during summer. Kole l<strong>and</strong>s are c<strong>on</strong>nected to the sea through<br />
backwaters <strong>and</strong> thus the danger <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> intrusi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> seawater will always be there.<br />
This problem is expected to be overcome through the freshwater made available<br />
hy the Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project.<br />
4.1.5 Operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> system<br />
Water is supplied <strong>for</strong> the sc'ulIld crup (A411I1dakall)<br />
during Septemher to<br />
Decemher <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> the third C[l)1' 1/'/II1Chll) Juring January to April. Water is let<br />
into the hranch canals by rotati<strong>on</strong> system <strong>and</strong> taken to the fields through field<br />
channels. As a result, c<strong>on</strong>veyance lusses tend to he more.<br />
109
4.2 The Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tree Crop Development Project (K I &<br />
TeDP)<br />
I) Th(' Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tr('e Crop Devclopment Project (KI & TCDP) or<br />
KIP is th~ oldest irrigati<strong>on</strong> project in the state <strong>and</strong> is located in an undulating<br />
topography. Simultaneous irrigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> garden crops in the valley slopes <strong>and</strong><br />
paddy in th~ nlley bottom as propos~d in this major irrigati<strong>on</strong> project is<br />
rather unique <strong>and</strong> is not practised anywhere in the country.<br />
2) In view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its undulating topography. the irrigati<strong>on</strong> project has a unIque<br />
system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong>. called the Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System (MCS).<br />
\\ hieh is technicall\ designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating each <strong>and</strong> every tree crop in the<br />
garJ~n l<strong>and</strong> through an und~rground pipeline system using gravitati<strong>on</strong> flow.<br />
3) L:nlil,e oth~r Irrigati<strong>on</strong> rrolt:ets in the state. which are technically designed<br />
fnr Irrigating tht: ml))1t)Cfl\j' ,)r paddy. tht: KIP is a tree crop dcvelopment<br />
proJect. cn\')saged to irngatt: an intt:gratt:d cropping pattern comprising <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut. ruhher. cocoa. clm·t:s. banana. paddy. vegetables. pulses. etc.<br />
4) Th~ ultimatt: irrigati<strong>on</strong> pPtL'ntial <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> KIP is 61630 ha. Of this. 39530 ha. (65<br />
°0) \\111 ht: uJl(kr tht: RI['ht Bank t>bin Canal (RI3MC) <strong>and</strong> nlOO ha. under<br />
the l.t:ft hank Main CaIl~d<br />
(I.BMC). It is intended to cover a Cultivable<br />
Comm<strong>and</strong> Area (CCA) ul 27000 ha. under the Minor C<strong>on</strong>vt:yance System<br />
(\1('
the project are not commensurate with the size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> investment. Furthermore,<br />
the irrigati<strong>on</strong> project still remains to be partially commissi<strong>on</strong>ed, though it is<br />
under c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> more than 40 years.<br />
6) The irrigati<strong>on</strong> project was originally designed to irrigate tree crops. like<br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut al<strong>on</strong>g with the third crop <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy (Puncha). In view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this, the<br />
project is also known as Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tree Crop Development<br />
Project. But as there had taken place c<strong>on</strong>siderable crop shift from coc<strong>on</strong>ut to<br />
rubber <strong>on</strong> an extensive scale over time, not much attenti<strong>on</strong> was paid to<br />
improve <strong>and</strong> stabilise the irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure in the comm<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
4.2.1 History <strong>and</strong> salient features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
The Kallada dam is located at Parappar near Thenmala across the Kallada river at<br />
the dovillstream <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>tluence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the three major tributaries. \lZ..<br />
Kulathupuzha, Shentharuni <strong>and</strong> Kalthuruthipuzha, all <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> them originating from<br />
the Kulathupuzha ranges <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Western Ghats. The latitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Parappar dam is<br />
80 5T north <strong>and</strong> l<strong>on</strong>gitude 7780 49' 4' 20" east. The project area is surrounded<br />
by the Western Ghats <strong>on</strong> the cast, Ashtamudi backwater <strong>and</strong> Arabian sea <strong>on</strong> the<br />
West, Achencoil river <strong>on</strong> the north <strong>and</strong> )thikkara river <strong>on</strong> the south. The Kallada<br />
river flows westwards through Pathanapuram taluk <strong>and</strong> through the boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the taluks <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kottarakara, Adoor, Kollam <strong>and</strong> Kunnattur. The river covers a<br />
distance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 119 Km be<strong>for</strong>e it falls into the Ashtamudi backwaters. The Project<br />
area lies between latitudes 80 ~9' north <strong>and</strong> 90 IT north <strong>and</strong> l<strong>on</strong>gi tudes 770 16'<br />
east <strong>and</strong> 76024' east (see, Map ~.4 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Kallada river basin <strong>and</strong> the locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Kallada ayal.:ut).<br />
111
Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut<br />
, IItIJrt ~ BRWJIESIJlI) O1SHl~\1l~<br />
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112
The site <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pickup weir is at Ottackal 5 km. downstream <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reservoir<br />
bv the side <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kollam - Shenkottah Road. The right <strong>and</strong> left bank main canals<br />
take <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>f from Ottackal. The Right Bank canal <strong>and</strong> its branches serve areas in<br />
Kozhencherry. Pathanapuram. Adoor. Kunnathoor. Mavelikkara. Karunagappally<br />
<strong>and</strong> Karthikappally taluks <strong>and</strong> Left Bank canal benefits areas in Pathanapuram.<br />
Kottarakkara <strong>and</strong> Kollam taluks. The powerhouse is located at the foot <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
dam <strong>on</strong> the Right Bank.<br />
The KIP is the largest <strong>and</strong> oldest irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project In Kerala. which was<br />
started in 196 I <strong>and</strong> partially commissi<strong>on</strong>ed in 1986. It envisages the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a gravity mas<strong>on</strong>ry dam across the Kallada River at Parappar near Thenmala in<br />
Kollam district. A weir c<strong>on</strong>structed 5 km down stream <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reservoir diverts the<br />
water let out from the dam to the right <strong>and</strong> left bank main canals to irrigate a net<br />
area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 61630 ha. unlike the other irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes in the state l which are<br />
primarily designed <strong>for</strong> stabilising the sec<strong>on</strong>d crop <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy (Mundakan) <strong>and</strong><br />
growing the third crop]. the KIP \\as envisaged to promote a composite<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops like paddy. coc<strong>on</strong>ut. banana. arecanut. cashew. pepper.<br />
ginger. pulses. vegetables etc.<br />
The water distributi<strong>on</strong> In the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project IS peculiar as it<br />
combines the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al opcn can~d<br />
systclll (OCS) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> to low<br />
lying paddy fields <strong>and</strong> a uni4uc system called Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System (MCS).<br />
The MCS is a system where watn is distributed through underground pipe<br />
system laid through hydrants <strong>and</strong> tlc\iblc hoses that arc c<strong>on</strong>nccted to the spouts<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> main canals. branch can;lk distribllt;lries <strong>and</strong> minors. Water is applied<br />
through hoses <strong>for</strong> garden erops above'; per cent slopes <strong>and</strong> open lined channcis<br />
113
in l<strong>and</strong>s having slopes less than 3 per cent.<br />
Originally. the project was c<strong>on</strong>ceived <strong>for</strong> irrigating paddy al<strong>on</strong>e but later.<br />
the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scheme was extended to irrigate garden crops also in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
change in the policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the government. In additi<strong>on</strong> to this, it is anticipated that<br />
the scheme would solve drinking water problem to a c<strong>on</strong>siderable extent. The<br />
scheme is also expected to generate power to the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 MW. Besides,<br />
intensive agricultural activities are expected to create additi<strong>on</strong>al employment<br />
potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 11.5 milli<strong>on</strong> m<strong>and</strong>ays.<br />
Eventhough scattered ef<strong>for</strong>ts have been <strong>on</strong> to investigate the possibilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structing a dam across the river Kallada even be<strong>for</strong>e 1958. an oT(J.anised<br />
setup to investigate the possibility was started <strong>on</strong>ly in November 1958. The<br />
Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala in 1961 administratively sancti<strong>on</strong>ed the proposal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
KalLda Irrigati<strong>on</strong> project with an estimated cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. I 3 .28 crores. Thus the<br />
project was <strong>for</strong>mally started in 1961. The budget allotment <strong>for</strong> the project up to<br />
1966 was so meager that there were no tangible works carried out during the<br />
period. The expenditure up to 1980 March was <strong>on</strong>ly Rs.34 crores while the<br />
estimated cost at 1980 price levels was Rs. I 76 crores. The project was proposed<br />
to the World Bank aid in 1980 <strong>and</strong> the bank accepted the proposal in October<br />
1982 so as to complete the project hy March 1987. Later, it was extended up to<br />
March 1989. The World Bank aid n:ceived was 80.3 milli<strong>on</strong> US Dollars.<br />
equivalent to 97.77 crores <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rupees (hased <strong>on</strong> the then exchange rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dollar).<br />
The spillover works were carried out thereafter utilising the budget allotment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the state government. The partial commissi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Right Bank main canal<br />
114
was executed <strong>on</strong> 24.05.1986 <strong>and</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> LB main canal <strong>on</strong> 30.06.1992.<br />
The<br />
works <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dam. saddle dam. weir at Ottackal <strong>and</strong> LB & RB main canals are fully<br />
completed. The RBMC is 68 km l<strong>on</strong>g with 4 branches <strong>and</strong> distributary system to<br />
irrigate an area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 39500 ha. the Left Bank main canal sYstem<br />
.<br />
in 56 km/l<strong>on</strong>e<br />
-<br />
with three branches <strong>and</strong> distriturary system <strong>and</strong> irrigates 22.600 ha, Both the<br />
canals are designed with the capacity to irrigate the originally planned comm<strong>and</strong><br />
area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 61.600 ha in the Taluks <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pathanapuram. Kottarakkara. Quil<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Karunagappally in the Kollam district. Kunnathoor <strong>and</strong> Kozhenchery in the<br />
Pathanapuram district <strong>and</strong> parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mavelikkara <strong>and</strong> Karthikappally taluks <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Alappuzha district.<br />
4.2.2 Cropping pattern<br />
As per the re\ised project report. a total CCA <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 61630 ha. comprises <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20430<br />
ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wet l<strong>and</strong> (33.15 %) mainly under paddy <strong>and</strong> the balance being garden<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 41200 ha. (66.85 %). The most important am<strong>on</strong>g the garden crops is<br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut. w'hich covers an area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6000 ha. (14.56 % <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the garden l<strong>and</strong>s).<br />
Besides. an area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 13100 ha. are interplanted with coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> other crops.<br />
Other crops grown in the project area are cashewnut (2200 ha.), rubber (500 ha.)<br />
<strong>and</strong> arecanut ( 11 00 ha.).<br />
Tapioca (6200 ha.) <strong>and</strong> sugarcane (600 ha.) are the<br />
other important crops grown in the irri~ati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong> (GOK. 1996). The World<br />
Rank financing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project which commenced from 1981-82 <strong>and</strong> ended with<br />
September 1989. was c<strong>on</strong>tinued to a comm<strong>and</strong> area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 37,600 ha in phase I as<br />
detailed in table 4.1.<br />
115
Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Pattern in Kallada Comm<strong>and</strong><br />
Cropping pattern<br />
Area (ha)<br />
Gardell lalld<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut with out inter crops 19000 (68.84)<br />
Mixed tree crops (with coc<strong>on</strong>ut) 4300 (1558)<br />
Annual crops (tapioca) 4300 (15.58)<br />
Sub total 27600 (73.40)<br />
Wet lalld<br />
Padd~ 10000 (26.60)<br />
Total 37600<br />
Note: Figures In parenthesIs are percentages.<br />
It \\as expected that with the relatiwly more assured availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water.<br />
I<br />
it would b~<br />
possible to increase the cropping intensity by introducing crops like<br />
c1oycs. hybrid coc<strong>on</strong>ut etc. in the garden l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
In the wet l<strong>and</strong>s besides<br />
increasing the area under kharif <strong>and</strong> rabi paddy marginally, it was anticipated to<br />
increase substantially the area under paddy during summer. It was thought that<br />
the crops. like ground nut. sweet potato <strong>and</strong> pulses could also be introduced In<br />
\\ c't l'IIlJs t" increase areJ under tuher <strong>and</strong> \cgetables in summer seas<strong>on</strong>.<br />
~.2.3 Evapo - transpirati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> crop water requirement<br />
The daily evapo-transpirati<strong>on</strong> rates <strong>for</strong> the different m<strong>on</strong>ths in the Project area<br />
l13w been computed adopting the modified Penman method <strong>on</strong> the basis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
agro-meteorological data obser\'ed at Kayamkulam stati<strong>on</strong> in the proJect Area.<br />
The ET rates during the summer m<strong>on</strong>ths vary between 4.1 mm/ day in the m<strong>on</strong>th<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fd,ruJry to 4.5 mm/day during March <strong>and</strong> 4.4 mm! day during April.<br />
I he crop water requirements are computed <strong>for</strong>tnightly <strong>for</strong> the projected<br />
cr"pplIlg p'ltt
efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 75 per cent has been taken <strong>for</strong> arnvmg at the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
requirements at the canal head assuming 84 per cent c<strong>on</strong>veyance efficiency (the<br />
entire distributi<strong>on</strong> system being lined) <strong>and</strong> field efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 90 per cent. Since<br />
the system is lined. an improved system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> c<strong>on</strong>veyance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> (through MCS) is effected <strong>and</strong> because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the undulating topography,<br />
75 per cent efficiency is expected to be realised after a few year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the system in a scientific manner.<br />
4.2.4 The Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System (:\lCS)<br />
Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project is the first Project in India to adopt a distinct system<br />
<strong>for</strong> water distributi<strong>on</strong> called the Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System (MCS) in the ayacut<br />
<strong>for</strong> water distributi<strong>on</strong>. The MCS comm<strong>and</strong>s l<strong>on</strong>g strips <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>taining side<br />
slopes <strong>and</strong> \alley bottoms. Since the terrain <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area is<br />
undulating <strong>and</strong> where a majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers are small <strong>and</strong> marginal holders.<br />
wata distributi<strong>on</strong> system should be planned in such a way that the l<strong>and</strong> acquired<br />
<strong>for</strong> canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> is minimum. Accordingly, under the MCS, underground<br />
pipeline system with low pressure PVC pipes is designed <strong>and</strong> laid <strong>for</strong> 10 ha.<br />
blocks within the KIP comm<strong>and</strong>. Farmers are able to tap water through flexible<br />
plastic/ rubber hoses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 45 meters in length that are attached to hydrants located<br />
at intervals <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 90 meters in the pipe system. In areas where topography is plain<br />
<strong>and</strong> the slope is less than 3 per cent, the c<strong>on</strong>veyance system is a combinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
largn diamd
in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> underground pipeline system, water loss in the c<strong>on</strong>veyance will be<br />
minimum. This system works under gravity flow. A minimum slope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> three per<br />
cent is necessary <strong>for</strong> the effective working <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system. In places where the<br />
required slope is available the spout is c<strong>on</strong>nected to the hydrant in case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Alpha / wheel valves in case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wet l<strong>and</strong>s through underground PVC<br />
pipes. In places where the slope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> three per cent is not possible open field<br />
boothies are c<strong>on</strong>structt:J <strong>for</strong> distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> \\ater.<br />
The success <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS depends <strong>on</strong> the coordinated ef<strong>for</strong>ts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the three<br />
agencies. viz .. the Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Department. the Agriculture Department <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Water Users' Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUAs). While the resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> supplying water<br />
from the head works up to the spout level through the canals <strong>and</strong> pipe system<br />
rests with the organisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management (0 & M) divisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Department. the :\griculture Ikpartment initiates the registrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> WUAs <strong>for</strong><br />
each spout <strong>and</strong> advice <strong>farm</strong>ers to evolve a suitable cropping pattern so as to<br />
achieve maximum producti<strong>on</strong> per unit water delivered.<br />
Comp<strong>on</strong>ents <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l\1CS<br />
The major comp<strong>on</strong>ents <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS are: a) spout; b) pipeline system; <strong>and</strong> c)<br />
delivery points. The spout is c<strong>on</strong>structed <strong>on</strong> the bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the main canal! branch<br />
canal/ Jistributory from where water is let into the system. It c<strong>on</strong>sists <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an inlet<br />
chamber c<strong>on</strong>trol valve leading channel, measuring device <strong>and</strong> an outlet channel.<br />
These arc covered at top with slab anJ locking arrangements. The water from the<br />
canal is let in the inlet chamber through pipes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> required diameter with a c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
valve. The inlet end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pipe is protecteJ with GI mesh to prevent the cotry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
118
floating materials. The water thus entered in the inlet chamber flows to the outlet<br />
chambt:r through a It:ading channt:1. This is fixed with a "V" notch to measure the<br />
dischargt: into the outkt chamber. The supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water to the ayacut will be<br />
through pipes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lesser diameter as per the design. The inlet ends <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pipes are<br />
covered with welded mesh to prevent entry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> debris.<br />
The pipelines are so aligned to <strong>for</strong>m a network <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pipes so as to comm<strong>and</strong><br />
the entire ayacut by gravity !l(n\,. The pipes <strong>and</strong> specials used under this system<br />
are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> PVC type varying in diameter from 200 lTllTl to 90 mm depending <strong>on</strong> the<br />
water requirement at each delivery point. Necessary pressure release<br />
arrangements are being made to rekase the pressure created in the pipeline at<br />
suitabk points. called. risers.<br />
h\ ,) t: pe~ ,)1' Jell\ cry 1")II1IS are there in the ': stelll. \'JZ .• hydrants <strong>and</strong><br />
alpha. wlh:e1 \aln: chamhers. ilydrants is a pipe c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> taken from the end<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> thl' hUrled pipe ahove ground I.:\cl using GI pipe <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> I m. with 50 mm. wheel<br />
valve outlets. These are encased in a c<strong>on</strong>crete shell called hydrant having a<br />
diametn <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 60 Clll. And 1.2 Ill. hcil!ht with cover <strong>and</strong> locking arrangements to<br />
regulate the opening valves. Two 50 mm. diameter GI pipe outlets from the 50<br />
mm. wheel valves protrude outside the shell above the ground level so as to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>nect deliverv hoses havinl! a length <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 45 meter l<strong>on</strong>g. The hydrants are<br />
. ,<br />
located at about 90 m. apart. The discharge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water from each outlet is 2.5 litersl<br />
sel:<strong>on</strong>d making the total discharge frolll (lnL' hydr:Jnt as live litersl sec<strong>on</strong>d. These<br />
hydrants ;,Jre located at pLl.:es in the ayacut where there is sufiicient pressure<br />
head <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water to comm<strong>and</strong> the an:a with two hoses (45 m. l<strong>on</strong>g each). For the<br />
efficient functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system. the pressure head should not be less than 1.2<br />
•<br />
119
meters. The end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the buried pipeline is c<strong>on</strong>nected to alpha! wheel valve <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> size<br />
ISO mm or ~OO<br />
mm. This system is encased in a chamber covering a slab <strong>and</strong><br />
with locking arrangements. This is applicable at places where the pipe line ends<br />
to feed wet l<strong>and</strong> where the pressure head is low (see, Chart 4.1, <strong>for</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
the functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS).<br />
The MCS is implemented in <strong>farm</strong>ers' plots not by acquiring the plot. but<br />
with the legal c<strong>on</strong>sent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers or the public under the provisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
CADA act. The \1CS schemes taken up in the KIP are sent to CADA <strong>for</strong><br />
appro"'al <strong>and</strong> later it is published in the gazette <strong>for</strong> the in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers! public be<strong>for</strong>e the scheme IS taken up. The resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ~1CS<br />
in the KIP rests with the Super-intending Engineer,<br />
\ICS Circk .. \ddor. l:ndcr this circle. there is <strong>on</strong>e 0 & M divisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> four MCS<br />
\\orks dl\lsl(1n,. six Assistant Directors (Agri.) <strong>and</strong> 5~ Agriculture Officers.<br />
4.2.5 Farmers' participati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> management <strong>and</strong> \Vater Users'<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Farmers' participati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> management IS<br />
expected to be ensured<br />
through the <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water User's Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUAs). On completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the MCS bv the Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Department. which will be h<strong>and</strong>ed over to the Water<br />
Users' ASSOCiati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Three tier committees arc <strong>for</strong>med to coordinate water<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> activities; <strong>and</strong> they an:: Water User's Associati<strong>on</strong>. Canal Committee,<br />
., he brrm:rs cDming under the ayaclIt Df an MCS scheme will be the<br />
members <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the WI lAs.<br />
The Associati<strong>on</strong> will have an elected President.<br />
120
Secretary. Treasurer <strong>and</strong> Working Committee.<br />
The Assistant Engineers <strong>and</strong><br />
Agricultural Officers will be Ex-<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficio members <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Associati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Canal Committee<br />
This is an advisory committee <strong>for</strong>med <strong>for</strong> a particular branch canal with the<br />
Presidents <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the WUAs. Assistant Executive Engineer. Assistant Engineers. <strong>and</strong><br />
Agricultural Officer as members <strong>and</strong> Deputy Tahsildar in charge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> collecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cess as the Ex-<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficio member. :'l.ssistant Executive Engineer is the President <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Committee <strong>and</strong> Agricultural Officer is the vice President. Secretary.<br />
Treasurer <strong>and</strong> working committee members are elected representatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers.<br />
The committee looks after the proper distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
spouts <strong>and</strong> also am<strong>on</strong>g wet <strong>and</strong> dry l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Project Advisory Committee<br />
This is the proiect le\el Cllll1ll1itlce with District Colkctor. Kollam as Chairman<br />
<strong>and</strong> Fxecuti\"t.~ Engineer Ilk~ld Worksl as C<strong>on</strong>n~nor. Project Advisory<br />
Committee is c<strong>on</strong>stituted as per the Government Order. The committee will meet<br />
every three m<strong>on</strong>ths ~nd re\ie\\ the situati<strong>on</strong> regarding water distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> give<br />
necessary guidance <strong>for</strong> cffccll\ e functi<strong>on</strong>ing.<br />
4.2.6 Present stage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Project<br />
The m~s{)nr:<br />
dam. s;]ddk dam. weir at Oll
<strong>and</strong> Kayamkulam branch in Phase II. All the Phase I branches are completed <strong>and</strong><br />
Kayamkulam branch is yet to be taken up. In the RB canal system 40<br />
distributaries are fully completed. The works <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kayamkulam branch <strong>and</strong> 9<br />
distibutaries are to be completed.<br />
There are three branches In LB canal system, VIZ.,<br />
Oyoor branch.<br />
Kulakkada branch <strong>and</strong> Kottiyam branch out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which. Oyoor branch is the <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
<strong>on</strong>e completed. Twenty five distributaries have been fully completed in the LB<br />
canal system while II distributaries are to be completed. Regarding MCS. the<br />
work <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 28902 ha. are reportedly completed <strong>and</strong> schemes were prepared <strong>and</strong><br />
works arranged <strong>for</strong> 1170 I ha., which are in progress. Schemes are yet to be<br />
prepared <strong>for</strong> 21027 ha. including the Phase II porti<strong>on</strong>. Thus, the total anticipated<br />
extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>MCS works is 32728 ha.<br />
4.2.7 Financial requirement <strong>for</strong> balance works<br />
It was estimated that an amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> RS.620 crores will be required <strong>for</strong> the<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project as per the 1992 schedule <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rates. But the schedule <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rates was revised with effect from 01.07.1996.<br />
4.3 Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ile <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sample holdings <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
In the following, we examine the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ile <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>s <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ers covered under<br />
the study. As
differences in topography. there are wide differences in the envisaged <strong>and</strong><br />
realized cropping patterns across these two comm<strong>and</strong> areas. This being so, a<br />
strict comparis<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the attributes <strong>and</strong> characteristic features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>s <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ing community IS not possible <strong>and</strong> hence. each <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> them are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered separately <strong>and</strong> comparis<strong>on</strong> is made wherever possible.<br />
The sample villages <strong>and</strong> sample <strong>farm</strong>s are classified based <strong>on</strong> their<br />
positi<strong>on</strong> al<strong>on</strong>g the canal system divided into head. middle <strong>and</strong> tail reaches.<br />
Sufficient care has been taken to arrange the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers in the sub-canal<br />
systems according to the locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> their plots in the distributi<strong>on</strong> network. The<br />
sample <strong>farm</strong>s in the Kallada project are classified as shown in table 4.2. Of the<br />
23 villages covered. 10 are in the head reaches with a sample size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 78 (39 %)<br />
<strong>farm</strong> households. followed hy 8 villages in the middle reaches covering 65<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers (33 %) <strong>and</strong> 5 villages in the tail end with a sample coverage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 57<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers (29 %).<br />
Table 4.2: Distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sample <strong>farm</strong>s in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area<br />
Avg.<br />
Locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> No. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> No. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wet area Dry area Total area<br />
hold. size<br />
the <strong>farm</strong> vi llages <strong>farm</strong>ers (Acres) (Acres) (Acres)<br />
(acres)<br />
Head 10 78<br />
56.92 108.13<br />
(34.49) (65.51)<br />
165.05 2.12<br />
Middle 8 65<br />
41.38 130.60<br />
(24.06) (75.94)<br />
171. 98 2.65<br />
Tail 5 57<br />
32.85 91.67<br />
(26.38) J,73.62)<br />
124.52 2.18<br />
Total<br />
--,<br />
,~<br />
200<br />
131.15 330.40<br />
(28.42) (71.58)<br />
461.55 2.31<br />
-<br />
><br />
Nole: Figures III parenthesIs are respective percentages.<br />
The proportioll <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wet area ranges between 24 to 26 per cellt in tIl(: middle·<br />
<strong>and</strong> tail reaches, indicating the predominance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry crops grown in the garden<br />
--<br />
123
l<strong>and</strong>s. The average holding size is below 2.5 acres in all locati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> less than<br />
<strong>on</strong>e hectare in head <strong>and</strong> tail-end villages.<br />
In the Peechi project. a total sample <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 115 <strong>farm</strong>ers covering the entire<br />
right bank canal system spread over 17 villages have been surveyed (Table 4.3).<br />
The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry area has been the highest in the head reaches at 69 per cent<br />
against 60 per cent in the middle reaches <strong>and</strong> 56 per cent the tail end. The<br />
average size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the operati<strong>on</strong>al holding has also been the highest in the head<br />
reaches (2.06 acres) compared to middle reaches (1.52 acres) <strong>and</strong> tail reaches<br />
(1.42 acres). The total number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers selected <strong>for</strong> the study is II S from the<br />
right bank main canal system. spread over 17 villages.<br />
T able 43 . : n' Istn 'b utlOn 0 f samp I e f arms In t h e P eec h' I cornman d area<br />
Locati<strong>on</strong> No. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> No. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ! Wet area Dry area Total Avg. hold.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the vi lIages <strong>farm</strong>ers (Acres)<br />
,<br />
(Acres) area size (acres)<br />
<strong>farm</strong><br />
(Acres)<br />
32.24 70.84<br />
Head 8 50<br />
103.08 2.06<br />
(31.34) (68.66)<br />
nso 40.88<br />
~1iddlc S -l5 68.38 1.52<br />
(40.22) (59.78)<br />
12.48 15.83<br />
Tail<br />
4 20<br />
28.31 1.42<br />
( 44.08) (55.92)<br />
72.22 127.55<br />
Total<br />
17 I I 5<br />
199.77 1.74<br />
, (36.15) (69.85)<br />
Note: Figures In parenthesIs are respecllve percentages.<br />
--<br />
The distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the study districts as per the<br />
1991 Census indicates that ahollt 97 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the<br />
Kollam district (where the Kallada project is located) are below <strong>on</strong>e hectare<br />
occupying 76 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the afl:a Cfable 4.4).<br />
124
Table 4.4: Distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the study districts, 1991<br />
Size Kollam district Thrissur district<br />
class Holdings Area Avg. hold. Holdings I Area Avg. hold.<br />
(ha.) (000 nos.) (000 ha.) Size (ha.) (000 nos.) (000 ha.) Size (ha.)<br />
Belo" I<br />
465.04 71.68 199.1 33.10<br />
0.15<br />
(97.04 ) (76.30)<br />
(81.46) (19.74)<br />
0.17<br />
1-2<br />
I I. 81 15.33 22 31.30<br />
1.30<br />
('.46) (16.32)<br />
(9.00) (18.66)<br />
1.42<br />
2-4<br />
2.07 5.22 15.3 40.90<br />
2.52<br />
(0.43 ) (5.56)<br />
(6.26)<br />
(24.39)<br />
2.67<br />
4-10<br />
0.29 1.49 6.8 41.70<br />
5.14<br />
(006) ( 1.59)<br />
(2.78) (24.87)<br />
6.13<br />
Above 0.02 0.23<br />
20.70<br />
I 1.50 1.2 (0.49)<br />
10 (00 I) (0.24)<br />
(12.34)<br />
17.25<br />
Total<br />
479.23 93.95<br />
244.4 167.7<br />
0.20<br />
(10000) ( 100.00) ( 100.00) (10000)<br />
0.69<br />
Note: Figures In parenthesIs are respective percentages.<br />
Source: Census, 1991.<br />
Whereas. in Thrissur district (where the Peechi project is located) 81 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings are below <strong>on</strong>e ha. with an area share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> below 20<br />
per cent. This indicates the magnitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> marginalisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the Kollam district. Am<strong>on</strong>g the other size groups. while<br />
two per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the size group <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1- 2 ha. in Kollam district holds<br />
16 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area, in Thrissur district 20 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area is held by 81<br />
per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers. Though the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers holding higher sizes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the Thrissur district is less than 10 per cent, the area<br />
owned is more than 24 per cent in the 2-4 <strong>and</strong> 4-10 ha. size classes. The<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area held by the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the above 10 ha. is also the highest in<br />
the Thrissur district at 12 per cent <strong>and</strong> it is less than <strong>on</strong>e per cent in the Kollam<br />
district. Thus. the pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the Kollam<br />
district is skewed largely in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lower size groups<br />
125
The characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample holdings in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong> use being<br />
followed across the three locati<strong>on</strong>s are furnished in tables 4.5 <strong>and</strong> 4.6. From the<br />
table 4.5. it is apparent that in the Kallada project. the effective area under paddy<br />
is less than 50 per cent. which shows that most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers have c<strong>on</strong>verted<br />
their paddy fields <strong>for</strong> other uses. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber area is 56 per cent <strong>and</strong><br />
the highest percentage is found in the head reaches at 59 per cent compared to 56<br />
per cent in the tail reaches <strong>and</strong> 52 per cent in the middle. The average size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy holding is 0.45 acres across the three locati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Table 4.5: Characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sample <strong>farm</strong> households in Kallada project<br />
Characteristics Head Middle Tail Total<br />
Total sample (No.) 78 65 57 200<br />
Wet area (acres) 56.92 41.38 32.85 131.15<br />
Drv area (acres) 108.13 130.6 91.67 330.4<br />
Total area (acres) 165.05 171.98 124.52 461.55<br />
Effective paddv area (%) 49.77 38.02 44.67 41.58<br />
Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber area (%) 49.33 51.13 49.73 50.11<br />
Rubber area holders (%) 58.97 52.31 56.14 56.00<br />
Average holding size (acres) 2.12 2.65 2.18 2.31<br />
Average rubber area (acres) 1.77 2.59 1.94 2.07<br />
Average paddv area (acres) 0.44 0.45 0.43 0.45<br />
In the Peechi project. the area under paddy c<strong>on</strong>tinues to be almost 57 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cropped area (Tahle 4.6). But in the head reaches. the area under<br />
paddy is 61 per cent. followed by 57 per cent in the middle reach <strong>and</strong> 46 per cent<br />
in the tail end. Rubber is gnlWn predominantly in the tail reaches where 63 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the tail end grow rubber. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields<br />
leased out <strong>for</strong> banana cultivati<strong>on</strong> is more in the tail reaches (38 %). followed by<br />
21 per cent in the middle: reaches. The c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area <strong>for</strong> other l<strong>and</strong><br />
uses is rdativdy high in the tail reaches at 25 per cent as against 22 per cent in<br />
the head <strong>and</strong> 20 per cent in the middle reaches.<br />
126
Table 4.6: Characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sample <strong>farm</strong> households in Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
P rOlec . t<br />
Characteristics Head Middle Tail Total<br />
Total sample (No.) 50 45 20 115<br />
Wet area (acres) 32.24 27.5 12.48 72.22<br />
Dry area (acres) ! 70.84 40.88 15.83 127.55<br />
Total area (acres) 103.08 68.38 28.31 199.77<br />
Effective paddy area (%) 60.73 57.60 45.99 56.99<br />
Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber area (%) Nil Nil 62.88 8.91<br />
Rubber area holders (%) Nil Nil 80.00 13.91<br />
Average holding size (acres) 2.06 1.52 1.42 1.74<br />
A veral!e paddv area (acres) 0.63 0.79 0.96 0.72<br />
A veral!c rubber area (acres) Nil Nil 1. 11 1.11<br />
Paddy leased out (%) Nil 21.60 38.30 14.84<br />
Paddy c<strong>on</strong>verted (%) 22.92 20.8 25.47 23.06<br />
The average size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings across the size classes <strong>and</strong><br />
also locati<strong>on</strong>s in each <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> project is presented in table 4.7.<br />
Table 4.7: Locati<strong>on</strong>-wise average holding size in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas<br />
i Size class I Kallada Irri!!ati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
Peechi Irri!!ati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
(acres) I Head Middle Tail Head Middle Tail<br />
Below 0.5 0.26 0.46 0.55 0.43 0.38 0.48<br />
0.5 to I 0.76 0.71 0.86 0.81 0.78 0.76<br />
I to 2 I 1.86 1.78 1.65 1.50 1.73 1.91<br />
2 to -l 3.34 3.72 3.59 3.20 3.76 3.84<br />
Above -I 6.65 I 1 .3 1 6.78 7.52 4.25 5.36<br />
Total 2.12 2.65 2.18 2.06 1.52 1.42<br />
The average size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holding in the class <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> below 0.5 acres in the Kallada<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project is <strong>on</strong>ly 0.26 acres in the head reaches, followed by 0.46 in the<br />
middle <strong>and</strong> 0.55 acres in the tail end. The average size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holding in this group is<br />
th~<br />
highest 3t 0.48 acres in the tail reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi eomp3red to 0.43 acres in<br />
the: h~ad<br />
<strong>and</strong> 0.38 3cres in the: middle. In the size group <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 0.5 to I acres, the<br />
size group is the highest in the middle reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada at 11.31 acres <strong>and</strong><br />
lowest in the middle reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi at 4.25 acres.<br />
The distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> working populati<strong>on</strong> in the study regi<strong>on</strong>s as per the<br />
Census report shows that the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivators is the highest in the<br />
Pathanamthitta <strong>and</strong> Kollam districts (Table 4.8). It may be due to the cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber <strong>on</strong> larger scale in these districts .. which could be explained in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the dominance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber plantati<strong>on</strong>s in these districts. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
agricultural labourers is also more in the Pathanamthitta district. where it is<br />
higher than the state average <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25.54 per cent.<br />
Table 4.8: Distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> working populati<strong>on</strong> in the ease study regiolls<br />
vis-a-vis State (%)<br />
Tvpe <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong> Kollam Alapuzha Pathanamthitta Thrissur State<br />
Cultivators 16.10 7.97 15.81 9.20 12.14<br />
Al!ri. labourers 22.95 , 14.17 27.11 11.81 15.54<br />
,<br />
,<br />
Household industry I<br />
workers<br />
I<br />
1.85 9.77 1.18 I 4.46 1.58<br />
Other workers I 59.10 58.10 45.89 63.52 59.64<br />
Total 672712 60260-1 321595 804738 8301087<br />
.<br />
Source: Farm GUide. 1999 .<br />
The details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> occupati<strong>on</strong>al status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers have been<br />
presented in table 4.9. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> full time <strong>farm</strong>ers in Kallada comm<strong>and</strong><br />
area is about 48 per cent. A significant proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> them are rubber growers<br />
<strong>and</strong> this may be an important reas<strong>on</strong> why a large percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> them is reported<br />
to be full time <strong>farm</strong>ers. About 16 per cent is engaged in rubber tapping. followed<br />
by 12 as agricultural labourers. Whereas. in the Peechi project. 38 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers surveyed arc full time <strong>farm</strong>ers. followed by agricultural labourers 24 per<br />
cent. Thus. it is evident that a majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers arc unable to stick to<br />
agriculture due to the small size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings. There<strong>for</strong>e. they c<strong>on</strong>sider<br />
128
<strong>farm</strong>ing as a sec<strong>on</strong>dary occupati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> engage themselves in other gainful<br />
employment. This is also ref1ected in not undertaking l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> works<br />
<strong>for</strong> effective utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. Other activities. like sen·ice. private jobs! gulf<br />
employed etc .. c<strong>on</strong>stitute about 27 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers in Peechi<br />
project, followed by 25 per cent in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
Table 4.9: Occupati<strong>on</strong>al status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sample <strong>farm</strong>ers in Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada<br />
projects<br />
Peechi proiect Kallada project<br />
Farmers (%) (%)<br />
Tvpe <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> occupati<strong>on</strong> (0:0.) share Farmers (No.) share<br />
Agriculture!<br />
Plantati<strong>on</strong> 44 38.26 95 47.50<br />
Rubber tapping 7 6.09 32 16.00<br />
Agricultural labour 28 24.35 24 12.00<br />
Service 14 12.17 18 9.00<br />
Private! Gulf 12 10.43 17 8.50<br />
Others 10 8.70 14 7.00<br />
Total 115 10000 200 100.00<br />
The occupati<strong>on</strong>al status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> family members is presented in table 4.10. In<br />
,<br />
Kallada project. 17 per Cen! <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the family members are involved in <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
activities against 24 per cent in the Peechi project. While almost 16 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the family members are doing rubber tapping in the Kallada project area, about<br />
17 per cent in the Peechi is doing agricultural labour. The table shows that family<br />
labour involved in Peechi project is relatively high. For instance. 24 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the members are involved in <strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> another 17 per cent work as<br />
agricultural labourers. 1 n Kall ada project, it is <strong>on</strong>ly 13 per cent.<br />
129
Table 4.10: Occupati<strong>on</strong>al status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> household members <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sample <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
in Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada Projects<br />
Peechi project Kallada project I<br />
Occupati<strong>on</strong> No. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
-,<br />
No. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Share (%)<br />
Share (%)<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Agriculture 139 24.17 156 17 AI<br />
Agricultural labour 97 16.87 118 13.17<br />
Rubber tapping 24 4.17 149 16.63<br />
Service! Private 88 15.30 15 I 16.85<br />
Students 168 29.22 186 20.76<br />
Business 21 3.65 45 5.02<br />
Others 38 6.61 91 10.16<br />
Total 575 100.00 896 100.00<br />
Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the studies <strong>on</strong> agrarian change c<strong>on</strong>sider age <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er as<br />
an important variable in explaining the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> improved cultural<br />
practices as well as scientific method <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s. An inverse<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship is said to exist between <strong>farm</strong>ers age <strong>and</strong> the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s. Bearing this in mind. a comparis<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the age pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ile <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers is attempted <strong>and</strong> the details are presented in table 4.11<br />
Table 4.11: Age classificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sample <strong>farm</strong>ers in Kallada<br />
Peechi Project area<br />
Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> area<br />
Age (Years)<br />
Avg. age<br />
Farmers (%)<br />
(Years)<br />
Farmers (%) Avg. age (Years)<br />
Below 45 16.52 36 9.50 41<br />
45 - 55 19.13 46 23.50 52<br />
·55- 65 50.43 57 43.00 62<br />
Above 6S 13.91 66 24.00 69<br />
Total 100.00 51 100.00 56<br />
.~<br />
The table shows that th.: rrororti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers bel<strong>on</strong>ging to tl1(: age-group<br />
below 45 years is <strong>on</strong>ly 9.5 ref cellt in Kallada project comparcd to 16 per ccnt in<br />
the Pccchi. The highest proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers in Kallada bel<strong>on</strong>g to the age group<br />
130
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 55 to 65 years <strong>and</strong> the average age is 62 years. Whereas in Peechi, about 50<br />
per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers are in the age-group <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 55 to 65 years. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers in the age group above 65 years is the highest in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong>,<br />
ie .. 24 per cent. as against <strong>on</strong>ly 13.91 per cent in Peechi project. It shows that the<br />
younger generati<strong>on</strong> do not find <strong>farm</strong>ing attractive. This may be due to<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al quali ficati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> other skills acquired by them to get better<br />
employment opportunities.<br />
131
Appendix 4.1: Physical <strong>and</strong> technical characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> KIP <strong>and</strong> PIP<br />
Characteristics<br />
Kallada irrigatioll Peechi irrigatioll<br />
Pro;ect (KiP)<br />
Project (PiP)<br />
1. River basin Kallada Karuvannur<br />
1<br />
~. Type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dam<br />
Mas<strong>on</strong>ry straight<br />
Straight gravity<br />
gravity type with spill<br />
mas<strong>on</strong>ry dam<br />
way<br />
~<br />
Y. Length <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dam (m) 335 225<br />
4. Maximum height (m) 85.35 39<br />
5. Total storage (Mm j ) 504.92 110.436<br />
6. Live stora£e (Mm") 487.9 108.17<br />
7. Catchment area (Km-) 549 107<br />
8. Water sQfead area (Km") 23 12.95<br />
9. Forest l<strong>and</strong> in water<br />
spread area (Km 2 )<br />
39.63 Nil<br />
10. Design flood (Cumecs) 2830 368<br />
11. Net ayacut (ha.) 61630 17555<br />
12. Gross ayacut (ha.) 92800 28080<br />
13. Length <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> main canals RBC = 69.67; RBC = 37.3;<br />
(Km) LBC = 56 LBC = 44.9<br />
14. Total length <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> branches RB - 467.6;<br />
1:17.20<br />
& distributories (Kms) LB = 345.2<br />
15. Original estimated cost I<br />
13.28 2.35<br />
(Rs. Crores)<br />
16. Recast <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> latest cost (Rs.<br />
1 ~-<br />
457.80<br />
_.,»)<br />
Crores)<br />
17. Year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> starting 1961 1947<br />
18. Year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> commissi<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
1986 (partially<br />
commissi<strong>on</strong>ed)<br />
1959<br />
19. Ayacut area<br />
Kollam, Pathamthitta<br />
<strong>and</strong> A1apuzha<br />
Thrissur district<br />
132
Chart No. 4.1: FUNCTIONING OF MINOR CONNVEY ANCE<br />
SYSTEM IN KALLADA PROJECT<br />
MAIN CANAL! BRANCH CANAL! MINORS<br />
II<br />
SPOliTS<br />
\1<br />
Hl'RIED PVC<br />
PI PE LJ1'IE<br />
...<br />
...<br />
Pressure<br />
Risers<br />
FAR\1[R'S<br />
PLOT ~~~<br />
IIYDRA;-';TI<br />
WHEEL VALVE<br />
(Water delivery<br />
point)<br />
FARMER'S<br />
PLOT<br />
133
Chapter 5<br />
Dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Agricultural<br />
Development in Kerala<br />
This chapter divided into two secti<strong>on</strong>s. examines the status. problems <strong>and</strong> prospects<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure l deyelopment in Kerala in the post-independence period.<br />
The first secti<strong>on</strong> examines the scale <strong>and</strong> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> public investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in the state in successive Five Year Plans. The financial as well as<br />
physical aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> are also examined. While the financial<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance is analysed using the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al project cycle approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost <strong>and</strong><br />
time over-runs involved in the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. the physical<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance is examined in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> achievements in area expansi<strong>on</strong> under<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong>. improvements in crop producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> productivity. etc. In<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
the project-wise costs <strong>and</strong> benefits are collated so as to facilitate the spatial <strong>and</strong><br />
inter-temporal analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in the state. The<br />
agricultural <strong>development</strong> experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state is discussed at length in the sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
secti<strong>on</strong>. Secti<strong>on</strong> three deals with the organisati<strong>on</strong>al aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong><br />
in Kerala. While discussing the complexities involved in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in<br />
the state, it tries to trace the regi<strong>on</strong>-specific factors c<strong>on</strong>trihuting to sub-optimal<br />
I Hayami <strong>and</strong> Ruttan (1971) distinguish between physical <strong>and</strong> instituli<strong>on</strong>al infrastructure<br />
<strong>development</strong>. Going by this. investment <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure devciopmcnl is<br />
invariably a creati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> social overhead capital (SOC).
per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. leading to cost t:scalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> time o\n·runs :Jnd<br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al issues affecting irrigati<strong>on</strong> devdopment in tht: state.<br />
5.1 Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Development under Five Year Plans<br />
In Kerala. as elsewhere in the country. <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources <strong>for</strong> IrrIgati<strong>on</strong><br />
has been <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the major priority areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state in the post-independence penod<br />
<strong>and</strong> the process gathered momentum under the Fiv
plan. annual plans (1966-69) <strong>and</strong> the fourth plan periods there was marked increase<br />
in .investment <strong>on</strong> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong>. The public investment in the majorl medium<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector had increased from Rs. 11.79 crores in the First Plan to Rs. 437.90<br />
crores during the Eighth Plan. On the other h<strong>and</strong>. the investment in minor irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> had increased from Rs. 2.07 crores to Rs. 130 crores during the same<br />
period. The cumulative expenditure <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> up to the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Eighth plan was Rs. 1050.96 crores. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which 73 per cent was <strong>on</strong> major <strong>and</strong> medium<br />
projects.<br />
Table 5.1: Plan-wise public investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
Investment <strong>on</strong> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> (Rs. Crores) Major/ medium<br />
Plan period<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> (%)<br />
Majorl medium Minor Total<br />
share<br />
First Plan (1951-56) 11.79 Nil 11.79 100.00 .. I<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d Plan ( 1956-61 ) 7.91 2.07 9.98 79.26 :<br />
Third Plan (1961-66) 10.29 7.20 17.49 58.83<br />
Annual Plans ( 1966-69) 9.16 7.87 17.03 53.79 ,<br />
Fourth Plan (1969-74) 27.36 2l.l8 48.54 56.37<br />
Fifth Plan (1974-78) 75.13 31.15 106.28 70.69<br />
Annual Plans (1978-80) 74.97 29.09 104.06 72.04<br />
Sixth Plan (1980-85) 259.53 58.94 318.47 81.49<br />
Seventh Plan (1985-90) 301.90 137.71 439.61 68.67<br />
Eighth Plan (1990-95) 437.90 130.00 567.90 77.11<br />
Ninth Plan (1997-2002) 761.04 289.92 1050.96 72.41<br />
Cumulative 1976.98 715. I3 2692.11 73.44<br />
Source: Gov!. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala, various plan documents.<br />
The cumulative investment <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> till the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1998-99<br />
was Rs. 2510 crores. out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which. a major chunk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 1736 crores (about 70%)<br />
was <strong>on</strong> major <strong>and</strong> medium projects.<br />
mean that lar~e-scale irrigati<strong>on</strong> is syn<strong>on</strong>ymous with major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> minor<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> small scale works (Dhawan, 1998: 2).<br />
136
The irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in the state compnses 29 irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> about 5000<br />
minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> works. including groundwater <strong>and</strong> lift irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes. Of the 29<br />
major/ medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes, 14 are completed <strong>and</strong> IS schemes are under<br />
various stages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completi<strong>on</strong>. The details regarding the year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> commencement <strong>and</strong><br />
completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ayacut area <strong>and</strong> districts benefited are provided in tables 5.2A <strong>and</strong><br />
5.2B.<br />
Table S.2A: Completed major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala<br />
Name <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project<br />
Year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
CCA#<br />
Starting Completi<strong>on</strong> (ha.)<br />
Districts benefited<br />
I. Malampuzha 1949 1964 21732<br />
Palakkad &<br />
Thrissur<br />
2. Walayar 1953 1964 3844 Palakkad<br />
3. Pothundy 1958 1971 5466 Palakkad<br />
4. Gayathri 1961 1970 5466 Palakkad<br />
5. Man"alam 1953 1962 3639 Palakkad<br />
i. 6. Peechi 1947 1959 18623 , Thrissur<br />
I 7. Vazhani 1951 1959 5182<br />
8. Cheerakuzhi 1957 1973 1619<br />
I 9. Chalakudy 1949 1966 19696<br />
I 10. Ne\"\ar 1951 1973 11891<br />
I I I . Ch itturpuzha 1963 1992 15700<br />
12. Perivar Valley 1956 1992-93 32800<br />
13. Pampa 1964 1993-94 21135<br />
14. Kuttivadi 1962 1993·94 14570<br />
Total 181363<br />
Nole: SI. Nos. 1,6,9,10, 11,12,13 <strong>and</strong> 14 are major lITIgati<strong>on</strong> proJects;<br />
# CCA - Culturable Comm<strong>and</strong> Area.<br />
Source: Various Reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> [ORB.<br />
Thrissur<br />
Thrissur<br />
Thrissur<br />
Triv<strong>and</strong>rum<br />
Palakkad<br />
Ernakulam<br />
Alappuzha &<br />
Pathanamthitta<br />
Kozhikode<br />
Of the 14 projects, seven, VIZ., Peechi (1947), Malampuzha (1949),<br />
Chalakudy (1949), Neyyar (1951). Vazhani (1951), Mangalam (1953) <strong>and</strong> Walayar<br />
(1953) had been started even be<strong>for</strong>e the <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state. The n:maining <strong>on</strong>es<br />
were started during the Sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>and</strong> Third Five year plans. The total ayacut area<br />
benelited out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state is 181363 ha. The<br />
137
gt:ographical c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects is cVldent from the<br />
fact that Palakkad <strong>and</strong> Thrissur districts have 10 out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14 (72 %j irrigatIOn proJccts<br />
located in these districts.<br />
Table S.2B: Ongoing major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala<br />
Same o(lhe oroiecl Year o(slarlinz CCA# (ha) Dis/ncls benefiled<br />
1. Kallada 1961 61630 Kollam, Alapuzha,<br />
Pathanamth ina<br />
~<br />
-. Chim<strong>on</strong>i 1975 13000 Thrissur<br />
J. Kan i irapuzha 1961 9710 Palakkad<br />
I ·t Pazhassi 1962 11525 Kannur<br />
5.\1uvanupuzha 1974 17370<br />
i<br />
6. Vamanapuram 1981 8057<br />
7. Idamalayar 1981 14060<br />
8. Karappara 1987 11740<br />
9.Chaliyar 1981 73240<br />
10. Kakkadavu 1979 13940<br />
I I . Anappadv 1975 4500<br />
12. Karapuzha 1976 4650<br />
13. Meenachil 1980 9489<br />
14. Banasurasagar 1979 2800<br />
15. Chamravanom 1985 9659<br />
Total 265370<br />
.\v/e: SI. Nos. 1 to) - <strong>and</strong> 7 to 10 are major Irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
# CCA - Culturable Comm<strong>and</strong> Area.<br />
Source: Various Reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> IDRB.<br />
Idukki. K<strong>on</strong>ayam.<br />
Emakulam<br />
Triv<strong>and</strong>rum<br />
Emakulam<br />
Thrissur<br />
Malappuram & Kozhikode<br />
Kasaragod<br />
Palakkad<br />
Wvnad<br />
Klltlayam<br />
Wynad<br />
Malappuram<br />
The skewed distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects needs to be explained in terms<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the specific objective <strong>for</strong> which the schemes were designed. Almost all the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala are technically designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating exclusively paddy<br />
with the ultimate objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stabilising paddy producti<strong>on</strong> during the first <strong>and</strong><br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d cropping seas<strong>on</strong>s (Virippll! Autumn <strong>and</strong> A/I/ndakan! Winter) <strong>and</strong> if possible<br />
to raise a third crop (PI/nella! Summer). Based 011 this logic. it may be noted that<br />
Palakkad district. which has a maximum number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. c<strong>on</strong>stitutes<br />
aboul32 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the paddy growing an.:a <strong>and</strong> 34 pa cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the padd) producti<strong>on</strong><br />
138
In the state. While Thrissur district covers II per cent each <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area <strong>and</strong><br />
producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy. Ernakulam covers about 12 pcr cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area <strong>and</strong> 10 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy. The share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Thiruvananthapuram district in area <strong>and</strong><br />
producti<strong>on</strong> is below 3 per cent (GOK. 1998).<br />
While the three <strong>on</strong>going projects, viz., Kallada, Kanjirapuzha <strong>and</strong> Pazhassi<br />
were started during the Third Five year plan. rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects were started during<br />
the 1970s <strong>and</strong> 19805. Unlike the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects, the <strong>on</strong>going<br />
schemes show a better spread in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> geographical coverage J .<br />
It is evident that a str<strong>on</strong>g infrastructure base <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> was<br />
created through a network <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large-scale canal based irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the state.<br />
While the completed schemes ha\e created an irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 181363 ha .. the<br />
partially irrigati<strong>on</strong> commissi<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>-going irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are expected to<br />
generate a potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 265370 ha. <strong>on</strong> completi<strong>on</strong>. Thus the 101al irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential<br />
expected 10 be generated through the major/ medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state<br />
would be a little under half a milli<strong>on</strong> ha.<br />
1 This appears to be the most important aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in the state. While<br />
the completed schemes have been planned in accordance with the regi<strong>on</strong>-specific factors<br />
determining water dem<strong>and</strong>. alloc
C<strong>on</strong>certed ef<strong>for</strong>ts were also made <strong>for</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector~ as<br />
well as groundwater sources under various Plans. As at the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> March 1980. there<br />
were 500 I minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes in the state <strong>and</strong> the ayacut benefited by these<br />
schemes was 121944 ha. (net) or 142116 ha. (gross) (GOK, 1990:8).<br />
However. utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created under vanous water<br />
harvesting schemes <strong>and</strong> projects In the state is neither commensurate with the<br />
quantum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> investment made nor in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area expansi<strong>on</strong> expected in successive<br />
plan periods. It is reported that area brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong> up to 1998-99 including<br />
minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> was 4.45 lakh ha. (net) <strong>and</strong> 7.25 lakh ha. (gross) (GOK, 1999:83).<br />
The per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects measured in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created was 79 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed<br />
schemes <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly less than 22 per cent in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>-going <strong>on</strong>es. The overall rate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> utilisati<strong>on</strong> is below 47 per cent (Viswanathan. 1999). Only about 10 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the tanks identified arc under usc now. Nearly 10 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the wells used <strong>for</strong><br />
domestic use go dry during summer seas<strong>on</strong>. Though the groundwater potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
state is 7900 Mm]. <strong>on</strong>ly 25 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the potential is being utilised. Thus. the<br />
overall scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector, particularly major <strong>and</strong> medium<br />
~ The minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes in the state are classified in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>: a) c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
renovati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> tanks: b) c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> diversi<strong>on</strong> works from natural streams; c)<br />
salt water exclusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> drainage works; reclamati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> backwaters (Kuyu/s). e)<br />
improvements to <strong>and</strong> protecti<strong>on</strong> "orks in ,treams <strong>and</strong> channels serving irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
drainage: <strong>and</strong> f) lift irrigati<strong>on</strong> works. The minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> works are divided into four<br />
categories. viz .• Minor Irrigati<strong>on</strong> - Class I works; Minor Irrigati<strong>on</strong> - Class II works; Lift<br />
140
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects is not up to the expected levels. On the other h<strong>and</strong>. the problems<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost <strong>and</strong> time over-runs. capacity under-utilisati<strong>on</strong>. etc .. have been <strong>on</strong> the<br />
increase. raising serious doubts about the very relevance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> investing in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects when the state's agriculture has been at an impasse.<br />
This calls <strong>for</strong> a detailed examinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> various locati<strong>on</strong>-specific <strong>and</strong> other<br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors. influencing the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the<br />
state. A detailed discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the organisati<strong>on</strong>al aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major <strong>and</strong> medium<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector per<strong>for</strong>mance in the state is also worth exploring so as to establish<br />
the missing linkages or the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e to <strong>on</strong>e corresp<strong>on</strong>dence between irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> the post-project agricultural <strong>development</strong> scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state.<br />
5.1.1 Physical <strong>and</strong> financial per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector<br />
As menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier. <strong>on</strong>ly 79 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> targets could be achieved in<br />
th~<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed schemes. \\hile the cost escalati<strong>on</strong> had been 611 per cent<br />
(table 5.3). In the ease <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> eight schemes. the achievement was less than 70 per cent.<br />
While the average time taken to complete the schemes was 19 years, five schemes.<br />
viz .. Cheerakuzhi, Pamba, Periyar Valley, Chitturpuzha <strong>and</strong> Kuttiadi projects took<br />
almost 30 vears <strong>for</strong> completi<strong>on</strong>. The cumulative cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> infrastructure <strong>development</strong><br />
was Rs. 1.39 lakhs per ha. <strong>on</strong> an average. <strong>and</strong> it was more than Rs. 3 lakhs in two<br />
projects.<br />
---------------------------------<br />
Irrig.ati<strong>on</strong> works: <strong>and</strong> Intensive Paddy Development Yelah works (IPD Yelah) (GOK,<br />
1990:2).<br />
141
T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I<br />
- - vSlca an mancla per ormance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>completedjlrojects, 1995-96<br />
Physical per<strong>for</strong>mance Fiscal per<strong>for</strong>mance<br />
Compl<br />
(Net area in hal<br />
Cost!<br />
(Rs. lakhs) eti<strong>on</strong><br />
Name <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Achieve<br />
ha.<br />
Orig. Rev. Cost<br />
time<br />
project Target (%) (Iakhs)<br />
ment est. est. esc. (%) (years)<br />
Chalakudy 26680 18530 69 188 188 0.2 0.11 9<br />
Peechi 17555 15262 87 235 235 0.0 0.15 12<br />
Malampuzha 29463 19802 67 388 580 50.0 0.29 17<br />
Neyyar 16042 8300 52 248 461 86.0 0.55 22<br />
Pothundy 8792 4685 53 234 234 0.1 0.50 13<br />
Gavathri 7651 4880 64 220 220 0.0 0.45 14<br />
Walayar 4536 3752 83 92 1'1 J_ 43.1 0.35 II<br />
Vazhani 3565 2113 59 100 100 0.0 0.47 11<br />
Mangalam 4816 3313 69 45 106 135.6 0.32 13<br />
Cheerakuzhi 2268 9-' )- 42 91 91 0.0 0.96 16<br />
Pampa 21135 20710 98 348 6340 1555.6 3.06 29<br />
Perfyar Valley 32800 30567 93 383 6300 l7l1.5 2.06 37<br />
Chitturpuzha 15700 16102 103 106 2080 1862.3 1.29 32<br />
Kuttiadi 14570 14111 97 496 55000 1008.9 3.89 31<br />
Gr<strong>and</strong> total 205573 163079 79 3174 22567 611.0 1.39 19.08<br />
Source: Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala. Ec<strong>on</strong>omic ReVIew. variOus years.<br />
The per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>-going schemes has been far from satisfactory (table 5.4) as<br />
the rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> achievement was <strong>on</strong>ly 22 per cent resulting in a cost escalati<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 16:;3 per ccnt. Irrigated area expansiun had taken place <strong>on</strong>ly in the casc <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
four schemes. the lowest being in the Kallada scheme (49.35 %). In the rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
schemes. no achie\ement had taken place eyen after 20 years with costs rising above<br />
50Cio per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> two schemes <strong>and</strong> above 2400 per cent in 5 cases. The<br />
cumulativc cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> infrastructun: <strong>development</strong> is more than rupees <strong>on</strong>e lakh in 9 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the 15 schemes. It is important to note that this expenditure became unproductive in<br />
the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any commensurate additi<strong>on</strong> to irrigated area. The time-lag appears to<br />
he enormous in the <strong>on</strong>-going schemes. It is almost Jlluhk to that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the compkkd<br />
schemes. with an average lag <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 23.6 years. Menti<strong>on</strong> must be made <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> two schemt:s.<br />
142
VIZ., Kallada <strong>and</strong> Kanjirapuzha that have already completed 38 years without any<br />
substantial benefits worth menti<strong>on</strong>ing.<br />
Table 54 .. Ph VSlca . I <strong>and</strong> financial per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>-goine: projects, 1998-99<br />
Physical per<strong>for</strong>mance Fiscal per<strong>for</strong>mance<br />
Name <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the (Net area in ha.) (Rs. in lakhs)<br />
project Target Achi. (%) Orig. Rev. Cost<br />
Est. Est esc. (%)<br />
Kallada 61630 30414 49 1328 69800 5156<br />
Chim<strong>on</strong>v 13000 13000 100 633 3615 471<br />
Kanj irapuzha 9710 I 1"70 75 365 10000 2640<br />
Pazhassi 8130 .. 6348 78 442 13700 2999<br />
Muvatupuzha 17370 --- --- 2086 45500 2081<br />
Vamanapuram 8800 --- --- 1982 I 26000 1212<br />
ldamalayar 14060 --- --- 1785 10700 499<br />
Kuriarkutty 11740 --- --- 1036 14000 1251<br />
Chaliyar 73240 -- --- 1061 64500 5979<br />
Kakkadavu 13990 --- --- 1335 9885 640<br />
Anappady 4500 --- --- 476 12000 2421<br />
Karapuzha 4650 --- --- 760 22500 2860<br />
Meenachil 9960 i --- --- 3500 12800 266<br />
Banasurasagar 2800 I --- --- 800 I 3614 352<br />
Chamravattom 6700 . --- --- 870 . 1327 53<br />
Gr<strong>and</strong> total 260280 i 57032 22 18459 319941 1633<br />
..<br />
• AntICipated as per re\ Ised estimates; •• Expenditure up to March 1999.<br />
Source: GOK, Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Review. various years.<br />
Cum.<br />
Cost!<br />
Ha (Rs.<br />
lakhs)<br />
1.83"<br />
0.44"<br />
0.94"<br />
1.17"<br />
2.62'<br />
2.95'<br />
0.76'<br />
1.19'<br />
0.88'<br />
0.71'<br />
2.67'<br />
4.83'<br />
1.28'<br />
1.29"<br />
o 19"<br />
2.60"<br />
Time<br />
lag<br />
(years)<br />
38<br />
24<br />
38<br />
35<br />
23<br />
18<br />
18<br />
21<br />
18<br />
20<br />
24<br />
24<br />
19<br />
20<br />
14<br />
23.60<br />
Thus. the abo\c analysis points to the phenomen<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gross under-utilisati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential to the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 35 to 45 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed<br />
schemes. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going schemes_ the percentage utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
potential has been below 22 per cent <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>and</strong> there was no creati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
potential in II out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 projects in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> heavy investments in the last two<br />
decades.<br />
An analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the trends in the financial expenditure <strong>and</strong> physical<br />
achievement in the <strong>on</strong>-going irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>for</strong> the period 1970-71 to 1999-2000<br />
is presented here <strong>and</strong> it hdps in underst<strong>and</strong>ing the mismatch between financial<br />
143
expenditure <strong>and</strong> p~ysical<br />
achievement <strong>and</strong> its implicati<strong>on</strong>s in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. The irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are compared in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> their share in the<br />
total investment each year <strong>and</strong> their c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to the additi<strong>on</strong>al area brought under<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong>. The results are shown in appendix 5.1 <strong>and</strong> 5.2 respectively.<br />
It is interesting to note that till the year 1979-80, a major chunk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
investment earmarked am<strong>on</strong>g four <strong>on</strong>goIng irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. namely. Kuttiadi<br />
(ranging between 23 to 3~ %). fL'lkmed by Periyar Valley (18-27 %). Pamba (18-21<br />
%) <strong>and</strong> Pazhassi project (11-18 "!oj. After 1980-81, Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project had<br />
been receiving major porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the investment. followed by Periyar Valley <strong>and</strong><br />
Muvattupuzha Valley projects (appendix 5.1). The financial allocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> Kallada<br />
has g<strong>on</strong>e up from 19g0-R 1 to 42 pc:r cent in 1998-99. followed by a steep rise to 70<br />
per cent in 1999-2000. rhis has resulted in thin spread <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> financial resources am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the remaining projects.<br />
The physical achievement in the irrigated area expansi<strong>on</strong> has highly centered<br />
<strong>on</strong> four projects. viz.. Periyar Valky. Pamba. Kallada <strong>and</strong> Kuttiadi (appendix 5.2).<br />
In the five projects. \iz.. Muvattupuzha valley, Idamalayar, Karapuzha. Meenachil<br />
River valley <strong>and</strong> Chamravattoill. there was no expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable investment over tilllc. It is important to note that the expenditure <strong>on</strong><br />
Muvattupulha valley <strong>and</strong> harapu/ha projects was <strong>on</strong> the increase over time from 5<br />
per cent to 20 pcr (cnt <strong>and</strong> I.X:i pcr ":l1t to 12,45 per cent respectin:ly between<br />
I 987 -88 <strong>and</strong> 1 99X -99.<br />
144
One <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> is to increase crop intensity apart from<br />
bringing additi<strong>on</strong>al an;!a under irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Accordingly. the changes in net <strong>and</strong> gross<br />
area irrigated. as well as source-wise irrigated area <strong>and</strong> cropping ll1tensity' are<br />
examined here. For instance. at the nati<strong>on</strong>al level. as per the l<strong>and</strong> use statistics. the<br />
gross irrigated area rose from ~~.6 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. in 1950-51 to about 28 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. in<br />
1960-61. 38.2 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. in 1970-71. 49.9 milli<strong>on</strong> ha in 1980-81. 63.20 milli<strong>on</strong> ha.<br />
in 1990-91 <strong>and</strong> 73.28 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. in 1996-97. More specifically. the irrigati<strong>on</strong> ratio.<br />
defined as the ratio <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gross irrigated area to net sown area. rose from 19 per cent in<br />
1950-51 to about 41 per cent in 1987-88 (Dhawan, 1991: 637). The same data<br />
available <strong>for</strong> Kerala shows that in absolute terms. the net sown area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state has<br />
increased by about 32 per cent from 1.73 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. in 1952 to 2.27 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. in<br />
I q97 <strong>and</strong> the gro\\th in net irrig3ted 3rea in the st3te \\"35 <strong>on</strong>ly 9.87 per cent oyer<br />
tim/'. The cropping intensity h3s increased from 118 per cent to 131 per cent. which<br />
is abo\e the nali<strong>on</strong>al ayerage. Howe\·er. the high cropping intensity as reported from<br />
~ The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping <strong>and</strong> other related parameters like input<br />
use efficiency. <strong>farm</strong> output. etc. have been a major source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> debate in India. For a<br />
comprehensive review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the debate. sec. Vaidyanathan (1987). Dhawan (1991) <strong>and</strong> Ray<br />
(1992).<br />
• Dhawan (19&8. 1991) cauti<strong>on</strong>s abnut the infirmities in irrigati<strong>on</strong> data as avai lable in the<br />
state. The infirmity arises because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the downward revisi<strong>on</strong> in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial statistics<br />
pertaining to the irrigated area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the statc <strong>and</strong> "this appears to be a unique, not typical. case<br />
in India. Commencing in 1975-76. the net irrigated area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state nosedives by half (from<br />
4.65 lakh ha. in 1974-75 to 2.28 lakh ha. in 1975-76). <strong>and</strong> thereafter never recovers even its<br />
J.:HI <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3.36 lakh ha. allaincd bach in 1962-63" (Dhawan, 1988: 2658). As a result, the<br />
"regressi<strong>on</strong> results <strong>for</strong> this state arc <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> little worth .... <strong>and</strong> it is no w<strong>on</strong>der that no relati<strong>on</strong><br />
145
the state cannot be treated as a pure effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the all-time<br />
low irrigati<strong>on</strong> ratios as well as the specific l<strong>and</strong> use pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state,<br />
characterised by predominance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> plantati<strong>on</strong> crops7 with high density planting.<br />
Though the available statistics <strong>on</strong> net irrigated area <strong>and</strong> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping<br />
In Kerala do not permit in drawing any meaningful <strong>and</strong> realistic c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s about<br />
the irrigati<strong>on</strong> Impact. they p[()\ide some useful insights about the low per<strong>for</strong>mance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> in the state. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial irrigati<strong>on</strong> statistics 8 pertaining to the state may<br />
help in underst<strong>and</strong>ing this probkm in a proper perspective. Overall trends suggest<br />
that while the net sown area in the state has increased by about 46 per cent during<br />
the period 1952-1997. net irrigated area increased <strong>on</strong>ly by less than 10 per cent. The<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> net irrIgated area i,; almost stagnant at 15 per cent since the 1990s. The<br />
source-wise Irrigated area indicates sharp c<strong>on</strong>trast between area under canals <strong>and</strong><br />
other sources. especially wells. It is all the more important to note that while the<br />
emerges bet\>oeen irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping; the latter does show an upward rise"<br />
(Dha"an.1991:651).<br />
, The plantati<strong>on</strong> crops are exempted from the l<strong>and</strong> ceiling laws as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong> re<strong>for</strong>ms in<br />
the state.<br />
I There is immense scope <strong>for</strong> independent research <strong>on</strong> the quality <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
statistics as available in the state. However, different sources generate data employing<br />
different c<strong>on</strong>cepts thereby rendering the comparability between them rather difficult. While<br />
there were earnest ef<strong>for</strong>ts by various agencies. viz., the Public Works Department<br />
(Irrigati<strong>on</strong>). the Department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <strong>and</strong> Statistics (<strong>for</strong>merly known as Bureau <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> Statistics) <strong>and</strong> the Department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture to build up a data base <strong>on</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> related aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state after its <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong>, the attempts in this directi<strong>on</strong><br />
were ralher n<strong>on</strong>-existent earlier. This being so, any attempt to improve the quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
data is hound to fail. For more discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> this. see GOK, 1983. secti<strong>on</strong> III: Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
(141-154), especially, chapter <strong>on</strong>e by Joseph <strong>and</strong> chapter two by Sthanukrishna IYI!r.<br />
146
proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area under canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> marked sharp decline from 46 per cent in<br />
1952 to below 30 per cent in 1997. the area irrigated by wells has increased by 108<br />
per cent during 19R0-1 997. This essentially brings out the mismatch between capital<br />
in\'estment in canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the corresp<strong>on</strong>ding area expansi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A further disaggregate level analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this data is in order here to enable a<br />
much man: realistic view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the trends in cropped area <strong>and</strong> source-wise irrigated<br />
area in the state. This is to take can: <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the infirmity in data caused by downward<br />
re\isi<strong>on</strong> in net irrigated area after 1974-75 as discussed in Dhawan (1988, 1991).<br />
Accordingly. growth rates are worked out <strong>for</strong> the entire period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1952 to 1997. The<br />
analysis is di\'ided into t\\O phases. ie .. 1951-74 <strong>and</strong> 1975-97 to rec<strong>on</strong>cile the<br />
do\\nward revisi<strong>on</strong> in the net irrigated area (Table 5.5).<br />
Table 5.5: Growth rates in cropped area <strong>and</strong> indicators <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong><br />
in Kerala 19':;21997<br />
• - - Growth rates #<br />
I<br />
Crllpp~d ar~;t' '~t Irri~"lcd area<br />
Phase I<br />
Phase II<br />
(1952-1974) ( 1975-1997)<br />
I. Net 50"11 area (NSA) 127·· 0.21"<br />
. ., Gross crCl££.cd area (GC A) 1.98 ,. 0.25·<br />
3. 1'>:ct Irricatcd area (1'>:IA) 1.8·' 2.-16' ,<br />
I 4. Area sown more than <strong>on</strong>ce (ASMO) 4.70 " OJ7"<br />
5. Gross irrl£.ated area (GIAl 2.12' , 1.0 I"<br />
6. Total canal irril!ated arca (TC) 2.03 " -2.90'<br />
7. Tank Irrtl!atcd area (TA) 2.48 ' -0.75 '<br />
8. Well irrl£ated area (WI) -3.37 • 13.31·'<br />
9. Irrigated area under other sources (OS) 0.82 ' 5.26**<br />
10. Cropp_ill£ intensitv (el) 0.12·' 0.05'<br />
II. Irri.s,ati<strong>on</strong> ratio (IR) lNIAINSAJ'IOO 0.53" 2.25"<br />
# Growth rates are cstllnatcd uSing the semi-log <strong>for</strong>m. LlI Y a + /31<br />
• Significant at I % level: •• Sigl1ilic:lI1t at 5 % kwl .<br />
Suurce: Estimated from GOK. Statistics <strong>for</strong> Plal1l1l1lg (vanous years).<br />
The trends suggest that the growth ill Ill'! irrigated area was more during the<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d phase (2.46 %) compared to the first phase (1.8 %) <strong>and</strong> reverse was the trend<br />
147
in gross irrigated area. While canal irrigated area grew by two per cent during the<br />
first phase. the sec<strong>on</strong>d phase experienced c<strong>on</strong>siderable decline <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> almost 3 per cent.<br />
\\·e:II-irrigate:d area. which declined by 3.37 during the first phase. increased by more<br />
than 13 per cent during the sec<strong>on</strong>d phase. The trends in cropping intensity <strong>and</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> ratio show diametrically opposite trends. which suggest that the increase<br />
in cropping intensity was not the effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>. This is also e\·ident from the<br />
low correlati<strong>on</strong> coefficient between the net irrigated area <strong>and</strong> cropping intensity<br />
(0.04) <strong>and</strong> negative correlati<strong>on</strong> between the gross irrigated area <strong>and</strong> the croppmg<br />
intensity (-0.01) <strong>and</strong> cropping intensity <strong>and</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> ratio (-0.37).<br />
Thus. the pe:r<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gro\\i1h in net <strong>and</strong><br />
gross irrigate:d area <strong>and</strong> canal irrieated area in the state is not been commensurate<br />
- - '<br />
\\ Ith the k\eI <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> investment. In thl'; re:specl. the sub-optimal physical pe:r<strong>for</strong>mance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the imgatitln s.:ctor n.:cJs tn be Juxtartlsed against the pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural<br />
<strong>development</strong> 10 the state. characterIsed by the shift in cropping pattern in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dry/ perennial cash crops. More importantly. the observed shift in cropping pattern<br />
is antithcllcal to the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al noti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> induced agricultural<br />
deve lopment.<br />
5.2 Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Agricultural Development in Kuala<br />
., he raradigm <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural de\elorment in Kerala has been a major source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dckttc In the academic <strong>and</strong> roilc: CIrcles. especially since the mid 70s. Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the:<br />
studies were crop-specific <strong>and</strong> bru;ldly framed in the backdror <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the agricultural<br />
148
stagnati<strong>on</strong> 9 experienced by the state since the mid 70s. The studies were trying to<br />
explain the price <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-price factors resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> the stagnant per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the agriculture sector in the state. Accordingly, a host <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> factors were identified<br />
which primarily included: a) crop shift in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial crops <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <strong>and</strong> high cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> food cropslO; b) perceptible<br />
decline in the size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings: c) instituti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints in the<br />
• For a critical <strong>and</strong> very extensive discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the stagnati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>troversy, see the series<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> papers published by the Centre <strong>for</strong> Development Studies, viz., Pushpangadan (1988);<br />
Kannan <strong>and</strong> Pushpangadan (1988); Narayana (1990) <strong>and</strong> Kannan <strong>and</strong> Pushpangadan (1990).<br />
While Kannnan <strong>and</strong> Pushpangadan (1988, 1990) explain the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> secular stagnati<strong>on</strong><br />
"ith particular reference to the seas<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> annual food crops al<strong>on</strong>e, Narayana (1990)<br />
perceive the problem in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 'diversi<strong>on</strong> that has taken place in the cropping pattern'<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> perennial cash crops. However, the explanati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fered by<br />
:\arJ\ana appears to be more c<strong>on</strong>vincing as it covers the n<strong>on</strong>-food crops sector. which<br />
accounts <strong>for</strong> almost 80 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total cropped area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state. Thus, the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
stagnati<strong>on</strong> has been regarded as a short-run phenomen<strong>on</strong>, caused by the replantati<strong>on</strong><br />
induced cycle <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'productivity lag" entailed in the producti<strong>on</strong> process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial!<br />
plantati<strong>on</strong> crops. The life cycle <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the commercial! plantati<strong>on</strong> crops involves an immature<br />
phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 7-12 years, followed by a mature phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 30-1 00 years depending <strong>on</strong> the crop. For<br />
instance, under average management c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, coc<strong>on</strong>ut palms start bearing between 7 to<br />
12 years, followed by a productive period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> about 80 years. However, yield starts declining<br />
around 50 years <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> age. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber, the immature phase is 5-9 years, followed by<br />
a productive period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25-30 years, depending <strong>on</strong> the planting material used. However, it is<br />
important to note that the cash crops have marked differences in 'yield pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ile' across crops,<br />
"hich involves increasing. stable <strong>and</strong> diminishing returns to scale.<br />
10 Varghese (1970) underscores that the redi,tfloutive public policies, which originated in<br />
the state during the 19'h century had been ilhtrlllllcntal in the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercialisati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Kicniewics (1989 as cited in Tharakan. I ')'17) shows that Kerala was known <strong>for</strong> its<br />
cOlllnll:rcial cultivati<strong>on</strong>. It's terrain ;lIld It'r,,O!raphv prevented cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its staple grain,<br />
paddy. <strong>on</strong> the hills <strong>and</strong> slopes, which \Vcre lIlili,cu <strong>for</strong> uther crops, which were largely cash<br />
crop .. Scholars (Herring, 1991: lie I kr, 1'1')'1) 11;1\ C explained the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop shi ft as a<br />
149
<strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water resources: d) changed agrarian relati<strong>on</strong>s: e) shortage<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour compounded with high wage rates. ctc. As a c<strong>on</strong>sequence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cumulative<br />
causati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the variety <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> factors discussed. the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> crop<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> productivity was insignificant [George <strong>and</strong> Nair (1982): Pillai<br />
(1982): Narayana <strong>and</strong> Nair (1983); Kannan <strong>and</strong> Pushpangadan (1988. 1989);<br />
Santhakumar <strong>and</strong> Nair (1999»).<br />
However. the studies examining the inter-relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the supply<br />
<strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> factors determining water distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> its effect <strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> water management practices at the <strong>farm</strong> level in the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s are relatively scanty. It is obvious that the much debated c<strong>on</strong>troversy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
crop shift has been induced by relative pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dry/ perennial cash crops<br />
compared to food crops. mainly paddy. which is the target crop <strong>for</strong> which almost all<br />
the state' s irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are designed. As a matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact. the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
in the state havc originally been designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating paddy. particularly. the<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d (winter) <strong>and</strong> third (summer) crops. The objective as menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier. was<br />
to stabilise the first (ViripplI) <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d UvllIndakan) crops <strong>and</strong> raise the third<br />
(PI/neha) crop.<br />
---------------------------------<br />
rati<strong>on</strong>alizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping patterns dictated hy an increasing resp<strong>on</strong>siveness to market<br />
<strong>for</strong>ces.<br />
150
The technical orientati<strong>on</strong> towards paddy II in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects In Kerala<br />
seems to have become unrealistic in the light <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a major shift in cropping pattern,<br />
whereby. area under paddy has declined substantially over time Cfable 5.6). Al<strong>on</strong>g<br />
with paddy. there was also a remarkable decline in area under crops, such as tapioca<br />
(cassal"(/) <strong>and</strong> pulses during 1960-61 to 1997-98. While the area under paddy <strong>and</strong><br />
tapioca has declined by almost Iw SO per cent. it is 66 per cent under pulses. The<br />
area under rubber has increased by 243 per cent, followed by arecanut (202 %). The<br />
gro\\1h in area under banana is 82 per cent followed by pepper (81 %) <strong>and</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
(77 %). While the area under other crops such as ginger <strong>and</strong> tea is almost stagnating,<br />
it is highly tluctuating in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cashew <strong>and</strong> c<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fee.<br />
T d' . K I 196061 199798<br />
Area (in '000 ha.)<br />
Compound growth rate<br />
,<br />
I 1960 1970- 1980- I 1990 1997- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990-<br />
•<br />
Crop; ,<br />
-61 71 81 I -91 98 98 98 98 98<br />
Padd\ 778.9 8749 801.7 559.4 387.1 -1.87 -2.87 -3.96 -4.50<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 500.8 719.1 651.4 864.1 884.3 I.SS 0.74 1.71 0.29<br />
. Tapioca 24:!.2 293.S 245.0 147.2 1214 -1.85 -3.10 -3.83 -2.39<br />
I Banana. 444 48.7 49.3 61.2 80.6 1.62 1.81 2.78 3.52<br />
Rubber# 135.8 198.4 253.8 407.8 465.3 3.38 3.09 3.42 1.66<br />
Arecanut :!4.3 85.8 61.2 62.1 73.3 0.82 -0.56 1.0 I 2.11<br />
Pepper 99.8 117.5 108.1 169.0 180.4 1.61 1.54 2.89 0.82<br />
Cashew 5·U 102.7 141.3 118.1 94.7 1.51 -0.29 -2.20 -2.72<br />
C<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fee 16.8 31.5 57.5 84.0 83.0 4.41 3.51 2.05 -0.15<br />
Tea 37.6 37.6 36.2 34.6 34.6 -0.22 -0.29 -0.24 0.02<br />
Pubes 44.1 39.9 33.8 24.4 15.1 -2.86 -3.42 -4.40 -5.83<br />
(jinl!er 12.0 12.2 12.7 14.1 12.3 0.08 0.05 -0.14 -1.59<br />
Sole • include banana <strong>and</strong> plantall1.<br />
Source. Gov!. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala. Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Review, relevant years (estimated); # Rubber Board. 1999.<br />
Table 5.6: ("en s In crop-wise ana In era a, - to -<br />
--<br />
" Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project is the oilly departure frnm this traditi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in<br />
the statc. The Kallada project, which was originally designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating paddy, was<br />
redesigned to irrigate trcel garden crops, mainly. coc<strong>on</strong>ut ill view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
compulsi<strong>on</strong>s to raise the BCR came lip from the ewe as well as the external aid agencies.<br />
151
The annual compound growth rates indicate c<strong>on</strong>siderable decline in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy, pulses <strong>and</strong> tapioca throughout the period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis, which lends support to<br />
the argument that these crops have been largely replaced by commercial crops, viz ..<br />
banana, coc<strong>on</strong>ut, arecanut <strong>and</strong> rubber. Subsequently, while the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area under<br />
food crops declined from 49 per cent in 1975 to 25 per cent in 1998, the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
area under n<strong>on</strong>-food/ commercial crops increased from 51 per cent to 75 per cent<br />
during the same period 12<br />
An examinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the changes in the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual crops in the total<br />
cropped area is essential to shed light <strong>on</strong> the possible implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such changes<br />
<strong>on</strong> the future scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in the state. More importantly, such<br />
changes goes a l<strong>on</strong>g way in explaining the <strong>farm</strong> level investment decisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers \\ith respect to l<strong>and</strong> de\elopment (OFD) works <strong>for</strong> optimum utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential.<br />
The changes in the area under individual crops are expressed in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
percentage share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> each crop in the total cropped area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state <strong>and</strong> the results are<br />
shown in table 5.7, The table sho\\s that 13 major crops occupy about 84 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the total cropred area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state as per 1997-98 statistics, which was higher in the<br />
range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 86-88 per cent in the earlier periods, Am<strong>on</strong>g the major crops, the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
I! Thc magnitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c'pansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> .lrea under n<strong>on</strong>-food crops in thc ,tate is even more<br />
stri~ing when viewed against the natll)nal scenario, Between 1980-81 <strong>and</strong> 1990-91. the area<br />
undcr n<strong>on</strong>-food crops in India incn:a,ed <strong>on</strong>ly by 8,4 per cent as against 20.8 per cent in the<br />
state (CMIE, 1994),<br />
152
paddy. which was 33 per cent in 1960-61, declined to 18 per cent in 1990-91 <strong>and</strong><br />
further. to 13 per cent in 1997-98.<br />
Table 5.7:ChaDl es in relati\'e share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>maior crops in Kerala.1960-1998<br />
Percentage share in total cropped area<br />
Crops 1960-61 1970-71 1980·81 1990-91 1997-98<br />
I. PaddY 33.27 :'9.83 28.01 18.53 13.ii4<br />
2. Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 21.39 24.52 22.76 28.62 29.79<br />
3. Tapioca 10.35 10.01 8.56 4.88 4.09<br />
... Banana 1.90 1.66 1.72 2.03 2,72<br />
, S. Rubber I 5.80 6.77 8.87 13,51 15.67<br />
6. Arecanut i 1.04 2.93 2.14 2.06 2.47<br />
7. Pepper ! 4.26 4.01 3.78 5.60 6.08<br />
8. Cashe" i 2.32 3,50 4.94 3.91 3.19<br />
9. C<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fee 0.72 1.08 2,01 2,78 2.80<br />
10. Tea 1.61 1.28 1.26 1.15 1.17<br />
I I. Pu Ises 1.88 1.36 1.18 0.81 0.51<br />
12. Ginger 0.51 0.41 0.44 0.47 0.42<br />
13. Cardamom l.23 1.62 1.90 2.05 1.45<br />
Sub- total 86.27 88.97 87.58 86.38 83.37<br />
.<br />
SOl/ref' (,0\1. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala. Ec<strong>on</strong>omic ReView. relevant years (estimated); # Rubber Board. 1999 .<br />
The share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut has increased from 21 per cent to almost 30 per cent.<br />
fl)ll(med by rubba. which has increased from mere 6 per cent to 16 per cent over<br />
tillle.1 hus. rubber has become the sec<strong>on</strong>d important crop in the state's agriculture<br />
after coc<strong>on</strong>ut. relegating paddy to the third positi<strong>on</strong>. The perceptible decline in the<br />
share in the area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> food crops. \1/ .• paddy. tapioca. pulses <strong>and</strong> ginger validates the<br />
argument that these crops have largely been replaced by commercial crops, viz.,<br />
C(lC(lnllt. arecanut. banana <strong>and</strong> rllhhn (to a lil11lteu extent).<br />
153
5.2.1 Dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy field c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> water use <strong>for</strong> agriculture<br />
The <strong>for</strong>egoing analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping pattern changes necessarily calls <strong>for</strong> a brief<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> process going <strong>on</strong> uninterrupted in the<br />
state. The analysis becomes imperative in the specific c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala's<br />
agriculture In VlO:W <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cropping pattern changes as discussed above.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>ally. tho: crops such as tapioca. pulses <strong>and</strong> ginger are grown in paddy<br />
fields eitho:r as into:rim crops (between the paddy growing seas<strong>on</strong>s) or as full time<br />
crops. depending <strong>on</strong> the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>and</strong> labour. Thus, paddy being the main<br />
crop. the simultaneous decline in the area under these crops amounts to the<br />
permanent c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area <strong>for</strong> other uses.<br />
\lm. the questi<strong>on</strong> ariso:s what are the different agricultural as well as n<strong>on</strong>agricultural<br />
uses that replaco:d paddy in the state. The growing density <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> urbanisati<strong>on</strong> in the state have been largely resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> padd~ ficlds\3 <strong>for</strong> building residential <strong>and</strong> other commercial<br />
establishments <strong>and</strong> the reiJted infmstructure. including roads.<br />
IJ The statistics un l<strong>and</strong> usc pattcrn in the state indicate that the l<strong>and</strong> put to n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural<br />
u\", has been incrcasing over tillle. I he n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural l<strong>and</strong> use as a proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> total<br />
geographical area has increased frolll 5.21 per cent in 1957-58 to 6.67 per cent in 1975-76;<br />
tLl 7.18 per cent In 1')X)-H6 <strong>and</strong> tLl X 1'1 per cent in 1997-98 (GOK, 1977; 1988; 1998). The<br />
npansi<strong>on</strong> in n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural usc <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> bnd may be at the expense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields to a limited<br />
c\lcnt, as cLirrenlly IllLlch <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the padd~ growing area haw been kept fallow by the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
duc 10 prohkllls ranging frolll nllll-pl(llilahilily 10 n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>and</strong> lahour <strong>and</strong><br />
154
The c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields <strong>for</strong> agricultural <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural uses has<br />
been widely debated in the state. A comprehensive study by Jeemol Unni (1983)<br />
examines the cropping pattern changes <strong>and</strong> brings out evidences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> replacement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy by coc<strong>on</strong>ut in the districts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala. On the technical possibilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>verting paddy l<strong>and</strong>s into coc<strong>on</strong>ut gardens. the paper explains two indigenous<br />
means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dealing with this problem. In the fist instance. coc<strong>on</strong>ut saplings are planted<br />
<strong>on</strong> the bunds <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields. which also strengthens the bunds. Gradually. these<br />
bunds are widened <strong>and</strong> another row <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut saplings is planted <strong>and</strong> this goes <strong>on</strong><br />
till the whole field is c<strong>on</strong>verted into a coc<strong>on</strong>ut garden. By the sec<strong>on</strong>d method, the<br />
l<strong>and</strong> is raised in mounds within paddy fields at regular intervals in between <strong>and</strong><br />
saplings are planted. As these plants grow. more such mounds are raised <strong>and</strong> the<br />
\\ho\C plot is c<strong>on</strong>verted into a c"c<strong>on</strong>ut garden. Yet another process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> is<br />
step-by-step. by which banana. tapioca (cassava) <strong>and</strong> ginger are planted <strong>on</strong><br />
horiz<strong>on</strong>tal or circular mounds raised in the paddy fields with coc<strong>on</strong>ut or arecanut<br />
saplings planted in between. The cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the annuall seas<strong>on</strong>al crops is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinued until the coc<strong>on</strong>ut or arecanut plants grow. This process appears to be more<br />
scientific as the crop residue provides mulching effect <strong>and</strong> there is no need <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
speci fie crop-husb<strong>and</strong>ry measures <strong>for</strong> the main crops.<br />
Kannan <strong>and</strong> Puhpangadan (1988) examined taluk-wise trends in paddy area<br />
<strong>for</strong> the period 1975-76 to 1985-86 The 56 taluks have been classified in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
\'ater logging. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area kept as fallow <strong>and</strong> fallow other than current fallow<br />
(p"t together) has increased from I 69 per cent In 1965-66 to 2.17 per cent in 1996-')7.<br />
155
area <strong>and</strong> yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy as taluks with: a) high area-high yield, b) high area-medium<br />
yield: c) high area-low yield: d) low area-high yield: e) low area-medium yield: <strong>and</strong><br />
f) low area-low yield. The analysis shows that 55.3 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> yield has come from<br />
the first two groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> taluks, which occupies 48.6 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy growing area,<br />
followed by low area - medium yield taluks (18.62 %) occupying 20.21 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
area. it is found that the rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> is thc highest _ in hioh e in low area-low<br />
yield taluks (-3.5%). followed by high area - low yield taluks (-3 %), low area-high<br />
yield taluks (-2.5%) <strong>and</strong> low area - medium yield ta1uks (-2.1 %)14. Kannan <strong>and</strong><br />
Pushpangadan (1990) find that most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the decline in paddy area has been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrated in regi<strong>on</strong>s that have not traditi<strong>on</strong>ally specialised in rice cultivati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A. study by Indiradc\'i ('I (1/ (1991) examine the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy field<br />
c<strong>on</strong>wrslOn in Thrissur district (Central Kerala) <strong>and</strong> find that about 47 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy l<strong>and</strong> is leased out <strong>for</strong> tile <strong>and</strong> brick manufacturing industries lS , followed by 13<br />
" Similar study by Suresh (2000) examined the changes in paddy area across the districts<br />
<strong>for</strong> the period 1975 to 1997 <strong>and</strong> finds that the decline <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy was higher in the large area-<br />
10\\ yield districts as well as large area- medium yield districts. Accordingly, the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these districts in the total paddy area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state has declined from 27.15 per cent<br />
during 1975-85 to 18.72 per cent in 199'i-97 in the f<strong>on</strong>ner case <strong>and</strong> from 45.11 per cent to<br />
13.34 per cent in the latter case (Surcsh. 2000: 43)<br />
I~ Hinterl<strong>and</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Thrissur district are famous <strong>for</strong> clay mining activities in paddy fields<br />
primarily to cater to the dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> clay from numerous tile manufacturing units spread<br />
around the regi<strong>on</strong>. Besides, the presence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> about hundreds <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> private brick-kilns also<br />
induce the <strong>farm</strong>ers to lease out their paddy fields <strong>for</strong> mining <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this industrial raw-makrial<br />
<strong>and</strong> it works out to be highly pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itable than paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> per .I"I!. Howcver. this<br />
process makes the paddy fields deeper <strong>and</strong> deepcr resulting in water logging through out<br />
<strong>and</strong> as a result. further cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy i,l ,uch fields becomes difficult. II" al all<br />
interested. individual <strong>farm</strong>ers may have to incur huge expenses to reclaim the waterlogged<br />
156
per cent <strong>for</strong> banana cultivati<strong>on</strong>. II per cent <strong>for</strong> civil <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> purposes <strong>and</strong> 5<br />
per cent left uncultivated. In effect. <strong>on</strong>ly 24 percent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong> is retained <strong>for</strong> paddy<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The Kerala Statistical <strong>Institute</strong> (KSI) specifically examInes the issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>s originally registered as paddy field (Nilam) in the basic l<strong>and</strong> tax<br />
register during 1992-93. It puts <strong>for</strong>th the argument that crop substituti<strong>on</strong> was<br />
resorted to as a countering mechanism to the declining pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>. In 1992-93. <strong>on</strong>ly 58 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total area classified as 'paddy field'<br />
in the l<strong>and</strong> tax register was actually under paddy. <strong>and</strong> the rest was used <strong>for</strong> different<br />
purposes. While 6 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area was c<strong>on</strong>verted <strong>for</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structing buildings.<br />
roads <strong>and</strong> other uses. 24 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area was used <strong>for</strong> growing commercial<br />
crops. \ IZ.. (l)(Onut Jnu rubber. S.) per cent tor annuJI <strong>and</strong> seas<strong>on</strong>al crops. followed<br />
by:; per cent being kept JS fallow (KSI. 1994 as cited in Kannan. 1999).<br />
---------------------------------<br />
padd) fields. This undesirable outcome ultimately resulted in fixing up <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> in<strong>for</strong>mal c<strong>on</strong>tract<br />
norms such that the individual c<strong>on</strong>tractors who lease out the paddy fields <strong>for</strong> clay mining<br />
would fill the paddy fields in turn with some compact material (mostly soil <strong>and</strong> pieces <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
st<strong>on</strong>es). Certainly. this has turned out to be a 'blessing in disguise' <strong>for</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>ers, who<br />
have been rescued out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal hurdles involved in the c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields. It is<br />
important to note that according to the Kerala L<strong>and</strong> Utilisati<strong>on</strong> Order (GOK, 1967a), clay<br />
mining from paddy fields can be d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong>ly if the field IS certified as unsuitable <strong>for</strong><br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>. But. in reality, this is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten violated. Minnie Mathew Committee (1996)<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stituted <strong>for</strong> suggesting amendments to the KcraLI I.<strong>and</strong> Utilisati<strong>on</strong> Order (19673)<br />
observed that though the KLU is in operati<strong>on</strong>. timd ([{)p has declined by 5.1 lakh ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which, paddy account <strong>for</strong> 3.04 Iakh ha. (60 %)<br />
157
A micro level study by Narayanan (1994) indicates that there was 60 per cent<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> in the area under paddy from 1107 ha in 1960 to 438 ha in 1980 <strong>and</strong> the<br />
aerial photographs haw shown the area to have declined further to 330 ha in 1990.<br />
While the studies by George <strong>and</strong> Mukherjee (1986); Kannan <strong>and</strong><br />
Pushpangadan (1990) <strong>and</strong> Narayana (1990) have shown the relative pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cash crops as the reas<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong>. Narayanan (1994) shows the reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
such as the problem llf availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. labour. pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> competing crops.<br />
high cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the ever decreasing size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings<br />
as factors resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
The study b:-<br />
the Popul:H Expert Committee 10 1998 <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>versIOn <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy l<strong>and</strong>s estim:l1ed that 1 ~,<br />
lakh ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area (about 46 %) were c<strong>on</strong>verted<br />
fnr I1lln-agnculturJI uses <strong>and</strong> ahllut 0.4 7 Iakh ha. were kept as fallow during 1975-<br />
97. ()f the total area (oll\erted. I S.5 per cent was <strong>for</strong> tree crops. 7.5 per cent <strong>for</strong><br />
Jnnual crops <strong>and</strong> 11.4 per cent tor n<strong>on</strong>-Jgricultural uses. About 11.6 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
single cropped JreJ <strong>and</strong> ,:;5 p..:r cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the double-cropped area were also<br />
Cl)J]verted (Popular Expert Committee. 1995).<br />
-- -<br />
There are also evidences sll~l.!estinl.!<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable reducti<strong>on</strong> in the ayacut area<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> proJects in the ,tate For instance. the evaluati<strong>on</strong> study by CADA<br />
((,A[)A. 1')')(,) n:ports clInsider;illiL' C(lnv..:rSllln <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields in the ayacuts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
,.<br />
clImplcted irrigati<strong>on</strong> proJccts in thl' st;lte ftlr c<strong>on</strong>structing buildings. courtyards. etc.<br />
I he ayacllt c<strong>on</strong>vertcd Imallll:- pa,hh ;lrC;I) <strong>for</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural uses c<strong>on</strong>stitute about<br />
15 per cent In the «(lmplcted Img.a!I'"l pfllJcclS (table 5.S).<br />
158
Table 5 . 8' . Paddy area c 0 nvert e d' IR . Irrigati<strong>on</strong> . projects<br />
Name <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project<br />
Ayacut Area c<strong>on</strong>verted (ha. )<br />
Area c<strong>on</strong>verted (%) I<br />
(ha.)<br />
,<br />
1. Malampuma 21732 I 3672. 71 16.90<br />
2. Walavar 3844 734.20 19.10<br />
3. Pothundv 5466 546.60 10.00<br />
4. Gavathri 5466 1000.28 18.30<br />
I 5. Mangalam 3639 396.65 10.90<br />
6. Peechi 18623 3352.14 18.00<br />
7. Vazhani 5182 720.30 13.90<br />
8. Cheerakuzhi 1619 194.28 12.00<br />
9. Chalakud\ 19696 2954.40 15.00<br />
10. Ne\\ar 11891 1308.01 11.00<br />
11. Kuttiadi 14570 3496.8# 24.00<br />
12. KaraDuzha* 4650 1150# 24.73<br />
Total 116378 19526.37 16.78<br />
• Ongoing proJect.<br />
SOllrce' C ADA (1996): 69-73; # C AGI Reports. 1993. 1997.<br />
The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ayacut area c<strong>on</strong>verted <strong>for</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural uses across the<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> areas ranged between II per cent in the Neyyar project to 24.73 per cent<br />
ill the Karapuzha scheme.<br />
Anoth.:r study by C AD.\ based <strong>on</strong> a sample survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 255 <strong>farm</strong>ers in the<br />
el~ht<br />
completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> proiects in the state reveals that 19 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
have c<strong>on</strong>verted their paddy fIelds permanently. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area c<strong>on</strong>verted is<br />
the highest in the Peechi irrigalJoll project as 56 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers are reported<br />
to have c<strong>on</strong>verted their paddy fields <strong>and</strong> the area c<strong>on</strong>verted is 44 per cent. In the<br />
ChalJkudy scheme. 4' per c.:nt <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers have c<strong>on</strong>verted <strong>and</strong> the paddy area<br />
c<strong>on</strong>vert.:d is 39 per cent «('ADA. I ()97).<br />
Santhakumar (1997) shows that rubher cultivati<strong>on</strong> has occupied c<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> th.: COIllIllJ!1(j Jreas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> \. JlllanapUrJIll <strong>and</strong> Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. While<br />
~ 7 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dry l<strong>and</strong> arl';} III the Vamanapuralll proj.:ct has been brought LInder<br />
159
ubber cultivati<strong>on</strong>. in Kallada. the proporti<strong>on</strong> is 18 per cent. Preliminary results <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
study by Viswanathan (1997) based <strong>on</strong> a sample survey indicates that rubber has<br />
occupied about 40 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the paddy area <strong>and</strong> 53 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dry area in the<br />
Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. In the Kallada project. which was designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating<br />
garden l<strong>and</strong> crops. mainly coc<strong>on</strong>ut. the crop occupies <strong>on</strong>ly 28 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dry<br />
area ...... bout 21 per cent <strong>and</strong> 14 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the paddy area have been substituted with<br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> tapioca respectively.<br />
The questi<strong>on</strong> that whether availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical infrastructure <strong>and</strong> the<br />
subsequent provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water influences <strong>farm</strong>ers decisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> crop allocati<strong>on</strong> needs<br />
empirical testing specifically in the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala. However, it has been noticed<br />
that the area under paddy during the sec<strong>on</strong>d crop (.\/lindakan) has declined in seven<br />
talu].;.' LllmmanJcJ by maJor irrigati<strong>on</strong> ProlCelS Jlmost by 20 per cent during 1974-<br />
75 to ]986-87 ITJble 59)<br />
Table 5.9: Decline in padd~' area in taluk5 wvered under major irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects, \966-<br />
67 to 1986-87<br />
I Taluk,<br />
Area during sec<strong>on</strong>d crop (hectares)<br />
% change<br />
1966-67 197.1-75 1986-87<br />
( 1966-87)<br />
l\e\\attmkara 5673 5945 I·UJ) 32151--15.9) -43.33<br />
Mukundapuram 16444 15482 (-5 8) 12561 (-189) -23.61<br />
Thrissur 18246 17699 (-3 0) 11248 (-36-1) -38.35<br />
Thal3Jl£.a II v 16843 16342 (-30) 14146 (-13-1) -16.01<br />
I Chinoor 18313 22364 I]] I) 17262 (-228) -5.74<br />
Alathoor 15902 20526129 I) 16796 (-182) 5.62<br />
Palakkad 15237 157211J:!) 14299 (-9.0) -6.16<br />
.\(JlJra. Complied from GOK. 1998.74.<br />
Nolt!. Parenthetic figures are percentage change between periods.<br />
/\s tht: tahlt: Indicates. tht:re was c<strong>on</strong>siderahk decline in paddy area in all the<br />
taluks during I CJ74-75 to 19X6-X7 <strong>and</strong> the highest decline repurted was in<br />
160
Neyyattinkara taluk comm<strong>and</strong>ed by the Neyyar irrigati<strong>on</strong> project (45.92%). In<br />
Thrissur tal uk. the decline was 36.45 per cent <strong>and</strong> in Chittur tal uk. it was almost 23<br />
per cent. These taluks also witnessed the overall decline in paddy area.<br />
Thus. the <strong>for</strong>egoing discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop shift <strong>and</strong> the<br />
widespread c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields into dryl perenniall cash crops bring out the<br />
fact that. by <strong>and</strong> large. the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state could not yield the<br />
expected results. The major reas<strong>on</strong>s attributed <strong>for</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields are:<br />
a) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability. b) n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour <strong>and</strong> high wage rates; c) n<strong>on</strong>availability<br />
<strong>and</strong> scarcity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> watcr J6 ; d) water logging in the paddy fields; e) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
interest am<strong>on</strong>g the younger generati<strong>on</strong>s l7 ; <strong>and</strong> f) the declining operati<strong>on</strong>al size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy fields l8<br />
I. The problem ,1f acute \\ater shortage during the summer seas<strong>on</strong> is identified as an<br />
Important reas,'n f'H COIl\ ersi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields. In the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> facilities.<br />
cultural operat'l'lh largel~ depend <strong>on</strong> the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainfall <strong>and</strong> the failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainfall<br />
causes crop losses.<br />
"This issue needs explanati<strong>on</strong> in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>and</strong> supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour <strong>for</strong> per<strong>for</strong>ming<br />
agricultural operati<strong>on</strong>s. While the <strong>farm</strong>ers withdrew from labour intensive food crop<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> due to specific reas<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> low pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <strong>and</strong> high transacti<strong>on</strong> costs involved in<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing activities <strong>and</strong> the labour management problems; the substantial improvement in the<br />
social <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic statu'> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour made them withdraw from the agricultural labour<br />
market. Thus. the withdrawal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>er as well as agricultural labour from <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s "as sheer coincidence. For a very interesting account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>development</strong><br />
dilemmas <strong>and</strong> the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural labour market in Kerala, sec the most recent<br />
studies by Thomas <strong>and</strong> Thomas (1999). Kalll1an (1999), <strong>and</strong> Nair, M.K.S (1999).<br />
" In Ihe first instance. tim problem ,h'es nol permit large-scale mechanisati<strong>on</strong>. Sec<strong>on</strong>dly. it<br />
adversely affects the 11'1: <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other inputs as well. A third issue is that the <strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
would not attract lahourers as there j, no full tl111e work. Farmers also would not like to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fer a full da~ \\age <strong>for</strong> a ,hort-tillle cngagcmcnt. '1 Ills ullimately resultcd in multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
161
The debate <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy l<strong>and</strong>s should also be viewed in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
peasant rati<strong>on</strong>ality. Herring (1991 a) interprets this as flight <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> capital (in the <strong>for</strong>m <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
redeployment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> capital) <strong>and</strong> argues that <strong>farm</strong>ers have opted out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour intensive<br />
paddy (in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> less labour intensive tree crops) purely <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rising<br />
wage costs <strong>and</strong> the loss <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> managerial prerogative resulting from the demise <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al labour regime (Herring, 1991 a. as cited in Heller. 1999). In line with<br />
Herring (1991a). Heller (1999) c<strong>on</strong>siders the shift to cash crop ec<strong>on</strong>omy as a<br />
rati<strong>on</strong>alisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropping patterns dictated by an increasing resp<strong>on</strong>siveness to<br />
19<br />
market <strong>for</strong>ces .<br />
Thus. the agricultural <strong>development</strong> scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state since the late 70s<br />
characterised by sharp decline in the area under food crops dominated by paddy <strong>and</strong><br />
the substantial expansi<strong>on</strong> in area under commercial crops dominated by plantati<strong>on</strong><br />
crops should <strong>for</strong>m a major point <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> departure in the ec<strong>on</strong>omic analysis <strong>on</strong> the impact<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any <strong>development</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong> by the state. including <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems.<br />
The emerging changes as discussed above. in the agricultural <strong>development</strong> in<br />
the state. in general. would have signi ficant c<strong>on</strong>sequences <strong>on</strong> the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector. On the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong>. the change from food to cash crops could be<br />
translated in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack 01 effective dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> water <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>. On the other,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tasks. with each task involving a specitic time or piece wage rate [also sec Nair. M.K.S<br />
( 1999)1·<br />
162
it also obstructed the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in the state causing largescale<br />
capacity under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-<br />
. .<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> coupled with time <strong>and</strong> cost overruns in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going schemes.<br />
5.2.2 Impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>: a disaggregate analysis<br />
In what follows, we examine the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the important crops targeted to be grown in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. As menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
already. paddy is the major crop targeted in all the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects, except the<br />
Kallada scheme. Coc<strong>on</strong>ut, banana, arecanut <strong>and</strong> horticultural crops are the other<br />
crops c<strong>on</strong>sidered to yield better under irrigated c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s 2o . Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other<br />
commercial crops are rain fed. Though life saving irrigati<strong>on</strong> during summer m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
is recommended to some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plantati<strong>on</strong> crops, it is not generally practised<br />
primarily due to: a) the wider belief that thC'se crops could thrive under rainfed<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s: b) n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water sources in most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plantati<strong>on</strong> tracts: c)<br />
<strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> requiring massIve investment in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong>. installati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems; <strong>and</strong> d) labour being scarce <strong>and</strong><br />
highly expensive.<br />
As expected, the reported l<strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> pattern in the ayacuts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state is dominated by paddy, followed mostly by coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
J? A~ eC()Il()mic lllaximiLcrs, Kerala's <strong>farm</strong>ers have resp<strong>on</strong>ded to shifting price signals by<br />
reallocating their resources from paddy to more lucrative crops (Heller, 1999: 124).<br />
163
(Table 5.10). The table indicates that paddy area accounts <strong>for</strong> about 60 to 70 per cent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ayacuts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state. Only in four projects it is<br />
below 60 per cent. the lowest being 27.60 per cent <strong>and</strong> 21.40 per cent in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Chalakudy <strong>and</strong> Neyyar irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. Coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>for</strong>ms the sec<strong>on</strong>d important<br />
crop occupying an area as large as 47 per cent in the Neyyar irrigati<strong>on</strong> project to as<br />
small as 6 per cent in Mangalam project. It is important to note that significant share<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area is being c<strong>on</strong>verted into coc<strong>on</strong>ut. tapioca <strong>and</strong> banana in the Neyyar.<br />
Chalakudy, Cheerkuzhi <strong>and</strong> Vazhani projects.<br />
T a bl e 510 : L an d use pattern ID complete d' Irngalt<strong>on</strong> . proJects<br />
Name <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Percentaoe area under crops<br />
project Paddy Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Arecanut Tapioca Banana Others· CCA (ha.)<br />
Malampuzha 64.7 8.0 0.6 1.9 1.1 23.7 21732<br />
Walavar 61.4 9.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 28.1 3844<br />
Pothundv 69.0 9.9 1.5 2.9 2.7 14.0 5466<br />
Gavathri 67.2 7.0 0.2 0.4 0.4 24.8 5466<br />
Mangalam 72.6 5.7 0.9 1.7 1.5 17.6 3639<br />
Peechi 62.1 15.9 I , 1.2 0.6 1.1 19.1 18623<br />
Vazhani 59.6 18A ! 1.4 0.7 1.3 18.6 5182<br />
,<br />
,<br />
Chcerakuzhi 50A 26.0 1.9 0.9 0.9 19.9 1619<br />
Chalakudy 27.6 39.6 2.9 1.5 2.9 25.5 19696<br />
Nevvar 21.4 46.9 0.6 13.2 3.1 14.8 11891<br />
• Also Includes paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>verted <strong>for</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural uses.<br />
Source' Computed from CADA (1996).<br />
The reported l<strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> pattem 2 ] in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s, however,<br />
needs scrutiny to underst<strong>and</strong> the ground realities. For example, the paddy area reports as<br />
irrigated includes the gross area cultivated during the first, sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>and</strong> third crop<br />
20 As per the Department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <strong>and</strong> Statistics (GOK) reports, the important irrigated<br />
crops in the state are paddy, banana, tubers, vegetables, coc<strong>on</strong>ut, arecanut, nutmeg/ clove,<br />
other spices <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diments, betel vine <strong>and</strong> sugarcane.<br />
21 This l<strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> statistics need not be realistic <strong>and</strong> should be subjected to scrutiny in<br />
vi~w <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields as discussed in the <strong>for</strong>egoing secti<strong>on</strong>. Moreover. the<br />
data have also not been updated since l<strong>on</strong>g as in<strong>for</strong>med by the CADA <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials.<br />
164
seas<strong>on</strong>s. But. in reality. <strong>on</strong>ly sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>and</strong> third crops are irrigated <strong>and</strong> the first crop<br />
mostly rainfed. But it is err<strong>on</strong>eously taken as irrigated, thus giving a higher irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
ratio <strong>for</strong> paddy. This becomes more evident from the specific cropping pattern<br />
envisaged under the Peechi <strong>and</strong> Malamupuzha schemes (table 5.11).<br />
Table 511 . : E nVlsage d croppine pattern in the Peechi <strong>and</strong> Malam puzha irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
Malampuzha Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project#<br />
Name <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> project<br />
ProjectS<br />
Area (ha.) (%) share Area (ha.j (%) share<br />
New l<strong>and</strong> to be irrigated 5668.02 30.63 15384.62 41.55<br />
C<strong>on</strong>verting single crop to<br />
double crop 1336.G3 7.23 15384.62 41.55<br />
Supplementing the needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
double crop l<strong>and</strong>s 3805.67 20.57 Nil Nil<br />
Single crop l<strong>and</strong> to be triple<br />
cropped 7692.31 41.57 5447.36 14.71<br />
Perennial crops Nil Nil 809.72 2.19<br />
Total 18502.03 100.00 37026.32 100.00<br />
Source.· # GOK. 1967; $ Malampuzha Project Report.<br />
The table shows that gross area anticipated to be irrigated by the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects is taken as actual irrigated area. While the entire irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential is<br />
meant <strong>for</strong> paddy in the Peechi project. about 2 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
l\1alampuzha project is expected to be brought under perennial crops. The ayacut<br />
expected to be brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong> during summer (third crop) is about 42 per<br />
cent in the Peechi project. whereas. it is below 15 per cent in the Malampuzha<br />
project.<br />
The increase in area under coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> banana as observed at the state level<br />
(table 5.6) as well as the higher percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated area under coc<strong>on</strong>ut as<br />
reported from the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects (table 5.10) cannot be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as<br />
a pure irrigati<strong>on</strong> effect, because. tht: existing instituti<strong>on</strong>al mechanisms at the project<br />
level do not have provisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> irrigating such crops. The irrigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these crops<br />
165
eqUires substantial investment <strong>for</strong> redesigning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the watercourses 22 <strong>and</strong><br />
corresp<strong>on</strong>ding <strong>farm</strong> level investments by the <strong>farm</strong>ers B<br />
Given this technical<br />
problem. whatever area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficially reported to be irrigated by the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in<br />
the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these crops needs to be corroborated with detailed investigati<strong>on</strong> at the<br />
field level.<br />
The higher irrigati<strong>on</strong> ratios <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy (table 5.10) may also be proved to be<br />
unrealistic by examining the seas<strong>on</strong>-wise area under paddy in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state. It is evident that in the three districts. viz .•<br />
Thrissur. Palakkad <strong>and</strong> Triv<strong>and</strong>rum which comm<strong>and</strong> II <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 14 completed<br />
schemes. the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated area under paddy during Puncha (summer) has<br />
been <strong>on</strong>ly 5.86 per cent. compared to 36.89 per cent during Mundakan (winter) <strong>and</strong><br />
3~.62 per cent during Virippu (autumn). The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> HYV paddy cultivated in<br />
the state during summer has also been less (21 %). compared to autumn (40 %) <strong>and</strong><br />
\\Inter (39 %). This decline could be partially explained in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water shortage<br />
during summer.<br />
The trends 10 the crop-wise irrigati<strong>on</strong> ratios III the state indicate that the<br />
lTTigati<strong>on</strong> ratio <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy expressed as percentage to gross cropped area has declined<br />
11 The existing rice based irrigati<strong>on</strong> sv,tems are c<strong>on</strong>strained by rigid design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> infrastructure<br />
<strong>and</strong> innexible water delivery sySkl11S. thus disallowing crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> (For more<br />
details. see Rosegrant, el ar 1995).<br />
B Farm level investments are imperative due to the undulating topography <strong>and</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
may not invest, as their l<strong>and</strong>holdings are too small to have the benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scale ec<strong>on</strong>omies.<br />
The excessively small size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Iwldlngs <strong>and</strong> the high density <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong> make the <strong>farm</strong>er<br />
reluctant to pari with l<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> watercllU"CS <strong>and</strong> field channels (GOI. 197'2: 181). The timely<br />
166
c<strong>on</strong>siderably from 9.67 per cent in 1980-81 to 6.81 per cent in 1997-98 (table 5.12).<br />
The share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut though has increased from two pr cent in 1980-81 to 6 per cent<br />
in 1994-95, began to decline thereafter <strong>and</strong> currently, coc<strong>on</strong>ut area under irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
is below 5 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the gross cropped area. The irrigated area under banana <strong>and</strong><br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut is below <strong>on</strong>e per cent. The gross irrigated area has also been almost<br />
stagnating around 15 per cent over the years. Both paddy <strong>and</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut occupy about<br />
80 to 90 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the gross irrigated area in the state as per the <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial statistics.<br />
However, it is important to note that when the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy in the gross irrigated<br />
area has declined from about 73 per cent in 1980-81 to 48 per cent in 1997-98, that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut has increased from 15.75 per cent to 34.53 per cent during the same<br />
period. The share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> arecanut has also increased from 3.9 per cent to 6.41 per cent.<br />
The area irrigated under banana has also been increasing gradually. The trends in the<br />
share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important crops in the gross irrigated area lends support to the argument<br />
that irrigated paddy fields havc been gradually replaced with coc<strong>on</strong>ut, arecanut <strong>and</strong><br />
banana to some extent <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> facilities available.<br />
Table 5.12: Trends in crop-wise Irrigati<strong>on</strong> ratIOS, 1981 to 1997<br />
Gross irrigated area (GlA) as (%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gross cropped area (GCA)<br />
under:<br />
GlA as %<br />
Year<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>GCA<br />
Paddy Arecanut Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Banana<br />
1980-81 9.67 (726S) 0.52 (390) 2.10 (15.75) 0.17 (1.31) 13.31<br />
1984-85 10.89 (73.9./) 0.46 (312) 2.44 (16.57) 0.20 (1.35) 14.72<br />
1987-88 8.84 (6531) 05-1 13.97) 3.16 (23.33) 0.29 (2.1.J) 13.54<br />
1990-91 7.45 (5852) 0.67(525) 3.47 (27.27) 0.35 (2 75) 12.74<br />
1991-92 7.52 (59.1.J) 0.69 (5./0) 3.41 (26.S3) 0.33 (2.62) 12.71<br />
1994-95 8.99 (5396) 0.75 (.1./9) 5.69 (3,/.12) 0.34 (2.0./) 16.66<br />
1995-96 7.64 (50.36) 0.83 (5 ./9) 5.36 (35.3./) 0.35 (2.31) 15.18<br />
1996-97 7.62 (50. IS) 0.87 (5 71) 5.31 (3./.99) 0.39 (2.5S) 15.18<br />
1997-98 6.81 (./8./7) 0.90 (6-11) -185 (3-153) 0.42 (3.00) 14.05<br />
Note: Parenthellc figures are respective share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> each crop In the gross Irrigated area<br />
availability <strong>and</strong> reliability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water are also instrumental (Narayana, et ai.,<br />
1991 ).<br />
167
Source: Govt. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala, BES, relevant years.<br />
This further indicates the fact that the <strong>farm</strong>ers are more induced by<br />
comparative pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternate crops than the assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water per se.<br />
The pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability ratios <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternate cropping systems make paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> n<strong>on</strong>viable.<br />
For instance, the estimates based <strong>on</strong> productivity <strong>and</strong> prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> important<br />
crops (GOK, 1997: 23) during 1997 show that the gross income realised from paddy<br />
per ha. c<strong>on</strong>stituted <strong>on</strong>ly 13 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the income from arecanut, 10 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
income from banana, 22 per cent from tapioca, 44 per cent from coc<strong>on</strong>ut, 21 per cent<br />
from rubber <strong>and</strong> 8 per cent from horticulture crops.<br />
In this c<strong>on</strong>text. the trends in area <strong>and</strong> productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major crops in the<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state have also been<br />
examined in order to bring out the excessive orientati<strong>on</strong> towards paddy. The results<br />
are shown in table 5.13.<br />
It becomes evident that there is decline in area under paddy in almost all the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> the decline is more pr<strong>on</strong>ounced in the area under summer<br />
paddy. However, in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the decline in area under paddy, the productivity has<br />
been increasing. This yield increase in paddy cannot be attributed to any impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
technology adopti<strong>on</strong> or assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. Rather, has been purely due to<br />
marginal l<strong>and</strong> going out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> (Kannan <strong>and</strong> Pushpangadan, 1990: 43).<br />
Interestingly, paddy was not cultivated during summer in any <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the five projects<br />
168
shown at the bottom layer <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the table, which points to the inadequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water during summer.<br />
Table 5.13: Trends in area <strong>and</strong> productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> important crops in the CAD projects<br />
Annua led ompoun G rowt h R ates 1985-86 to 1994-95<br />
Malampuzha Peechi Vazhani Chalakudy Neyyar<br />
Crops Area Prdty Area Prdty. Area Prdty. Area Prdty Area Prdty<br />
Paddy 1.14 -0.78 -0.44 1.57 -0043 1.74 -0.05 7.71 -0.31 lAO<br />
(Autumn)<br />
Paddy 0.57 3.19 -0.44 5.16 -0.78 2.49 -0.36 9.40 -0.35 4.22<br />
(IVlnter)<br />
Paddy -9.68 -1.65 0.00 7.93 -1.46 1.89 -4.69 4.80 -11.49 1.15<br />
,<br />
(Sum Iller)<br />
,<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 5.69 -0.81 4.17 -2.23 4.16 5.03 4.16 5.68 2.01 2.49<br />
Arecanut 7.04 -2.20 1.05 -1.95 1.16 11.56 0.82 2.97 -7.95 4.28<br />
Tapioca -1.43 5.52 -5.45 9.64 -5.34 5.67 -5.52 5.02 -6.18 6.39<br />
Bana·na 6.61 -2.98 -0.18 0.68 0.32 -2.07 -0.27 6.27 -2.20 3.68<br />
Crops Walayar Gavathri Pothundy Mangalam Cheerakuzhi<br />
Area Prdty Area Prdty. Area Prdty. Area Prdty Area Prdty<br />
Paddy -1.61 2.09 -1.21 -0.53 -1.19 4.71 -0.83 3.23 -0.95 0.92<br />
(AII/lIl11n)<br />
I<br />
Paddy -2.07 8.78 -1.24 I 1.55 -0.43 5.37 -0.87 6.41 -0.61 6.34<br />
(Wllltl'r.' !<br />
Paddy<br />
Not cultivated<br />
(Sulllmer)<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 5.67 1.22 5.67 3.87 5.70 -0.23 5.71 3.93 4.24 12.10<br />
Arecanut 8.01 4.26 6.97 8.75 7.02 12.08 6.23 1.16 1.55 4.13<br />
Tapioca -1.47 5.53 -1.41 1.61 -1.42 3.57 -1.52 4.56 -5.93 3.57<br />
Banana 7.50 1.74 7.54 0.68 6.58 4.24 6.42 -0.49 -0.76 1.74<br />
Source: EstImated from CADA (1996)<br />
The productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops such as coc<strong>on</strong>ut, arecanut <strong>and</strong> banana have shown<br />
declining trend in some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the schemes, which implies that these crops are highly<br />
sensitive to moisture stress.<br />
This reflects up<strong>on</strong> the increasing water scarcity<br />
experienced in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes during summer.<br />
The mean yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy during summer in five completed projects IS<br />
compared with the yield during the other two seas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the overall yield levels <strong>for</strong><br />
169
the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For the sake <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis, the period is divided into<br />
two sub periods, viz., i) 1985-86 to 1991-92 <strong>and</strong> ii) 1991-92 to 1997-98<br />
(table<br />
5.14 ).<br />
The table <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fers very valid insights about the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy in the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state. The yield levels during different seas<strong>on</strong>s are almost<br />
comparable <strong>and</strong> in many cases, rain fed yield appear to be over <strong>and</strong> above that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
reported 'irrigated yields' during winter <strong>and</strong> summer. During the first period, the<br />
summer yield has been lower than the autumn <strong>and</strong> winter yields in three projects,<br />
viz., Malampuzha, Peechi <strong>and</strong> Neyyar <strong>and</strong> the highest yield difference observed was<br />
in Neyyar project (479 kg.). The summer yield was below the winter yield in four<br />
projects <strong>and</strong> highest difference was to the order <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 325 kg. in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi.<br />
During the sec<strong>on</strong>d period, the autumn <strong>and</strong> winter yields were higher by 433 kg <strong>and</strong><br />
910 kg <strong>and</strong> 818 kg <strong>and</strong> 538 kg respectively in the Malampuzha <strong>and</strong> Neyyar projects.<br />
Overall period analysis also shows similar trend in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these two projects. The<br />
coefficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> variati<strong>on</strong> in yields has been higher in most cases due to the wide<br />
variati<strong>on</strong>s in yield between seas<strong>on</strong>s. The n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal water during<br />
summer m<strong>on</strong>ths has been highlighted as an important reas<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the decline in yield<br />
levels, especially, summer. However, it is important to note that the yield levels in<br />
the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects were above 2 t<strong>on</strong>nes per ha. <strong>and</strong> certainly above the yield<br />
levels observed at the state level. Though this could be partially explained as the<br />
170
impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> 24 , a realistic explanati<strong>on</strong> is that the marginal <strong>and</strong> less productive<br />
paddy fields have been kept out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> as already discussed.<br />
Table 5.14: Seas<strong>on</strong>·wise mean yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy in CAD projects, 1985-86 to 1997-98<br />
Project! Seas<strong>on</strong><br />
/985·8610/99/-92 /992-9310/997-98 /985-86 to /997-98<br />
Yield (Kg. per ha.) Yield (Kg. per ha.) Yield (Kg. per ha.)<br />
Malampuzlza Pro~ct<br />
Autumn 3580 3729 3655<br />
Winter 3611 4205 3908<br />
Summer 3487 3296 3391<br />
Group average 3559 3743 3651<br />
CY (%) 148 12.16 7.08<br />
Peeclli Project<br />
Autumn 2586 2950 2768<br />
Winter 2708 3199 2953<br />
Summer 2383 3302 2842<br />
Group average 2559 3150 2855<br />
CY (%) 5.24 5.75 3.27<br />
Vazllani Project<br />
Autumn 1921 2624 2272<br />
Winter 2543 3088 2815<br />
Summer 2325 2704 2515<br />
Group avera~e 2263 2805 2534<br />
CY (%) 11.39 8.85 10.74<br />
Clllllakutiv Project<br />
Autumn 2151 2733 2442<br />
Winter 2334 3013 2673<br />
Summer 2432 2783 2608<br />
Group average 2306 2843 2574<br />
CY (%) 5.06 5.24 4.63<br />
Neyyur Project<br />
Autumn 3065 3632 3348<br />
Winter 2700 3351 3026<br />
Summer 2586 2814 2700<br />
Group average 2784 3265 3025<br />
CY (%) 733 12.73 10.71<br />
Source: Estimated from CADA ( 1996) <strong>and</strong> L ADA (2000).<br />
H<br />
However, in hi!;h rainfall areas where un irrigated (rainfcd) crop yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy is<br />
naturally high, the yield effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> is not a sure guide to the output augmenting role<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> (Dhawan, 1988: 2659).<br />
171
The overall scenario suggests that the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state could not<br />
be effective in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stabilising the yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy during the first <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
cropping seas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong>ing the area under irrigati<strong>on</strong> during summer. Dhawan<br />
(1988) points to the insufficient attenti<strong>on</strong> given <strong>for</strong> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy during<br />
summer (rabi) seas<strong>on</strong> 25 . In the given scenario, cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the otherwise limited<br />
paddy in the state could be sustained <strong>on</strong>ly through the effective implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>holdings. group <strong>farm</strong> management <strong>and</strong> assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
during summer.<br />
5.3 Organisati<strong>on</strong>al aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in Kerala<br />
Having discussed the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e to <strong>on</strong>e corresp<strong>on</strong>dence between irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
agricultural de\elopment in the state. it may be relevant to examine the implicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this <strong>on</strong> the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water instituti<strong>on</strong>s in the state. As a matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, the<br />
observed crop shift in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainfed cash crops goes a l<strong>on</strong>g way in explaining<br />
many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the organisati<strong>on</strong>al problems c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>ted by the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in the state.<br />
At the aggregate leveL the organisati<strong>on</strong>al issues such as capacity under-utilisati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
time <strong>and</strong> cost over runs <strong>and</strong> the resultant delay in completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes<br />
need a critical underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> explanati<strong>on</strong> in this backdrop. This would also<br />
enable us to bring out the c<strong>on</strong>trast that "why do the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state<br />
2~ While the yield effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigatioll is quite low. the output impact (in the sense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
additi<strong>on</strong> to rice output) can be substantial if irrigati<strong>on</strong> is oriented towards sustaining<br />
summer cropping <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy (Dhawan. I9SS: 2659).<br />
172
have a l<strong>on</strong>g unproductive lag <strong>and</strong> why most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first generati<strong>on</strong> schemes still<br />
remain to be partially or not commissi<strong>on</strong>ed?".<br />
A critical review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the factors underlying the divergence between<br />
<strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems <strong>and</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in the state is also<br />
necessary to underst<strong>and</strong> the influence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the col<strong>on</strong>ial rent seeking behaviour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> bureaucracy <strong>on</strong> the state policy <strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. In<br />
what follows. a detailed analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the organisati<strong>on</strong>al aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in the state is attempted. These organisati<strong>on</strong>al issues affecting the<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the state relate to the much debated problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
capacity under-utilisati<strong>on</strong>. cost <strong>and</strong> time over runs. under-pricing or n<strong>on</strong>-pricing o(<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> water. etc. Each <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the three issues is addressed in some detail in the<br />
following.<br />
5.3.1 Capacity under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
The problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects is a widely<br />
debated issue. The explanati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fered by researchers <strong>for</strong> this undesirable outcome<br />
have centered. by <strong>and</strong> large. around n<strong>on</strong>-implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO works at the<br />
system level by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
water management practices by the <strong>farm</strong>ers at the <strong>farm</strong> level. These explanati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
appear to be logical as l<strong>on</strong>g as irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in a given regi<strong>on</strong> results in<br />
cropping pattern changes in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> high valued <strong>and</strong> water intcnsive crops in the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>. Once the <strong>farm</strong>crs realize the beneficial impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
173
project, they tend to undertake yield-augmenting package <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices. This may not<br />
be the case if the changes in cropping pattern are c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>ed by reas<strong>on</strong>s other than<br />
availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> facilities per se. The agricultural <strong>development</strong> experience in<br />
Kerala, as discussed earlier, c<strong>on</strong><strong>for</strong>ms to the latter explanati<strong>on</strong>. It is important to<br />
note that the pace <strong>and</strong> pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s in the state is not in tune with the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al theorisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
induced agrarian <strong>development</strong>. This being so. the irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> projects in<br />
the state have not been yielding the anticipated results. Though some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects could achieve the irrigati<strong>on</strong> targets, it was at a huge<br />
cost <strong>and</strong> time-lag. The unproductive lag varied between 9 to 37 years in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the complcted irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects where the cost escalati<strong>on</strong> was more than<br />
1000 per cent in nominal terms as discussed earlier.<br />
5.3.2 Cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> time-lag in the completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schemes<br />
While the cost escalati<strong>on</strong> in nominal terms has been about 611 per cent in the case<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed projects. it was as high as 2730 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going<br />
projects. The unit cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential was <strong>on</strong>ly Rs. 0.14 lakhs<br />
in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed projects. it was Rs. 0.19 lakhs in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going<br />
projects <strong>and</strong> Rs. 2.46 lakhs at the aggregate level as discussed elsewhere. This<br />
shows the magnitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost escalati<strong>on</strong>, unadjusted <strong>for</strong> inflati<strong>on</strong>. The cost per ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> was also higher in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the<br />
state. The cumulative achievement in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1988-<br />
89 was 1.26 lakh ha .. which increased to 1.65 lakh ha. by 1998-99 <strong>and</strong> the respective<br />
174
cosl <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> increased from Rs. 0.06 lakhs to 0.23 lakhs per ha. Though the<br />
<strong>development</strong> cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects works out to be less than that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, it cannot be reck<strong>on</strong>ed as the true <strong>development</strong> cost as it does not<br />
include the private <strong>farm</strong> level investments by individual farrners 26 .<br />
Thus, cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> spill-over in time accounts <strong>for</strong> the important dnig<br />
<strong>on</strong> the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state. There have been many studies<br />
examining the various aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost escalati<strong>on</strong>, time over-runs <strong>and</strong> related issues in<br />
the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects highlighting the magnitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problem in Kerala am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the 'other states (GOL 1973; Pant, 1982; Swaminathan 1990; Singh, 1997) as well as<br />
in Kerala's specific c<strong>on</strong>text (KSSP, 1988; Netto, 1990; Viswanathan 1997, 2000).<br />
Swami nathan (1990) shows that Kerala had the highest cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 675 per<br />
cent up to 1988. The reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> time lag are many <strong>and</strong> varied 27<br />
Netto (1990) finds that the rise in cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour <strong>and</strong> materials c<strong>on</strong>stituted the largest<br />
item (45.78%), followed by inadequate financial provisi<strong>on</strong> (22.61 %), l<strong>and</strong> cost<br />
(17.25%), change in design (8.98%) <strong>and</strong> inadequate investigati<strong>on</strong> (5.38%). Further,<br />
26 Dhawan (1989) holds that major irrigati<strong>on</strong> scores over minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> various counts.<br />
For instance, surface irrigati<strong>on</strong> works may score over well irrigati<strong>on</strong> by a margin <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3:2.<br />
Moreover, major works use the natural <strong>for</strong>ce <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gravity in their operati<strong>on</strong>, while minor<br />
works require energy <strong>for</strong> water lifting. which involves substantial investment.<br />
27 These factors include the rise in prices, inadequate investigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> provisi<strong>on</strong>s, change<br />
in the scope <strong>and</strong> design, l<strong>and</strong> acquisiti<strong>on</strong>, rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> measures <strong>and</strong> poor per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
equipments, etc (GOI, 1973). Besides, the tendency to start too many projects results in<br />
proliferati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects, thin spreading <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water courses,<br />
allocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> preservati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>ment <strong>and</strong> ecology <strong>and</strong> adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> more sophisticated<br />
175
the establishment expenditure (strictly administrative) increased from 38.23 per cent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total expenditure in 1972-73 to 54.88 per cent in 1988-89. This indicates that<br />
the investment <strong>for</strong> actual infrastructure <strong>development</strong> was marginal <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e, it<br />
is quite natural that it leads to under-per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects over time.<br />
The questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> lag in the completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects need a proper underst<strong>and</strong>ing in the specific c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala, in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
physical features. socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors as well as the political rati<strong>on</strong>ale<br />
underlying the <strong>development</strong> strategies followed by the state since independence. The<br />
important physical features having bearing <strong>on</strong> cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> time lag-in<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are: (i) the undulating terrain which c<strong>on</strong>stitutes the<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>going irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects: <strong>and</strong> (ii) high rainfall<br />
intensity causing damages to the irrigati<strong>on</strong> structures.<br />
In the following sub-secti<strong>on</strong>s. some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important regi<strong>on</strong>-specific facwrs<br />
leading w cost <strong>and</strong> time over-runs in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are examined in some detail,<br />
mainly to highlight the undesirable tendencies that have crept into the realm <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> involving major chunk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> financial resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state<br />
without any corresp<strong>on</strong>ding effect <strong>on</strong> per<strong>for</strong>mance efficiency.<br />
5.3.2.1 Socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors<br />
The socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors leading to cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> time over-runs in the<br />
specific c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala arc: (a) the substantial decline in area under paddy in the<br />
<strong>and</strong> expensive critcria <strong>for</strong> the projects catering to thc requlrcmcnts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> external aid agencies.<br />
176
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s: (b) perceptible change in the cropping pattern 10 favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rainfed <strong>and</strong> perennial cash crops; (c) rise in costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>. labour <strong>and</strong> material<br />
involved in the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal systems: (d) disproporti<strong>on</strong>ate rise in the<br />
establishment (revenue) expenditure in irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes; (e) change in design!<br />
alignment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal systems; <strong>and</strong> (f) l<strong>and</strong> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> aligning canals <strong>and</strong> the<br />
earthwork involved.<br />
The political rati<strong>on</strong>ale behind the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the<br />
post-independence era has been to initiate multi-purpose river valley projects, which<br />
invariably resulted in thin spreading <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scarce financial resources, opening up the<br />
floodgates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>. resulting in cost <strong>and</strong> time over-runs in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in<br />
the state. Other reas<strong>on</strong>s include unscrupulous payments to the c<strong>on</strong>tractors. huge<br />
amount involved in arbitrati<strong>on</strong> awards. etc.<br />
Decline in paddy area<br />
It is important to note that the issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> time lag has not been<br />
explained in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the shift in cropping pattern in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry crops, which in<br />
effect. does not generate any dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> water <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Thus. the physical<br />
dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> water is not translated into effective dem<strong>and</strong>. This caused c<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
delays in the completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. compounded by cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
alarming proporti<strong>on</strong>s. lJsing this analogy, it may be str<strong>on</strong>gly argued that most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in tht: state. especially, the <strong>on</strong>going schemes are c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>ting such<br />
---------------------------------<br />
For a detailed review Oil cost csc~d"ti()11 <strong>and</strong> time-lag, see Singh (1997: 118-130).<br />
177
a CriSIS. As the works involved In the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are irreversible. the<br />
unproductive lag gets extended further without any benefits accruing to the<br />
beneficiaries downstream. The decline <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area has also similar effect <strong>on</strong><br />
escalati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> costs.<br />
A serious outcome <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the decline in area under paddy as highlighted in the<br />
audit review reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Comptroller <strong>and</strong> Audit General <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India (CAGI) is the<br />
decline in the anticipated benefits from irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects leading to erosi<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
envisaged benefit cost ratios. This problem has been reported in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the <strong>on</strong>going schemes as shown below:<br />
(i) In the Kuttiadi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, the BeR has been reworked at 0.67 at 1992<br />
agricultural prices. Though the project was taken up in 1962. substantial<br />
investment was made <strong>on</strong>ly by 1973. According to the project report. the cost<br />
per ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential to be created was Rs. 3408, but the actual cost based <strong>on</strong><br />
the investment made till March 1993 was Rs. 1.06 lakhs per ha. This is much<br />
higher than the nati<strong>on</strong>al average <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 27000 during the Seventh Plan period.<br />
The expenditure was almost 4 times more than the original estimates (CAGl,<br />
1993). No steps were taken to diversify cropping pattern <strong>on</strong> the lines<br />
suggested by the Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong> in March 1983.<br />
(ii)<br />
In the Muvattupuzha Valley Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project (MVIP), it was originally<br />
emisagcd to raise three crops <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy (as per the project report, 1975) in the<br />
entire ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 17400 ha. with a view to raise an additi<strong>on</strong>al food producti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1.47 t<strong>on</strong>nes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy. But, due to the decline <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ayacut area under<br />
178
paddy by 51 per ccnt to 8500 ha .. the anticipated additi<strong>on</strong>al producti<strong>on</strong> was<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly O.~8<br />
lakh tannes (decline by 81 %). Subsequently, the BCR, which was<br />
9.1 as per the original estimates (1975), at 10 per cent rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interest had<br />
g<strong>on</strong>e down to ~.47 as per the 1992 estimates. The estimated cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> providing<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> facilities increased almost eightfold from Rs. 3996 to Rs. 300 I 4 per<br />
ha. (CAG\. 199·n<br />
However. a reassessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project has revealed that the<br />
actual net ayacut was 17737 ha. against 17400 as menti<strong>on</strong>ed in the project. Though<br />
the cntire project was designed <strong>for</strong> paddy (as per the original report), <strong>on</strong>ly 48 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area was under paddy during the first <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d crops <strong>and</strong> less than two<br />
per cent during summer. \\'hik dry/ perennial crops c<strong>on</strong>stituted "'4 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
avacut. 16 per cent \\ as L1nde'l" annual <strong>and</strong> other perennial crops. Banana <strong>and</strong><br />
\'egetables an: grown in 49 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area meant <strong>for</strong> summer paddy (Plincha).<br />
(i)<br />
A resurvey <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the KanJirapuzha irrigati<strong>on</strong> project shows a 13 per cent decline<br />
in the area under paddy from 9713 ha. (0 8467 ha. Further. an area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 722 ha.<br />
(8.6 %) has bl:cn found to be not irrigable, thus making the reducti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
ayacut by 21 pcr cent to 7745 hOI. Based <strong>on</strong> this reducti<strong>on</strong> in the ayacut, the<br />
HeR has bl:Cll re-estllllall:d as 1.28 against 1.48. This BeR is bdow the HCR<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1.5: L fixed by the ('\\,:(' (C ACiL 19(6).<br />
179
(ii)<br />
In the Karapuzha project. the originally estimated ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4650 ha. (net) <strong>for</strong><br />
paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> had dcciined 2H to 3500 ha. in the revised projt:ct report. the<br />
decline being almost 25 per cent. The BeR also had come down from<br />
originally fixed 2.5 to 1. which was also below the ewe stipulated norm <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1.5. The original cost estimate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project was Rs. 7.60 crores. which has<br />
been revised later <strong>on</strong> to Rs. 225 crores. the cost escalati<strong>on</strong> being 2861 per<br />
cent (C\GI. 1997).<br />
(iii)<br />
In the Chim<strong>on</strong>y irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. the department claims that 13000 ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Kole l<strong>and</strong>s are being irrigated during m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong> after dewatering. But. the<br />
actual achievement is <strong>on</strong>ly 1586 ha. (12 %j <strong>and</strong> that too <strong>for</strong> the third crop.<br />
The t:stimated nCR <strong>for</strong> the project was 2.70. which. in reality. declined to<br />
O.:'i making IS n<strong>on</strong>-\labk (C-\Gl. 1999).<br />
The above discussi<strong>on</strong> brings out c<strong>on</strong>siderable er0SlOn 111<br />
the anticipated<br />
benefits from irrigati<strong>on</strong> dut: to the dt:cline in paddy area. coupled with lower prices<br />
<strong>for</strong> paddy. This has made many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects as ec<strong>on</strong>omically n<strong>on</strong>-viable based <strong>on</strong><br />
the BCR <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1.5. fixed by th.: ewe. As a major porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects has been c<strong>on</strong>verted into commercial/ cash crops. reworking <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the benefits<br />
<strong>and</strong> costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> scheme: Illay give a higher HCR. Since tht: projects arc not<br />
~. The original project report (1978) cln is~ged <strong>on</strong>ly producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddY in ·1650 ha (net). But in<br />
the revised project rcport. out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> IIIC nd ayacut area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5221 ha .. paddY cilitivati()n was limited<br />
It) 3500 ha <strong>and</strong> the balance J 721 ha. '"'' set apart <strong>for</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong> llf banana (1621 hal ~nd ginger<br />
,llld vegetables ( 100 ha.).<br />
180
technicall~<br />
designed to provide irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> commercial crops, the recalculati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Be ratios n13Y he unreal istic.<br />
Rise in factor costs<br />
The rise in factor costs, viz .. costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>, labour <strong>and</strong> materials is identified as the<br />
major source l)f cost escalati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in Kerala. The costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
acquisitil'n .md \\ age lahour arc much higher than the material costs.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> has become an important income generating asset rather than merely an<br />
input in the agricultural producti<strong>on</strong> process in Kerala, because l<strong>and</strong> owners always<br />
look out <strong>for</strong> alternative uses other than agriculture to get higher income. For<br />
instance. the dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dwellings has been growing fast.<br />
Sl), the 0pp,'rtunit\ Cllst <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> is \en high. Besides the dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> house, other<br />
Jct\\i!le, ,~.:h ;.I, CLlnstrllctl<strong>on</strong> \11 roads. clllu\:lti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> plantati<strong>on</strong> crops. like rubber<br />
etc .. add t\' the lanJ lise dynamiCs in the state. For instance. in Muvattupuzha Valky<br />
IrrJ~atilln Prniec\. the lll"h tr~lI1sacti<strong>on</strong> cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> intlated the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
acquisiti<strong>on</strong>~9<br />
<strong>for</strong> canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>. The l<strong>and</strong> prices increased <strong>for</strong>m Rs, 0.50 lakh<br />
per ha. as rrO\ided in the original estimate (1975) to Rs. 3 lakhs as per the revised<br />
estimates \)f 1'19:2<br />
An .111 a 1\ SIS or the trl'llJs in fiSC 111 lanour costs <strong>and</strong> material COStS is<br />
ath:mpted oascJ <strong>on</strong> the schedule <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> r:J!es prescribed ny the Public Works Department<br />
("WI)) I hese LJtes arc rele\ alit as thl' irrigati<strong>on</strong> works are undertaken based <strong>on</strong><br />
thes.: rall:, I he r~ltes ~tre l\lllll'arnl in Ilominal t.:rms <strong>for</strong> the last five decades (tabk<br />
, .• I he l<strong>and</strong> aCl.jllISitttlll at Itlghel Lltcs has oecome Illevitable <strong>and</strong> the l<strong>and</strong> prices arc<br />
sllostantiall, high due to Ihc lact IIL.I the alternate l<strong>and</strong> usc is to grow rubber, which has been<br />
181
5.15). The table indicates that the labour costs 30 have risen uni<strong>for</strong>mly across the<br />
various groups. the highest rise bcing in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> female mazdoor (4834<br />
%). followed by man mazdoor (3540 %) over the years. The wage rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
categories <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labourers have risen almost uni<strong>for</strong>m. In nominal terms. the wages have<br />
increased almost 2 to 3 times across categories between periods. On the other,<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g the material costs. the maximum escalati<strong>on</strong> has been in the prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<strong>and</strong><br />
(11199 % 1. bricks (7900 %) <strong>and</strong> cement (22-t5 %) during the entire period. though<br />
the rise in prJ\:es <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cement <strong>and</strong> bricks has been less than that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other items during<br />
1990-1999<br />
Table 515' -. Rise in labour <strong>and</strong> material costs in c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> • 1959 -60 to 1999<br />
Rise in costs (%)<br />
I Cost items<br />
1959-60 1970 1980 1990 1999 1959-99 1990-99<br />
Labour cost (Rs.)<br />
I Man mazdoor 2.5 4.5 13 27 91 3540 237<br />
Woman mazdoor 1.5 3.75 10 22 74 4834 237<br />
\Ias<strong>on</strong> 4 7.5 19 40 134 3250 235<br />
Carpenter 4 6.5 19 40 134 3250 :U5 !<br />
Blacksmith 3.75 6.5 18 40 134 3473 235<br />
Material cost (Rs.)<br />
MS Roads (qulIltal) 74.74 130 300 975 1600 2041 64<br />
Cement (wnnes) 127.94 220 600 1300 3000 2245 131<br />
Rubble (Cu.ml 7.42 6.5 17 50 160 2056 220<br />
Bricks (OOOnos) 40 55 170.2 1200 3200 7900 167<br />
S<strong>and</strong> (Cum) 1.77 3.75 13.5 40 200 11199 ! 400<br />
Metal (314120 mm) 19.43 21 60 130 400 1959 208<br />
Source: GOK. Public Works Department, Schedule <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rates, relevant years.<br />
The rIse in costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour <strong>and</strong> materials as discussed above is <strong>on</strong>ly a pointer<br />
to underst<strong>and</strong> the magnitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost rise <strong>and</strong> various comp<strong>on</strong>ents leading to cost<br />
fetching vel! rClllllllcrative prices when compared III other crops.<br />
'" Major part ()f the rise in labour costs could be attributed to the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour <strong>for</strong><br />
collecting s<strong>and</strong> from river <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>veying to river banks. unloading from boat <strong>and</strong> loading in<br />
the carrier again downloading at the site. head load c<strong>on</strong>veyance, etc. Similar are the<br />
processes involved in the case with other materials also.<br />
182
escalatio.n in the process o.f irrigati<strong>on</strong> develo.pment The \arious comp<strong>on</strong>ents In cost<br />
escalati<strong>on</strong> in the case 0.1' f!\t: irrigatio.n projects han: been compared as sh,'" n in<br />
table 5.16.<br />
Table 5.16: Majo~ factors causing cost escalati<strong>on</strong> ("!o)<br />
SQurces <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cosl escalatioll<br />
!<br />
,<br />
Periyar Chittur<br />
Pa::hassi Kalljlru·<br />
Kuttiadi<br />
"ulley -pu=ilO project Pu=hll<br />
Rise in cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour & material 48.1 38.7 47.0 43.0 52.1<br />
Inadequate financial provisi<strong>on</strong> 44.1 ~0.7 20.6 8.1 22.4<br />
Inadequate investigati<strong>on</strong> 1.7 4.0 5.1 11.9 4.2<br />
Chanue in design 4.7 1.6 I 13.7 21.2 3.8<br />
Cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> 0.1 20.2 13.5 15.8 7.S<br />
Others 1.3 14.8 0.1 0 10.0<br />
Total ]00 100 100 100 100<br />
Source: Compiled from Netto (1990).<br />
It is evident that the costs o.f labo.ur <strong>and</strong> materials have been the maJo.r<br />
so.urces <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost escalati<strong>on</strong> in these five projects. ranging between 38 per cent in<br />
Chitturpuzha project \(1 52 per cent in Kanjir~lpuLha irrigati<strong>on</strong> pWJt:ct \\'hik<br />
inadequate financial pro.visi<strong>on</strong> has been the sec<strong>on</strong>d major factor leading til cost<br />
escalatio.n in projects. viz .. Periyar Valb (44 %). KanjirapuLha (22 %j.<br />
Chitturpuzha (20.7 %) <strong>and</strong> Kuttiadi (20.6 %). tht: cost o.f l<strong>and</strong> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> has been<br />
significant in rcspt:ct <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chitturpuzha (20.2 %J. l'aLhassi (15.8 %) <strong>and</strong> Kuttiadi (I ~.5<br />
%). Other factors c<strong>on</strong>tributing to cost escalati<strong>on</strong> have been change in design <strong>and</strong><br />
inadequate investigatio.n <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the schemes.<br />
Upward revisi<strong>on</strong> in estimates<br />
As an outco.me <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rise in costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> acquisiti<strong>on</strong>. labour <strong>and</strong> material costs. it is<br />
ob~ious<br />
that frequent revisi<strong>on</strong>s in the estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projccts had takt:n<br />
183
place. There were three revisi<strong>on</strong>s J ( in estimates in almost all the projects since the<br />
projects were initiated <strong>and</strong> these revisi<strong>on</strong>s were made at different time points (table<br />
5.17).<br />
Table 5.17: Revisi<strong>on</strong> 0 f Estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irri!!ati<strong>on</strong> proiects (Rs. Lakhs)<br />
I Project Original Revisioll ill estimates % escal. Approl'ed by<br />
eSlimate / II III (Orig. tu III) Plan. ('omm.<br />
Periyar valley 348.00 1795.00 3971.00 6305 1711.78 3971 (II)<br />
Chinurpuzha 105.63 624.14 2063.29 2080 1869.14 624.14 (I)<br />
Kallada 1328.00 16357.00 45780 69800 515602 16357 (I)<br />
Pamba I 384.00 2015.97 4297.00 6340 155104 4297 (II)<br />
,<br />
Pazhassi 442.40 1481.85 4200 7735.94 1648.63 4200 (II)<br />
Kuttiadi<br />
I<br />
496.04 1520.00 4485.00 5500 1008.78 4485 (II)<br />
Kan i irapuzha 365.00 1052.20 4307.73 1000 173.97 1052.20 (I)<br />
Karapuzha 760.00 4042.00 22500 0 0 760·<br />
Chim<strong>on</strong>y 632.11 2951.21 3615.29 0 0 3615.29 (II)<br />
Muvanupuzha 208600 4808.15 8925.02 45500 2081.21 4808.15 (I)<br />
Vamanapuram 1982.00 3640.00 26000 0 0 3640 (I)<br />
. .<br />
Note: • The Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong> has approved <strong>on</strong>ly the Original estimate .<br />
Source: Compiled from Per<strong>for</strong>mance Budget <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Department, 1991 <strong>and</strong> 2000.<br />
:'1.5 alread~<br />
discussed. cost escalati<strong>on</strong> has been the highest in the Kallada<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. ie .. 5156 per cent <strong>and</strong> the lowest in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kanjirapuzha (174<br />
%). An important point that emerges out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the table is that the revisi<strong>on</strong>s have been<br />
made without the approval from the Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong>. The Planning<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> has approved <strong>on</strong>ly the first re\'isi<strong>on</strong>s in the estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects<br />
such as Kallada. Chitturpuzha, Kanjirapuzha. Muvattupuzha valley <strong>and</strong><br />
Vamanapuram. Whereas. the projects. viz .. I'eriyar Valley. Pamba. Pazhassi,<br />
Kuttiadi <strong>and</strong> Chim<strong>on</strong>y have received appro\ ,j <strong>for</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d revisi<strong>on</strong>. In fact. the<br />
31 A project estllnate. when changed after getting approval from the Planning<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> at least <strong>on</strong>ce. is called a revised estimate.<br />
184
Planning Commissi<strong>on</strong> has approved n<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the revisi<strong>on</strong>s made in the estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Karapuzha project, bey<strong>on</strong>d the original estimate.<br />
In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kuttiadi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, the increase in cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 1023.56<br />
between first re\'ised estimate over the original estimate has been due to: (i) revisi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schedule <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rates (as discussed in table 5.16) in 1972 <strong>and</strong> 1974; (ii) increase in<br />
cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> improvements. <strong>and</strong> (iii) provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
spillway. A further increase in cstimates was effected to an extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2964.75 lakhs<br />
between the first <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d revised estimates <strong>and</strong> this was attributed to: (i) rise in<br />
the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> (49.85 %); (ii) change in design (11.33 %); <strong>and</strong> (iii)<br />
change in soil classificati<strong>on</strong><br />
(4.25 %), inadequate provisi<strong>on</strong> in the previous<br />
cstimates (17 00) <strong>and</strong> other reaSll!iS (17.57 %) (CAGL 1993).<br />
In the \luvatlupuzha Valky irrigati<strong>on</strong> project a revisi<strong>on</strong> 10 estimates has<br />
heen made in 1981 to Rs. 480R crores <strong>and</strong> this was <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost increases<br />
related to l<strong>and</strong> (20.59 %): labour (14.10%); materials (5.43%) <strong>and</strong> establishment<br />
(2.59 %). Further, another revi si<strong>on</strong> effected in 1992 to Rs. 104.26 crores (at 1990<br />
price level) was due to escalati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> price <strong>and</strong> labour charges (42.07%); inadequate<br />
provisi<strong>on</strong> in the original t:still1att: (2.26 %): unanticipated additi<strong>on</strong>al rt:quiremcnt<br />
(2.2R %): increase in establishment charges (3.91 %); <strong>and</strong> due to rise in prices (3.34<br />
%) (CAGL 19(14).<br />
Thus, it hecomes ,,:vldent that ther..: were frequent reVISIOns III estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. which w..:re ncccssitated by the substantial rise III wages, l<strong>and</strong><br />
values as well as material costs.<br />
185
Revenue vis Capital expenditure<br />
The expenditure <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>. like other sectors. comprIses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> plan <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-plan<br />
expenditure. Plan expenditure c<strong>on</strong>stitutes almost 93 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the expenditure <strong>and</strong><br />
the rest being n<strong>on</strong>-plan expenditure. The Plan expenditure is further grouped into<br />
two, viz., capital <strong>and</strong> revenue expenditure J2 . While revenue expenditure comprises<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> salaries. wages. travelling expenses. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fice expenses. rent, rates <strong>and</strong> taxes,<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> others. capital expenditure comprises mainly <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> works (99.8 per<br />
cent) <strong>and</strong> others like tools <strong>and</strong> plants. making up <strong>for</strong> the remaining 0.2 per cent.<br />
According to the norms fixed by ewe in September 1990. the revenue<br />
expenditure <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects was not to exceed 15 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the works<br />
expenditure including expenditure <strong>on</strong> investigati<strong>on</strong> J ]<br />
Given this stipulati<strong>on</strong>, it will<br />
be interesting to examine the trends In revenue <strong>and</strong> capital expenditure in the<br />
<strong>on</strong>going irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala. It may be presumed that in the initial years <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
an irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. the revenue expenditure is likely to be much higher than the<br />
ewe stipulati<strong>on</strong>. This argument is examined by using the project-wise data in the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems (Table 5.18). The data shows that the revenue<br />
expenditure was more than the stipulated norm <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> eight<br />
32 The nomenclature used in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> depanment documents is establishment <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>establishment<br />
expenditure. The revenue expenditure is other wise classified as<br />
establishment expenditure <strong>and</strong> capital expenditure signifies n<strong>on</strong>-establishment expenditure.<br />
rhe share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> establishment expenditure <strong>for</strong> a project including leave <strong>and</strong> pensi<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
charges. in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> works let out <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tract. is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the order <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 10 per cent <strong>on</strong> an average<br />
- X to 10 per cent <strong>for</strong> scattered works like canals. For works to be executed departmentally.<br />
the provisi<strong>on</strong>s could be higher <strong>and</strong> could go uplO 15 per cenl (CWC, 1983:34).<br />
186
irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes during both the years under reference. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> three<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. viz .. Vamanapuram. Meenachil <strong>and</strong> Chamravattom. the revenue<br />
expenditure was alarmingly high in both the years. The percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> revenue<br />
expenditure was the highest in Meenachil project (78 % <strong>and</strong> 71 % respectively).<br />
followed by Vamanapuram (71 % <strong>and</strong> 64 %) <strong>and</strong> Chamravattom (57 % <strong>and</strong> 60 %).<br />
Excepting some irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. the revenue expenditure was higher in all others<br />
during 1997-9R than the earlier period. 1990-91. Highest increase was observed in<br />
Kallada from 18 to 24 per cent <strong>and</strong> Chitturpuzha from 17 to 25 per cent. The share<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> revenue expenditure was above the CWC norms in many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects. which might have obviously reduced the funds meant <strong>for</strong> actual<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> works (capital expenditure), leading to cost <strong>and</strong> time over runs.<br />
Table 5.18: Revenue <strong>and</strong> capital expenditure <strong>on</strong> irri~ ali<strong>on</strong> projects, 1990-91 <strong>and</strong> 1997-98<br />
Financiallllvestmcnt 1990-91 FinlIncial im'esllllelll 199--98<br />
I Projt'o Rn·. Capilal TOlal (Rs. I ReI'. expo Capital Tolal<br />
i eX[J, ('Yo) expo (~(j) laklls) (%) expo (%) IRs. lakhs)<br />
Kallada 17.69 8::! .31 ::!8Q99.78 24.10 75.90 49996.08<br />
Pamba 13.51 86.-19 5817.51 15.01 8-1.99 I 6638.98<br />
Kanllrapuzha 16.62 83.38 5386.78 19.95 80.05 7483.34<br />
Kuttiadi 17.44 82.56 5434.92 18.99 8 1.01 5954.21<br />
Pazhassi 12.4 I 87.59 7149.8-1 14.06 85.94 12106.07<br />
Perivar Valley 12.05 87.95 6792.01 12.66 87.3-1 10305.25<br />
Muvattupuzha 14.53 85.-17 4350.46 13.66 86.34 21907.36<br />
Ch itturpuzha 17.32 82.68 1918.14 25.49 74.51 2781.5 I<br />
Idamalayar 7.43 92.57 2'62.51 9.25 90.75 7542.11<br />
Karapuzha 13.43 86.57 2084.01 6.65 93.35 14877.28<br />
Vamanapuram 70.65 29.15 340.7 63.84 36.16 1019.37<br />
Meenachil Vallev 77.99 22.01 127.26 70.66 29.34 391.52<br />
Chamra vattom 57.57 42.-13 195.47 60.41 39.59 487.92<br />
Attapadv 34.28 65.72 730.06 9.12 90.88 918.62<br />
..<br />
Source.' CompIled from GOK. MInIstry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Finance. Per<strong>for</strong>mance Budget <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Irngatl<strong>on</strong><br />
Dcpanmcnt.1990-91 <strong>and</strong> 2000-0 I<br />
i<br />
187
Let us now examIne the intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Increase In capital <strong>and</strong> revenue<br />
expenditure <strong>on</strong> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects In Kerala. It is noteworthy that the percentage<br />
increase in the revenue expenditure has been much more than the capital expenditure<br />
in almost all the projects. except. Kakkadavu project (Table 5.19). Am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
projects. the escalati<strong>on</strong> in revenue expenditure was the highest in Kallada project at<br />
5666 per cent in relati<strong>on</strong> to 3148 per cent in capital expenditure. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pamba irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. the escalati<strong>on</strong> in revenue expenditure has been 4171 per<br />
cent when compared to 1432 per cent escalati<strong>on</strong> in capital expenditure. Only in the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kakkadavu irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. that the capital expenditure was three times<br />
more than the revenue expenditure.<br />
Table 5.19: Esca I att<strong>on</strong> .<br />
In revenue an d capIta . I expcn d' Iture, project-wise<br />
Revenue expenditure<br />
Capital expenditure<br />
I<br />
Project<br />
(Rs. Lakhs)<br />
(Rs. Lakhs)<br />
Original I Latest Escalati<strong>on</strong> Original Latest Escalati<br />
estimate i estimate (%) estimate estimate <strong>on</strong> (%)<br />
Perivar valley<br />
.' -j.-') I<br />
440.52 1798.79 324.8 5864.18 1705.47<br />
Chinurpuzha 9.49 250.54 2540.04 96.14 1812.75 1785.53<br />
Kallada 1048 6042.96 5666.18 1223.2 39737.04 3148.61<br />
Pamba 19.78 84495 4171.74 364.22 5582.89 1432.83<br />
Pazhassi 27.43 509.82 1758.62 -114.97 7226.12 1641.36<br />
Kuniadi 53.34 64S.79 1116.33 442.7 3835.99 766.50<br />
Kan i irapuzha 33.85 41103 1114.27 331.25 3896.7 1076.36<br />
Karapuzha 24.91 293.43 1077.96 364.09 3748.58 929.58<br />
Chim<strong>on</strong>y 46.13 323.75 601.82 586.58 329154 46114<br />
Muvattupuzha 292.89 57738 97.13 4514.24 8347.64 84.92<br />
Attappady 21.8 53338 2346.70 454.2 5305.62 1068.12<br />
.<br />
ldamalavar 108.85 600.44 45162 i119.79 6139.83 332.45<br />
Chaliyar 8116 2931 16 351158 980 34868.84 3458.04<br />
Banasurasagar 71.65 147.6 106.00 1065.35 1817.13 70.57<br />
Kakkadavu 45.43 4" 745 862.9 I 371.54 9587.76 24X05~<br />
Kariarkutty 90.96 36'>.92 306.68 2594.1 5736.26 121.13<br />
. .' .<br />
Source: CompIled from GOK. MlllIStry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l·m3nce. Per<strong>for</strong>mance Dudgetllf the Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Department. 1990-91 <strong>and</strong> 200Q·0 I<br />
188
The <strong>for</strong>egoing analysis shows that a major chunk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> expenditure in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
sector was <strong>on</strong> revenue account. There<strong>for</strong>e, the real c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> works suffered. This<br />
had led to time <strong>and</strong> cost over-runs <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent reyisi<strong>on</strong> in the estimates in the<br />
project cycle. The revenue expenditure in some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>going projects, viz ..<br />
Vamanapuram, Meenachil Valley, Chamravanom <strong>and</strong> Attappady schemes was the<br />
highest at 70 per cent in Meenachil project. followed by 63 per cent in<br />
Vamanapuram <strong>and</strong> 60 per cent in Chamravattom during 1997-98. The financial<br />
investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> important comp<strong>on</strong>ents as well as<br />
the revenue <strong>and</strong> capital expenditure are furnished in detail in appendix tables<br />
(Appendix 5.3 to 5.6).<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the other major comp<strong>on</strong>ents, the expenditure <strong>on</strong> main canals, branch<br />
canals. distrihutarles Jnd l<strong>and</strong> Jcqulsiti<strong>on</strong> has been the highest in most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. In the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. the major comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
expenditure during 1997-9S had been distributaries, occupying 29 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
financial investment. followed by directi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> administrati<strong>on</strong> (24 %) <strong>and</strong> main<br />
canals (18 %). It is important to note that except in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kuttiadi project <strong>and</strong><br />
Idamalayar projects. in all other projects, the investment <strong>on</strong> field boothies had been<br />
below 6 per cent in most cases. ,howing the inappropriate attenti<strong>on</strong> given <strong>for</strong> water<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> at the fi,:!d level. In projects, such as Pazhassi. Periyar valley <strong>and</strong><br />
Muvattupuzha, the financial investment <strong>for</strong> l<strong>and</strong> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> had heen above 10 per<br />
cent <strong>and</strong> in projects, viz.. Kallada. Pamba, Kanjirapuzha. Idamalayar <strong>and</strong><br />
Vamanapuram. it had h
Cost escalati<strong>on</strong> due to arbitrati<strong>on</strong> awards, departmental lapses <strong>and</strong> unintended<br />
payments to c<strong>on</strong>tractors<br />
The arbitrati<strong>on</strong> awards <strong>and</strong> unscrupulous payments made to the c<strong>on</strong>tractors<br />
appear to be a major source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost escalati<strong>on</strong> in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala.<br />
The CAGI reports bring out clearly the rent seeking behaviour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
bureaucracy. A review <strong>for</strong> the period 1985-86 to 1998-99 brings out the very<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in Kerala. loaded with problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rent-seeking<br />
<strong>and</strong> nepotism. The reports bring out various sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost-escalati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects in Kerala. They are: (i) extra expenditure due to delay in communicating<br />
acceptance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenders; (ii) extra expenditure due to change <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> specificati<strong>on</strong>!<br />
defective estimati<strong>on</strong>; (iii) n<strong>on</strong>-recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> advances. cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials from<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tractors: (iv) extra expenditure due to departmental delays: (\) defective<br />
<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal systems; (vi) change in scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scheme in the course <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
executi<strong>on</strong>: <strong>and</strong> (vii) irregular additi<strong>on</strong>al payment <strong>for</strong> earthwork excavati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Evidently, the unintended expenditure involved in all the above cases have been<br />
substantial adding to cost escalati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects.<br />
There are several evidences to show that the arbitrati<strong>on</strong> awards given to the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tractors have caused enormous burden <strong>on</strong> the financial allocati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> department. For instance. in the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. from October<br />
1984 to March 1993. 258 cases were referred <strong>for</strong> arbitrati<strong>on</strong> as per the specificati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
approved by the World Bank. Out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 172 awards passed as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> March 1993. a net<br />
190
amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs.2022.75 lakhs was awarded to the c<strong>on</strong>tractors In 171 cases (Table<br />
5.20).<br />
T a bl e 5. 20 : M aJor . reas<strong>on</strong>s stated in the arbitrati<strong>on</strong> awards in Kallada Project<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>s shown in the awards<br />
Claims<br />
Expcndit<br />
Amount<br />
Share<br />
passed<br />
ure per Shart! in t!xp<br />
involved<br />
(%)<br />
(No.)<br />
case (Rs. (%)<br />
(Rs. Lakhs)<br />
Lakhs)<br />
Defective investigati<strong>on</strong> 150 87.21 1055.44 7.04 52.18<br />
Delav in h<strong>and</strong>ing over the site 77 44.77 304.83 3.96 15.07<br />
Delay in issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dept. materials 55 31.98 I 255.1 4.64 12.61<br />
Failure to provide dumping yards 49 28.49 161.85 3.30 8.00<br />
N<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> power 24 13.95 153.42 6.39 7.58<br />
Delay in finalisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> design 14 8.1-l 44.59 3.19 2.20<br />
Miscellaneous counts 97 56.40 47.52 0.49 2.35<br />
Total 172 2022.75 11.76 100<br />
Source: Complied from CAGI. 1994.<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the various reas<strong>on</strong>s stated in the arbitrati<strong>on</strong> awards, 87 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
cases were pertaining to defective investigati<strong>on</strong> involving 52 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total<br />
amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> th.:: arbitrati<strong>on</strong> amount awarJ.::J. Delay in h<strong>and</strong>ing ov.::r the site wa,<br />
indicated as th.:: sec<strong>on</strong>d maJur r.::as<strong>on</strong> in 45 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the claims awarded <strong>and</strong> the<br />
amount involved was 15 per cent. About 32 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the claims were pertaining to<br />
delay in the issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> departmental materials <strong>and</strong> the amount claimed was almost 13<br />
per cent. Other important claims awarded in the arbitrati<strong>on</strong> were failure to provide<br />
dumping yards, shortage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> powcr <strong>and</strong> delay in finalisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the design.<br />
This<br />
shows lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> administrative <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al planning, which had obviously resulted<br />
in the emerg.::nc.:: <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ineflicient <strong>and</strong> less productive irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in Kerala.<br />
191
Another source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pilferage relates to defective preparati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> estimates <strong>and</strong><br />
other departmental lapses J4 • which had resulted in additi<strong>on</strong>al payment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 70.45<br />
lakhs to the c<strong>on</strong>tractor in the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. The major reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
highlighted were mistake in arriving at the rate <strong>for</strong> earthwork excavati<strong>on</strong> (21.5 %),<br />
excess thickness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal lining (20.5 %). irregular sancti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> higher rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
excavati<strong>on</strong> (15.89 %) <strong>and</strong> extra expenditure <strong>on</strong> protective blasting (42.11 %). Audit<br />
expenses also <strong>for</strong>ms a major comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> project costs. [n Chamravattom. it has<br />
been Rs. 4.35 lakhs as per original estimates (July 1965). This has increased to a<br />
revised estimate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Rs. 13.23 lakhs (Oct. 1975) <strong>and</strong> to Rs. 37.71 lakhs in Nov. 1983,<br />
escalati<strong>on</strong> being 767 (this <strong>for</strong>ms part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> indirect charges) (CAGI, 1997).<br />
Similarly. in the Pazhassi project. the CAGI report (1992) indicates that the<br />
time ll\ er-run clln,eljuent lln the: \Ubstanlial change~ Introduced in the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
proJe~t<br />
has resulted In an increase in the project cost from Rs. 442.4 lakhs as<br />
\)T1glnall~<br />
estimated In 1960 to Rs. 7735.95 lakhs in February 1988. Defective<br />
alignment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the main canal in certain reaches resulted in unintended additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
expcnditun: <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 15.~7<br />
lakhs <strong>on</strong> their strengthening. However, acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the<br />
recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 7.75 lakhs due from a defaulting c<strong>on</strong>tractor had not been initiated till<br />
September 1991 though the reln'ant c<strong>on</strong>tract was terminated in September 1979<br />
H<br />
The integrated planned programme <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cutting. dumping <strong>and</strong> simultaneolls filling (<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pipelines) cll\lsagcd under the agrccmcnt could not he adhered to <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> failure to<br />
supply pipcs In tlnlc.1 his proccdural lapsc resultcd in an arhitrati<strong>on</strong> award "r Rs. 15.84<br />
Ia~hs to thc c<strong>on</strong>lrac\or In 1985 including an intcrcst <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 2.08 lakhs. The total c"pcnditurc<br />
192
itself. in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the government directive to take appropriate acti<strong>on</strong> within a year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
terminati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>tract (CAGL 1992: 4.1.8.4).<br />
Project induced externalities <strong>and</strong> rise in costs<br />
The problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> externalities have also been <strong>on</strong> the nse necessitating<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable allocati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong>al financial<br />
resources <strong>for</strong> mitigating the<br />
en\'ir<strong>on</strong>mental problems caused by irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. Though a realistic estimate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems is yet to be made. available in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> dem<strong>on</strong>strate the<br />
adverse effects <strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong> in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterlogging <strong>and</strong> salinity. These problems not<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly make the l<strong>and</strong> unproducti ve. but also entail huge cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> reclamati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
According to the CAGI report 1993, in the Kuttiadi comm<strong>and</strong> area, about 64<br />
per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the original aya(lIt <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14568.70 ha. was adversely affected by<br />
\\aterlogglng, salinity <strong>and</strong> al\...alllllty (lable 5.21). It was found that about 41 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> area could ha\'e been reclaimed <strong>and</strong> brought under cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
with timely measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> reclamati<strong>on</strong>. But. no attenti<strong>on</strong> was paid to it. The<br />
waterlogged area unfit <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> accounts <strong>for</strong> 19.46 per cent. followed by 2.6 per<br />
cent area left unirrigated du.: to lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal links, <strong>and</strong> 1.16 per cent by unec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
holdings, It is important to note that the irrigable area permanently c<strong>on</strong>verted <strong>for</strong><br />
dwellings, roads, etc. has been 'Ignllicantl) high at 36 per cent. Thus, <strong>on</strong>ly 43 per<br />
cent 01 the area could be rc\crt
process would be very high. This also highlights the apparent neglect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works<br />
in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s in the state.<br />
Table 5. 2 I: E sttmales . 0 r problem identified areas in Kuttiadi project<br />
Problems identified Area (ha.) (%) share<br />
! L<strong>and</strong> waterlogged <strong>and</strong> unfit <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> 1802 19.46<br />
Reclaimable areas. but not reclaimed 3759 40.59<br />
Area not covered due to missing links <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canals 240 2.59<br />
Area ab<strong>and</strong><strong>on</strong>ed as unec<strong>on</strong>omic 107 1.16<br />
Ayacut area c<strong>on</strong>verted <strong>for</strong> residential purposes.<br />
road. etc.<br />
335.t 36.21<br />
Total 9262 63.58"<br />
• Indicates the percentag.e . <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area to total ayacut<br />
..<br />
area expected to be benefited .<br />
Source. CAGI (1993).<br />
The above issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>siderable amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> degradati<strong>on</strong> as reported in<br />
the Kuttiadi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project points to the necessity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a realistic estimate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
problem affected areas in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s in Kerala in order to reflect <strong>on</strong> the<br />
prot-dem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> in irrIgati<strong>on</strong> projects. The reported paddy area<br />
in Irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects is to be rea,sessed to bring out the actual irrigable area.<br />
There are also evidences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> shrinking capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reservoirs due<br />
to sedimentati<strong>on</strong>. For instance. the original capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Malampuzha reservoir<br />
was 228.40 milli<strong>on</strong> cU.m. according to the project report. A study c<strong>on</strong>ducted by the<br />
Kerala Engineering Research <strong>Institute</strong> (KERl, 1978) shows that the capacity had<br />
reduced to 220.15 milli<strong>on</strong> cU.m as a result <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sedimentati<strong>on</strong>. Another study by KERI<br />
( 19K3), reveals that the average annual sedimentati<strong>on</strong> rate in Peechi reservoir was<br />
0.91 per cent <strong>and</strong> this appears to be higher than that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sedimentati<strong>on</strong> rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 0.25<br />
pt:r ct:nt found <strong>for</strong> Malarnpuzh:.L To minimise the rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sedimentati<strong>on</strong>, the study<br />
team ~uggested<br />
several rnt:asures, like a) protecting the catchment area from<br />
encroachment Clnd de<strong>for</strong>t:stati<strong>on</strong>; h) adopting scientific modes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> directi<strong>on</strong>; c)<br />
194
avoiding over-grazing in the catchment area. etc. Measures in this directi<strong>on</strong> have not<br />
been Initiated (CAGI. 1986-87). which may be attributed to lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> financial<br />
resources <strong>for</strong> undertaking the protective measures.<br />
The problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> leakage in the dams was another important issue. An expert<br />
committee was c<strong>on</strong>stituted by the Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala in November 1983 to guide<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials at site in executi"g necessary rectificatorv works <strong>on</strong> kaks in the<br />
Kanjirapuzha dam. The committee had founrl :1,3t the leaks in all the blocks were<br />
due to reas<strong>on</strong>s like seep'!ge (Win foundati<strong>on</strong>, leak~ tlU(":iSh face drains <strong>and</strong> mas<strong>on</strong>ry<br />
JafI!. Tile committee's recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> correcting the jJwble"!"" ~."ve<br />
not been<br />
carried out as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> December 1995 <strong>and</strong> thf> I>;.lks c<strong>on</strong>tinue which may affect the dam<br />
safety. Even if rainfall is more in the catchment<br />
area. the run<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>f could not be<br />
harvested hv raiSin!! storaL!e level because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-rectificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the leaks (CAGI.<br />
, ,<br />
1995)<br />
The problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> has ~1~.,'<br />
he en an unfinished agenda, <strong>for</strong> want <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
financial resources to rehabilitate the project-affected peopie (PAP). It is reported<br />
that in Karapuzha project. c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> houses <strong>for</strong> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 218 tribal<br />
(adimsi; families evicted in 1978 from the reservoir area had not started even after<br />
19 years <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> starting the project (CAGI. 1997: 4.1.15).<br />
Time lag in the completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects<br />
The status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in Kerala in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the magnitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problem<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time-lag in the completi<strong>on</strong> has been discussed 111 detail in the first secti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
chapter. As a matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, a majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>going irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes arc under<br />
195
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> more than 20 years spending a li<strong>on</strong>'s share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the financial<br />
resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state. It is reported that the ten irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects taken up between<br />
1961 <strong>and</strong> 1982 at an estimated cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs.183.85 crores had not been completed<br />
cven by March 1998. The total expenditure already incurred <strong>on</strong> these incomplete<br />
works amounted to Rs. 1235.25 crores. The estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these projects have since<br />
been revised to Rs. 1969.48 crores (CAGl. 1998).<br />
Various reas<strong>on</strong>s are attributed <strong>for</strong> the delay in the completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
works. They are: (i) delays In communicating acceptance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenders; (ii) change <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
specificati<strong>on</strong>! defective estimati<strong>on</strong>; (iii) departmental lapses; (iv) intermittent strikes<br />
by labour uni<strong>on</strong>s at the work site <strong>and</strong> (v) inadequate budget provisi<strong>on</strong>s. It has been<br />
reported that in Muvattupuzha valley irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. the budget provisi<strong>on</strong>s have<br />
heen far belo\\ the actual e\:penditure during the period 198~-85 to 1992-93 (Table<br />
5.21). The actual e\:penditure was 73 per cent more than the budgetary prOVISIOns<br />
during the entire period under c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Table 5.21: Budget provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> actual expenditure in Muvaltupuzha Valley irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
pr0.Lec . t<br />
Year<br />
Oulla\ as per • F d 'd d Actual<br />
. - , un s provi e<br />
Funds provided as<br />
Project Report (Rs. lakhs) expenditure (Rs.<br />
(%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> expo<br />
(Rs. lakhsl<br />
lakhs)<br />
1984-85 806.00 r 200 348.33 57.42<br />
1985-86 454.00 40 199.78 20.02<br />
1986-87 400.18 i 200 274.68 72.81<br />
1987-88 '-15.58 i 210 24006 87.48<br />
1988-89 370.93 350 362.59 96.53<br />
1989-90 468.02 300 616.83 48.64<br />
1990-91 -100.00 400 i 536.27 74.59<br />
1991-92 800.00 800 840.05 95.23<br />
Cumulative ~9.j4.71 2500 3418.59 73.13<br />
Source. Complied trolJ1 C AGI. 1994<br />
196
While the inadequate budgetary provisi<strong>on</strong> to irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects has delayed<br />
the creati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> full potential. <strong>for</strong>malities <strong>and</strong> procedures in\'olved in getting<br />
clearance from the Central Water Commissi<strong>on</strong> have also c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the delay in<br />
completi<strong>on</strong>. In fact. most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes have been initiated much be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
getting <strong>for</strong>mal approval from the CWC (table 5.22). While the approval <strong>for</strong> projects<br />
such as Kuttiadi. Vamanapuram. Pamba <strong>and</strong> Pazhassi had come within two to three<br />
years time. the projects. viz .. Kallada. Chitturpuzha. Karapuzha <strong>and</strong> Muvatupuzha<br />
lOok 5-8 years 10 get the approval from CWe. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chim<strong>on</strong>i irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
project, the time taken was almost 15 years. Except three projects, all others are<br />
under various stages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>/ completi<strong>on</strong> without any achievement worth<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ing.<br />
,<br />
Table 5.22: IrrJUallOn projects gol aJl~rova If rom ewc a f ler wor k s I ar I e d<br />
Project<br />
Year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Time taken <strong>for</strong> ACluallag as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
approval<br />
Starr approm/ (years) 200 J (years)<br />
I:£CWC<br />
Kallada 1961 1966 5 40<br />
Pamba 1961 1964 3 32*<br />
Pazhassi 1961 1964 3 40<br />
Kuttiadi 1962 1964 2 31"<br />
Chinll!Puzha 1963 1968 5 30"<br />
Karapuzha 1972 1978 6 28<br />
Chim<strong>on</strong>v 1975 1990 15 25<br />
MuvattLJ.Jluzha 1975 1983 8 25<br />
Vamanapuram 1979 1982 3 21<br />
Source CompIled from Netto (1990).<br />
The delay caused in the approval <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the schemes by the CWC appears to be a<br />
political ec<strong>on</strong>omy issue. in the sense that these irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects were initiated<br />
under political cxigencies. For exam pic. while all the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
197
are mainly c<strong>on</strong>centrated in Thrissur <strong>and</strong> Palakkad districts, (see Table 5.2A) the<br />
<strong>on</strong>going projects are spread across regi<strong>on</strong>s (Table 5.28).<br />
Water pricing <strong>and</strong> Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Receipts<br />
An important organizati<strong>on</strong>al impediment In the functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems in India is the n<strong>on</strong>-pricing or under-pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water. The Ninth<br />
Plan document reiterates that most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the states have very low irrigati<strong>on</strong> water rates<br />
at substantively varying levels <strong>and</strong> have not revised these <strong>for</strong> the last 2-3 decades<br />
(GO!, 2000: 2.293). In Kerala, the irrigati<strong>on</strong> receipts collected c<strong>on</strong>stituted <strong>on</strong>ly 10 to<br />
15 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the expenditure incurred <strong>on</strong> the projects as per the estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Ninth Finance Commissi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
But. the estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the \linth Finance Commissi<strong>on</strong> appear to be over -<br />
estimates as the irrigati<strong>on</strong> receipts are hardly 2 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the expenditure <strong>on</strong> the<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector as revealed from table 5.23.<br />
Table: 52 . 3: State expen d' Iture an d revenue r rom pu br Ie sec t or . Irr.!Ka . f IOn<br />
Year<br />
Receipts (Rs. crores)<br />
Expendit<br />
Receipts (%<br />
Total dey. from<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> exp.) from<br />
ure<br />
Expend iturc<br />
(Rs.<br />
Minor<br />
Major/ med. Major/ med.<br />
(Rs. crores)<br />
Minor<br />
irrigatio<br />
crores)<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
n<br />
1991-92 90.81 280.n 1.66 1.21 1.83 1.33<br />
1992-93 95.58 268.19 1.44 0.51 1.51 0.53<br />
I 1993-94 131.46 352.58 236 0.48 1.80 0.37<br />
1994-95 137.39 431.80 1.79 0.56 1.30 0.41<br />
1995-96 170.34 540.02 2.66 0.46 1.56 0.27<br />
1996-97 204.05 648.67 2.01 0.63 0.99 0.31<br />
1997-98 187.79 604.57 2.82 0.67 1.50 0.36<br />
(,OK (2000). Ninth Five Year Plan.<br />
In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector. the irrigati<strong>on</strong> receipts have been below<br />
0.5 per cent in most cases, whereas. the irrigati<strong>on</strong> receipts in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major<br />
198
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects have been staggering around 1.5 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total expenditure<br />
<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector. It is important to note that as l<strong>on</strong>g as the irrigati<strong>on</strong> service in<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely. dependable <strong>and</strong> adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water is not ensured, it may be<br />
difficult to motivate the <strong>farm</strong>ers to pay <strong>for</strong> the inefficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public water<br />
. . . 35<br />
InstitutIOns .<br />
The analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> per<strong>for</strong>mance <strong>and</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in<br />
Kerala brings out important issues that merit attenti<strong>on</strong>. Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
approach. administrative planning. faulty technical design <strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong> have led to<br />
several twists <strong>and</strong> turns in the expected benefits from irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Apart from rent<br />
seeking attitude <strong>and</strong> political ec<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. the<br />
\'ery process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> dewlopment in the state has been obstructed by the<br />
paradigm shift in cropping palt
ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot •••:.pt'.. d'.u~ <strong>on</strong> If'ria.ll<strong>on</strong> II>. l.okh.)<br />
Yf'or /;011""" Pombo K""p"o, K",,;ady Po:ho$1' P""'d' (·',m",· A/II\'ottIlPI' Id"nlal· Kara- Meeno·dld (·ham,· To/al<br />
l',elltJ ~·olfn /111:110 :110 \'Qllty '1\'0' 1'11:"0 R \"UUfl' cl\(Jflom (fU I.nUu)<br />
1970.71 000 liM " XO 2941 1193 27 ~" 5 52 000 () 00 (J 05 000 000 222071<br />
. ._--<br />
1071·72 000 1847 771 3027 1307 lH\ 557 000 OUO<br />
- .<br />
027 000 (j (10 268590<br />
1972·73 noo IHI HI 1901 13M l3 I X 653 o (Xl 000 (} ~2 O()() o O(j JOI41K<br />
197).74 000 19 "3 il>4 31 33 1235 20 HX 6.78 000 000 ow u 00 000 3539 72<br />
1~74-J5 000 1897 'I (15 3270 1258 10] I h 95 000 () 00 o ~S 000 (JOO ~ 18973<br />
1975· 7. () uo 21 II '102 JO IN 13 18 1< ] I 668 028 () 00 (j·n () 00 o ()O 521072<br />
104 o (Xl <strong>on</strong> 000 000 693916<br />
147b-77 000 21 % < Xi 2810 14 )5 I K 4~<br />
" 37<br />
1977-78 000 2094 9N n44 1519 Ih\ 5 K6 I 43 o (K) 0106 000 000 9HO 03<br />
1978· 79 00(1 2030 10 H3 ~5 ~O 1636 I I( 4~ 5n 206 ouo 107 O()() O()() 11632 95<br />
1979·80 000 1957 1143 2) U6 1785 17M1 556 305 000 165 002 000 I ~278 52<br />
1980·81 21 Uy<br />
14 ""<br />
960 17 27 1389 I)RO 401 374 fJ 14 I 78 002 000 2134226<br />
t'i81·82 2-'~ 1-105
~.Ol<br />
002<br />
002<br />
002<br />
002<br />
002<br />
002<br />
o OJ<br />
0)]<br />
o OJ<br />
o OJ<br />
004<br />
004<br />
104<br />
04<br />
'00<br />
1990-91<br />
Q(<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
KUfiladl project<br />
239<br />
309<br />
288<br />
792<br />
1055<br />
952<br />
54349:2.<br />
1990-91<br />
000<br />
000<br />
253<br />
om<br />
966<br />
3921<br />
1785<br />
102S<br />
3 17<br />
1732<br />
191814<br />
C}J/IIIJrplcha<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
ooc<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
o I()<br />
o I()<br />
1997-98<br />
2.18<br />
283<br />
372<br />
723<br />
965<br />
~3 33<br />
1014<br />
968<br />
11 76<br />
5954 21<br />
1997-98<br />
000<br />
000<br />
248<br />
000<br />
829<br />
3542<br />
1865<br />
732<br />
234<br />
2549<br />
278151<br />
182469<br />
197387<br />
198<br />
2028<br />
20548<br />
222082<br />
230627<br />
235589<br />
239901<br />
242636<br />
24678(<br />
249:<br />
241<br />
1206<br />
1984-85<br />
1985-8'<br />
1089-9(}<br />
I '>9()-01<br />
1991-02<br />
1992-93<br />
1'1')3-04<br />
1995-%<br />
1997-98<br />
1998-99<br />
1_-Of.1<br />
061<br />
511<br />
5 35<br />
740<br />
775<br />
950<br />
1116<br />
H 2l<br />
10 76<br />
18 ~5<br />
10 -7<br />
10<br />
2067<br />
2162<br />
18%<br />
J796<br />
2313<br />
2271<br />
2102<br />
2036<br />
1955<br />
2022<br />
4099<br />
849<br />
7R4<br />
781<br />
7bJ<br />
754<br />
7 J9<br />
121<br />
(,07<br />
7 (}O<br />
674<br />
662<br />
(, 54<br />
677<br />
1579<br />
10<br />
1656<br />
1626<br />
1563<br />
1505<br />
1473<br />
1447<br />
1411<br />
1453<br />
1435<br />
1485<br />
000<br />
3<br />
3<br />
J(<br />
19<br />
29<br />
298<br />
290<br />
28'<br />
273<br />
268<br />
265<br />
0'<br />
49<br />
J7 12<br />
J(, 44<br />
JJ fl)<br />
32h7<br />
13<br />
Source GOI\... M IntS\1!- o( f- Inance. PerfOrmanLL' 'tudgct <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irngatl<strong>on</strong> Department. 19')0·91 <strong>and</strong> 10()()-O 1<br />
ApPtndi,: !Ii.J: Hn.nC'ialln"~slmcnt In Irril.!Mti<strong>on</strong> [lfojrch- ,hue <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1m or1an'romp<strong>on</strong>C'nl.<br />
/'m"f,a I'roll'a<br />
() fXI<br />
3<br />
32<br />
3<br />
34'<br />
34.<br />
36;<br />
~oo<br />
000<br />
100<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
0.00<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
)00<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
000<br />
A"njlraplI:ha proJeo<br />
/990· fn /997-98 /990·9/ 1997-98<br />
I InvestigatIOn () 55 033 016<br />
2 L<strong>and</strong>aCQUlsltl<strong>on</strong> 1186 821 718<br />
3 Bulldln2S [) 8y; 087 071<br />
4 CommunicatIOns 056 041 020<br />
5 Head \\'orl..s J bb 5 07 1 27<br />
~6-,~~1-",",,,-,n-,-,a~n",a~I'~ _____ -l ___ ~2,-j:..cj:'C(',+ ___<br />
o 14<br />
759<br />
075<br />
091<br />
177<br />
.!1-,,8-,,8~2 + ___ ~J'!:.R~f,-, +-... _ _____ '_7_"_4 _<br />
7 Uram:h cmal~ X 'ih h 87 20 y~ ~() 51<br />
8DISlrIbulancs ~I)U 2918 15_77 1565<br />
9 Field boothles 89) 655 066 064<br />
10 Dlrecll0n&admm 1713 2369 1330 1410<br />
TOIaI (Rs lakh'l 280'1') 78 4999608 5817 51 6('38 98<br />
Apll~ndil: ~.J Financiallnnslment in IriIPRti<strong>on</strong> proj('("ls- sharf <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Important comp<strong>on</strong>enls (C<strong>on</strong>ld~<br />
('oil/p<strong>on</strong>e,,' J<br />
l'a=hUHI pruJect<br />
1990-91 1997-98<br />
o 2J o 16<br />
1605<br />
890 726<br />
I 91 168<br />
078 056<br />
1841 1606<br />
Jot) I<br />
II
ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnlln IrrlKlltl<strong>on</strong> proje£fs· shllrr <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1m ortant ('omp<strong>on</strong>rnls ( '<strong>on</strong>ld,,)<br />
("omp<strong>on</strong>l!lIfs !dama!ayar project l\(Jraprcha \,(If(e,~' ~ 'amanapuram<br />
19911-91 1991-98 1990-91 / VY7·98 1991l-91 1991-98<br />
I Investlgau<strong>on</strong> () 63 028 O~I 014 1086 lb7<br />
2 L<strong>and</strong> aCQuISitIOn 520 729 J4 45 538 799 952<br />
3 llulld111gS 2 :!S IJ4 444 I 5~ 393 1408<br />
~ Communicati<strong>on</strong>" 000 000 J ~(J 047 000 021<br />
5 HCJd \\or~s ~ .. hJ 1856 1691 51 1>2 5'l() 6.92<br />
6 Main canals o ()O 6288 2~ 82 3202 068 196<br />
7 Branch (an;lls 000 000 000 2.60 0.00 000<br />
8 Dlslnbutarll!s 000 0.00 000 000 000 000<br />
9 Field booulles 2983 000 000 000 000 000<br />
10 Dlrect10n & admm 743 925 953 568 7065 6) 62<br />
Total (Rs lalhs) ,562 51 7542 II 208401 14817 28 34070 101937<br />
ApJl('ndi,: !i.J: HnJlndolln"'('~lIn('nt In JrriJ:AU<strong>on</strong> projecl'· 'hare or 1m ortnnt comp<strong>on</strong>fnh (C<strong>on</strong>td .. )<br />
( '1II11/'Olt'"B ".Iet'nael,,/ J'al/~v ( 'IUllllrlll'lIff<strong>on</strong>! Aftoppady<br />
/VV(J.IJI 19P7·98 1990·91 /fJfJ7.fJ8 /r;rJO.9/ 1997·98<br />
I In ... estlgath.m b
Apptndil.: ~.6: Capital txptndlCuft Ind cost tsnlali<strong>on</strong> in Irri2111ti<strong>on</strong> proitcts In I 78 I Q 95 XO 05 H8134<br />
-----r--<br />
KuttlaJ\ 1744 R2.56 5-lJ4
Chapter 6<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On-Farm Development: An Analysis<br />
Given the need <strong>for</strong> <strong>and</strong> importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>for</strong> the efficient <strong>and</strong> productive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas. it is necessary to examine the dynamics in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cost. technology. motivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> finally, productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops.<br />
The intensity <strong>and</strong> scale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its adopti<strong>on</strong> depends up<strong>on</strong>, am<strong>on</strong>g others. the cost<br />
effectiveness <strong>and</strong> the incremental output arising out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> it. An attempt. there<strong>for</strong>e.<br />
has been made in this chapter to examine the <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> costs<br />
<strong>and</strong> returns <strong>for</strong> various crops grown in the <strong>farm</strong> plots with OFD <strong>and</strong> without it.<br />
The chapter is divided into two secti<strong>on</strong>s. In secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e, the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in all<br />
the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala has been presented based <strong>on</strong><br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary data followed by the presentati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field level survev results in<br />
secti<strong>on</strong> two.<br />
In Kerala. like elsewhere in the country, the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> equitable <strong>and</strong> timely supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water has been far from<br />
satisfactory. As a result. the <strong>farm</strong> level investments necessary <strong>for</strong> effective <strong>and</strong><br />
efficient utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> have been minimal or even n<strong>on</strong>-existent. Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adequate resp<strong>on</strong>se from the <strong>farm</strong>ers towards the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> water management practices seems to be due to a variety <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> problems <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints like less remunerative cropping systems. in general. n<strong>on</strong>-availability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely <strong>and</strong> adequate water. shortage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent high eosts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>. to menti<strong>on</strong> a few. These probkms over a period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time appears to<br />
have perpetuated disc<strong>on</strong>tent am<strong>on</strong>g the <strong>farm</strong>ers, in general. <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ing is.
there<strong>for</strong>e. taken as a way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> life not as a source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> income nor as a means to an<br />
end. but as an end in itself.<br />
An attempt has. there<strong>for</strong>e. been made in what follows to examme <strong>and</strong><br />
analyse the costs <strong>and</strong> returns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> investment in OFD works. in general. at the<br />
project level <strong>and</strong> at the <strong>farm</strong> level by the <strong>farm</strong>ers, in particular. In the first<br />
instance. the ec<strong>on</strong>omic effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD have been examined in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ten<br />
completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> net returns per ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropped area as<br />
well as incremental benefits accrued to the <strong>farm</strong>ers. While the analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
is based <strong>on</strong> the data drawn from evaluati<strong>on</strong> studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA published in 1996.<br />
the analysis with respect to the two projects selected <strong>for</strong> the study is entirely<br />
based <strong>on</strong> the <strong>farm</strong> level sun'ey data collected from the households. The<br />
limit~J!i<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the evaluati<strong>on</strong> studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its scope <strong>and</strong> coverage<br />
are. however. kept in view while interpreting the trends in producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops grown in comm<strong>and</strong> areas. In case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pee chi, <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
projects selected <strong>for</strong> the stud~.<br />
the results <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the evaluati<strong>on</strong> study are extensively<br />
used to supplement the empirical findings based <strong>on</strong> field level data. As regards<br />
the Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project. the Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System I (MCS) is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important OFD works at the <strong>farm</strong> level <strong>for</strong> promoting<br />
better utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water. It is particularly so because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
undulating topography <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> area. The MCS in the Kallada project.<br />
there<strong>for</strong>e. seems to have been adopted as a cost-effective strategy to suit the<br />
I A detailed descripti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ":atllTes <strong>and</strong> technical aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance<br />
System IS provided in Chapter 4.<br />
203
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the topography <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project. The relative per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> various<br />
crops in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area under MCS is compared with those under the<br />
open canal system (OCS) to find out the impact. if any. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> crop<br />
productivity <strong>and</strong> water use efficiency.<br />
An attempt has also been made to examine the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> use pattern.<br />
which seem to have been changing in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s in general <strong>and</strong><br />
Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada projects. in particular. <strong>on</strong> the scale <strong>and</strong> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> taking up<br />
OFD works by the <strong>farm</strong>ers. Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> faith in timely <strong>and</strong> adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
to grow water-intensive crops <strong>and</strong> relatively more remunerative prices <strong>for</strong> some<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the commercial crops, like rubber <strong>and</strong> other plantati<strong>on</strong> crops tends to<br />
demotivate <strong>farm</strong>ers to take up cost intensive OFD works necessary <strong>for</strong> the<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated crops. This analysis may help underst<strong>and</strong>ing the dynamics<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> orD at the <strong>farm</strong> level.<br />
I. The status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in CAD projects in Kerala: An aggregate analysis<br />
In Kerala. the Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development (CAD) programme was<br />
implemented with effect from March 1978. as per the GO (MS) No. 2491791 AD<br />
dt. 13.6.1979. InitiallY, 10 completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state, viz.,<br />
Malampuzha. Walayar. Mangalam. Gayathri <strong>and</strong> Pothundy in the Palakkad<br />
district. I'eechi, Vazhani, Cheerakuzhi <strong>and</strong> Chalakudy in the Thrissur district <strong>and</strong><br />
Neyyar in the Thiruvananthapuram district with a Culturable Comm<strong>and</strong> Area<br />
(CCA) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 97200 ha. were brought under the programme in 1985. Further. four<br />
more schemes, viz., Kuttiyadi in Kozhikode district, Chitturpuzha in Palakkad<br />
204
district, Periyar Valley in the Emakulam district <strong>and</strong> Pamba in Pathanamthitta<br />
district having a CCA <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 84205 ha. were also brought under CADA in 1992-93.<br />
Later. with the passing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the' Kerala Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Act' (1986)<br />
(37 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1986). the programme had been extended to the entire state. The CADA<br />
rules have been framed <strong>and</strong> published Vide No. 8909/ CADA-1/93/ Irrign. dt.<br />
17.6.1995 in the Kerala Gazette (Extraordinary) No. 599. dt 20.6.1995 (CADA.<br />
1996: 5)<br />
The Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Agency (CADA), as menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier.<br />
is resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> taking up soil <strong>and</strong> topographical surveys, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field<br />
channels <strong>and</strong> drains with related structures. introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'Warab<strong>and</strong>i' system,<br />
organisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beneficiary Farmers' Associati<strong>on</strong>s (BFAs). adaptive trials. largescale<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong>s (LSD) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural practices. etc. Primarily. it is intended<br />
to coordinate the activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Engineering. Agriculture. Co-operati<strong>on</strong>, Soil<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Evaluati<strong>on</strong> departments involved in OFD <strong>and</strong> other related<br />
CAD programmes. The organisati<strong>on</strong>al set up <strong>and</strong> the linkages <strong>and</strong> activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the different wings/ departments <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA are shown in chart I.<br />
205
Chart: 6.1 Organisati<strong>on</strong>al Chart showing CAD Programmes with respect to implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific OFD in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala<br />
, If 1 If , If , ~ 1 r<br />
ENGINEERING SOIL AGRICUL TURE CO- EVALUATION<br />
WING CONSERVATION WING OPERATION WING<br />
WING WING<br />
, If<br />
, II' 1 If , II' 1 If<br />
C<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field I Soil survey <strong>and</strong> soil Adaptive trials, large- Organisati<strong>on</strong> Undertaking<br />
<strong>farm</strong>l drainage c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> scale dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> BFAsl studies <strong>on</strong> the<br />
channels; <strong>farm</strong> roads; activities, viz., l<strong>and</strong> training programmes, Karshaka impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> levelling <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wells, Samitis in the various CAD<br />
'Warab<strong>and</strong>hi', etc. shaping provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pump sets ayacut schemes<br />
I<br />
• •<br />
Implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific OFD works Implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific water management<br />
I- measures<br />
.. Optimum utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>and</strong> high water use<br />
...<br />
~<br />
efficiency<br />
....<br />
206
The project-wise details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the locati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ayacut area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes<br />
brought under the CADA have been furnished in table 6.1.<br />
T a bl e 6 . 1 : D e t'l al so f' Irngatl<strong>on</strong> p roiects under CADA in Kerala<br />
Name <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project<br />
Culturable<br />
Districts<br />
Percentage share in<br />
Comm<strong>and</strong> Area<br />
benefited<br />
CCA<br />
(in ha.)<br />
I. Malampuzha<br />
Palakkad &<br />
Thrissur<br />
21732' 11.98<br />
2. Walayar Palakkad 3844 2.12<br />
3. Pothundy Palakkad 5466 3.01<br />
4. Gayathri Palakkad 5466 3.01<br />
5. Mangalam Palakkad 3639 2.01<br />
6. Peechi Thrissur 18623" 10.27<br />
7. Vazhani Thrissur 5182 2.86<br />
8. Cheerakuzhi Thrissur 1619 0.89<br />
9. Chalakudy Thrissur 19696 10.86<br />
10. Neyyar Triv<strong>and</strong>rum 11891 6.56<br />
I I. Chitturpuzha Palakkad 15700 8.66<br />
12. Periyar Valley Ernakulam 32800 18.09<br />
13. Pamba<br />
.<br />
Alappuzha &<br />
Pathanamthitta<br />
21135 11.65<br />
14 KUlliyadi Kozhikode 14570 8.03<br />
; Total 181363<br />
• Including Cheramangalam Scheme; •• Includmg Kole l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
SOllrce.· CADA 1996: 4.<br />
A cursory glance at the data presented in table 6.1 shows the regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
disparities in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in Kerala as is the case with many other<br />
,;tates in the country For instance. Palakkad district tops in the list in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. It has five projects exclusively <strong>for</strong> the benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the district. comm<strong>and</strong>ing about 19 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total CCA <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
in Kerala <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e project ,11aring benefits with the adjacent Thrissur district.<br />
Thrissur district benefits out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> four projects exclusively comm<strong>and</strong>ing 25 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total CCA <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e sharing with Palakkad. Of the remaining districts,<br />
while Triv<strong>and</strong>rum, Ernakulam <strong>and</strong> Kozhikode have <strong>on</strong>e project each, Alappuzha<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pathanamthitta share the bendit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a single scheme al<strong>on</strong>e. Thus, Thrissur<br />
207
<strong>and</strong> Palakkad together occupy 10 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 14 projects, occupying about 56 per cent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total CCA benefited under the CAD programmes in the state. Ernakulam<br />
has a share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 18 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the CC A under the CAD programmes (figure 6.1 ).<br />
In what follows. we examine the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA with respect to<br />
OFD implementati<strong>on</strong> in the CAD schemes in Kerala. The data <strong>for</strong> this analvsis<br />
are drawn from the evaluati<strong>on</strong> report published by the CADA in 1996 <strong>and</strong> the<br />
sample survey report published in 1997. As menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier. though we are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>scious <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the data. these reports2 are the <strong>on</strong>ly source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the physical as well as financial aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD per<strong>for</strong>mance.<br />
This is. however. adequate enough to throw light <strong>on</strong> the policy <strong>and</strong> practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
CAD programme <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong> OFD <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent efficiency In<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> water usc.<br />
Fig. 6.1. District-wise CCA under CAD Projects in<br />
Kerala<br />
8% 19%<br />
18% %<br />
7% 12%<br />
I!I Palakkad<br />
.Thrissur<br />
DPLKD & TSR<br />
o Triv<strong>and</strong>rum<br />
• Ernakulam<br />
I!IALPYI PTA<br />
• Kozhikode<br />
Note: PLKD & TSR = Palakkad <strong>and</strong> Thrissur.<br />
ALPYI PTA = Alapuzha <strong>and</strong> Pathanamthitta.<br />
2 The published data <strong>on</strong> the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state are so poorly<br />
maintained that It I' very difficult to be accessed by individual researchers. Project<br />
authorities seem to be very cautious in sharing the in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> as they are highly<br />
skeptical about the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the schemes in general. Moreover, there are no<br />
benchmark studies or periodical evaluati<strong>on</strong> reports <strong>on</strong> individual projects to be relied <strong>on</strong>.<br />
208
6.1.1 Physical <strong>and</strong> financial per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA <strong>and</strong> the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects:<br />
As already discussed, the CAD programmes are implemented through the<br />
effective participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the five agencies under the overarching policy<br />
guidelines <strong>and</strong> the coordinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA. The functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities <strong>and</strong> boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all the line departments involved in OFD <strong>and</strong><br />
other related programmes are. however. clearly delineated. For instance, the<br />
primary resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the agriculture department are to: a) introduce<br />
adaptive trials; b) c<strong>on</strong>duct training programmes; c) introduce large scale<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> plots; <strong>and</strong> d) distribute subsidy to small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers. The<br />
Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> wing undertakes l<strong>and</strong> levelling <strong>and</strong> shaping activities <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Co-operati<strong>on</strong> wing initiates the <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water users' associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUAs) or<br />
beneficiary <strong>farm</strong>ers' associati<strong>on</strong>s (BFAs). The important activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Engir.eering wing are: a) c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels (lined outlet to 5-8 ha.<br />
block as well as unlined outlet within 5-8 ha.); b) c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field drains;<br />
<strong>and</strong> c) implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'Warab<strong>and</strong>i'. The Evaluati<strong>on</strong> wing initiates benchmark<br />
<strong>and</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong> surveys as \liell as crop cutting experiments.<br />
Given this backdrop. we now present In detail the pattern, scale <strong>and</strong><br />
intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD related aspects <strong>and</strong> the physical progress<br />
(achievement) in various projects c<strong>on</strong>sidered <strong>for</strong> this study (Table 6.2).<br />
209
Table 6.2. Physical <strong>and</strong> financial targets <strong>and</strong> achievements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD Schemes,<br />
1991-1997<br />
CAD Activities<br />
Financial per<strong>for</strong>mance Physical per<strong>for</strong>mance (%)<br />
(Rs. in crores) (Area in 000 ha.) share<br />
Ach.<br />
Target Ach.<br />
Ach.<br />
Target Ach.<br />
(%) (%)<br />
Field channels# 55.44 51.68 93 99.87 88.89 89 36<br />
Field channels· 2.54 0.47 18 72.97 14.22 19 6<br />
Warab<strong>and</strong>i 13.21 10.6 80 133.87 76.45 57 31<br />
Field drains 2.39 0.85 35 78.50 6.84 9 3<br />
i Adaptive trials 0.58 0.09 15 20.09 15.73 78 6<br />
I LSD@' 5.74 3.17 55 67.74 43.54 6..t 17<br />
Others 38.94 27.17 70 Nil Nil Nil Nil<br />
Total 118.84 94.03 79 473.03 245.68 52 100<br />
- -<br />
Note: # up to )-8 ha. block; • within )-8 ha. block; @ Large-scale Dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Source: CADA (1998).<br />
In<br />
area<br />
(%)<br />
share<br />
In expo<br />
54.96<br />
0.50<br />
11.27<br />
0.90<br />
0.10<br />
3.37<br />
28.90<br />
100.00<br />
It is noteworthy that nom: <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the CAD schemes could achieve physical<br />
<strong>and</strong> financial tar~ct~<br />
hen thL' Illust important ikms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD. \·iz .. field channels<br />
Jnd drains have IHlt heen completed as per the programme envisaged.<br />
Furthermore. the achievement in the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels in smaller<br />
plots (below 5 ha.) has been very disappointing both in financial <strong>and</strong> physical<br />
terms. The shortfall has heen attrlhuted by CADA to smaller size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings. as<br />
small <strong>farm</strong>ers are reluctant to part with l<strong>and</strong> free <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost <strong>for</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field<br />
channels <strong>and</strong> drains Furthermore. delay in finalisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenders. <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
BFAs <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> materials. like cement. paucity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
staff. etc. (CAGI. 199R: 223) have also c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the low progress. Same is<br />
the case with field drains. which are very crucial to reduce adverse effects <strong>on</strong><br />
soil. Such a lag in the achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these two crucial aspects is due to the fact<br />
that these were to be c<strong>on</strong>structed hy the ramlers availing loan frlll11 C ADA. The<br />
210
loan comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scheme, being <strong>on</strong>ly Rs. 200 per ha. was very unattractive<br />
(CAGL 1998:225). For instance, the achievement in the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field<br />
channels in smaller plots <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5 ha. <strong>and</strong> below had been <strong>on</strong>ly 19 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
targeted area while financial achievement is 18 per cent. In case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field drains.<br />
in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the target itself being low. the achievement had been <strong>on</strong>ly 9 per cent.<br />
It <strong>on</strong>ly shows that the authorities c<strong>on</strong>tinue to discriminate the small <strong>farm</strong>ers in<br />
<strong>development</strong> activities. The crucial role <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field drains does not seem to have<br />
attracted their attenti<strong>on</strong>. Fairly good per<strong>for</strong>mance in the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Warab<strong>and</strong>i programme is a silver-lining indeed.<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the various CAD programmes, as menti<strong>on</strong>ed above, major thrust<br />
has been given <strong>for</strong> engineering activities, such as c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels,<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'Warab<strong>and</strong>i' <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field drains. which together<br />
account <strong>for</strong> almost 68 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total expenditure incurred. In terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
physical achievement, in almost 42 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total area field channels have<br />
been c<strong>on</strong>structed. followed by area brought under 'Warab<strong>and</strong>i' However, the<br />
executi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> works <strong>on</strong> . Warab<strong>and</strong>i' <strong>and</strong> field channels <strong>and</strong> drains have not been<br />
synchr<strong>on</strong>ised in some projects (C AGI, 1998). The achievement in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soil<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> activities, including l<strong>and</strong> levelling <strong>and</strong> shaping has been <strong>on</strong>ly 1120<br />
ha. (43 %) against a target <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2590 ha. during the period 1991-92 to 1996-97. The<br />
shortfall has been attributed to the delay II identifying areas <strong>for</strong> l<strong>and</strong> levelling<br />
<strong>and</strong> shaping, because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inadequate staff in the soil c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> wing.<br />
The <strong>development</strong> status <strong>and</strong> scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works across the projects in<br />
the state is more or less the same. The engineering related OFD works seem to<br />
have been given priority in the allocati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> funds. For example. 94 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
211
the total allocati<strong>on</strong> has been <strong>for</strong> those activities (Appendix 6.1). In physical<br />
terms. c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels has been more than 65 per cent in all the<br />
cases. However. the soil c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> related activities like l<strong>and</strong> levellino <strong>and</strong><br />
c<br />
shaping have not received much attenti<strong>on</strong> either in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> financial allocati<strong>on</strong><br />
or physical achievement. It is, there<strong>for</strong>e, important that the OFD works are given<br />
due importance at least in future with adequate allocati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> funds <strong>and</strong> also<br />
motiv'ating <strong>farm</strong>ers to adopt scientific OFD.<br />
Thc CAD programmes like <strong>farm</strong>ers' training. <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water users'<br />
associati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> provlslOn <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsidy to small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers are<br />
extremely useful in motivating <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> building their capacity to adopt new<br />
<strong>farm</strong> technology emerging in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. The details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such programmes<br />
<strong>and</strong> their implementati<strong>on</strong> are presented in table 6.3. It is seen from the table that<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers' training. an imp<strong>on</strong>ant strategy <strong>for</strong> capacity building am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>farm</strong>ers has<br />
been gaining imp<strong>on</strong>ance over time. For instance. the number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers trained<br />
had increased to 390 in 1997-98 from 303 in 1993-94, an increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 29 per cent.<br />
Though this appears to be quite encouraging <strong>and</strong> welcome trend, the number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Beneficiary Farmers Associati<strong>on</strong>s (BFAs) had drastically declined from 479 to<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly 87 during the above period. In the light <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emerging re<strong>for</strong>ms in the water<br />
sector. the need <strong>for</strong> Water Users' Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WU As) has been gaining ground<br />
all over tih world. It can be seen from the table that <strong>farm</strong>ers' training. an<br />
important strategy <strong>for</strong> capacity building am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>farm</strong>ers has been gaining<br />
importance over time.<br />
212
Table 6.3. Physical achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD Programmes related to capacity<br />
building <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>farm</strong>ers, 1992-93 to 1997-98<br />
Year<br />
Training to<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers (No)<br />
Subsidy to small &<br />
marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers (no.)<br />
1992-93 ---- --.- 259<br />
I 1993-9-1 303 n-1 479<br />
199-1-95 291 452 299<br />
1995-96 309 313 145<br />
1996-97 384 159 106<br />
1997-98 390 361 87<br />
Total' 3272 2455 3770<br />
.\ ole •• Up to March 1998.<br />
Source Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Rc:yic:\\. 1998a.<br />
BF As Registered<br />
--<br />
For instance. the number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers trained increased to 390 in 1997-98<br />
from 303 in 1993-94. an increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 29 per cent. Though this appears to be quite<br />
encouraging <strong>and</strong> welcome trend. the number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beneficiary Farmers Associati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(BFAs) has drasticaIl~<br />
declined from 479 to <strong>on</strong>ly 87 during the above period. In<br />
the light <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emerging refllrrll' III the water sector. the need <strong>for</strong> Water Users'<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WL' As I has been gaining ground all over the world. There<strong>for</strong>e.<br />
there is need to c<strong>on</strong>centrate <strong>on</strong> this aspect in Kerala <strong>and</strong> find out the specific<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s. if any. <strong>for</strong> the dowr.ward trend in <strong>for</strong>ming <strong>farm</strong>ers' associati<strong>on</strong>s. Subsidy<br />
to small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers also has been declining over time. This is not a<br />
healthy trend. particularly with respect to OFD. which calls <strong>for</strong> more investment.<br />
which small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers cannot af<strong>for</strong>d by themselves.<br />
Farmers' training programmes. as menti<strong>on</strong>ed abo\e. seem to be quite<br />
popular as revealed by the targCl achievements. the details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which are presented<br />
in table 6.4. It is noteworthy that in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> much lower achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> financial<br />
targets. the physical achievement has been very impressive. For instance. in<br />
1991-92 with <strong>on</strong>ly 41 per cent achicvement in financial expcnditure. there was 98<br />
213
per cent achievement in physical terms.<br />
It not <strong>on</strong>ly shows the organisati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
ability <strong>and</strong> commitment to train more <strong>and</strong> more <strong>farm</strong>ers but also the cost<br />
effectin:ness with which the programmes were administered. This is a very<br />
encouraging trend that merits attenti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Table 6.4. Farmers' Training Programmes by CADA: Financial <strong>and</strong><br />
pllyslca h . I per f ormance, 1990 -9<br />
I to 1996-97<br />
Year<br />
Financial (Rs. Lakhs)<br />
Phvsical (No. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> programmes)<br />
Target Achievement Ach. (%) TarQet Achie\ement Ach. (%)<br />
1991-92 5.1 2.1 41 289 283 98<br />
1992-93 4.76 3.12 I 66 488 440 90<br />
1993-94 1 I 3.09 28 920 303 33<br />
1994-95 10.5 4.65 44 440 291 66<br />
1995-96 10.15 3.6 35 357 309 86<br />
1996-97 3.3 1.89 57 459 384 84<br />
Total 44.81 18.45 41 2953 2010 68<br />
Source. CAGI (1998)<br />
Let us no\\ examine the relative per<strong>for</strong>mance efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the varIOUS<br />
C AD programmes across the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. The details are presented in table<br />
6.5. The data presentt::d in tht:: table 6.5 shows the scale <strong>and</strong> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD<br />
programmes implemt::nted in the projects selected <strong>for</strong> the study. The intensity in<br />
this c<strong>on</strong>text is defined as tht:: ratio <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural comm<strong>and</strong> area (CCA) to the<br />
number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> each programme. Tht:: ratio <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> training programmes to CCA varies<br />
from I: 12.8 in Cheerakuzhi project to 1 :59.1 in Walayar project. Based <strong>on</strong> this<br />
ratio. the projects wt::rt:: ranked <strong>and</strong> the figurt::s in part::ntheses in table 6.5 shows<br />
the relative positi<strong>on</strong>. Based <strong>on</strong> tht:: ratio <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CCA to training programmes in each<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. the efficiency in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>:rage seems to be high in<br />
relatively smaller projects in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CCA. This was perhaps d<strong>on</strong>e with a view<br />
to improve the efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects with less (CA. where local dynamics <strong>and</strong><br />
complicati<strong>on</strong>s involving l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> water distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management may be<br />
214
elatively less. This trend is exemplary in the sense that it may prove to be a role<br />
model to the <strong>farm</strong>ers in bigger size projects to motivate them to learn more <strong>and</strong><br />
more through training programmes. In some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the bigger projects like<br />
Malampuzha. <strong>farm</strong>ers do not show much interest in training programmes, as they<br />
feel that mere partieipati<strong>on</strong> in training <strong>and</strong> the subsequent adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> modern<br />
<strong>farm</strong> technology is sheer waste <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time <strong>and</strong> resources in the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adequate<br />
<strong>and</strong> timel: supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water.<br />
Table 6.S Implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD Programmes <strong>and</strong> financial commitments,<br />
prolee t -WIse, 198586 - to 1994 -95<br />
Ratio<br />
Crop<br />
Exp.<br />
Train.<br />
Exp.<br />
Exp. per<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>TP WUAs<br />
cuning Total<br />
Project Prog.<br />
per<br />
(Rs.<br />
ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
to (No.)<br />
expen Exp.(Rs<br />
• (TP)<br />
WUA<br />
lakhs)<br />
CCA<br />
CCA"<br />
(Rs.)<br />
ment . Lakhs)<br />
(Rs.)<br />
I<br />
(No.)<br />
I 59.60 444<br />
Malampuzha 7. I 5<br />
421<br />
5.14 I I 157 775<br />
( 10) [ 48.9]<br />
"., 9<br />
(30.37)<br />
J_. I<br />
,<br />
:<br />
38.60 ~65<br />
Peech<br />
1.67<br />
I ~8~ 1.66 : 357 I 573<br />
9.0 i<br />
L<br />
( 8) [40.0]<br />
,<br />
I<br />
(7 09)<br />
i 59.10 72<br />
: Wala\ar<br />
007 I, 0.07<br />
65 97 458<br />
(9) [53.30] . I<br />
2.0<br />
i (0.30)<br />
Ga\athri<br />
29.40 130<br />
!<br />
2.06 I<br />
2.06<br />
186<br />
1584 536<br />
,<br />
(6) 142.0]<br />
(8.75)<br />
" J7.7 I<br />
Pothundy 244<br />
22.40 127<br />
2.2<br />
2.2 1732 389<br />
(4) [43.0]<br />
(9.35)<br />
40.2<br />
Mangalam<br />
I<br />
145<br />
25.10<br />
1.85<br />
64 [56.8] 1.85 2890 299<br />
(5)<br />
(7.86)<br />
50.8<br />
Vazhani , 22.10 139<br />
i<br />
0.58<br />
234<br />
0.58 417 505<br />
(3l 137.30] (2.46)<br />
I 1.2<br />
Chcerakuzlll 126<br />
12.80<br />
0.46<br />
32 [50.6] 0.46 1437 291<br />
( I )<br />
( I. 95)<br />
28.1<br />
Chalakudy 565<br />
34.90 504<br />
5.85<br />
5.85 1160 11 13<br />
(7) 139.0]<br />
(2485)<br />
29.7<br />
Neyyar 731<br />
16.20 317<br />
1.65<br />
1.65 520 819<br />
(21 [37.51<br />
(701 )<br />
13.90<br />
Total 3199 30.40<br />
2294<br />
23.54<br />
:2 1.52 938 5758<br />
LE3]<br />
( I (0)<br />
24.2<br />
" For CC A figures. see Table 6. I.<br />
NOlI! (i) Figures in square brackets indicate the outlet ,cr\ed by <strong>on</strong>e WUA ill each project;<br />
(ii) Figures in decimals arc share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual projects In total expenditure; (iii) Figures In<br />
single digits within brackets are respective ranks.<br />
Source.' CADA (1996)<br />
215
Besides. it has been reported that in Malampuzha project. the seepage<br />
losses in the field channels range between 10 to 30 per cent (Varadan et al. 1998)<br />
causing distributive inequality across the comm<strong>and</strong> area which deters <strong>farm</strong>ers'<br />
participati<strong>on</strong>. There are several other local dynamics. which are obstacles to the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duct <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> training programmes. The reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Comptroller <strong>and</strong> Auditor<br />
General <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India (CAGI) brings out some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these issues more vividly (CAGL<br />
1998)<br />
The unit <strong>for</strong> <strong>for</strong>ming WUAs is the hydraulic boundary. ie., outlet in a<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area. Normally. the CCA <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an outlet is about 40 ha. This norm seems<br />
to have been followed in almost all the projects under reference. An outlet is<br />
more yiablc to ensure operati<strong>on</strong>al efficiency by establishing more pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
linkages <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tacts betwe~n<br />
the implementing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
department <strong>and</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>ers. The strategies meant <strong>for</strong> capacity building <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas are found to be quite effective in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
co\'erage <strong>and</strong> cost effectiven~ss.<br />
For instance. the expenditure incurred to <strong>for</strong>m<br />
WUAs ranges from as low as Rs. 97 in Walayar project to a high <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 2890 in<br />
Mangalam project. When compared to subsidy-driven re<strong>for</strong>ms implemented<br />
elsewhere in the "ountry. this cxpenditure is very reas<strong>on</strong>able. For example. in<br />
Karnataka. the initial assistance to <strong>for</strong>m WtJAs is about Rs. 500 per ha. The crop<br />
cutting cxperimcnts arc periodically c<strong>on</strong>ducted to evaluate the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD<br />
216
programmes <strong>on</strong> crop productivity which may help identifving the c<strong>on</strong>straints if<br />
- - ,<br />
any. <strong>and</strong> introduce corrective measures to improve water use efficiency.<br />
The expenditure <strong>on</strong> CAD programmes is not very encouragmg. For<br />
instance, <strong>on</strong> an average Rs. 24 per ha. is spent <strong>on</strong> the programme in the projects<br />
under reference. Mangalam project with an expenditure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 50 per acre <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
CC:\ tops the list followed by Pothundy <strong>and</strong> Gayathri with Rs. 40 <strong>and</strong> Rs. 37 per<br />
acre. respectiwly. In Malampuzha. the biggest projects under c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
expenditure per ha. comes to <strong>on</strong>ly Rs. 32. In all others. it is quite negligible,<br />
being as low as Rs. 2 per ha. in Walayar project. Keeping the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>OFD<br />
in Irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. there is greater need to allocate more funds to CAD<br />
pr,)>;ramme,; mc;.mt <strong>for</strong> capacit: huilding <strong>and</strong> technical <strong>and</strong> physical improvement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Irrigati<strong>on</strong> s: stems.<br />
In thi, c<strong>on</strong>tcxt. the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers merits special<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>. Of course, there is a special programme to assist them through<br />
subsidies. Let us examme how effective <strong>and</strong> useful these subsidies are to the<br />
·.mall <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers, the details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which are presented in table 6.6. It is<br />
disturbing to note that the shan: <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers has been as low as<br />
12 per cent. in all projects put together. Disturhlllg because, while the subsidy is<br />
meant <strong>for</strong> small <strong>and</strong> marginal LIrllll:rs. their share is <strong>on</strong>ly 12 per cent, which<br />
implies that the hig alld influential <strong>farm</strong>er, corner tht: benefits intended <strong>for</strong> the<br />
small <strong>and</strong> margll1al <strong>farm</strong>ers.<br />
217
I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.68<br />
Table 6.6: Disbursement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Subsidy to Small <strong>and</strong> Marginal Farmers<br />
under CAD Programme 1990-91 to 1996-97<br />
Project<br />
Total Amount<br />
Farmers<br />
Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> marginal<br />
disbursed<br />
Avg. Amount<br />
benefited<br />
recei\ed (Rs.)<br />
<strong>and</strong> small <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
(Rs. Lakhs) (%)<br />
: Walal ar 29 0.40 1379.31 22.92<br />
Gavathri 93 0.69 746.24 9.85<br />
Pothundv 121 1.14 938.02 13.09<br />
Mangalam 74 0.73 985.14 15.96<br />
Peechi 191 3.11 1630.37 6.16<br />
Vazhani 113 1.42 1255.75 19.28<br />
! CheeraJ..uzhi 36 I 0.13 369.44 3.06<br />
! ChalaJ..ud\ 163 5.73 351 ~.II 12.09<br />
I Nenar HI 7.24 21n05 15.89<br />
Total 1548 27.98 1807.56 12.10<br />
Source. C\GI (1998)<br />
This point has been cle;lfly brought out by the CAGI report. The status is<br />
more or less the same in all the projects. What is more surprising is. in a<br />
progressin: state like Kerala. the equity in distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefits to the<br />
J,:s':Tling JnJ n.:cJ\ I, Ih)t .:n,ured. \-lay be the exploitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor <strong>farm</strong>ers is<br />
neutral to the Incl <strong>and</strong> scal.: "I" the so called progressiveness.<br />
6.1.2 Impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>OFD <strong>on</strong> output <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> important crops<br />
Keeping th.: discussi<strong>on</strong> so far <strong>on</strong> the nature. scale <strong>and</strong> status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes<br />
imp1em.:ntL·d in ,,:k(t.:J Irrigati<strong>on</strong> proj,:cb in KeTala as a backdrop. an attempt<br />
has been made in what follo\\s. to examine the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes <strong>on</strong><br />
the output lin terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> \ alue In Rupees) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated <strong>farm</strong>ing. An evaluati<strong>on</strong> study<br />
hy C \DA (l'J%) estlmateJ til.: incremental output in irrigated <strong>farm</strong>ing arising<br />
out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> various CAD programmes. The output levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
different crops hdore the Impkmcntati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAl) programmes were taken as<br />
hmch marJ.. output Ill.: dIl!t:rcnce in the output after the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD<br />
prugramm.:s is attributed as Its impact. The data presented in table 6.7 have been<br />
218
taken from the evaluati<strong>on</strong> report (CADA, 1996). According to the report, there<br />
has been a se\'en-fold increase in output (at current prices) after the<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes. whieh enable better <strong>and</strong> efficient use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water <strong>on</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>. However. these results need to be interpreted with cauti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
because. the difference is attributed exclusively to CAD programme<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong>, which. in reality may not be correct. The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other yieldenhancing<br />
inputs such as fertilisers. pesticides. etc .. used by the <strong>farm</strong>ers is not<br />
brought out. There<strong>for</strong>e. the CAD programmes may be treated as enabling factors<br />
<strong>for</strong> using yield-augmenting supplementary inputs by the <strong>farm</strong>ers. This will,<br />
however. be examined while analysing the <strong>farm</strong> level data obtained from the<br />
<strong>farm</strong> households selected <strong>for</strong> the study. Given the limitati<strong>on</strong>s menti<strong>on</strong>ed above,<br />
an attempt has bl!l!n made to \\ork out the benefit cost ratios (BCR) in various<br />
projects. Ihis helps t" lInJeht~IIlJ the relati\'e efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects. The BC<br />
ratio has been the highest in Pothund~<br />
project at about 15. followed by<br />
Ch3lakud~ with 13.3: Gayathfl ahout 10 Jnd NeYYJr with 8.9 (Table 6.7).<br />
Table 6.7: Project-wise benefit cost analysis <strong>for</strong> the period 1985-86 to<br />
199~ -9
~~-<br />
~-<br />
--~<br />
In all others. the BC ratio is not encouraging enough. The per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Vazhani is disappointing with negative returns. This differential per<strong>for</strong>mance is a<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>. am<strong>on</strong>g other factors. cropping pattern. A project with relatively more<br />
commercial <strong>and</strong> high value crops per<strong>for</strong>m obviously better than the <strong>on</strong>e where<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> inferior varieties <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops are grown. If we look at the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> various crops to total earnings in a comm<strong>and</strong> area. it gives some<br />
interestmg insights. For instance. a water intensiv'e crop like paddy accounts <strong>for</strong> a<br />
major c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> in MaIampuLha. Gayathri. Pothundy <strong>and</strong> Mangalam projects.<br />
its share being 61 per cent. 80 per cent. 57 per cent <strong>and</strong> 50 per cent respectively<br />
(Table 6.8). The c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut is the highest in six projects where its<br />
share ·.. aries from 47 per cent in Walayar project to 89 per cent in the Chalakudy<br />
project. It is also important to 11llte that the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy in the net earnings has<br />
been negallve In the ca,c ur Chabkud) <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 8 per cent In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Neyyar<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> pro,,:ct.l he share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops. such as arecanut. tapioca <strong>and</strong> banana is not<br />
v
It is interesting to note that in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the importance given <strong>for</strong> paddy in<br />
all the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projecls. its share in the nel additi<strong>on</strong>al earnings is <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary. II is found Ihat this is due to lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water.<br />
Thinking that water would be available. <strong>farm</strong>ers allocate more area <strong>for</strong> paddy<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>. But the shortage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water obviously leading to lower yields <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
<strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e. its c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to total output in a comm<strong>and</strong> area is not<br />
commensurate with the area allocated. Similar is the case with some other crops,<br />
like banana. arecanul <strong>and</strong> lapioca, which require timely <strong>and</strong> adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water. For instance. negative returns from banana cultivati<strong>on</strong> is essentially due to<br />
shortage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>and</strong> also due to water logging <strong>and</strong> salinity in low lying areas. It<br />
is in this c<strong>on</strong>text that the OFD becomes important. For. it enables smooth flow <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
\\aler across a plot llf LmJ \\ith no wastage <strong>and</strong> also avoids waterlogging <strong>and</strong><br />
other ad,,:rst:
possible in these l<strong>and</strong>s during Kharif <strong>and</strong> Rabi seas<strong>on</strong>s. The l<strong>and</strong>s are suitable <strong>for</strong><br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> during summer seas<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly. The crop suitable <strong>for</strong> these soils is paddy<br />
<strong>and</strong> no other crop could be
Table 6.9: Productivity differences in paddy in the Peechi ayacut vis-ii-vis<br />
the district<br />
Year Kharif (Virippu) .1 Rabi (Mundakan) Summer (Puncha)<br />
Ayacut Dis!. I Diff ! A \·acut Dis!.<br />
I 0<br />
Diff Ayacut Dist Diff<br />
(Kg.! (Kg.! . (%J ! (Kg.! (Kg.! (%) (Kg.! (Ko,:::-,1' (%)<br />
acre) acre) I acre) acre) acre) acre)<br />
1985-86 976 790 23.5 994 1029 -3.4 740 1::6 -39.6<br />
1986-87 1209 935 29.2 1000 928 7.8 830 1204 -3 I. I<br />
1987-88 1107 866 27.8 1164 927 25.6 798 1198 -33.4<br />
1988-89 808 809 -0.2 I 153 968 1901 940 1214 -22.6<br />
1989-90 1096 931 17.7 1187 1050 13.1 997 1173 -15.0<br />
1990-91 981 988 -0.7 1162 1083 7.3 1227 1228 -0.1<br />
1991-92 1152 9'~ y- 23.7 1015 1086 -6.5 1217 )"'",j<br />
y-- -8.0<br />
1992-93 1102 1048 - ~<br />
).- 955 1040 -8.1 1132 1346 -15.9<br />
1993-94 1002 972 3.1 787 1060 -25.7 1028 1236 -16.9<br />
1994-95 1001 918 9.1 1563 1213 28.9 1470 1291 13.9<br />
Mean 1043 919 13.8 1098 1038 5.8 1038 1244 -16.8<br />
SI. Dev. 113.8 79.1 11.8 205.4 84.9 17 227.1 56.8 16.1<br />
CV ("/0) 10.9 8.6 85.4 18.7 8.2 292.0 21.9 4.6 -95.6<br />
Source.· EstImated from CADA (1996).<br />
This raises some importalll issues. Merely supplying water may not by<br />
itself promote highcr proJuctl\ It> unkss the supply is timely <strong>and</strong> adequate. But<br />
the timeliness <strong>and</strong> adequacy seem to be a casualty in the project as revealed by<br />
'" ~<br />
- ----<br />
~<br />
Hence. it may be argued that since the OFD has not taken place in the scale <strong>and</strong><br />
intensity warranted in the comm<strong>and</strong> area. the designed discharge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water seems<br />
10 be not adequate to meet fully the crop-water requirements.<br />
Furthermore. the coefficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> variati<strong>on</strong> (CV) in productivitv is hioher in<br />
- co<br />
the comm<strong>and</strong> area than at the district level. For instance, the CV in the<br />
productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kharif paddy is 10.9 per cent as against 8.6 per cent in the<br />
district. Same is the case with Rabi <strong>and</strong> summer paddy. The variati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
productivity in the ayacut is higher at 22 per cent compared to Kharif (10.9 %)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rabi (18.7 %) seas<strong>on</strong>s. Since adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water is not ensured,<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers in the head reaches <strong>and</strong> other influential <strong>farm</strong>ers tend to acquire more<br />
<strong>and</strong> sufficient water, depriving the tail enders <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> their due share. There<strong>for</strong>e. the<br />
productivity differentials are bound to be more in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. Whereas<br />
ralnfed cultivati<strong>on</strong> is nllt subjected to such \ariati<strong>on</strong>s in supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. The<br />
productivity differentials. if any, in the rainfed <strong>farm</strong>ing are essentially due to,<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g others, entrepreneurial ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers to apply inputs <strong>and</strong> other<br />
crop-husb<strong>and</strong>ry practices.<br />
The per<strong>for</strong>mance level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other crops, especially commercial crops, like<br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut. arecanut, etc., are somewhat different from that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy, the details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which are presented in table 6.10. As seen from the table. the productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> tapioca in the comm<strong>and</strong> area has been much higher than the district<br />
average. Barring a few years, the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> arecanut in the comm<strong>and</strong> area<br />
has been less satisfactory. For the yields have been lower than the district<br />
average. What surprises more is, hanana yields in all the years under reference<br />
have been invariahly lower than the district average. As a matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, banana<br />
224
is a water intensive crop. Those who cultivate the crop need to have their own<br />
source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Farmers 'with their own source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> will be able to<br />
meet the water requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crop more effectively both in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adequacy <strong>and</strong> timeliness. whereas. the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the comm<strong>and</strong> area depend up<strong>on</strong><br />
water supply from the project which. normally. is not adequate <strong>and</strong> timely. This<br />
could be <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the main reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the relatively lower yields <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> banana in the<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area. However. the variati<strong>on</strong> in productivity levels is lesser than that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other crops as revealed by the coefficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> variati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 11 per cent against 30,<br />
28 <strong>and</strong> 13 per cent respectively in arecanut. tapioca <strong>and</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut.<br />
Table 6.10: Productivity differences in selected crops in the Peechi ayacut<br />
- -<br />
vis it vis the district<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Areeanut Tapioca Banana<br />
Year (nos.!aere) (000 nos.! acre) (Kg.!aere) (K.&/ acre)<br />
A vaeu! Dist. I A vaeut Dist. Avacut Dist. Ayaeu! Dis!.<br />
, 1985-86<br />
! ~-l7:;<br />
77:<br />
-t789<br />
4887<br />
3921<br />
I 72<br />
6761<br />
3968<br />
(58) i (-7) (41) (-19)<br />
1986-87 3270<br />
206-t<br />
80<br />
6619<br />
4321<br />
74<br />
9352<br />
3522<br />
(58) (-7) (41 ) (-18)<br />
1987-88 3460<br />
2183 83<br />
6778<br />
4893<br />
77<br />
9595<br />
3968<br />
( 58)<br />
(-7) ( 42) (-19)<br />
1988-89 4453<br />
2810<br />
84<br />
5822<br />
4853<br />
78<br />
8259<br />
3968<br />
( 58) (-7) (42) (-18)<br />
! 2765 78<br />
6510<br />
5130<br />
1989-90 4019<br />
65<br />
7976<br />
4170<br />
(-t5)<br />
(-17) (23) (-19)<br />
1990-91 3262<br />
2328 89<br />
7704<br />
5964<br />
112<br />
6073<br />
4858<br />
(40)<br />
(26 ) (-21 ) (-19)<br />
1991-92 3070<br />
2607 110<br />
6729<br />
6113<br />
139<br />
9717<br />
4615<br />
( 18)<br />
(26) (44 ) (-24 )<br />
1992-93 3531<br />
2998 99 7057<br />
5224<br />
125<br />
10202<br />
4534<br />
( 18)<br />
(26)<br />
(45) (-13 )<br />
1993-94 3070<br />
2731 90 6251<br />
5868<br />
92<br />
9109<br />
5101<br />
( 12)<br />
(2)<br />
( 46) (-D)<br />
1994-95 3201<br />
2834 95 6251<br />
5868<br />
61 15481<br />
4217<br />
( 13) (-36 )<br />
( 148) (-28 )<br />
Mean 3526 2580 89 92 9253 6451 4292 5312<br />
St. Dev. 461.9 307.0 26.8 10.5 2560.1 773.9 479.3 603.3<br />
CV (%) 13.1 11.9 29.9 11.4 27.7 12.0 11.2 I I .4<br />
..<br />
Note: Parenthetic lIgures - arc percentage YIeld<br />
. .<br />
lhfler~nc
It is mainly due to scarcity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water during summer seas<strong>on</strong>. Furthermore,<br />
majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plots in the comm<strong>and</strong> area are not properly developed<br />
After presenting an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> productivity<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important crops <strong>and</strong> also incremental output purportedly arising<br />
out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD related CAD programmes, an attempt has been<br />
made in what follows to examine the costs <strong>and</strong> returns from the cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy. a dominant crop in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s in Kerala. The details are<br />
presented in table 6.11. The data presented in the table are based <strong>on</strong> the crop<br />
cutting expenments c<strong>on</strong>ducted by CADA am<strong>on</strong>g 255 cultivators r<strong>and</strong>omly<br />
selected from eight CAD projects during winter <strong>and</strong> summer 1993-94 <strong>and</strong><br />
autumn 1994-95 (C ADA. 1997). The costs include all paid out costs as c<strong>on</strong>tained<br />
by 'Cost A 5 • as used in the <strong>farm</strong> management studies. The output in value terms<br />
IS estimated uSing the <strong>farm</strong> harvest prices in the respective seas<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Table 6.11: Cost Bene fi It AnalYSIS 0 fP a dd' I!rmte h CAD I projects m 'K era a<br />
Project<br />
I Yield Cost Income Net Income<br />
(Kg/acre.) (Rs'/ acre) (RsJ acre) (Rs'/ acre)<br />
BCR<br />
Malampuzha 1311 3096 5584 2489 0.80<br />
Walavar i 1365 3256 5998 2741 0.84<br />
Gayathri 1713 3600 7016 3416 0.95<br />
Pothundv 1949 3698 8383 4686 1.27<br />
Pecchi 876 3043 4177 1135 0.37<br />
Vazhani 979 3173 4806 1633 0.51<br />
Chalakudv 1166 3540 6170 2630 0.74<br />
Neyvar 1501 5125 7421 2296 0.45<br />
Mean 1357 3566 6194 2628 0.74<br />
Std. Dey. 360.88 675.68 1382.46 1083.47 0.29<br />
CV(%) 26.59 18.95 22.32 41.23 39.65<br />
Source Estimated from CADA (1997).<br />
5 Cost A Includes expenditur
The relative efficiency in paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> yield <strong>and</strong> net<br />
returns per acre is high in Pothundy project. The yield per acre is about 1.95<br />
t<strong>on</strong>nes per acre. Similarly. net rcturns pcr acre <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> in the project<br />
under reference is Rs. 4686. which is two to three times more than the other<br />
projects. The highest Be ratio is also reported from the Pothundy project at about<br />
15 (Table 6.7). It is also found that the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the project is<br />
relamely more reliable <strong>and</strong> also adequate. Furthermore, <strong>farm</strong>ers seem to have<br />
undertaken OFD works <strong>on</strong> rice field more systematically than in other projects.<br />
ThiS IS an impressi<strong>on</strong>istic \'Iew <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials <strong>and</strong> other enlightened people in<br />
the regi<strong>on</strong>. No factual data are available to support this c<strong>on</strong>jecture. However, <strong>on</strong>e<br />
could infer that it could be true. because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the higher productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy. The<br />
productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops is mainly dependent. am<strong>on</strong>g other factors, <strong>on</strong> timely <strong>and</strong><br />
adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> \\Jter. The cmpirical c\'ldences prove that the productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
crops is higher in the plots \\ here OFD is d<strong>on</strong>e scientifically <strong>and</strong> also water use<br />
efficiency is high in developed plots (Reddy. 1998).<br />
The data presented in tahle 6.11 shows that paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> does not<br />
appear to he that remunerative. For instance. the benefit cost (Be) ratio is less<br />
than <strong>on</strong>e in all the projects. except Pothundy project, where it is 1.27. This lack<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itahility is highlighted as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the major reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the crop shift in<br />
Kerala 6 . In this c<strong>on</strong>text. it is necessary to examine the problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints<br />
<strong>for</strong> nee cultivati<strong>on</strong> in different agro-climatic regi<strong>on</strong>s. The cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy seems to he more or less uni<strong>for</strong>m across the projects, except in Neyyar<br />
6 A detailed analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop shift <strong>and</strong> large-scale c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
area In Kcrala IS provided in Chapter 5.<br />
227
project. where it is very high at Rs. 5125 per acre. For instance, the coefficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
variati<strong>on</strong> (CV) <strong>for</strong> cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>ly 19, as against 26.6 per cent, 22.3 per<br />
cent <strong>and</strong> ~ I pc:r cent <strong>for</strong> yield gross income <strong>and</strong> net income respectively. The<br />
higher C\' in net income retlects the intensity <strong>and</strong> scale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> input use by the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers across the projects. The applicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inputs depends up<strong>on</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ers'<br />
ability to mobilise <strong>on</strong> time <strong>and</strong> in the desired quantity. It is in this c<strong>on</strong>text that<br />
training to <strong>farm</strong>ers plays crucial educating them <strong>on</strong> various aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ing .<br />
. -\ brief discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> crop output in Peechi project,<br />
whIch is seb:ted <strong>for</strong> indepth study, is attempted in the following. The details are<br />
presented in table 6.12.<br />
Table 6.12: Impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> crop output in Peechi. benefit cost analysis<br />
<strong>for</strong> \985-86 to \99~-95<br />
Year<br />
Total expo <strong>on</strong> ,<br />
i<br />
Total earnings <strong>on</strong> Net return <strong>on</strong><br />
Benefit cost<br />
CAD schemes add l. crop output<br />
expenditure<br />
ratio<br />
(Rs Lakhs) (Rs. Lakhs) (%)<br />
1985·86 8.44 163 19.31 1931.28<br />
1986·87 18.91 244 12.90 1290.32<br />
1987·88 4.36 300 68.81 6880.73<br />
1988-89 63.85 222 3.48 347.69<br />
1989·90 222.25 212 0.95 95.39<br />
1990·91 190.77 138 0.72 72.34<br />
1991·92 164.46 162 0.99 98.50<br />
1992·93 199.65 65 0.33 32.56<br />
1993·94 169.23 ·123 ·0.73 ·72.68<br />
1994·95 135.87 386 2.84 284.10<br />
Total 1177. 79 1769 1.50 150.20<br />
Source: CADA. 1996<br />
The table shows that the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes in Peechi<br />
. hi' t' \"h"r'> a tllUlti·fold increase in<br />
project pick
country. That is precisely why. as menti<strong>on</strong>ed already. the CADAs have come into<br />
existence at the state level to co-ordinate various programmes to increase water<br />
use efficiency <strong>and</strong> crop productivity. But. its per<strong>for</strong>mance in Kerala. like<br />
elsewhere in the country. appears to be not upto the expected levels. particularly.<br />
with respect to implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD programmes. The reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints<br />
<strong>for</strong> its effective implementati<strong>on</strong> are. however, examined in detail in 'the chapter<br />
that follows.<br />
6.1.3 The poor per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD A in Kerala:<br />
The instituti<strong>on</strong>al paradigm evolved under CADA has not been effective enough<br />
to reduce the gap between irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created <strong>and</strong> utilised through the<br />
scientific adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. A wide range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
kchnlcal <strong>and</strong> opCfati<strong>on</strong>al pwhkms <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints have c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the<br />
unsallsfactor~ irn~atlOn mana~ell1
proper coordinati<strong>on</strong> between variOUS line departments has been yet another<br />
problem.<br />
It is reiterated that ··the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes has turned out to be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderably narrower than originally envisaged. The progress in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
improvements <strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> drainage facilities have been meager <strong>and</strong> so<br />
has the ef<strong>for</strong>t <strong>and</strong> research involving <strong>and</strong> propagating cropping patterns <strong>and</strong><br />
agricultural practices <strong>for</strong> optimum use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water under the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s prevailing in<br />
each irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>" (GOL Eighth Plan. 1992: 60-61).<br />
In spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the laudable objectives with which CADA was launched, III<br />
practice, the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the programme proved out to be much narrower than<br />
envisaged. focusing largely <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels. introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
.. Warab<strong>and</strong>i" <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> levelling (Vaidvanathan 1999). Achievements have also<br />
- -<br />
been somewhat modest. At the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Seventh Plan. an estimated 8 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
ha. was brought under "Warab<strong>and</strong>i". 2 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. were levelled <strong>and</strong> shaped <strong>and</strong><br />
field channels c<strong>on</strong>structed in 11.3 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. There was no progress in<br />
c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> holdings. Achievements have been c<strong>on</strong>sistently below<br />
targets. For instance. during the Seventh Plan. the achievements in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
strategic programmes like c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels was below 48 per cent,<br />
followed by Warab<strong>and</strong>i (54 %) <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 23 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> levelling<br />
(GO!, 1992).<br />
As a matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact. not many studies have probed into the reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong><br />
such poor per<strong>for</strong>mance. especially at the macro level. A few studies at the micro<br />
level have not addressed these issues in their totality <strong>and</strong> hardly any linkages<br />
230
were identified <strong>and</strong> corrective measures suggested. The studies available mostly<br />
address to the organisati<strong>on</strong>al aspects <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints in the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
certain categories <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical improvements in the system (Vaidyanathan. 1999:<br />
94).<br />
The discussi<strong>on</strong> so far <strong>on</strong> the per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes in Kerala<br />
in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost, productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops <strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong> shows the limited scope with<br />
which they were designed <strong>and</strong> operated. For instance, most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the activities were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fined to the engineering activities with emphasis <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field<br />
channels upto 5-8 ha. block al<strong>on</strong>e. The field channels have never been extended<br />
to <strong>farm</strong>ers' fields to enable effective utilizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the fields. The<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers did not take initiative to c<strong>on</strong>struct field boothies <strong>on</strong> their own <strong>for</strong><br />
irrigating crops in their homesteads. Moreover. l<strong>and</strong> leveling <strong>and</strong> shaping have<br />
not been gi\cn adcquate attenti<strong>on</strong> in the CAD programmes in the state. The<br />
subsidy disbursement programmes have been skewed in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> medium <strong>and</strong><br />
large <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers have been totally neglected in the<br />
process. The OFD works undertaken under the CAD have, there<strong>for</strong>e, not been<br />
effective in reducing the c<strong>on</strong>veyance loss <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water, improving distributi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
efficiency with equity in almost all the projects.<br />
A brief account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> thc findings <strong>and</strong> observati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
CAD programmes in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala as highlighted by the reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Comptroller <strong>and</strong> Auditor General <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India (CAGI) <strong>for</strong> the pcriod 1991-92 to<br />
1997-98 (CAGL 19
deficiencies that help drawing less<strong>on</strong>s to incorporate preventive measures in the<br />
completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> curative measures in the <strong>on</strong>-going <strong>on</strong>es.<br />
The shortcomings in achieving targets as brought out by the report may<br />
not be surprising, because, the <strong>development</strong> planning programmes in India have<br />
invariably been far behind the expected targets. For instance, the achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Warab<strong>and</strong>i programme in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala, as brought out by the<br />
(AGI Report (1998), was <strong>on</strong>ly 57 per cent. The achievement in the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> filed drains, a very crucial aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD to prevent adverse effects <strong>on</strong> soi I,<br />
was just 9 per cent. It is a reflecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the commitment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the government <strong>and</strong><br />
particularly CADA to take up OFD works in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas.<br />
Furthermore, the report has highlighted the misleading statistics given by<br />
the (ADA <strong>on</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD programmes. For example, it was reported<br />
by the (ADA that in the entire ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 76958 ha. under eight projects, fieid<br />
channels c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> was completed. But, <strong>on</strong> verificati<strong>on</strong>, it was found that an<br />
area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 28361 ha. (37 %) was left out without c<strong>on</strong>structing field channels. But the<br />
amount spent <strong>on</strong> it far exceeded the targets <strong>and</strong> norms fixed by the government.<br />
It shows the manipulative strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the bureaucracy to justify the amount<br />
spent <strong>on</strong> OFD. This is just <strong>on</strong>e example to dem<strong>on</strong>strate as to how the rentseeking<br />
attitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the impkmenting <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficers has been c<strong>on</strong>tributing to the<br />
emergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> less efficient <strong>and</strong> cost-ineffective irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems.<br />
The influence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> political <strong>and</strong> local dynamics <strong>on</strong> the prioritisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> programmes has also been brought out. According to the<br />
government guidelines <strong>and</strong> orders, <strong>on</strong>ly completed projects should be brought<br />
232
under CAD programmes. But three partially commissi<strong>on</strong>ed projects. viz .. Pamba.<br />
Periyar Valley <strong>and</strong> Kuttiadi were included under the programme since 1992-93<br />
<strong>and</strong> an amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> about Rs. 26 crores was spent (CAGI. 1998: 220). Obviously.<br />
the targeted works in other projects could get adequate funds <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e. their<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> got delayed adding further to the alleged inefficiency in<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> management in canal comm<strong>and</strong> areas. The ad-hoc <strong>and</strong> unscientific way<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementing the OFO works. without preparing systematic project reports<br />
<strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al plans have led to increase in transacti<strong>on</strong> costs involved in the<br />
programmes. Furthermore. it has also led to lesser productivity than what was<br />
expected. For instance, the mean yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> summer irrigated paddy from<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> plots in four projects. viz., Walayar. Malampuzha. Peechi <strong>and</strong><br />
Vazhani. was lesser than those from the normal plots. Such results tend to<br />
Jemotivate <strong>farm</strong>ers from undertaking scientific OFO <strong>and</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> optimum<br />
doses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> yield-enhancing inputs like fertilisers <strong>and</strong> pesticides. It will have a<br />
negative impact <strong>on</strong> modern <strong>farm</strong> technology adopti<strong>on</strong> by the <strong>farm</strong>ers.<br />
As menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier. subsidy was given to small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
<strong>and</strong> also <strong>for</strong> Water Users' Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUAs) to meet the managerial <strong>and</strong> other<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al costs in the <strong>for</strong>mative years. But. it is un<strong>for</strong>tunate that <strong>on</strong>ly 34 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the associati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong>med as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1997 had received management subsidy<br />
(CAGl, 1998:220). Further, the amount allocated by the government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India to<br />
be released to the <strong>farm</strong>ers to meet OFO expenditure needs was not even<br />
disbursed to the <strong>farm</strong>ers. The state government. there<strong>for</strong>e. had to bear the debt<br />
servlcll1g charges. Same was the case with subsidy to be given to small <strong>and</strong><br />
marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>for</strong> digging wells <strong>and</strong> installing pumpsets to encourage<br />
233
c<strong>on</strong>junctive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal <strong>and</strong> groundwater. Only 22 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the m<strong>on</strong>ey<br />
earmarked <strong>for</strong> the purpose was disbursed (Ibid: 220). If this programme had<br />
properly been implemented. <strong>farm</strong>ers would have resorted to c<strong>on</strong>junctive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water. which would have helped reducing adverse effects like waterlogging <strong>and</strong><br />
salinity. For. wells in canal comm<strong>and</strong> areas work as vertical drains to arrest rise<br />
in water table.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels. an important aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD. has been<br />
far behind the expected levels in smaller blocks <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5 ha. <strong>and</strong> less. Farmers from<br />
the smaller blocks are given loans <strong>for</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structing field channels. The loan<br />
amount is <strong>on</strong>ly nominal (ie., Rs. 200 per ha.). which is inadequate. Since <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
are unable to mobilise the additi<strong>on</strong>al funds required <strong>for</strong> the purpose, they do not<br />
c<strong>on</strong>struct field channels. lt has. there<strong>for</strong>e. adversely affected \\ater distributi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
use <strong>and</strong> management. particularly in smaller plots. This calls <strong>for</strong> a realistic<br />
estimati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> expenditure taking the locati<strong>on</strong>-specific c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s like topography.<br />
slope <strong>and</strong> type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soils, <strong>for</strong> carrying out OFD works.<br />
The limited scale in which OFD works were carried out in the comm<strong>and</strong><br />
areas was not productive enough as the delivery system was not improved.<br />
Canals <strong>and</strong> hydraulic structures were badly damaged <strong>and</strong> the scarce water went<br />
waste into drains. For instance. in Palakkad divisi<strong>on</strong> (covering six projects, viz.,<br />
Malampuzha, Mangalam, Pothundy, Walayar, Gayathri <strong>and</strong> Cheerkuzhi) out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the 47356 ha. potential created. <strong>on</strong>ly about 52 per cellt <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area (24697 ha.)<br />
was irrigated. with the result that an amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 13.6 crorcs spent <strong>on</strong> OFD<br />
works became unproductive <strong>and</strong> sunk capital (CAUl. 1
The most neglected aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD is the drainage. Depending up<strong>on</strong> the<br />
type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soil <strong>and</strong> other topographic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. the nature. type <strong>and</strong> extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
drainage works will be decided. This calls <strong>for</strong> systematic <strong>and</strong> scientific suney to<br />
estimate the drainage works. But. it is un<strong>for</strong>tunate that in all the 14 projects<br />
completed. as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> March 1998. it was not carried out. With the result. <strong>on</strong>ly 8 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the targeted area. identified <strong>for</strong> drainage, was completed by 1997 (Ibid:<br />
227). The loan comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 500 per ha. to c<strong>on</strong>struct drainage channels was<br />
very meager <strong>and</strong> did not match with actual requirement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 2500 to 3000 as<br />
reported by the <strong>farm</strong>ers. For instance, the expenditure per ha. at the nati<strong>on</strong>al level<br />
was fixed at Rs. 2500. which was subsequently increased to Rs. 4000 <strong>and</strong><br />
currently to Rs. 6000. Based <strong>on</strong> the Kerala experiences, this norm does not hold<br />
good <strong>for</strong> three important reas<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
1) Firstly. the topography <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s is highly undulating <strong>and</strong><br />
there<strong>for</strong>e. the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> networks is much<br />
higher than the nati<strong>on</strong>al average.<br />
2) Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, the main/ branch canals are c<strong>on</strong>structed <strong>on</strong> higher c<strong>on</strong>tours<br />
resulting in larger distance between the canals <strong>and</strong> paddy fields. The<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a field channel from any sluice/ spout up to the paddy<br />
fields are. there<strong>for</strong>e. very high due to the huge quantum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> earthwork<br />
involved. besides the length <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the channel. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ceiling <strong>on</strong><br />
maximum rate per ha .. in man)' places. length <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field channel was<br />
curtailed to maintain the t:xpt:nditure within the permissible limits. As a<br />
result, the field channds could not be taken to the entire fields <strong>and</strong> the ayacut<br />
under the spout art: kft without sufficient OFD works.<br />
235
3) Again. due to the high density <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong> causmg high density <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dwellings <strong>and</strong> fragmented holdings. field channels cannot be c<strong>on</strong>structed<br />
straight from the spout to the fields. Many turns are necessary which ~dd to<br />
unit cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adequate resources with the <strong>farm</strong>ers has added to the slow<br />
progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> drainage works. It is also true <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other activities like l<strong>and</strong> levellino<br />
""<br />
bunding <strong>and</strong> shaping. Only 43 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the targeted area was levelled by 1997<br />
(CAGI. 1998:228). The project authorities reported that was essentially due to<br />
lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adequate staff to carry out the work at the field level.<br />
The above observati<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> the aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical <strong>and</strong> financial<br />
status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects reveal that the CAD programmes<br />
in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala. in general. are not properly designed,<br />
implemented <strong>and</strong> uperated. A wide range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues. viz., inadequate financial<br />
resources. improper targeting <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the beneficiaries. political <strong>and</strong> local dynamics<br />
influencing prioritisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the programmes. lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific survey to estimate<br />
the scale <strong>and</strong> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works to be carried out in different projects, badly<br />
managed delivery systems, etc., have been identified as important factors<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributing towards the less efficient <strong>and</strong> low scale OFD operati<strong>on</strong>s in the<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> areas.<br />
Given the problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints as discussed above. an ef<strong>for</strong>t was<br />
made by the state government to improve the operati<strong>on</strong>al efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. A brief review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the new programme intending to revamp the<br />
old generati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state is in order. The thrust <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the programme is to<br />
236
eorient the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects In the state to ensure efficient use <strong>and</strong><br />
management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water.<br />
6. 1.4 The Revamping <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> Programme<br />
A massiw programme <strong>for</strong> revamping <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first generati<strong>on</strong> projects was taken<br />
up under the "Revamping <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> Programme" (RCP) in the state. The<br />
programme was intended <strong>for</strong> the optimal utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential.<br />
This also involved rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the delivery system to suit the shift in<br />
cropping pattern occurred in the ayacuts over the years (GOK. 1999:84). The<br />
rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system includes repairs in head works <strong>and</strong> regulators.<br />
providing measuring devices. lining the canals. repair/ renovati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> other related works in c<strong>on</strong>veyance systems. It is anticipated that<br />
this programme would help in preventing leakage! seepage <strong>and</strong> other losses. The<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> was scheduled in a phased manner sequencing the intef\cnti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from head works, main canal. branches <strong>and</strong> distributaries. Though the<br />
programme was launched in 1997-98, the implementati<strong>on</strong> started <strong>on</strong>ly during<br />
1998-99. Nine out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ten old generati<strong>on</strong> projects 7 were taken up with an<br />
estimated cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 55.36 crores. The project-wise details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the works<br />
anticipated under the Revamping <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> Programme are shown in<br />
tables 6.13.<br />
237
Table 6.13: Details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Revamping <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> Programme <strong>for</strong> old<br />
generati<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala<br />
Project<br />
Malampuzha<br />
Pothundy<br />
Mangalam<br />
Walayar<br />
Gayathri<br />
Neyyar<br />
Vazhani<br />
Cheerakuzhi<br />
Peechi<br />
Total<br />
Estimated cost (Rs. Lakhs) <strong>for</strong> ;<br />
Est.<br />
Exp. Target<br />
Head<br />
Cost<br />
I Main I Branch Distribu I during 1999-<br />
I<br />
I<br />
,<br />
,<br />
works canal I canal - taries : 1998-99 2000<br />
1658<br />
279.2 1110.22 268.49<br />
0<br />
24.35<br />
(30) (16.8) (67.0) (162)<br />
455<br />
(6.5)<br />
813 53.5 150.6 593.75 15.15 78.87<br />
(14) (6.6) (18.5) (73.()l ( 1. 9) (20.9)<br />
255<br />
430 7 22.64 204 197 53.17<br />
(8) ( 16) (5.3) (47.4) (45.8) (\ 4.1)<br />
155<br />
370 27 155 126.81 60.64 20.47<br />
(7) (7.3 ) (41.9) (34.3 ) (16.4) (5.4)<br />
200<br />
700 42 284.45 331.07 42.48 31.35<br />
(13) (6.0) (40.6) (47.3 ) (6.1 ) (8.3 )<br />
220<br />
380 35 118.7 158.1 68.2 86.6<br />
(7) (9.2) (31.2) ( 41.6) (17.9) (23.0)<br />
170<br />
145 8 45.5 75.5 16 17.59<br />
(3) (5.5 ) (31.4) (52.1) ( 11.0) (4.7)<br />
100<br />
230 25 166 39 3.65<br />
0<br />
(4) (10.9)[ (72.2) (17.0)<br />
, ( 1.0)<br />
11 5<br />
810 50.5 ! 412 201.1 146.4 i 60.78<br />
( 14) ; (6.2) ! (50.9) (24.8) ( 18. I ) (16.1 )<br />
285<br />
5536 i 248 I 1634.09 2839.55 814.36 : 376.83<br />
(100.0) I (4.5) I (295) (51.3) (14.7) I (100.0)<br />
Note: (I) Parenthellc figures III cols. 2 & 7 are shares <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> each projects III<br />
estimated cost <strong>and</strong> expenditure during 1998-99, respectively: (ii) Parenthetic<br />
figures in rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the columns are share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major comp<strong>on</strong>ents in each case.<br />
Source: Compiled from GOK (1999): 85.<br />
It can be seen that the thrust <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> programme. as generally<br />
expected, is <strong>on</strong> the repair <strong>and</strong> restructuring <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the main <strong>and</strong> branch canals. which<br />
are important to take water to the tertiary level. In seven projects. including the<br />
Peechi project, a major share ranging between 31 to 72 per cent was allocated <strong>for</strong><br />
revamping the main canal systems. While the allocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> main canal works<br />
was highest in Cheerakuzhi project with n per cent. <strong>for</strong> the branch canals, it ""as<br />
I<br />
I<br />
,<br />
1955 I<br />
I<br />
7 The projects brought under the Revamping <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> Programme<br />
(RCP) are Malampuzha. I'othundy, Mangalam. Walavar. Gayathri, Neyyar.<br />
Vazhani, Cheerakuzhl <strong>and</strong> Peechi.<br />
238
the lowest with <strong>on</strong>ly 17 per cent. Am<strong>on</strong>g the projects, Malampuzha had received<br />
the li<strong>on</strong>s share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the financial allocati<strong>on</strong>, ie., 30 per cent, followed by Pothundv<br />
(14.69 %) <strong>and</strong> Peechi (14.63 %) projects.<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the nine projects, the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project m the<br />
estimated cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> revamping <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> works out to be 14 per cent. The<br />
important works visualised as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the programme are ShOV.ll in table 6.14.<br />
Table 6.14: Works taken up in the Peechi project as part orthe Revamping<br />
<strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> Programme (1998-99 to 2000-01).<br />
Nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> work<br />
Distance<br />
Outlay<br />
No. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> works<br />
undertaken covered (Krns.) (Rs. Lakhs)<br />
Strengthening the canals 34 (318) 11.65 (17.2) 149.55 (310)<br />
Canal lining to prevent<br />
seepage 63 (589) 13.05 (52.8) 225.95 (.168)<br />
Other works 10 (93) ---...-- 107.5 (22.2)<br />
,<br />
I Total I 107 (lOUD) 24.7 (lOaD) • 483 (i OU 0) I<br />
SOff:: ParenthetIc ligures - are respectIve percentages.<br />
S{)urce. GOK (1997c): Report <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Revamping <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> Programme.<br />
Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project.<br />
As is evident, canal lining was the mam activity under the programme<br />
taken up by the CADA in the Peechi project. For instance, 47 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total<br />
outlay I\as <strong>for</strong> canal lining. Ne\t important item was strengthening <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal<br />
bunds ~ll1d<br />
structures. This is a welcome tn:nd by which <strong>farm</strong>ers get motivated to<br />
take up OFD works. when the supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water becomes more reliable after the<br />
rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tile system.<br />
However, since the prugramme was taken up <strong>on</strong>ly recently, its impact <strong>on</strong><br />
water usc efticiency <strong>and</strong> productil'ity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops is yet to be evaluated. It appears to<br />
be a good beginning to improv
doubts about the senousness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ef<strong>for</strong>ts to reorient the Irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes.<br />
particularly. in the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> changing cropping pattern. It appears that the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> bureaucracy tries to explore new ways by which rent seeking <strong>and</strong><br />
nepotism could be perpetuated.<br />
Keeping the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala in general<br />
as discussed above as backdrop. we will now present the results <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the survey<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted in the two projects. namely. Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects.<br />
The OFO works carried out in the two irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects as menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier are<br />
distinctly different in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> technology. type <strong>and</strong> scope. The adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO<br />
in the Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong> is influenced to a greater extent by the intensitv<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge caused by seepage from the canals. Whereas. in the<br />
Kallada project. the Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System I MCS) meant <strong>for</strong> reducing<br />
c<strong>on</strong>veyance losses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in an undulating topography. have different<br />
implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> OFO. A detailed discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
both the irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems is attempted in the following secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
II. The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD: Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
6.2.1 Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
As already stated. due to a wide range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> oper3ti<strong>on</strong>31 c<strong>on</strong>straints. the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
OFO works at the <strong>farm</strong> level has been very limited in scale <strong>and</strong> intensity. The<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers. by <strong>and</strong> large. have understood OFO as merely levelling the l<strong>and</strong> by<br />
filling the gullies <strong>and</strong> other depressi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the field <strong>and</strong> providing earthen<br />
channels be<strong>for</strong>e the release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. The secular decline in the size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings <strong>and</strong> uncertainty in getting timely <strong>and</strong> adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
240
water has made <strong>farm</strong>ers to avoid cost intensive mechanical operati<strong>on</strong>s required<br />
<strong>for</strong> scientitic OFD. They resort to take up such works, which require minimum<br />
human labour. some times do <strong>on</strong>ly with family labour. The canal system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Pcechi project is technically designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating wet crops. mainly paddy.<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e. if a <strong>farm</strong>er wants to diversify the cropping pattern. it needs number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
OFD works be<strong>for</strong>e h<strong>and</strong>. to cultivate dry or other plantati<strong>on</strong> crops. Since the<br />
uncertainty in the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water is always looming around. <strong>farm</strong>ers tend to<br />
withdraw from undertaking OFD works necessary to cultivate the crops other<br />
than paddy. This is a vicious circle with which <strong>farm</strong>ers in the project are<br />
encircled. In Peechi project. canal water during summer is exclusively meant <strong>for</strong><br />
kole l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> no provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> irrigating crops other than paddy is made as per<br />
the design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scheme. As a result. there is no cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the third crop<br />
(summer) in the upper reach.::, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Peechi scheme. Wherever possible. <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
tr~<br />
to irrigate crops using the seepage water if available from the major<br />
distributaries or the minors.<br />
6.2.1.1 Canal induced groundwater recharge <strong>and</strong> its effect <strong>on</strong> adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
On-Farm Development<br />
An important positi\·c cxtcrnalil; <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal Irrigati<strong>on</strong> in gen.::ral is its c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong><br />
to groundwater rccklr~c.<br />
Thi, is an unintended indircct bcn.::tit ,lI1d the scholars<br />
havc tricd to c<strong>on</strong>ceptualise it in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'incidental benctits' (Dhawan. 1998)<br />
caused by canal irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Depending up<strong>on</strong> the intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge<br />
<strong>and</strong> its reliability <strong>farm</strong>ers tend to invest in dugwells <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> purposes. This<br />
adds to the private capital <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> in canal comm<strong>and</strong> areas. More importantly.<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers also invest in OFD to maximise benefits from the well irrigati<strong>on</strong>. This<br />
241
practice IS more c<strong>on</strong>spIcuous In the Peechi project. Since the project IS In<br />
operati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the last four decades. the whole water distributi<strong>on</strong> system is in a<br />
dilapidated c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. This has resulted in water scarcity <strong>for</strong> tail-enders. because.<br />
water in the head reaches through breaches <strong>and</strong> seepage from the canals <strong>and</strong><br />
create waterlogging <strong>and</strong> salinity problems. The maintenance grant allocated <strong>for</strong><br />
the project is not even sufficient to remove the silt deposit in the canals <strong>and</strong><br />
branches. let al<strong>on</strong>e repairs to the irrigati<strong>on</strong> structures. Silt problem is more acute<br />
in the branch canals abutting the hills (GOK. 1997c:8). Poor delivery system has<br />
reduced the potential area irrigated by more than 30 per cent. The revamping <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> programme taken up in the comm<strong>and</strong> area has addressed this<br />
problem <strong>and</strong> steps have been already taken by enhancing funds <strong>for</strong> lining <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
canals <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> their repair <strong>and</strong> maintenance as revealed by the data presented in<br />
the <strong>for</strong>egoing secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A marked improvement in the groundwater levels in Peechi comm<strong>and</strong><br />
area seems to have motivated a large number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers to go <strong>for</strong> c<strong>on</strong>junctive use<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal <strong>and</strong> groundw:ller.<br />
rhe details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> "round\\Jter levels <strong>and</strong> wells<br />
o<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structed in the cnmm~nd ;lrl'~<br />
3re presented in t3hlc 1i.1 ':. It is inL're>ting to<br />
note th:ll the gl,)Undw3ter Inl'l h:ls increased suhstantially due to the canal<br />
seepage. The increase is. however. not uni<strong>for</strong>m. For instance. in the head n:aches.<br />
the increase has been 4.95 meters. compared to 4.41 meters in the middle reaches<br />
<strong>and</strong> 3.6 meters in the tail reaches. These variati<strong>on</strong>s are because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> heavy seepage<br />
in the head reaches. This has natural Iv reduced the flow <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water to the tail-end<br />
areas. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> less water. seepage from the canals tends to be less intensi ve<br />
<strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e, less percolati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> low recharge to the groundwater table in the<br />
242
middle <strong>and</strong> tail reaches. The sample <strong>farm</strong>ers are pers<strong>on</strong>ally aware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these<br />
changes in the groundwater !t:\el. As high as 87 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the<br />
head reaches. 64 pcr cent in the middle <strong>and</strong> 59 per cent in thc tail end have<br />
reported that they are aware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the increase in groundwater level. In order to take<br />
advantage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this positive externality caused by canals. they have even started<br />
resorting to extracti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater through installati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumpsets 8 .<br />
Table 6.15: Canal induced groundwater recharging in Peechi project<br />
'<br />
Details regarding !!round water sources Head Middle Tail Total<br />
!<br />
I Farmers having groundwater sources SO 45 20 115<br />
Farmers reporting groundwater recharge (%) 87 64 59 68<br />
Water depth be<strong>for</strong>e opening <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal (meters) 12.52 13.75 14.25 13.45<br />
Water depth after opening <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal (meters) 7.57 9.34 10.65 8.92 '<br />
Extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> recharge (Meters) 4.95 4.41 3.60 4.53<br />
Farmers having pump sets 38 (76) 24 (53) 8 (40) 70 (61 )<br />
A\crage capacitv <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumps (HP) 2.05 1.68 1.25 1.66<br />
Cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> "ell c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>' (in Rs) 10650 9548 8756 9275 ,<br />
, Cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumpsct installati<strong>on</strong>' (Ill Rs.) 5895 4830 3595 4775<br />
.<br />
Note: hgures In parenthesIs are percentages .<br />
, Cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> we 11 c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> pumpset installati<strong>on</strong> are c<strong>on</strong>verted into current<br />
prices based <strong>on</strong> the depth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the well <strong>and</strong> capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pumpset <strong>and</strong> installati<strong>on</strong><br />
charges.<br />
While 76 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the head reach <strong>farm</strong>ers have pumpsets. it is 53 per<br />
cent in the middle reaches <strong>and</strong> 40 per cent in the tail-reaches. This practice by the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers has not <strong>on</strong>ly helped to increase the productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops. hut also<br />
avoided adverse effects <strong>on</strong> sod arising out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rise in groundwater table. The<br />
average capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pump set has obviously been high in the head reaches at<br />
H 'I he c<strong>on</strong>structllH' 01 \\elis tl> the <strong>farm</strong>ers is not induced by canal seepage lIlduced<br />
groundwater recharge, SUKe the <strong>farm</strong> holdings are also homesteads where the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
dwell. wells had heen wnstructed at the time <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> settlement itself. The installati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pumpset with capacity above 0.5 liP may be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as induced by groundwater<br />
recharge. This IS hccallsc. <strong>farm</strong>ers tend to install lower capacity pumpsets to draw water<br />
fur domestic the',<br />
243
2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in the middle <strong>and</strong> 1.25 HP in the tail-end. where<br />
water in the wells is not as ahundant as it is at the head reaches. The estimates<br />
about the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge is based <strong>on</strong> the in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> furnished<br />
by the <strong>farm</strong>ers by observing the water levels in their wells be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>and</strong> after the<br />
release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the canal. The cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> well as well as the cost<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumpset installati<strong>on</strong> have been arrived at based <strong>on</strong> the historic prices <strong>and</strong> they<br />
haw heen c<strong>on</strong>verted into current prices based <strong>on</strong> the depth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the well. labour<br />
charges. capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pumpsd. cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> installati<strong>on</strong>. etc.<br />
Interestingly. a very high degree <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> associati<strong>on</strong> has been noticed between<br />
the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge <strong>and</strong> capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pumpsets <strong>and</strong> the <strong>farm</strong><br />
level investment in OFD in the Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> projcct as revealed by the<br />
coefficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> correlati<strong>on</strong> hCl\\een the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge <strong>and</strong><br />
capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pump set lflswlkd (0.248). between groundwater recharge <strong>and</strong><br />
OFD expenditure (0.329) <strong>and</strong> bdween capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pump set <strong>and</strong> the OFD<br />
expenditure (0.691) (table 6.16)<br />
Table 6.16: Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between various parameters with respect to OFD<br />
in the Peechi project (inter-correlati<strong>on</strong> matrix)<br />
Variables (n OFDEXP PUMPCAP GWEXT DRY I FLAB<br />
~ I 15) SHARE<br />
OCSTAT<br />
OFDEXP 1.000 0.691** 0.329· • 0.529 -0.208 0 -0.055<br />
PUMPCAP 0.6910. 1000 0.248·· 0.104 -0.111 -0.038<br />
GWEXT 0.329 •• 0.248 1.000 0.005 -0.071 -0.580"<br />
DRYSHARE 0.529 0104 0.005 1.000 0.181· 0.002<br />
FLAB -0.208· -0.1 II -0.071 0.181· 1000 0.044<br />
OCSTAT -0.055 -0038 -0.580" 0.002 0.044 1.000<br />
'-<br />
• SignIficant at 5 per cent level. .. SlgnIfican,<br />
.<br />
at I per cent level.<br />
Notes: OFDEXP- Expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD: PUMPCAP - Capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pump set;<br />
GWEXT - Extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge; DRYSHARE - Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area<br />
under dry crops to be irrigated; FLAB - Availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> family labour;<br />
OCST AT -Occupati<strong>on</strong>al status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er.<br />
244
The share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry crops also has been found to be influencing OFD<br />
expenditure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers. signifying that higher the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area under dry<br />
crops that could be brought under groundwater irrigati<strong>on</strong>. higher will be the<br />
expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD. The parameters. like availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> family labour <strong>and</strong><br />
occupati<strong>on</strong>al status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers have not influenced the expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD.<br />
Having discussed the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater<br />
recharge. pumpset capacity <strong>and</strong> expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD. let us now examine the<br />
expenditure pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers. The average expenditure <strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> varies across the three locati<strong>on</strong>s. In the head reaches, the average<br />
expenditure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 2514 per acre is relatively high when compared to Rs. 2273 in<br />
the middle reach <strong>and</strong> Rs. 1265 in the tail-end. A positive relati<strong>on</strong>ship has been<br />
observed oetween tht? t?xtt:nt <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry art?a a\·ailable to cultivate irrigated dry crops<br />
<strong>and</strong> the installati<strong>on</strong> l)f pump s.:ts as \\.:11 as the expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD across the<br />
thre.: locati<strong>on</strong>s (taok (16) That m.:ans. <strong>farm</strong>ers who have got additi<strong>on</strong>al l<strong>and</strong><br />
that could be brought under imgated cultivati<strong>on</strong> or the area notified <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> not getting canal water ha\l; resorted to groundwater irrigati<strong>on</strong> through<br />
InstallatIOn <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumpsets. Suoseljuently. they have invested more <strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> as they arc assured <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely availaoility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water made possible by<br />
the groundwater recharging.<br />
It should oe noted that the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> depends up<strong>on</strong> several<br />
fadors. like typt: <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soil. slope. Silt: ut the hulding. mechanical power rt:quired<br />
<strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong>. For instance. small Iwld.:rs may usc <strong>on</strong>ly manual IaOOlH <strong>for</strong> kvelling<br />
the l<strong>and</strong> mostly with family i;lhouf. I h.: l<strong>and</strong>holding size <strong>and</strong> t?xp.:nditure <strong>on</strong><br />
OFD are positively rdated. im;spcctiv.: <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plot. The relatively<br />
245
large holders have spent two to three times more than small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>on</strong>es<br />
(Table 6.17).<br />
Table 6.17: Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between irrigable holding size <strong>and</strong> oro<br />
expenditure, Peechi Project<br />
Size class Head Reach Middle Reach Tail Reach<br />
(Acres) Avg. size OFO exp. Avg. size OFO expo Avg. size OFO expo<br />
Below 0.5 0.24 (30) 1663 0.40 (29) 1666 0.4 (26) 617<br />
0.5 to I 0.8 (40) 1992 0.73(45) 2148 0.71 (42) 824<br />
1 to 2 1.23 (12) 2343 1.30(14) 2966 1.41 (17) 2354<br />
2 to 4 2.96 (12) 4079 3.13 (9) 4138 3.62 (11) 942<br />
Above 4 4.67 (6) 7636 4.23 (3) 6548 6.26(4) 1218<br />
Overall 1.54 2514 0.91 2273 0.82 1265<br />
,<br />
Nole: FIgures III parentheses are the percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers bel<strong>on</strong>gmg to each<br />
class.<br />
The expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD <strong>and</strong> the ownership <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> well, as menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier,<br />
are positively related as shown in table 6.17. However. in the tail reaches. the<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship between holding size: <strong>and</strong> OFD expenditure does not corresp<strong>on</strong>d each<br />
other due to the high percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubbcr area. The <strong>farm</strong>ers do not c<strong>on</strong>sider it<br />
necessary to irrigate rubber. incurring expenditure <strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong> devclopment. The<br />
pump set capacity in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> HP obviously depends up<strong>on</strong> the size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the holding<br />
to be irrigated <strong>and</strong> the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water availability in the well. There<strong>for</strong>e. the<br />
relatively large <strong>farm</strong>ers installed higher capacity pumpsets <strong>and</strong> invested more <strong>on</strong><br />
OFD (table 6.18).<br />
Table 6.18: Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between groundwater recharge, pump set capacity<br />
<strong>and</strong> oro expenditure, Peechi project<br />
Capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pump Number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Average Extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>GW OFD<br />
sets (HP) <strong>farm</strong>ers capacitv (HP) recharge exp(Rs.)<br />
Below 1.5 40 1.28 3.43 2092<br />
1. 5 to :2 26 2.00 4.25 2540<br />
Above 2 9 3.68 4.73 4513<br />
Total 75 1.93 4.14 2678<br />
246
The expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD has been very high in cases where the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
groundwater replenishment has been more as well as the higher levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pump<br />
set capacity. Howcyer. the small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers need special attenti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
this respect. as many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> them cannot af<strong>for</strong>d to have an independent pumpset <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
high capacity <strong>and</strong> even if some can af<strong>for</strong>d. it would not be ec<strong>on</strong>omically viable<br />
- .<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e. there is a need <strong>for</strong> developing an instituti<strong>on</strong>al mechanism to promote<br />
water markets in the comm<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
6.2.1.2 Impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>on</strong> income from different crops in the Peechi project<br />
Following a detailed discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the positive benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge<br />
caused by the seepage in the Peechi canal system <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong> <strong>farm</strong> level<br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>and</strong> related issues. an attempt has been made. in what follows.<br />
to examine the crop-wise costs <strong>and</strong> returns <strong>on</strong> investment. However. be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
examining the cost <strong>and</strong> returns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different crops across the canal reaches. a brief<br />
note <strong>on</strong> the cost c<strong>on</strong>cept used in the analysis is in order.<br />
The cost c<strong>on</strong>cept used in the study is "Cost A' as used in the studies <strong>on</strong><br />
Farm Management Surveys9. especially by Kahl<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Singh (\980). This is<br />
because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problems involved in apporti<strong>on</strong>ing the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> or the interest<br />
<strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong>. as a fixed asset in the <strong>farm</strong>ing cost calculati<strong>on</strong>s in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala.<br />
9 The Farm Management Studies (FMS) have used three important cost c<strong>on</strong>cepts. viz.,<br />
Cost A. Cost B <strong>and</strong> Cost C. in arriving at a re~listic estimate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> thl! cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
individual crops. Accordingly, 'Cost A' includes expenditure <strong>on</strong> labour, draught power,<br />
<strong>farm</strong> machinery, seeds. fertiliser <strong>and</strong> manure, plant protecti<strong>on</strong> chemicals, irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
miscellaneous expenditure, including cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> transportati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> marketing. 'Cost R'<br />
comprise 'Cost A' plus interest <strong>on</strong> fixed capital, including l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> 'Cost C' includes<br />
'Cost B' plus imput~d value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> family labour.<br />
247
Farming is c<strong>on</strong>sidered mostly as a sec<strong>on</strong>dary activity In Kerala due to vanous<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints ranging from n<strong>on</strong>-viable <strong>farm</strong> holdings to heavv<br />
dependence <strong>on</strong> hired labour I 0 coupled with high wage costs as well as<br />
unremunerative market prices. The opportunity cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> is determined by the<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use opti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> different crops. In view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the emerging crop diversificati<strong>on</strong><br />
in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s <strong>on</strong> a large scale, assuming some noti<strong>on</strong>al value ll<br />
reflecting the opportunity cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>, has its own limitati<strong>on</strong>s in Kerala' s<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text. In general. <strong>farm</strong>ers have a percepti<strong>on</strong> that cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any crop<br />
becomes n<strong>on</strong>-viable. if the rental or market value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> is reck<strong>on</strong>ed in the cost<br />
calculati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
III The study by Nair (1999) brings out the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> family labour is <strong>on</strong>ly 10.3 per cent a!ld<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> hired labour is significantly high at 89.7 per cent. Only 23 percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers reported <strong>farm</strong>ing as a primary activity. While 32 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers have<br />
reported business <strong>and</strong> industry as the major activity, 17.6 per cent being salaried group.<br />
11 George (1988) observes that using certain noti<strong>on</strong>al value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> would lead to<br />
misrepresentati<strong>on</strong> in Kerala as the opportunity cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> is very high in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
increasing speculative as well as other uses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>. including real estate or housing<br />
purposes. L<strong>and</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten valued as an asset <strong>and</strong> safe investment rather than as a<br />
productive resource in agriculture. Moreover, the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> producti<strong>on</strong> after c<strong>on</strong>sidering all<br />
the cost c<strong>on</strong>cepts would turn out tn be far from remunerative levels. the returns being far<br />
below the costs.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> data furnished by the Bureau <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <strong>and</strong><br />
Statistics (BES), George (1988) found that the net returns per ha. (expressed as value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
output) were positive with Cost A <strong>and</strong> negative with Cost B <strong>and</strong> Cost C <strong>for</strong> all the crops,<br />
with <strong>on</strong>ly excepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ginger. that too <strong>for</strong> <strong>on</strong>e year. A comparis<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the unit cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
producti<strong>on</strong> with the <strong>farm</strong> level prices <strong>for</strong> the period 1980-81 to 1984-85 indicate that<br />
<strong>farm</strong> level prices were far below the unit cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> producti<strong>on</strong> using Cost B <strong>for</strong> paddy,<br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut, pepper <strong>and</strong> tapioca <strong>for</strong> all the periods.<br />
248
Thus, given these estimati<strong>on</strong> problems, we c<strong>on</strong>fine ourselves to the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'Cost<br />
A'. which includes all the paid out costs in producti<strong>on</strong>. mainly wages paid lO<br />
labour from planting to harvesting as well as cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> material inputs. like cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fertiliser. plant protecti<strong>on</strong> chemicals. seeds. etc. The costs <strong>and</strong> returns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s undertaken by the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project are<br />
compared across the different reaches as shown in table 6.19.<br />
Table 6.19: Costs <strong>and</strong> returns from different crops in the Peechi<br />
oroiect: Reach-wise (Rs. per acre)<br />
Labour Material<br />
Crops<br />
Total cost<br />
Gross Net Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>it<br />
cost cost Income returns (%)<br />
Head Reach<br />
Paddy 2719.2 1604.6 4323.8 7235.5 2911.7 67.3<br />
Banana 5461.0 4880.3 10341.3 35419.0 25077.7 242.5<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 6325.0 1793.8 8118.8 20135.0 12016.2 148.0<br />
Arecanut 5149.1 1314.3 6463.4 8199.7 1736.4 26.8<br />
Tapioca 3250.0 2225.0 5475.0 8758.6 3283.6 60.0<br />
! Pepper 750.0, 145.0 895.0 4629.5 3734.5 417.3<br />
Plantain 375.0 140.0 515.0 1758.5 1243.5 241.5<br />
Middle Reach<br />
I Paddy 1398.3 825.2 2223.5 5428.6 3205.1 144.2<br />
i Banana 4541.2 2717.8 7259.0 22509.0 15250.0 21 0.1<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 4550.0 612.5 5162.5 10290.0 5127.5 99.3<br />
Arecanut 2412.0 625.6 3037.6 6987.6 3949.9 130.1<br />
Tapioca 2750.0 1850 4600.0 6188.8 1588.7 34.5<br />
I Pepper 675.0 125.0 800.0 1453.1 653.1 81.6<br />
, Plantain 250.0 120.0 370.0 1262.5 892.5 241.2<br />
Tail Reach<br />
Paddy 1258.75 812.5 2071.25 3875.0 1803.8 87.1<br />
Banana 2458.52 1647.25 4105.77 6458.25 2352.5 57.3<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 1875.45 1254.65 3130.1 5435.25 2305.2 73.6<br />
Arecanut 1647.75 13 1 5.5 2973.25 4357.56 1384.3 46.6<br />
Tapioca 1325.25 675.0 2000.25 2258.5 258.3 12.9<br />
Pepper 345.0 140.0 485.0 1245.0 760.0 156.7<br />
Plantain 225.0 140.0 365.0 1350.0 985.0 269.9<br />
249
The pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops depends up<strong>on</strong>, am<strong>on</strong>g other things, timely <strong>and</strong><br />
adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. The data presented in table 6.19 shows the income<br />
from various crops across the three reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Peechi comm<strong>and</strong> area. For<br />
instance. the returns <strong>on</strong> investment in the crops grown in head <strong>and</strong> middle<br />
reaches are high when compared to those in the tail-end. A relatively more<br />
assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the head <strong>and</strong> middle reaches tends to motivate <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
to apply more doses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> yield-enhancing inputs. It could be seen from the above<br />
table that the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> material inputs per acre <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> banana is as high as Rs. 4880 in<br />
the head reaches as against Rs. 2717 <strong>and</strong> Rs. 1647, in the middle <strong>and</strong> tail reaches<br />
respectively. The pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability is quite high when compared to other crops.<br />
Undependable supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>for</strong> the tail enders deprives them to reap the<br />
benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a crop whose pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itahility is more. The maximisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> productivity<br />
potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a crop <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent increase in income depends up<strong>on</strong> a great<br />
deal <strong>on</strong> adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. This is also linked, as menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier, to the<br />
OFO works that a <strong>farm</strong>er takes in his fields.<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the crops. banana is highly pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itable in the head <strong>and</strong> middle<br />
reaches, the percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> net returns being 242 per cent in the head <strong>and</strong> 210 per<br />
cent in the middle reaches. However, the net returns per acre from paddy is<br />
higher than that from banana <strong>and</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut in the tail reaches. which could be<br />
explained in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sufficient water <strong>for</strong> these crops.<br />
The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OF!) <strong>on</strong> the yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different crops gruwn in the Peechi<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project has been examined by comparing the plots where OFO was<br />
adopted <strong>and</strong> where it was not adopted <strong>and</strong> the details are presented in table 6.20.<br />
It is noteworthy that the net additi<strong>on</strong>al earnings from crops grown in the plots<br />
250
with OFD have been more than those without OFO works. Am<strong>on</strong>g the crops.<br />
tapioca <strong>and</strong> banana are more pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itable. For instance. the additi<strong>on</strong>al output from<br />
the developed plots is 231 per cent more. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> banana. the productivity<br />
in developed plots is higher by 1377 kg. per acre than the undeveloped plots. The<br />
yield di fferentials are quite perceptible in case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all other crops though not as<br />
high as in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tapioca <strong>and</strong> banana.<br />
Table 6.20: Yield <strong>and</strong> income differences in plots with <strong>and</strong> without<br />
OFO in the Peechi project<br />
I Plots \\ ith OFO Plots without OFO Incremental Additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Crops<br />
Value ! Value<br />
Yield<br />
yield (Kg.! No.) Yield<br />
earnings<br />
(Rs.) (Rs.) per acre (%)<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 3339 14190 1833 7791 1506 82<br />
Banana 2125 19656 748 6923 1377 184<br />
Vegetable 504, 4234 278 2338 226 81<br />
Arecanut 189 ' 8517 113 5101 76 67<br />
Rubber· 909 26819 620 18302 289 47<br />
: Pepper<br />
,<br />
68 8273 55 6668 13 24<br />
i Ginger!<br />
141 530 71 266 70 99<br />
, turmeriC<br />
Tapioca 1003 4763 303 1439 700 231<br />
Note: • Rubber IS grown <strong>on</strong>ly 10 the tall reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the RB maIO canal.<br />
Yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> is measures in tenns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nuts per acre <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
all (lth\:r crops. it is kgs p\:r aer\:o Rubber is essentially a rainfed crop. Even so.<br />
the developed plots. which arc c<strong>on</strong>verted into rubber fields. tend to have more<br />
moisture retenti<strong>on</strong> capacity <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e. its productivity is high when compared<br />
to undeveloped plots, The improved soil moisture status enables more number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tapping days during summer!!. resulting in higher output. The yield improvement<br />
I! In view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the acule SCIre Ily "I water during summer. rubber growers tend to keep<br />
their rubber trees unlapped lor ahout two m<strong>on</strong>ths <strong>and</strong> providing irrigati<strong>on</strong> to rubber<br />
plants during this period help, avoiding the lapping rest. thereby providing more<br />
number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tapping days.<br />
251
noticed in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber could be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as an outcome <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> increase in<br />
the number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tapping days.<br />
Though crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> is taking place in the comm<strong>and</strong> area <strong>on</strong> a<br />
larger scale from paddy to other high value crops, the n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> watcr<br />
acts as a major c<strong>on</strong>straint in attaining higher levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> productivity under<br />
irrigated c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. It is also certain that if the <strong>farm</strong>ers are assured <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely<br />
supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. they would invcst more <strong>on</strong> improving the quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong><br />
through adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD. It is important to note that, whatever little investment<br />
the <strong>farm</strong>ers make <strong>for</strong> irrigating the plots is c<strong>on</strong>tingent up<strong>on</strong> the incidental benefit<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater replenishment caused by canal seepage. As the water release <strong>for</strong><br />
crops other than paddy is outside the design <strong>and</strong> scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project, <strong>farm</strong>ers are<br />
not able to get the maximum benefits out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop diversificati<strong>on</strong>. If the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
system are technicallv modilied so as to enable crop diversificati<strong>on</strong>, it would<br />
. .<br />
further induce the <strong>farm</strong>ers to invest in OFD <strong>for</strong> efficient utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in<br />
the field. This will also motivate them to resort to c<strong>on</strong>junctive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal <strong>and</strong><br />
groundwater.<br />
The reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>straints In the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> better l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> water management measures both at the system as well as <strong>farm</strong><br />
levels will be examined in greater detail in the following chapter. In what<br />
follows, a detailed analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the Kallada<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project has heen attempted.<br />
252
6.2.1.3 Crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> returns to scale in the Peechi project<br />
An analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> crop-diversificati<strong>on</strong> as well as the<br />
pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternate crops grown under we)) irrigati<strong>on</strong> In the Peechi<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> is presented below. This is to bring out the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cropdiversificati<strong>on</strong><br />
in canal comm<strong>and</strong>s to achieve higher returns to scale under<br />
assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal irrigati<strong>on</strong>. The analysis is carried out using the Cobb-<br />
Douglas Producti<strong>on</strong> functi<strong>on</strong> approach in the log-linear framework. The<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>for</strong>m is expressed as:<br />
The above functi<strong>on</strong> is trans<strong>for</strong>med in the log-linear <strong>for</strong>m <strong>and</strong> is expressed as:<br />
Where:<br />
Y = Income from crops:<br />
XI = OFD Expenditure:<br />
X 2 = Labour Cost;<br />
Xl = Material Cost;<br />
X 4 = Power Charges;<br />
X 5 = Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Charges.<br />
The inputs arc expressed in rupee terms. PI. P2. PJ. P4 <strong>and</strong> Ps are the<br />
regressi<strong>on</strong> coefficients showing the input elasticities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual resources. The<br />
sum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the beta coefficients indicates the returns to scale. The returns to scale are<br />
increasing. c<strong>on</strong>stant or decn:a,ing depending up<strong>on</strong> the sum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> regressi<strong>on</strong> when<br />
coefficients is greater than. equal to. or less than unity.<br />
253
The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Functi<strong>on</strong> has some well-known properties that<br />
justify its wide applicati<strong>on</strong> in ec<strong>on</strong>omic literature (Henders<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Qu<strong>and</strong>t. 1971).<br />
It is a homogeneous functi<strong>on</strong> that provides a scale factor enabling <strong>on</strong>e to measure<br />
the returns to scale <strong>and</strong> to interpret the elasticity coefficients with relative ease.<br />
But. at the same time, the CD functi<strong>on</strong> makes several restrictive assumpti<strong>on</strong>s. It<br />
is assumed that the elasticity coefficients are c<strong>on</strong>stant, implying c<strong>on</strong>stant shares<br />
<strong>for</strong> the inputs. The elasticity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> substituti<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g factors is also assumed to be<br />
unity in the CD functi<strong>on</strong>. The estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the input elasticities have been<br />
worked out using the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) method <strong>and</strong> have been<br />
presented in table 6.21.<br />
Table 6,21: Crop-wise input elasticities <strong>and</strong> returns to scale in Peechi<br />
proJec . t<br />
-<br />
I<br />
1I1pill Elaslicilies<br />
Variables<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Banana I Arecanut Paddy & &<br />
banana arccanut<br />
, Intercept -52.198 -17.65 14.89 28.93 -5395 8.89<br />
(-0.0801 (-1682) (0.648) ( 1748) (-1.662) (0.929)<br />
XI 0.709 0.031 -0.015 0.464 0.132 0.056<br />
(OFD Exp.) (6.35) (\853) (-0.305) (1.886) (2.604) (0.962)<br />
X2 0.286 0.030 1.009 0.207 -0.061 0.423<br />
(Lab. Cost) (5.422) (1.202) (2492) (1.445) (-0.654) (8.138)<br />
X3 0.010 0.079 0.004 0.277 0.569 0.354<br />
(Mat. Cost) (0.283) (3.118) (0.43:U ( 1.876) ( 4.269) (4.686)<br />
X4<br />
0.076 0.486 0.012 -0.251 0.141 0.211<br />
(Power<br />
( 1.544) (0849) (0.855) (-0.251) (0.984) (2.928)<br />
Charges)<br />
X5 0.005 0418 -0.011 0.252 -0.047<br />
-----<br />
(Irr. Charges) (0.089) (0.729) (-0.736) (2.832) (-1.432)<br />
Returns to<br />
scale<br />
1.086 1.044 0.999 0.697 1.033 0.997<br />
R square 0.286 0.568<br />
.<br />
0.642 0.382 0.678 0.581<br />
~<br />
Sample size<br />
( no.)<br />
95 95 95 51 95 95<br />
D- W statistic 1.834 2.08 2.03 1.80 2.28 1.84<br />
Note: Figures •<br />
In parentheses are the respective t raltos.<br />
254
The analysis shows that the returns to scale in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong><br />
banana cultivati<strong>on</strong> is above <strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong> it indicates increasing returns to scale. The<br />
lowest returns to scale has be.::n observed in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy (0.697). which<br />
indicates decreasing returns to scale per unit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> investment. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut. the returns to scale is almost <strong>on</strong>e. indicating c<strong>on</strong>stant returns. The crop<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong>. ie .. coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> banana give better returns to scale (1.033) in<br />
com pari s<strong>on</strong> to coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> arecanut (0.997).<br />
Given the higher returns arising from crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
groundwater irrigated c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. it is important to note that under assured canal<br />
supplies. the scale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> returns will be more than that reported, ensured through<br />
better l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> water management practices being adopted by the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers Th.:: analysis also brings out a genuine need <strong>for</strong> crop-diYersificati<strong>on</strong><br />
based <strong>on</strong> mixed cropping syskl11. wherein. the uncertainties involved in <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
could be overcome to a c<strong>on</strong>siderable extent.<br />
6.2.2 Impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
The Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project (KIP) is <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the two projects selected <strong>for</strong> the<br />
study. It is <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the oldest irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state, which was started in<br />
1961. Due to various factors r~lllging from financial to technical design problems.<br />
the project stilI remains to be partially commissi<strong>on</strong>ed. The project was mainly<br />
designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating paddy. Subsequently. it was brought under the World<br />
255
· 13<br />
Bank assistance programme <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e. there was substantial revisi<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> garden crops. mainly coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> other tret.'<br />
crops. including rubber to ensure financial viability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project As a rt.'sult.<br />
the project is c<strong>on</strong>sidered as the <strong>on</strong>ly project in the country specifically intended<br />
<strong>for</strong> growing tree crops <strong>and</strong> the project is. otherwise. known as the Kallada<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tree Crops Development Project (KI & TCDP).<br />
Currently, less than 40 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ayacut is under wet crops. mainh<br />
paddy. Based <strong>on</strong> the field survey, it is noticed that <strong>on</strong>ly 17 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area is<br />
being cultivated under paddy. The remaining area notified under paddy is either<br />
left fallow due to lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy or remains waterlogged due to the<br />
seepage caused by badly maintained canal systems. However, there are no<br />
realistic estimates to indicate the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy l<strong>and</strong> left uncultivated due to<br />
various reas<strong>on</strong>s. Paddy fields are also left uncultivated as the canopy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber<br />
plantati<strong>on</strong>s covers a major share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the paddy area. About 58 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area<br />
is under dry crops <strong>and</strong> 25 per cent area is put to n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural uses, VIZ.,<br />
permanent c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> dwellings. roads <strong>and</strong> the like.<br />
As observed already, the project has been selected <strong>for</strong> an indepth study in<br />
view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its special significance in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop diversificati<strong>on</strong>, quite distinct<br />
from the croppmg pattern designed originally, ie., paddy. The analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project is, limited in scope <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tent 111<br />
view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the dismal per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sYstem <strong>and</strong> its incomplete status.<br />
U The external aid to the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> US $ 80.3 milli<strong>on</strong> has been made available through<br />
the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development Agency (IDA) as a loan <strong>and</strong> credit <strong>for</strong> the schemc. Thc<br />
full amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the credit has been reimbursed as part l,f the Phase I <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project.<br />
256
However, the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada is more relevant to study as the problems <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints in realising as a scheme, which has not yielded the expected results<br />
even after four decades <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its incepti<strong>on</strong>. Accordingly, more than explaining the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost <strong>and</strong> benefits, it is the dynamics<br />
involved in the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project that would be very<br />
relevant to throw more light <strong>on</strong> policy perspectives.<br />
With this backdrop, an attempt has been made in this secti<strong>on</strong>, to examine<br />
the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Kallada scheme <strong>on</strong> the area expansi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> irrigated crop<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> in the comm<strong>and</strong> area. As already pointed out, the water distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
system in the project is unique in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its design suitable <strong>for</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tree crops grown in the homesteads. Though the project is designed <strong>for</strong> paddy<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>. almost 60 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> area is under dry crops, which<br />
require irrigati<strong>on</strong> during summer. Since the topography <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project area is<br />
undulating. the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al open canal system was not suitable to bring the<br />
entire ayacut under irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Hence, the underground pipe line system, called<br />
the Minor C<strong>on</strong>\'eyance System (MCS) was proposed <strong>for</strong> the Kallada project. The<br />
MCS is laid out through the <strong>farm</strong>ers plots <strong>and</strong> the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> installati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
system was proposed to be partially recovered from the beneficiary <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
based <strong>on</strong> certain rates. Accordingly, (i) <strong>farm</strong>ers holding in excess <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4 ha. are<br />
expected to bear 50 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cost; (ii) <strong>farm</strong>ers holding area between 2 to 4<br />
ha. are to gi\c .to per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> installati<strong>on</strong>; (iii) those having l<strong>and</strong><br />
257
etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange <strong>for</strong> 37.5 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS installati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> (iv) those below I ha. are to give 35.5 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the costl 4 .<br />
Since <strong>farm</strong>ers' c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> was minimal, MCS divisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the KIP took<br />
up the work expeditiously <strong>and</strong> completed it much ahead <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
entire canal network necessary to release water through the MCS.<br />
The<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal network was delayed <strong>for</strong> more than a decade. This<br />
mismatch between the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal network <strong>and</strong> the <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> water<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> system has made the investment in MCS infructuous or unproductive<br />
sunk capital. Furthermore, the material used to lay the pipes <strong>and</strong> associated<br />
structures have been completely spoiled <strong>and</strong> become useless. This has resulted in<br />
several changes in l<strong>and</strong> use pattern in the comm<strong>and</strong> area. For instance, some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the area localised <strong>for</strong> paddy has been <strong>for</strong>cefully c<strong>on</strong>verted into rubber<br />
plantati<strong>on</strong>s 15 The entry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber plantati<strong>on</strong>s particularly in the area comm<strong>and</strong>ed<br />
by the right bank canaL has, there<strong>for</strong>e, changed the entire scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> system in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area. Rubber is mostly c<strong>on</strong>sidered as<br />
a rainfed crop. The <strong>farm</strong>ers did not feel the need <strong>for</strong> OFD works to promote<br />
efficient water management, because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the existence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS. C<strong>on</strong>sequently, no<br />
private investment took place. Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the necessary accessories like rubber<br />
hoses <strong>for</strong> taking water from the hydrants were also given to the <strong>farm</strong>ers free <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
I~ Surprisingly, there was no justificati<strong>on</strong> as regards fixing such norm <strong>for</strong> recovering the<br />
cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> installati<strong>on</strong> from the <strong>farm</strong>cr\. Moreover, based <strong>on</strong> the operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings<br />
structure in the comm<strong>and</strong> area, majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers would have been placed in the<br />
lower strata <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost recovery.<br />
IS In most cases, the switch over from paddy to rubber has been caused by the canopy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rubber plantati<strong>on</strong>s enveloping thc low-lying paddy areas <strong>and</strong> thus, it <strong>for</strong>ms a case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>for</strong>ced c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
258
cost. This is an illustrative example as to how the irrigati<strong>on</strong> policies <strong>and</strong><br />
programmes take twists <strong>and</strong> turns in the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time-bound co-ordinated<br />
executive <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong> plans.<br />
It is important to note that while examining the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
Kallada project, this dynamics need proper underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> interpretati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
because. the ground realities play an important role in explaining why the social<br />
benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> in Kerala have been far from expected levels <strong>and</strong> desired<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s. An attempt has been however. made in what follows to examine the<br />
success <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS in the Kallada project, even if it is in a limited scale, based<br />
<strong>on</strong> the field data available.<br />
6.2.2.1 Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System (MCS): Operati<strong>on</strong>al status <strong>and</strong> impact<br />
It appears that the enthusiasm to implement MCS in the project was apparently<br />
very high. For instance. the comm<strong>and</strong> area surveyed to bring under the MCS was<br />
much higher than the targeted area.<br />
But. when it was translated into<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>alisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the programme at the field level. the<br />
story was altogether disappointing as revealed from the data presented in table<br />
6.22. It is clear that <strong>on</strong>ly in 73 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area targeted <strong>for</strong> MCS<br />
infrastructure was completed What is worse is its utilisati<strong>on</strong>. The potential<br />
utilised under MCS was ahout <strong>on</strong>e third. Less than <strong>on</strong>e third <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area was<br />
h<strong>and</strong>ed over to the Water Users' Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUAs). Based <strong>on</strong> the in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong><br />
provided hy the project <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials. it was also understood that no further work with<br />
regard to MCS implementati<strong>on</strong> was taken up during the last few years due to<br />
financial c<strong>on</strong>straints.<br />
259
Table 6.22: Status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS in the Kallada Project<br />
Status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> work Target (Ha) Achievement (Ha.)<br />
as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> March 1990 Achievement (%)<br />
Survey work 50000 54706 109.41<br />
Scheme sancti<strong>on</strong>ed 45000 39858 88.57<br />
, Work completed 45000 32810 72.91<br />
Potential utilised 45000 16428 36.51<br />
H<strong>and</strong>ed over to WUAs 45000 13768 30.60<br />
SOllrce. Kallada IrngatlOn Project. Project related documents.<br />
The fact that the entire system is intended <strong>for</strong> garden crops indicates the<br />
technical c<strong>on</strong>straints to operate the MCS. Furthermore. high value crops grown in<br />
the paddy fields as interim crops cannot be irrigated through the MCS as the<br />
networks are located in the garden l<strong>and</strong>s. These intricacies are made clear when<br />
we look at the source-wise irrigated area in Kallada village (Table 6.23).<br />
Table 6.23: Source-wise area irrigated in a Kallada village<br />
Crop<br />
, Under MCS Under OCS<br />
Area (Ha.) Share (%) Area (Ha.) Share (%)<br />
Paddy na na 1.5 15.00<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 11.5 34.85 na na<br />
Banana 7 21.21 3 30.00<br />
Pepper 2 6.06 na na<br />
Rubber 12.5 37.88 na na<br />
Betelvine na na 2 20.00<br />
Pulses na na 3 30.00<br />
Vegetable na na 0.5 5.00<br />
Total 33 100 10 100<br />
Note: na - Not posstble as per the technical features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scheme.<br />
Of the total area brought under the MCS. rubber accounts <strong>for</strong> almost 38<br />
per cent followed by coc<strong>on</strong>ut (35 %) <strong>and</strong> banana (21 %).<br />
It is noteworthy that <strong>on</strong>ly 35 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers have reported<br />
that they have been actually benefited by the MCS works. A Majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers reported that though the distributi<strong>on</strong> system was laid out thorough their<br />
holdings. they could not use the system as there was no water available. The<br />
260
proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fanners benefited under MCS is the highest in the head reaches (43<br />
%), followed by 38 per cent in the middle reaches <strong>and</strong> 32 per cent in the tail cnd.<br />
Thc coverage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area under the MCS is also very less across the three<br />
locati<strong>on</strong>s, the highest share being in the head reaches at 30 per cent, followed by<br />
28 per cent in the middle reaches <strong>and</strong> 14 per cent in the tail reaches (Table 6.24).<br />
Table 6.24: Farmers benefited by MCS in the Kallada project- Locati<strong>on</strong>wise<br />
Locati<strong>on</strong><br />
Benefited under the MCS<br />
Farmers (%) Area (acres) Area (%)<br />
Avg. size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holding<br />
(acres)<br />
Head 43.08 49.94 30.26 1.62<br />
Middle 3804 48.70 28.32 2.35<br />
Tail 32.45 17.72 14.23 0.68<br />
Total 34.65 116.36 25.21 1.43<br />
As reported already. ill P~~chi,<br />
<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the two projects selected <strong>for</strong> the<br />
study. the groundwatcr !e\cl has increased after the introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Similar is the case with Kallada also. However. the intensity <strong>and</strong><br />
spread <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge in the Kallada project is less, because, a major<br />
part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal system is under the MCS wherein. percolati<strong>on</strong> loss is obviously<br />
low. Even so. a sizeable proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers has reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> having benefited<br />
by groundwater recharge as rcvcaled by the data presented in table 6.25.<br />
Table 6.25: Percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers having water sources <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
including groundwater-Locati<strong>on</strong>-wise<br />
Details<br />
I<br />
lIead Reach Middle Reach Tail Reach Overall<br />
Groundwater sources 74.36 70.77 68.42 71.50<br />
Canal recharging 34.45 26.83 21.80 27.34<br />
Hydrants fixed 43.59 43.08 36.84 41.50<br />
Pump sets installed E05 27.69 24.56 28.50<br />
Total sample size 7& 65 57 200<br />
261
Though almost all the <strong>farm</strong>ers reporting groundwater recharge have<br />
installed pumpsets to make use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater sources <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>, the extent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharging has not been very much due to various reas<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Firstly. a major segment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Kallada canal system is fully lined <strong>and</strong> thus, the<br />
seepage <strong>and</strong> percolati<strong>on</strong> loss is less in comparis<strong>on</strong> to the unlined/ earthen canal<br />
system. as reported in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi project. Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, in many places, the<br />
canal system is c<strong>on</strong>structed through excavating the earth deeper than the surface<br />
level. As a result. there is not much scope <strong>for</strong> groundwater recharge. However, in<br />
the upper reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal system. <strong>farm</strong>ers reported that they are unable to do<br />
any cultivati<strong>on</strong> in the paddy fields due to water logging caused by the canal<br />
seepage. Almost 37 to 44 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers have reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> having the<br />
MCS networks. mainly hydrants installed in their holdings.<br />
The cropping pattern adopted in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area has its impact<br />
<strong>on</strong> water use <strong>and</strong> management. As could be seen from the data presented in table<br />
6.26, rubber is the major crop accounting <strong>for</strong> 32 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area cultivated.<br />
Rubber does not require irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> hence. <strong>farm</strong>ers growing rubber do not<br />
show much interest in water management. The irrigated crops, such as vegetable,<br />
arecanut, banana <strong>and</strong> plantain <strong>and</strong> tapioca together account <strong>for</strong> 35 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
cropped area. while the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy is <strong>on</strong>ly 11 per cent. Given the typical<br />
agricultural scenario in Kerala. coc<strong>on</strong>ut-based mixed <strong>farm</strong>ing systems are widely<br />
prevalent. The co-existence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated <strong>and</strong> rain fed <strong>farm</strong>ing in the culturable<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a project has its ramificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the water<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> network, besides OFD works. For instance, the MCS should pass<br />
through large tracts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber plantati<strong>on</strong>s. Since the rubber growers do not<br />
262
depend <strong>on</strong> the MCS (even if it is functi<strong>on</strong>ing properly), they tend to spoil the<br />
system or some times do not allow the system to be laid out through their tiny<br />
plots. In such cases. the pipeline system needs to be laid out in a roundabout<br />
way. which would add to the cost enormously.<br />
Table 6.26: Cropping pattern in the Kallada study area<br />
Crops Area (acres) Share(%)<br />
Paddy 50.72 10.99<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut & coc<strong>on</strong>ut mixed 98.49 21.34<br />
Cashew 9.88 2.14<br />
Rubber 148.34 32.14<br />
Arecanul 8.22 1.78<br />
Tapioca 46.43 10.06<br />
Vegetable (pulses, etc) 64.66 14.0 I<br />
Banana & plantain 34.80 7.54<br />
Total area 461.55 100.00<br />
As menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier. investment in OFD by the fanners depends up<strong>on</strong><br />
adequate <strong>and</strong> assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. It is obvious that availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in<br />
the head reaches will be relatively more abundant. There<strong>for</strong>e. <strong>farm</strong>ers in the head<br />
reaches tend to take up OFD works <strong>on</strong> a larger scale. However. the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
levelling depends up<strong>on</strong> several factors, such as type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soil. topography, skilled<br />
labour availability <strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong>. On an average. <strong>farm</strong>ers have spent about Rs. 1200<br />
per acre <strong>on</strong> OFD. This expenditure seems to be neutral to the locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plot.<br />
Because. as observed from the data presented in table 6.27. there is marginal<br />
variati<strong>on</strong> in the expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD across the locati<strong>on</strong>s. For instance, it is Rs.<br />
1184 per acre in the head reach plots, followed by Rs. 1198 in the middle <strong>and</strong> Rs.<br />
11 S6 in the tail reaches. Across the different size classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings, the average<br />
expenditure incurred hy the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the 2 to 4 acre size class is high especially<br />
in the tail reaches at Rs. 4260 as against Rs. 3879 in the head reaches <strong>and</strong> Rs.<br />
263
3854 in the middle reaches. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers in that size class is ,<br />
however. not high in all the three locati<strong>on</strong>s. Thus. the positive relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between size class <strong>and</strong> OFO expenditure as observed in the Peechi project is not<br />
seen in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada project.<br />
Table 6.27: Investment in OFD <strong>and</strong> size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry holding - Locati<strong>on</strong>-wise<br />
Head Reach Middle Reach Tail Reach<br />
Size class<br />
(Acres) Avg. OFO Exp.<br />
OFO Exp.<br />
Avg. size<br />
OFO Exp.<br />
Avg. size<br />
sIze (Rs.! acre) (Rs.! acre) (Rs'/ acre)<br />
Below 0.5 0.35 505 (46) 0.32 455 (42) 0.34 482 (51)<br />
0.5 to I 0.89 1320 (38) 0.75 1040(31) 0.74 1046 (28)<br />
I to 2 1.18 1615 (8) 1.47 2085 (19) 1.36 1895 (14)<br />
2 to 4 2.75 3879(8) 2.69 3854 (5) 3.07 4260 (5)<br />
Above 4 0 0 7.16 3345 (3) 8.00 2176 (2)<br />
Overall 0.82 1184 0.95 1198 0.86 1156<br />
Note: FIgures m parentheses are percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers bel<strong>on</strong>gmg to each class.<br />
This may be explained in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the topographical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in which<br />
these two projects are located. For instance. the topography in the Kallada<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area is uneven <strong>and</strong> highly undulating which requires substantial<br />
investment <strong>for</strong> cutting the mounds. some times very deeply to level the plots <strong>and</strong><br />
bring it to a uni<strong>for</strong>m slope. Moreover. the dominance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber in the cropping<br />
pattern acts as a disincentive in undertaking l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> works.<br />
After discussing the current status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS, it IS<br />
important to examine the impa
appears to be quite encouraging. For instance, the incremental output under MCS<br />
ranges from 61 per cent in coc<strong>on</strong>ut to 249 per cent in arecanut, 164 per cent in<br />
pepper, 161 per cent in vegetables <strong>and</strong> 117 per cent in banana. Thus, the income<br />
earned from crops, such as vegetables, banana, tapioca <strong>and</strong> pepper grown under<br />
the MCS have been very significant compared to coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> rubber.<br />
Table 6.28: Yield <strong>and</strong> Income differences across the MCS <strong>and</strong> OCS adopted<br />
plots I m 'Klldp·<br />
a a a rOlect<br />
Under MCS Under OCS Incremental<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Crops<br />
yield (Kg.!<br />
Yield Value Yield Value earnings (%)<br />
I<br />
No) per ha.<br />
I Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 2776 9716 1720 6019 1056 61<br />
Banana 1436 12928 661 5947 776 117<br />
Vegetable 364 2551 140 978 225 161<br />
Arecanut 100 4016 29 1150 72 249<br />
Rubber 708 20877 392 11561 316 81<br />
Pepper 50 6024 19 2283 31 164<br />
i Cashew 136 2441 107 1931 28 26<br />
-,-""1,,)<br />
Tapioca 642 .»).) - 283 1554 I 360 127<br />
Note: YIeld <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut IS measured In terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nuts per acre <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> all other<br />
crops, it is kgs per acre.<br />
The per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops under MCS by the locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plot is also<br />
examined <strong>and</strong> the results are compared with the plots under OCS as shown in<br />
table 6.29. Since paddy is not grown under MCS, it is not included in the<br />
analysis. Am<strong>on</strong>g the major crops cultivated by the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers, banana is<br />
found to be more pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itable in the Kallada project. It is more so in the head<br />
reaches. Relatively more reliable supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the head reaches enables the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers to realise bctter returns from banana, which is a water-intensivc crop.<br />
Though banana is grown in middle <strong>and</strong> tail reaches, the incremental income<br />
arising out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> through MCS is almost 34 per cent in both the cases.<br />
265
The net income from vegetables <strong>and</strong> tapioca grown under the MCS in the middle<br />
<strong>and</strong> tail reaches has been less than that from the open canal irrigated <strong>farm</strong>s. This<br />
IS essentially due to the inadequacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> \\ater dUring summer in these reaches. as<br />
reported by the <strong>farm</strong>ers. The per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all other crops under MCS in terms<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> productivity is much higher than those grown under the OCS. The difference<br />
is perceptible in the head reach plots.<br />
Table 6.29: ~et income from different crops under MCS <strong>and</strong> OCS<br />
Locati<strong>on</strong>-wise<br />
i Locati<strong>on</strong> Paddy Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Banana I Vegetables<br />
I<br />
Head Reach (In rupees per acre)<br />
Tapioca Rubber<br />
, MCS 0 2175 6310 I 5999 5764 9663<br />
OCS 3633 1735 2666 I 3487 3826 6594<br />
Diff. (%j I 0 25 137 I 72 5 I 47<br />
Middle Reach (In rupees per acre)<br />
MCS 0 2129 4168 4696 3089 5865<br />
OCS 2665 1
the variety <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the planting matenal used, the crop extracti<strong>on</strong> system followed <strong>and</strong><br />
the like. However, it is said that irrigating rubber during summer m<strong>on</strong>ths would<br />
improve the soil moisture status <strong>and</strong> thus. latex flow may not get affected. Again,<br />
It is widely reported from the rubber growing tracts that during summer m<strong>on</strong>ths,<br />
the groundwater sources available in the rubber plantati<strong>on</strong>s are getting depleted.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> these, it may be pointed out that in water abundant regi<strong>on</strong>s, irrigating<br />
the rubber plants may be followed \\ithout compromising the water availability<br />
status in the given regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The discussi<strong>on</strong> so far hnngs out a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues associated with OFD<br />
in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas. They Include regi<strong>on</strong>-specific agro-climatic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
topography, groundwater recharge <strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong>. Given the limitati<strong>on</strong>s to adopt<br />
OFD, the returns from the plots where it is adopted are significantly higher than<br />
those without OFD. But. am<strong>on</strong>~ ()ther factors, the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water seems io<br />
be <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the major limitin~<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary ill\estments. includm~<br />
factors c<strong>on</strong>straining adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong> level<br />
()F!) It is rather disappointing to note that in<br />
spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the critical importance ()I ()ID to increase water use efficiency <strong>and</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequent increase in crop output. its implementati<strong>on</strong> at the <strong>farm</strong> level is far<br />
from cxrected levels. An attemrt has heen made, there<strong>for</strong>e, in the following<br />
chapter to examine the dynamIC' <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints as perceived by the <strong>farm</strong>ers, in<br />
carrying (lut OF!) works in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas under reference. It is also<br />
expected to throw light <strong>on</strong> the Illlr0rtant factors determining the <strong>farm</strong> level<br />
adorti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD as well as the regloll-srecitic rrobiems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints in the<br />
rursuit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> ;llld \\ :Itn Illanagement measures in the hroader<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ll:.xt <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Jgricultural <strong>development</strong> scenario in Kerala.<br />
267
Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical And Financial Per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD<br />
Programmes in Kerala, 1985-86 to 1994-95<br />
Activities! Wing Physical Financial Cost per I Physical T Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
achievement Expense ha.(Rs.) achievement each item<br />
(Hectares) (Rs. I (% share) in finances<br />
Lakhs) (%)<br />
I. Malampuzha Project<br />
I. Agri. Wing 11118 53.99 485.57 15.50 408<br />
2. Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> 0 000 0001 000 0.00<br />
3. Engineering 50443 1269.40 2516.50·. 70.34 95.92<br />
4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> 10152 0.00 0.00 14.16 0.00<br />
Sub total 71713 1323.38 1845.39 100.00 100.00<br />
2. Peechi Project<br />
1. Agri. Wing 7053 50.53 716.48 16.29 4.6 I<br />
2. Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> 335 10.49 3132.54 0.77 0.96<br />
3. Engineering 35313 1035.17 2931.42 81.55 94.43<br />
4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> 602 0.00 0.00 1.39 0.00<br />
Sub total 43303 1096.20 2531.46 100.00 100.00<br />
3. Walavar Pro'ect<br />
I. Agri. Wing 798 1.75 2 I 8.67 24.89 1.55<br />
2. Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> 0 000 0.00 0.00 i 0.00<br />
3. Engineerin~ 2089 i 110.96 5311.73 65.16 98.4,±-<br />
4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> 319 . ,<br />
0.01 2.51 ,<br />
9.95 0.01<br />
Sub total 3206 I 12.72 3515.75 100.00 100.00<br />
4. Gavathri Pro' ect<br />
I. Agri. Wing 2472 7.05 285.07 19.35 2.78<br />
2. Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
3. Engineering 9507 246.49 2592.68 74.4 I 97.22<br />
4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> 798 0.00 0.38 6.25 0.00<br />
Sub total 12777 253.54 1984.32 100.00 10000<br />
5. Pothundy Pro'ect<br />
I. Agri. Wing 2298 8.67 377.46 15.27 3.40<br />
2. Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> 23 0.63 2721.74 0.15 0.25<br />
3. Engineerin~ 10267 245.92 2395.29 68.21 96.36<br />
4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> 2465i 0.00 0.00 16.38 0.00<br />
Sub total 15053 255.22 1695.50 10000 100.00<br />
268
Appendix 6.1 : Project-Wise Physical And Financial Per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD<br />
Programmes in Kerala, 1985-86 to 1994-95 (C<strong>on</strong>td ... )<br />
Activities! Wing<br />
Phy,ical Financial<br />
Share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Physical<br />
achicveme Expenses<br />
each<br />
Cost per achieveme<br />
nt (Rs<br />
item in<br />
ha.(Rs.) nt (%<br />
(Hectares) finances<br />
La~hs) share)<br />
(%)<br />
6. Mangalam Project<br />
,<br />
I. Agri. Wing<br />
1610 4.57 , 283.66 18.35 3.55<br />
i ~. Soil C<strong>on</strong>sen at i<strong>on</strong> 0 0.00 000 0.00 000<br />
3. Engineering 6745 I -<br />
~4.12 1840.15<br />
.<br />
76.86 96.45<br />
4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> 421 0.00 0.00 !<br />
, 4.80 0.00<br />
~-<br />
I Sub total 8776 I ~8.69 1466.33 100.00 100.00<br />
! 7. Vazhani Project<br />
I. Agri. Wing 1087 7.36 677.09 8.93 2.34<br />
2. Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
3. Engineering 10397 307.58 2958.33 85.39 97.66<br />
4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> 692 0.00 0.29 5.68 0.00<br />
Sub total 1~176 314.94 ~586.56 100.00 100.00<br />
8. Cheera~uzhi Project<br />
'I. Agri Wing<br />
...<br />
713 4J5 610.38 16.21 3.17<br />
, Soil C<strong>on</strong>scnati<strong>on</strong> 0: 0.00 0.00 I 0.00 0.00<br />
I 3 En!!ineerin!! I 3001 132.98 4431.19 68.24 96.83<br />
: 4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> 684 0.00 0.00 15.55 0.00<br />
: Sub total 4398 137.33 3122.60 100.00 100.00<br />
i<br />
9. Chala!-.udv Project<br />
I. Agri. Wing 7151 47.36 662.33 13.10 3.73<br />
2. Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> 165 5.41 3277.58 ! 0.30 0.43<br />
3. Engineering 44958 1218.14 ~709.51 8~.35 , 95.85<br />
4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> ~323 0.02 0.86 4.~5 ; 000<br />
Sub total 54597 1270.93 2327.84 10000 100.00<br />
10. Neyvar Project<br />
I. Agri. Wing 61 II 45.58 745.85 16.57 5.21<br />
2. Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> 50 0.67 1346.00 0.14 0.08<br />
3. Engineering ~8935 8~9.09 2865.34 78.4 7 94.71<br />
4. Evaluati<strong>on</strong> 1778 0.02 1.07 4.82 0.00<br />
Sub total 36874 875.36 2373.92 100.00 100.00<br />
.<br />
269
Chapter 7<br />
On-Farm Development: Determinants. C<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>and</strong> Problems<br />
The status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in general <strong>and</strong> in the two<br />
projects selected <strong>for</strong> the study. in particular. has been presented in the preceding<br />
chapter. As revealed by the sec<strong>on</strong>dary data available <strong>and</strong> also by the field survey<br />
data. the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO has been found to be far from expected levels. In spite<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dem<strong>on</strong>strated evidences to show that OFO facilitates increase in crop<br />
productivity <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent higher income. <strong>farm</strong>ers are still reluctant to take<br />
up OFO works.<br />
Against this backdrop. it IS imperative to examine the major<br />
determinants. c<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>and</strong> problems in the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO by the <strong>farm</strong>ers .<br />
..... ccordingly. this chapter discusseS the various factors determining the adopti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> \\at~r<br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s in the state. The chapt~r<br />
management measures in the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
is divided into three secti<strong>on</strong>s. Secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
has been devoted to an examinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers' percepti<strong>on</strong>s as well as resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
regarding the effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> orD <strong>and</strong> the various reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the n<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in the study regi<strong>on</strong>s. Sccti<strong>on</strong> two deals with the regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong>-specific<br />
factors determining the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in the two irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. In secti<strong>on</strong><br />
three. the important problems <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al level c<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>for</strong> the efficient<br />
<strong>and</strong> effective utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water resources have been discussed.<br />
7.1. Farmers' percepti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD: A multiple resp<strong>on</strong>se analysis<br />
It is important to examine the <strong>farm</strong>ers' percepti<strong>on</strong>s about the c<strong>on</strong>cert.<br />
effectiveness as well as the prohkms c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>tcd in undertaking OF!) in the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. This in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> helps us in underst<strong>and</strong>ing the level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>
awareness am<strong>on</strong>g the <strong>farm</strong>ers regarding the need <strong>for</strong> <strong>and</strong> importance (11' effectl\e<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal water. As discussed In chapter 6. OFD is understood In the<br />
Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong> as an integral part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development<br />
Programme (CAOP), whereas, in the Kallada. the \lInor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System<br />
(MCS) is c<strong>on</strong>sidered as an effective measure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water c<strong>on</strong>nyance. given the<br />
specific characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project. As the water distributi<strong>on</strong> svstcms art:<br />
different in both the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects i . the <strong>farm</strong>ers· percepti<strong>on</strong>s annut the<br />
locati<strong>on</strong>-specific problems as understood by them <strong>and</strong> the strategies adopted <strong>for</strong><br />
OFO are also worth examining.<br />
7.1.1 Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project<br />
As a first step in a logical sequence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysing the OFO related issues. an<br />
attempt has been made to examine the underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers about OFD. Specific questi<strong>on</strong>s were asked to elicit in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers regarding the usefulness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in both the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects The<br />
results have been presented in table 7.1.<br />
Table 7.1: Underst<strong>and</strong>ine <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>OFD am<strong>on</strong>t! <strong>farm</strong>ers, Peecbi project (% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
oro means Middle Tail<br />
Head Reach Reach Reach Total<br />
I. L<strong>and</strong> survev be<strong>for</strong>e levelling 3 4 3<br />
2. Removing shrubs <strong>and</strong> bushes 20 18 9 17<br />
3. Levelling the field 12 19 6 9<br />
4. Providing uni<strong>for</strong>m slope to<br />
l<strong>and</strong> 19 10 12 18<br />
5. i'rovidin)! drainage facilities 17 21 26 25<br />
6. Items 2 to 5 29 28 44 28<br />
Total fanners (No.) 50 45 20 lIS<br />
Nole: HR: Head Reach; MR: Middle Reach; TR: Tail Reach.<br />
,<br />
)<br />
[<br />
I While water distributi<strong>on</strong> in the I'ccchi project is dfected through the c<strong>on</strong>vcnti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
open canal system (OCS). in the Kallada projcct. it is d<strong>on</strong>e through underground<br />
pipeline system called the Minor Cnnwyance System. For a detailed deSCripti<strong>on</strong>
It can be seen from the survey data presented in the table 7.1 that the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers underst<strong>and</strong> OFD in different ways. For some. OrD implies just<br />
removing shrubs <strong>and</strong> bushes in the fields (17 %). More than <strong>on</strong>e fourth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers understood it as an integrated process. which includes removing shrubs<br />
<strong>and</strong> bushes. levelling the field. providing uni<strong>for</strong>m slope to the plot <strong>and</strong> providing<br />
drainage channels. What is noteworthy is that 25 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers are<br />
a\\are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the need <strong>for</strong> <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> drainage. This is \'ery important to avoid adverse<br />
effects <strong>on</strong> soil. Furthermore. 26 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tail-end <strong>farm</strong>ers feel the need <strong>for</strong><br />
providing drainage. Perhaps. they succumb to the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> seepage caused by<br />
the unlined canals. There<strong>for</strong>e. they realise that <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> drainage is a priority in<br />
the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> levelling <strong>and</strong> shaping. What is surprising is Ihal 97 per cent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers do not realise the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> survey be<strong>for</strong>e undertaking<br />
lewlllng operati<strong>on</strong>s. to know the exact slope it requires <strong>and</strong> other related aspects<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerned with spacing <strong>and</strong> thickness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the bunds. The apparent neglect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong><br />
survey be<strong>for</strong>e levelling can be explained in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the small size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings. which disinduce the <strong>farm</strong>ers to undertake any additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
investment <strong>for</strong> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong>. Thus. it may be noted that the OFD works<br />
d<strong>on</strong>e by the <strong>farm</strong>ers even in the limited manner are not scientific <strong>and</strong> may not<br />
sustai n <strong>for</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g.<br />
Another questi<strong>on</strong> was posed to the <strong>farm</strong>ers to know what kind <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefits<br />
th..:\ thought that OF]) would enahle them to realise The resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>..:rs have hecn prcs..:nted In tahle 7.2. The major benefits expected or realised<br />
hy th..: <strong>farm</strong>ers arc (i) OF]) facilitates uni<strong>for</strong>m spread <strong>and</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water to<br />
272
the plants: (i i) it avoids wastage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the c<strong>on</strong>veyance <strong>and</strong> thereb~<br />
minimise, the prohlem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterlogging; <strong>and</strong> (iii) it enables efficiency in water<br />
use in the fields. More than <strong>on</strong>e fourth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers feel that all the<br />
benefits menti<strong>on</strong>ed ahove can be realised by undertaking OFD works.<br />
Table. 7.2: Ad.-antages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On Farm Development: Farmers' resp<strong>on</strong>ses in Peechi<br />
Proiect (% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
OFD is useful as it Middl<br />
I , Head e Tail<br />
i<br />
Reach Reach I Reach Total<br />
I. Enables uni<strong>for</strong>m a~~licati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>"ater 16 13 I 10 14<br />
2 A\oids \\astage <strong>and</strong> p<strong>on</strong>ding <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>"ater in the<br />
10 15 20 12 i<br />
,<br />
iarm<br />
3. A\oids \\ater logging 16 7 15 13<br />
I 4. C<strong>on</strong>trols soil erosi<strong>on</strong> 8 1 I 5 9<br />
I 5. Enables sc ientific water management 6 9 IS 8<br />
. 6. Enables efficiency in water use 18 13 10 17<br />
7. All <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the above 26 32 25 27,<br />
Total famlers (No.) 50 45 20 115<br />
.\()/~ HR HeUli Reach. .I/R .\/idd/~ Reach: TR: Tail Rt'ach<br />
WhIle 18 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the head reaches c<strong>on</strong>sider that OFD<br />
enables to ensure efficiency 111<br />
\\ater use. it is 15 per cent in the middle reaches<br />
<strong>and</strong> 20 per cent in the tail end. The tail enders seem to be more c<strong>on</strong>scious about<br />
the efficiency in water use <strong>for</strong> obvious reas<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scarcity. The percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers finding OF!) beneficial 111 more than <strong>on</strong>e way is the highest at 32 in the<br />
middle reaches, followed by 26 in the head <strong>and</strong> 25 in the tail reaches.<br />
7.1.2 Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project<br />
As alread) mentIOned. thc pf(lporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers reported to havc been benefited<br />
b, the MCS is the highest in the head reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada project (43%).<br />
followed by 38 per cent In Ihe middle reaches <strong>and</strong> 32 per cent in the tail end<br />
(Chapter 6. table 6.26). While the MCS is meant <strong>for</strong> efficient c<strong>on</strong>veyance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water with no or little wastage in an otherwise undulating terrain. an attempt has<br />
273
een made to examme as to how many <strong>farm</strong>ers understood its advantages.<br />
Improper or lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<strong>and</strong>ing about the system may result in less attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
paid by the <strong>farm</strong>ers to safeguard <strong>and</strong> maintain the distributi<strong>on</strong> networks. The<br />
details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers resp<strong>on</strong>ses h;l\e been presented in table 7.3.<br />
Table 7.3: A d vantaees <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS: Farmers' resp<strong>on</strong>ses in Kallada (% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
MCS helps in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Head Middle Tail<br />
Reach Reach Reach Total<br />
Avoiding \\ater loss through seepage in<br />
field channels 20 18 15 18<br />
Saving l<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong> 22<br />
1 -<br />
-) 21 21<br />
Avoiding c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> expensive field<br />
: channels/ boothies 24 28 27 25<br />
I Water is provided to each plant <strong>and</strong> ensure<br />
optimum use 15 13 18 17<br />
All <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the above 19 16 19 19<br />
Total <strong>farm</strong>ers (No.) 78 65 57 200<br />
,vole.' HR. Head Reach. MR. ,\.fIddle Reach: TR: Tat! Reach.<br />
It is interesting to note that <strong>on</strong>e-fifth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers are aware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
all the possible advantages. as lIsted in the table. while the remaining kno\\ them<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly partially. For instance. 18 per cent know that MCS is useful to reduce <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
c<strong>on</strong>veyance losses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. followed by 22 per cent <strong>for</strong> whom the advantage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
MCS is l<strong>and</strong> saving. which would have g<strong>on</strong>e <strong>for</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> open canals.<br />
Interestingly. 25 per cent uf the <strong>farm</strong>ers think that MCS is more ec<strong>on</strong>omical than<br />
the open canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>. Interesting, because, <strong>farm</strong>ers are able to perceive<br />
the ec<strong>on</strong>umics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system In their own way, which renects their c<strong>on</strong>cern to<br />
avoid wasteful expenditure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public funds. An underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong><br />
saving dimensi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS is equally important where a majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
holdings arc small <strong>and</strong> marginal. lhe proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers reporting this benefit<br />
is more in the rniddk n:aches (25 %). compared to 22 per cent in the head<br />
reaches <strong>and</strong> 21 per cent in the tail end. Thus. the MCS, in a way. is l<strong>and</strong>-saving<br />
274
<strong>and</strong> water-augmenting technology, as there will be no c<strong>on</strong>veyance losses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water.<br />
Given the awareness levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers about the need <strong>for</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong> crop productivity, water use efficiency <strong>and</strong><br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability, it is important to examine the problems <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints, if any, that retard the <strong>farm</strong> level implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD. The<br />
problems as reported by the <strong>farm</strong>ers have been presented in table 7.4.<br />
T a hi e 74 .. R eas<strong>on</strong>s or t e n<strong>on</strong>-a d opti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in Kallada(% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>s ind icated Head Middle Tail Total<br />
Reach Reach Reach<br />
Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> finance 9 3 7 6<br />
Existing MCS do not require OFD 27 38 28 31<br />
Networks! canals not available 15 24 22 23<br />
Presence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber area 26 28 24 22<br />
All <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the above 23 7 19 16<br />
Total fanners (No.) 78 65 57 200<br />
NOle. HR: Head Reach; MR: Middle Reach; TR: Tall Reach.<br />
Majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers in Kallada project feel that the MCS network<br />
provided <strong>for</strong> <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> water distributi<strong>on</strong> does not warrant any investment in l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong>. For, the tree crops are irrigated through flexible hose pipes. All<br />
those coming under MCS, there<strong>for</strong>e, do not see any reas<strong>on</strong> to invest <strong>on</strong> OFD.<br />
Sixteen per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers have indicated the reas<strong>on</strong>s such as lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
finance, lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>necting field channels <strong>and</strong> existence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber plantati<strong>on</strong>s as<br />
the reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> not adopting OFD works, in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> having MCS. Twenty - three<br />
per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers do not go <strong>for</strong> OFD due to lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels<br />
c<strong>on</strong>necting their plots to the distributory or minor. This appears to be strange,<br />
because, unless field channels are provided to the plots, it would be difficult <strong>for</strong><br />
275
a <strong>farm</strong>er to use water from the distributory canal. Since the <strong>farm</strong>ers have no easy<br />
access to water, it is obvious that they would tend to neglect OFD.<br />
Another important factor c<strong>on</strong>trihuting to the n<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD is the<br />
crop shift from paddy to rubber. Since rubber is a rainfed crop, <strong>farm</strong>ers do not<br />
feel the need <strong>for</strong> OFD. However, as observed earlier, the productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber<br />
is relatively high in developed plots than in undeveloped plots, though it is a<br />
rainfed crop2 There is not much variati<strong>on</strong> in the reas<strong>on</strong>s cited by the <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>for</strong><br />
n<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD across the locati<strong>on</strong>s, except in the middle reaches, where<br />
the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers indicating all the four reas<strong>on</strong>s is relatively less at 7 per<br />
cent, compared to 23 per cent in the head reaches <strong>and</strong> 16 per cent in the tail end.<br />
Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> finance seems to be no c<strong>on</strong>straint at all as revealed by a very marginal<br />
propurti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers reporting it, ranging between three per cent in the middle<br />
reaches <strong>and</strong> 9 per cent in the head reaches. It may be noted that the income from<br />
rubber cultivati<strong>on</strong> always has a positive impact <strong>on</strong> the liquidity positi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers.<br />
[n Kallada project, the MCS design by the agency (the state Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Department) is in itself an innovative OFD suitable to the steeply undulating<br />
topography. Since the cost is borne entirely by the department), <strong>farm</strong>ers do not<br />
2 As rubber is grown in undulating topography or high elevati<strong>on</strong> areas, the intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
soil erosi<strong>on</strong> caused by heavy rainfall would be very high, which would deplete the soil<br />
nutrient status. Given this problem, it is always beneficial to undertake l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> to avoid these problems. But, due to the labour costs involved, <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
are reluctant to do so.<br />
) Though the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS works was proposed to be partially recovered f.elm the<br />
beneficiary <strong>farm</strong>ers, no part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cost has been recovered from the <strong>farm</strong>ers. The<br />
276
feel the pinch <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> it. But the <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>and</strong> most important c<strong>on</strong>straint as reported by the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers is n<strong>on</strong>-integrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS with the main water distributi<strong>on</strong> network.<br />
The Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Department laid the MCS much earlier <strong>and</strong> the canal network<br />
necessary to feed water to it was enormously delayed. With the result, most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the equipment had g<strong>on</strong>e out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> use, making the investment, infructuous. This has<br />
led to crop shift, mainly to rubber, which, according to the <strong>farm</strong>ers does not<br />
warrant any <strong>development</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong> in the l<strong>and</strong>. There<strong>for</strong>e, the instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
failure in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> integrated approach in laying MCS <strong>and</strong> the canal<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> network has been mainly resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> the less efficient system<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance. There<strong>for</strong>e, in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS being in place ever since the mid<br />
1980s, <strong>on</strong>ly 36 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the potential under it was utilised. Moreover, less than<br />
<strong>on</strong>e third <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> th~<br />
system completed has been h<strong>and</strong>ed over to Water Users'<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUAs) so far. The remaining system is damaged <strong>and</strong> the materials<br />
are stolen, as it remained no man's propert/.<br />
criteria fixed <strong>for</strong> cost recovery was based <strong>on</strong> the proporti<strong>on</strong>ate area held by the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers, viz., (a) Farmers holding in excess <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4 ha. are expected to pay 50 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the cost; (b) <strong>farm</strong>ers holding l<strong>and</strong> between 2 to 4 ha., c<strong>on</strong>tributing 40 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
cost; (c) between I - 2 ha. 37.5 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cost; <strong>and</strong> (d) less than I ha.- 35.5 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cost.<br />
4 Majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers feel that the extincti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS networks has been an<br />
organised attempt bydhe c<strong>on</strong>tractors themselves. This is because, the wheel valves<br />
attached to hydrants initially was made <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gun metal, which could be stolen from <strong>on</strong>e<br />
regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> installed elsewhere <strong>and</strong> claim <strong>for</strong> funds <strong>for</strong> that also, resulting in additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
gains out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same work. Besides, theft <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the wheel valves has become a widely<br />
reported phenomen<strong>on</strong> as the gun metal could fetch some m<strong>on</strong>ey, if sold as scrap ir<strong>on</strong>.<br />
This problem arose because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> their installati<strong>on</strong> in the inaccessible porti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
holdings <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ers were not entrusted with the resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> protecting them. On<br />
real isati<strong>on</strong> that a significant porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS networks have disappeared, the<br />
project authorities started replacing the broken! stolen wheel valves by wheel valves<br />
277
The <strong>farm</strong>ers were asked to reflect up<strong>on</strong> their opini<strong>on</strong> about the MCS in<br />
Kallada project <strong>and</strong> the reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> its poor or n<strong>on</strong>-per<strong>for</strong>mance. The details<br />
have been presented in table 7.5.<br />
T a hI e 75 . . R eas<strong>on</strong>s f or t h e poor pcr f ormancc <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS in Kallada Proiect<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>s indicated Head Middle Tail Total<br />
Reach Reach Reach<br />
Broken water distributi<strong>on</strong> networks 30 26 30 29<br />
Hydrants fixed at lower layer <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plot but<br />
crops grown in upper layers ~
hardly attended to. This is partly due to <strong>farm</strong>ers' indifference to bring it to the<br />
notice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the department since they are not using the system.<br />
Thus, various problems ranging from technical to management have<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the less efficient functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MeS, though a limited<br />
potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system is actually utilised. The c<strong>on</strong>trast that the technical<br />
sophisticati<strong>on</strong> at the system level leading to practical difficulties in taking water<br />
from the MCS to the plots brings out the technical c<strong>on</strong>straints posed by the<br />
terrain <strong>and</strong> topography <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>. Not fixing the<br />
hydrants at appropriate levels <strong>and</strong> places clearly dem<strong>on</strong>strates the ignorance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the engineers about the ground realities. Interestingly, local <strong>farm</strong>ers were not<br />
taken into c<strong>on</strong>fidence while laying the system. This brings out the outright<br />
neglect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers' participati<strong>on</strong> in the design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> network.<br />
Though hoses were provided to <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>for</strong> taking water from the hydrant to the<br />
upper layers, lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pressure made water flow difficult <strong>and</strong> inadequate.<br />
Interpers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> local dynamics also play an important role in<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>alising the system more efficiently6.<br />
A brief discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the current status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS, as<br />
revealed by the <strong>farm</strong>ers is in order, to highlight the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> restructuring <strong>and</strong><br />
6 The MCS is installed in the homesteads <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> the surrounding plots in a<br />
radius <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 90 meters <strong>and</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>ers could take water from <strong>on</strong>e hydrant using the rubber<br />
hose. But the <strong>farm</strong>ers in whose plots the MCS have been installed <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten c<strong>on</strong>sider it as<br />
their property <strong>and</strong> do not allow nearby <strong>farm</strong>ers to take water. However, this problem is<br />
not widely reported due to the general fai lure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS as also due to the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a ,\ ater intensive cropping system in the comm<strong>and</strong> area. As a result,<br />
this also does not lead to any water related c<strong>on</strong>flicts.<br />
279
evamping needed to reorient the MCS <strong>for</strong> effective supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water to the fields.<br />
The <strong>farm</strong>ers' resp<strong>on</strong>ses have been presented in table 7.6.<br />
. . n a a a<br />
Table 7 6· Present status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> hvdrants/ wheel valves i K II d<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>s ind icated<br />
Head Middle Tail<br />
Reach Reach Reach<br />
Total<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>ing smooth Iv 9 7 12 12<br />
Hydrants/ wheel valves are broken or<br />
stolen<br />
34 39 46 41<br />
Hydrants! wheel valves need repair. 23 25 17 23<br />
Design alignment Droblem 14 II 9 8<br />
Need comDlete reDlacement 20 18 16 16<br />
Total fanners(No.) 78 65 57 200<br />
NOle.· HR: Head Reach; MR: Middle Reach; TR: Tad Reach.<br />
As seen from the table, <strong>on</strong>ly 12 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers report that the<br />
hydrants are functi<strong>on</strong>ing smoothly when water is released through the MCS.<br />
However, the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers reporting smooth functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the hydrants<br />
is lowest in the head reaches at 9 per cent 7 . A majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers complain<br />
that the hydrants <strong>and</strong> wheel valves are either broken or stolen. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers reporting this is 46 per cent in the tail reach, followed by 39 per cent in<br />
the middle <strong>and</strong> 34 per cent in the head reaches. While 17 to 25 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers c<strong>on</strong>sider that water could be made available to them with certain minor<br />
repairs, 16 to 20 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers opine that the hydrants <strong>and</strong> wheel valves<br />
need complete replacement. About 9 to 14 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers complain that<br />
the MCS has design problems as well.<br />
An important point em~rging out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the above discussi<strong>on</strong> is that the MCS<br />
is not effectively functi<strong>on</strong>ing even in the head reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal system, where<br />
water is relatively more abundant. Given this state <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> affairs, <strong>farm</strong>ers are<br />
280
skeptical about the usefulness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MeS, which is further accentuated by the<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-compliance to proper <strong>and</strong> regular 0 &M works to rehabilitate the structures<br />
<strong>and</strong> distributi<strong>on</strong> system. At present, the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> under MCS<br />
in the Kallada project. according to the <strong>farm</strong>ers, is almost in a dilapidated state.<br />
The repair or revamping <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system. if taken up now, costs as much as the<br />
investment made <strong>on</strong> the whole irrigati<strong>on</strong> system originally.<br />
The overall per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water, its adequacy, the resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the department to<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers' needs <strong>and</strong> requests have been examined. Farmers' views <strong>on</strong> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
these issues have been presented in table 7.7.<br />
Table 7.7: Farmers' reSD<strong>on</strong>ses towards irrie:ati<strong>on</strong> system per<strong>for</strong>mance (% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers)<br />
Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
F arrners satisfied with Project Project<br />
HR MR TR HR MR TR<br />
Time <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> opening <strong>and</strong> closing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal 48 46 52 31 29 23<br />
Water flow in the canal 17 23 34 1 I 15 12<br />
Maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal <strong>and</strong> field channels 24 19 27 18 13 17<br />
Attendinll. complaints 19 14 25 7 8 19<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>inll. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>CADN MCS 26 22 35 17 21 15<br />
Total <strong>farm</strong>ers (No-:) 50 45 20 78 65 57<br />
Note: HR: Head Reach; MR: Middle Reach; TR: Tall Reach.<br />
Almost 50 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers surveyed in the Peechi project are<br />
satisfied with the opening <strong>and</strong> closing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canals <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> purposes,<br />
which is highly desirable. For, the productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> "crops depends up<strong>on</strong>, other<br />
things, timely cultural operati<strong>on</strong>s, which, in turn, depends <strong>on</strong> the canal water<br />
7 An e)(aminati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS in the two head reach<br />
distributories, viz., Punnala <strong>and</strong> Chekom <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the right bank canal indicate that about 60<br />
to 74 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lhe hydrants attached to MCS require immediate replacement.<br />
281
supplies. What is more interesting is that 52 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers from tail<br />
reaches in the Peechi are satisfied with the canal operati<strong>on</strong> schedule, which is<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al, because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the much reported tail end distributi<strong>on</strong> problems.<br />
But. the Peechi project seems to be an excepti<strong>on</strong>S in this regard. But, the Kallada<br />
project is different as a majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers are not satisfied 9 about the canal<br />
operati<strong>on</strong> schedule, as revealed by the survey data.<br />
The <strong>for</strong>egoing discussi<strong>on</strong> brings out, in general, the percepti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers about the OFD related activities in the two study projects. In this regard,<br />
it is important to note that there are various operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints between the<br />
project envisaged outcomes <strong>and</strong> the actual realisati<strong>on</strong> at the <strong>farm</strong> level. While<br />
this gives a broader spectrum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the issues <strong>and</strong> problems, it is necessary to look<br />
at the <strong>farm</strong> specific <strong>and</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>-specific factors determining <strong>farm</strong> level sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
investments in undertaking OFD in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects.<br />
8 This may appear to be a sharp c<strong>on</strong>trast with the other canal systems as the tail reaches<br />
are widely known <strong>for</strong> the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water shortage. The water release in the Peechi<br />
canal ·,ystem is mainly intended <strong>for</strong> kole l<strong>and</strong>s that are located in the tail reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
project <strong>and</strong> water is released during summer m<strong>on</strong>ths to cater to the requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> (For a brief descripti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> kole l<strong>and</strong>s, see Chapter ~).<br />
, This dissatisfacti<strong>on</strong> emerges out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the differences in cropping pattern as well as<br />
input use, especially use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different seeds being followed by the <strong>farm</strong>ers within <strong>and</strong><br />
across the three reaches. The dissimilar practices are also due to delays in <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
practices caused by shortage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour. As a result, when some <strong>farm</strong>ers will be doing<br />
harvesting, some will be doing sowing, planting <strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong>. This leads to c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
interests am<strong>on</strong>g the <strong>farm</strong>ers with respect to water release. For, when water is released<br />
in the canal <strong>on</strong> the request <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers who are doing the tilling <strong>and</strong> sowing operati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
that adversely affects the <strong>farm</strong>ers who are doing harvesting <strong>and</strong> even causes crop loss.<br />
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II. Determinants <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD: An Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Analysis<br />
7.2 Factors determining OFD: A regi<strong>on</strong>-specific analysis<br />
This secti<strong>on</strong> attempts a detailed analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the various <strong>farm</strong> specific <strong>and</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>specific<br />
factors determining the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the two irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
covered under reference. The major factors intluencing <strong>farm</strong>ers' decisi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
undertake OFD have been examined <strong>and</strong> analysed in a multiple regressi<strong>on</strong><br />
analytical framework. The explanatory variables used in the analysis are<br />
different <strong>and</strong> are speci fic to the study regi<strong>on</strong>s. The analytical models as well as<br />
the explanatory variables used have been described in detail as follows:<br />
While most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the studies <strong>on</strong> OFD have c<strong>on</strong>sidered the technical aspects<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its adopti<strong>on</strong>, as perceived <strong>and</strong> expected by the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers as well as the irrigati<strong>on</strong> department (say CADA), not many studies have<br />
explained the various factors influencing <strong>farm</strong>ers' decisi<strong>on</strong> to adopt OFD at the<br />
<strong>farm</strong> level.<br />
The analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers' behaviour in the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> vanous yieldaugmenting<br />
technologies has been generally perceived m an<br />
'adopti<strong>on</strong><br />
behavioural model'. This model entails a dichotomous (binary) framework <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adopting or not adopting a given technological interventi<strong>on</strong>. In other words,<br />
~uch<br />
models enables <strong>on</strong>e to underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> explain the innovati<strong>on</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong><br />
process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> is extensively applied in the literature to explain the<br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural technologies (Rogers <strong>and</strong> Shoemaker, 1971; Dasgupta,<br />
1989; Rogers, 1995). Rogers (1995) defines the innovati<strong>on</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong> process as<br />
the process through which an individual or decisi<strong>on</strong> making unit passes: (i) from<br />
283
the knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> innovati<strong>on</strong> (ii) to <strong>for</strong>ming an altitude towards an innovati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
(iii) to dccide whether to adopt or reject, (iv) to implement the new idea, <strong>and</strong> (v)<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>firmati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this decisi<strong>on</strong>. Thc final outcome as regards the decisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> or other wise <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the technological interventi<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>ed by<br />
c<strong>on</strong>crete or discrete set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> variables. The c<strong>on</strong>crete set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> variables provides some<br />
definite measure or evidence (both quantitative <strong>and</strong> qualitative) <strong>for</strong> the adopti<strong>on</strong><br />
or otherwise <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the technology. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, discrete variables indicate<br />
whether or not a specific technology or <strong>farm</strong>ing practice is adopted in a binary<br />
choice model framework where the choice between two alternatives depends <strong>on</strong><br />
the specific nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problem analysed.<br />
There are two distinct approaches to explain the 'adopti<strong>on</strong> behaviour' <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers. The first approach is to identify the various factors influencing the<br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a specific technology am<strong>on</strong>g the <strong>farm</strong>ers by using a linear multiple<br />
regressi<strong>on</strong> model (LMR). Sec<strong>on</strong>d approach is to logistically explain the adopti<strong>on</strong><br />
or otherwise <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a technology based <strong>on</strong> the probability models, viz., logit <strong>and</strong><br />
probit models 10.<br />
7.2.1: Specificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the model <strong>and</strong> variables<br />
Given the nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problem <strong>and</strong> availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong> level data, we try to<br />
explain the <strong>farm</strong> level adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the two irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Rerala<br />
in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the linear regressi<strong>on</strong> model based <strong>on</strong> ordinary least squares (OLS).<br />
Although the estimates based <strong>on</strong> OLS are likely to have problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
autocorrelati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> hetroscedasticity, these are taken care <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> by omitting such<br />
10 A detailed analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this, see Green <strong>and</strong> Ng'<strong>on</strong>g'ola (1993) <strong>and</strong> Saleth, 1991.<br />
284
variables from the model. The variables used in the model are specific to the<br />
characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong> holdings covered under the<br />
study. The important variables selected <strong>for</strong> analysis include holding size. age <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the <strong>farm</strong>er, occupati<strong>on</strong>al status, status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> family labour <strong>and</strong> the<br />
potential area that could be brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong> with certain level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
investment <strong>on</strong> OFD. The models used <strong>for</strong> analysis with respect to each project<br />
differ in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> explanatory variables, keeping expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD as the<br />
dependent variable in each case. The functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>for</strong>m used in the analysis is:<br />
n<br />
Z = a + L/3,X 1 + 5,<br />
,=1<br />
Where,<br />
Z = Expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD<br />
Xi = i th explanatory variables<br />
Pi = i th regressi<strong>on</strong> coefficients<br />
a = C<strong>on</strong>stant<br />
El = Error terms<br />
The above functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>for</strong>m as well as the explanatory variables may be expressed<br />
with respect to the Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects as shown below.<br />
Determinants <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD: the Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
The analytical model examining the determinants <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi<br />
project may be expressed as:<br />
Where:<br />
Xl =<br />
X 2 =<br />
X) =<br />
ON =<br />
DXs=<br />
E .<br />
GWEXT (Extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge in meters)<br />
PUMPCAP (Capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumpset in HP)<br />
DRYSHARE (Percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry area to be irrigated)<br />
OCSTATUS (Occ.status = I if agriculture; 0 otherwise)<br />
FAMLAB (Family labour = I if available; 0 otherwise)<br />
= Error term.<br />
285
All <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the five explanatory variables c<strong>on</strong>sidered in the analvsis are<br />
-<br />
expected to have positive associati<strong>on</strong> with respect to expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD. For<br />
instance, higher the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater replenishment as caused by seepage<br />
in the Peechi canal, higher will be the <strong>farm</strong> level investment <strong>on</strong> OFD. Similarly,<br />
higher the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge, higher will be the capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
pumpset <strong>and</strong> greater will be the OFD expenditure.<br />
Having elaborated <strong>on</strong> the important variables explaining the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
OFD in the Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, let us examine the influence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these<br />
variables <strong>on</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>ers' attitude towards adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the fields prior to<br />
release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. The results <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the multiple regressi<strong>on</strong> analysis with respect to<br />
<strong>farm</strong> level adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>OFD have been explained as shown in table 7.9.<br />
T a bl e 79 .. D etermmaots 0 fOFD' m I' cee h'P I ro . eet: R ee,resslOo resu ts<br />
Explanatory variables Coefficients Std. Error T values<br />
C<strong>on</strong>stant 523.217 724.895 0.722··<br />
GWEXT(X,) 0.226 62.217 2.677·<br />
PUMPCAP (Xl) 0.626 82.706 9.005·<br />
ORYSHARE (Xl) 0.224 6.699 1.293·<br />
OCST A TUS (OX.) 0.106 197.048 1.120·<br />
F AMLAB (OX,) -0.125 75.498 -1.846·<br />
Multiple R = 0.73 Adj. Rl = 0.51 F value - 24.24 OW stat. 1.447<br />
Note: • Significant at I % level; •• Significant at 5 per cent level.<br />
From the analysis, it is evident that OFD expenditure III the Peechi<br />
projects has been well explained by all the variables selected, except F AMLAB,<br />
which has a negative coefficient. Thus" the <strong>farm</strong> level expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD in the<br />
Peechi project is determined by the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater replenishment caused<br />
by the seepage in canals, capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pumpset available <strong>for</strong> irrigating the plot<br />
<strong>and</strong> the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry area that could be brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
occupati<strong>on</strong>al status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers has also been found to be important, which<br />
ill'plies that if <strong>farm</strong>ing is the main source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> income <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the resp<strong>on</strong>dent (<strong>farm</strong>er),<br />
286
he invariably undertakes OFD, even if it is in :1<br />
limited scale. The functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<strong>for</strong>m with the set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> v:1riables appears to be :1 good fit as evident from the R<br />
square values as well other parameters estimated.<br />
Determinants <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD: the Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
The analytical model used <strong>for</strong> explaining the varIOUS factors determining<br />
adoptioll <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>OFD in the Kallada project is:<br />
Z = a + PIXI + Pl"( + p]X] + fJ4 X 4 + P5X5 +fJPX6 + p,DX, + fJsDXs + &<br />
\\'here:<br />
XI = HOLDSIZE (Holding size in acres)<br />
X2 = P ADCON ( % <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area c<strong>on</strong>verted into other wet<br />
Crops to total area)<br />
XJ = RUBS HARE (% area under rubber to total area)<br />
~ = G WEXT (Extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge in meters)<br />
Xs = AGE (Age <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er in years)<br />
DXo = OCST ATUS (Occ.status = I if agriculture; 0 otherwise)<br />
DX7 = MCS (Availability <strong>for</strong> MCS network <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>, I ifMCS<br />
effective, 0 otherwise)<br />
DXg = PUMP (Availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pump set, I if available, 0 otherwise)<br />
E = Error term.<br />
An analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the inter-relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the variables used in the<br />
analysis is described in Appendix 7.1. The results <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regressi<strong>on</strong> results based<br />
<strong>on</strong> the above functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>for</strong>m are summarised have been shown in table 7.10.<br />
Table 7.10: Determinants <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in Kallada project: Reeressi<strong>on</strong> results<br />
Explanatory variables Coefficients Std. Error T values<br />
C<strong>on</strong>stant 274.077 707.960 0.564··<br />
HOLDSIZE (X I) 0.367 5.452 5.915"<br />
PADCONV(X2) 0.172 2.196 1.112·<br />
RUBSHARE JX31 -0.112 1.493 -2.661"<br />
GWEXT(X41 0.279 5.038 2.095·<br />
AGE (X5) -0.185 11.746 -1.140·<br />
OCST A TUS (DX6) 0.206 270.531 1.260"<br />
MCS (DX7) 0.041 87.506 0.714"<br />
PUMPSET{DX8) 0.220 518.063 1.752·<br />
R square = 0.734 Adj. R2 - 0.719 . F value - 50.15 D-W stat. 1.755<br />
Note: • Significant at I % level; •• Significant at 5 per cent level.<br />
287
It is evident from the table that the variables used in the analysis explain<br />
almost 73 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong> level adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD am<strong>on</strong>g the <strong>farm</strong>ers.<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the important factors identified. the area under rubber has been found to<br />
be negatively influencing OFD. In other words, the negative regressi<strong>on</strong><br />
coefficient in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the variable, RUBSHARE implies that the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
haying hi:;her proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area under rubber do not undertake OFD works, as<br />
they c<strong>on</strong>sider rubber as a rainfed crop. Age <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er is also inversely related<br />
to expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD, implying that the <strong>farm</strong>ers become less interested in<br />
doing <strong>farm</strong>ing activities as they become old. The average age <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> is 53 years. The variables such as extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
groundwater recharge, the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumpset, the presence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective<br />
MCS network, the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area c<strong>on</strong>verted into wet crops as well as the<br />
full time <strong>farm</strong>ing status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er have been found to be positively<br />
influencing the <strong>farm</strong> level adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong><br />
as revealed from the positive regressi<strong>on</strong> coefficients, which are significant.<br />
Thus, from the regressi<strong>on</strong> analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the factors influencing <strong>farm</strong> level<br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in both the Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects bring out<br />
very interesting dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers' behaviour in diverse agro-climatic<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ments with differences in cropping pattern having implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> OFD<br />
<strong>and</strong> water use.<br />
The above analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the factors affecting the <strong>farm</strong> level adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
OrD in the specific c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects is<br />
important in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> highlighting some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regi<strong>on</strong>-specific factors acting as<br />
288
c<strong>on</strong>straints In the effective utilisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water<br />
resources in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala. These locati<strong>on</strong>-specific c<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>and</strong><br />
problems need a critical underst<strong>and</strong>ing in a broader perspective, so as to arrive at<br />
certain policy prescripti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the future <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in<br />
Kerala. An attempt has been made in the following secti<strong>on</strong> to discuss some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the important problems <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in Kerala. These problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints cover a broad spectrum<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic, technical as well as instituti<strong>on</strong>al aspects governing irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in the state. Importantly, the following secti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
expected to provide a realistic explanati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the apparent failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems in Kerala as an outcome <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the simultaneous interacti<strong>on</strong> between various<br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>al impediments (as discussed in Chapter 3) <strong>for</strong><br />
efficient utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources <strong>for</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state.<br />
The analysis c<strong>on</strong>tained in this secti<strong>on</strong> largely draws from the relevant studies<br />
available <strong>and</strong> supplements the findings with adequate in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> gathered from<br />
the two study regi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
III. C<strong>on</strong>straints in water resources <strong>development</strong><br />
7.3 C<strong>on</strong>straints in the <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources <strong>for</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> in Kerala<br />
~<br />
The various problems <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints in the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water resources in Kerala may be broadly classified in<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al, socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic, technological as well as water<br />
management related factors. These factors have been examined as an interface<br />
between irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> agricultural de\ dopment in the state with political<br />
289
implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> water management practices In<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. For analytical simplicity, these problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints<br />
have been c<strong>on</strong>ceived as originating from instituti<strong>on</strong>al socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic technical<br />
, "<br />
financial <strong>and</strong> agro-management aspects affecting l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> water<br />
management measures in Kerala. Am<strong>on</strong>g these, the technical as well as financial<br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints may be specifically identified as supply-side problems with respect to<br />
the provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water by the government. On the other, the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
mostly relate the socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> agro-management c<strong>on</strong>straints to effective<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. The instituti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
water management have both supply side as well as dem<strong>and</strong> side implicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these aspects have been discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.<br />
7.3.1 Instituti<strong>on</strong>al factors<br />
The major instituti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints purportedly affecting adversely the utilisati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water in the canal comm<strong>and</strong>s are: (i) the declining size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings leading to the failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
promoting paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>; (ii) labour related problems; (iii) un-remunerative<br />
prices <strong>for</strong> paddy coupled with rising wage rates; <strong>and</strong> (v) the large-scale<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy l<strong>and</strong>s in irrigati<strong>on</strong> "omm<strong>and</strong>s, having greater implicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>on</strong> water use, pattern <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the<br />
state.<br />
One <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crucial factors influencing instituti<strong>on</strong>al issues in <strong>farm</strong>ing in<br />
general <strong>and</strong> irrigated <strong>farm</strong>ing, in particular, in Kerala is the c<strong>on</strong>straints imposed<br />
by the size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdillgs. As a matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, marginal <strong>and</strong> smallholdings<br />
290
dominate the agriculture sector in the state. Of the state's 5.4 milli<strong>on</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
holdings, 92 per cent were less than <strong>on</strong>e ha. in size in 1991 (GOK, 1993).<br />
This process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> marginalisati<strong>on</strong> is also noticed <strong>on</strong> a large scale In the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s as well (chapter 5, table 5.8). The size-class wise <strong>and</strong> cropwise<br />
average operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area shows that even<br />
the average holding size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a plantati<strong>on</strong> crop like rubber appears to be marginal<br />
or even sub marginal according to the nati<strong>on</strong>al classificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
holdings as revealed from table 7.11.<br />
Table 7,11: Size-class wise <strong>and</strong> crop-wise average operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the Kallada<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area<br />
Size class<br />
(acres)<br />
Paddy Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Rubber Tapioca All crops<br />
Below 0.5 0.25 0.30 0.32 0.20 0.28<br />
0.5 to I 0.65 0.58 0.69 0.52 0.67<br />
I to 2 1.16 1.25 1.50 1.27 1.22<br />
Above 2 2.00 2.83 3.54 0.00 3.28<br />
All classes 0.62 0.82 0.91 0.28 0.82<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the crops, the highest average operati<strong>on</strong>al holding size is noticed<br />
in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber at 0.91 acres, followed by coc<strong>on</strong>ut (0.82 acres), paddy (0.62<br />
acres) <strong>and</strong> tapioca (0.28 acres). Interestingly, in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all the crops, the<br />
average size is far below the upper limit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> each size class, which reflects the<br />
intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> marginal operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings. Moreover, the crops<br />
like coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> tapioca are grown in homesteads ll as mixed crops <strong>and</strong> does not<br />
reflect the actual size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the holding. The <strong>on</strong>ly crop grown, as a m<strong>on</strong>ocrop is<br />
rubber. This is because, the physiological parameters <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber make it as a<br />
II An overwhelming majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong> holdings in Kerala are homestead based<br />
garden l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> a typical holding has a combinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different garden l<strong>and</strong> crops,<br />
dominated by coc<strong>on</strong>ut.<br />
291
competitive m<strong>on</strong>ocropl2 as no other crops or cropping systems could be<br />
effectively grown under its canopy. The average size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an operati<strong>on</strong>al holding in<br />
Peechi comm<strong>and</strong> area is also disappointingly lower as shown in table 7.11.<br />
Table 7.12: Size-class -wise <strong>and</strong> type -wise average operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the Peecbi<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area<br />
Size class Dry area Wet area All crops<br />
(acres)<br />
Below 0.5 0.38 0.24 0.36<br />
0.5 to I 0.78 0.80 0.67<br />
I to 2 1.44 1.23 1.34<br />
Above 2 2.70 2.50 2.45<br />
All classes 1.28 1.12 1.20<br />
ThIS eventuality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> perceptible decline In the average holding sIze In the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s bring to the <strong>for</strong>e, important implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water as well as other yield augmenting inputs, including <strong>farm</strong> mechanisati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Immediate impact is that it would tum out to be scale neutral where the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scale cannot be achieved in <strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s. This has further<br />
been accentuated by declining pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> caused by<br />
12 It is also important to note that the incentive linked instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong> by the<br />
Rubber Board has been successful in implementing a planting policy in Kerala. This<br />
policy was primarily to promote intensive rubber cultivati<strong>on</strong> in the traditi<strong>on</strong>al rubber<br />
growing regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala <strong>and</strong> extensi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same to the n<strong>on</strong>-traditi<strong>on</strong>al regi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The policy was linked with cash <strong>and</strong> input subsidies <strong>and</strong> was very specific in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interplants that could be grown al<strong>on</strong>g with rubber. This essentially<br />
resulted in a m<strong>on</strong>ocrop cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber. Attracted by the incentives as well as the<br />
remunerative prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber, there was large-scale adop~<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber over time<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g the small <strong>farm</strong>ers. This process was also stimulated by the introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
newly developed cl<strong>on</strong>e by the Rubber Research <strong>Institute</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, viz., RRII 105, which<br />
proves to be the highest yielder <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber in the world in comparis<strong>on</strong> to other varieties<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Malaysian <strong>and</strong> Ind<strong>on</strong>esian origin. The planting policy has been modified from time<br />
to time to cater the structural changes in rubber cultivati<strong>on</strong> characterised by emergence<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small <strong>and</strong> marginal holdings. This process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> proliferati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings<br />
into marginal <strong>and</strong> suh-marginal units has become a widespread phenomen<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
state.<br />
292
unremunerative prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy <strong>and</strong> high cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy coupled<br />
with shortage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour in peak seas<strong>on</strong>, in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> high wage rates. As a result,<br />
there has been remarkable decline in area under paddy. This is also due to<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers' interest in pursuing paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> even with instituti<strong>on</strong>al incentives<br />
<strong>for</strong> augmenting paddy producti<strong>on</strong>. Subsequently, the instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms encouraging <strong>and</strong> rromoting group <strong>farm</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> other programmes <strong>for</strong><br />
augmenting paddy producti<strong>on</strong> in the state have become ineffective.<br />
The failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group Farming in Kerala<br />
It is important to note that the government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala has been giving importance<br />
to rice cultivati<strong>on</strong> ever since Independence. Apart from massive public<br />
investment programme <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong>, particularly to increase paddy<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> increasing paddy producti<strong>on</strong>, the successive governments have<br />
appointed eight committees lJ to study the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
state.<br />
The Group Farming (GF) was an important instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong> by<br />
the government in Kerala to ensure paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> as a viable <strong>farm</strong>ing activity<br />
<strong>and</strong> to arrest or reduce the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> by way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> arresting the process<br />
IJ The important committees are: (i) Kuttanadu Enquiry Commissi<strong>on</strong> (1971); (ii)<br />
A.K.K. Nambiar Commissi<strong>on</strong> (1978); (iii) Janardanan Nair Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the<br />
problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> in Kerala (1981); (iv) Dr. R. Gopalakrishnan<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> Committee (1983); (v) Technical Report <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the State Planning Board<br />
(1986); (vi) S. Gopalan Committee (1986); (vii) Minnie Mathew Committee (1996)<br />
<strong>and</strong> (viii) Dr. Shhyamasundaran Nair Committee (1997). For a detailed review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these<br />
committees <strong>and</strong> their recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, see, Suresh 2000: 44-46.<br />
293
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> through c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdingsl4. Group Farming is defined as<br />
"a system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong>, wherein, individual <strong>farm</strong>er retains his ownership right<br />
as well as management decisi<strong>on</strong> himself while as many operati<strong>on</strong>s as possible<br />
are taken up<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a community basis <strong>for</strong> the maximum benefit <strong>for</strong> himself <strong>and</strong><br />
the group". The programme, which was launched in early 1989, visualised the<br />
activities such as: (a) repairl deepening <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> wells <strong>and</strong> tanks; (b) OFD <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
group <strong>farm</strong>s like bunding, irrigati<strong>on</strong> cum-drainage channels, etc.; (c) water<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol structures like check dams, drop pits, diversi<strong>on</strong> boxes, etc; (d) identify<br />
soil problems <strong>and</strong> remedying them by supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soil ameliorants, green manure,<br />
etc., (e) plots to dem<strong>on</strong>strate the possibilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> achieving five t<strong>on</strong>s per ha.; (0<br />
developing community nursery; (g) ommunity acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> plant protecti<strong>on</strong>; <strong>and</strong><br />
(h) any other measun:s to overcome local c<strong>on</strong>straints, including extensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
training programmes.<br />
The Group Farming lS was <strong>on</strong>ly a temporary success. During 1989-90,<br />
1.73 lakh ha. area were brought under the scheme which increased to 4.2 lakh<br />
ha. in 1990-9\. The <strong>farm</strong> groups, called' Patasekhara 16 samitis' were also <strong>for</strong>med<br />
14 According to the Report <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings prepared by T.N.<br />
layach<strong>and</strong>ran in 1965, most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>straints in the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
holdings are partly instituti<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> partly organisati<strong>on</strong>al. The report found the<br />
L<br />
c<strong>on</strong> sol idati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> garden l<strong>and</strong>s in the state as an impracticable propositi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
IS A pi<strong>on</strong>eering study <strong>on</strong> Group Farming by Jose (1991) identifies various reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong><br />
the failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> group <strong>farm</strong>ing in Kerala. They are: increasing cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
declining pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability, distributi<strong>on</strong>al problems in <strong>farm</strong> inputs, problems in labour<br />
management, increasing n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> l<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>ers' preference<br />
<strong>for</strong> leaving paddy field fallow due to declining pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability.<br />
16 A Patasekharams is a group <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small paddy holdings brought together <strong>for</strong> effecting<br />
mechan isati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> improved cultural operati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
294
involving <strong>farm</strong>ers as active members. There were 3063 such groups covering<br />
1.63 lakh <strong>farm</strong>ers. which went up to 5043 covering 3.67 <strong>farm</strong>ers during the<br />
above period. Though there was increase in the producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rice by 1.3 lakh<br />
t<strong>on</strong>nes (GOK. 1991:28) during 1989-90. a fall in producti<strong>on</strong> (0.75 lakh t<strong>on</strong>ne)<br />
was observed during the sec<strong>on</strong>d period. accompanied by a fall in area (23938) as<br />
well as productivity (14 kg.lha.). Thus. the programme could neither arrest the<br />
process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> nor ensure increase in returns to rice growers. This<br />
was in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the increase in number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group Farm committees to 6100,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sisting <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4.86 lakh <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> 4.49 lakh ha. area in 1991-92 (Suresh,<br />
2000:68).<br />
In the Eighth Plan (1992-97) also, ef<strong>for</strong>ts were made in this line. An<br />
amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 139 crores was earmarked <strong>for</strong> rice <strong>development</strong> during the plan.<br />
The Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India provided a support <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 16.84 crores under the Prime<br />
Minister's Programme <strong>for</strong> Infrastructure improvements through group <strong>farm</strong>s. In<br />
1996-97, the government extended assistances like free electricity <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> purposes, subsidy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 350 per ha. <strong>for</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> activities <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fered Rs. 100 per quintal <strong>for</strong> paddy processing by co-operatives. In spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all<br />
these incentives, the government has finally c<strong>on</strong>cluded that 'rice <strong>farm</strong>ing in<br />
Kerala which has been ailing <strong>for</strong> quite some time ap!2l!ars to be moving towards<br />
a point <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> no return' (GOK, 1998:37).<br />
Group Farming was reintroduced later <strong>on</strong> in the state under a new name,<br />
called the 'Group Approach <strong>for</strong> Locally Adjusted Sustainable Agriculture'<br />
(GALASA) in 1998 in some parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Palakkad district. However, the<br />
295
involving <strong>farm</strong>ers as active members. There were 3063 such groups coveTIng<br />
1.63 lakh <strong>farm</strong>ers, which went up to 5043 covering 3.67 <strong>farm</strong>ers during the:<br />
above period. Though there was increase in the producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rice by I.:; la"h<br />
t<strong>on</strong>nes (GOK, 1991 :28) during 1989-90, a fall in producti<strong>on</strong> (0.75 lakh t<strong>on</strong>ne)<br />
was observed during the sec<strong>on</strong>d period, accompanied by a fall in area (23938) as<br />
well as productivity (14 kg.lha.). Thus, the programme could neither arrest the<br />
process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> nor ensure increase in returns to rice growers. This<br />
was in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the increase in number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group Farm committees to 6100,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sisting <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4.86 lakh <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> 4.49 lakh ha. area in 1991-92 (Suresh,<br />
2000:68).<br />
In the Eighth Plan (1992-97) also, ef<strong>for</strong>ts were made in this line. An<br />
amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 139 crores was earmarked <strong>for</strong> rice <strong>development</strong> during the plan.<br />
The Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India provided a support <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 16.84 crores under the Prime<br />
Minister's Programme <strong>for</strong> Infrastructure improvements through group <strong>farm</strong>s. In<br />
1996-97, the government extended assistances like free electricity <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> purposes, subsidy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 350 per ha. <strong>for</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> activities <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fered Rs. 100 per quintal <strong>for</strong> paddy processing by co-operatives. In spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all<br />
tliese incentives, the government has finally c<strong>on</strong>cluded that 'rice <strong>farm</strong>ing in<br />
Kerala which has been ailing <strong>for</strong> quite some time appears to be moving towards<br />
a point <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> no return' (GOK, 1998:37).<br />
Group Farming was reintroduced later <strong>on</strong> in the state under a new name,<br />
called the 'Group Approach <strong>for</strong> Locally Adjusted Sustainable Agriculture'<br />
(GALASA) in 1998 in some parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Palakkad district. However, the<br />
295
programme could not make any dent. An important problem resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> the<br />
slow progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the programmes was that the group <strong>farm</strong>ing was <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
many activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture, <strong>and</strong> agricultural labour were<br />
never taken seriously in the programme 17.<br />
More importantly, as other crops<br />
were more remunerative than paddy, <strong>farm</strong>ers did not bother about the incentives<br />
<strong>and</strong> campaigning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> group <strong>farm</strong>ing. The study <strong>on</strong> group management with<br />
respect to paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> by Suresh (2000) identified some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important<br />
problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> group <strong>farm</strong>ing in the state. The study covering 1330 paddy growing<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers in Kerala found that labour related issues are the prominent <strong>on</strong>es as<br />
revealed by 24 per cent 0 f the <strong>farm</strong>ers. While 18 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers reported<br />
organisati<strong>on</strong>al problems, 27 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers had indicated high cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>, including inputs as the major problem. Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> government support<br />
as well as lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> facilities were also prominent reas<strong>on</strong>s. Furthermore,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the primary objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> group <strong>farm</strong>ing as<br />
well as CAD interventi<strong>on</strong> had remained as a distant dream due to lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinati<strong>on</strong><br />
am<strong>on</strong>g the <strong>farm</strong>ers. In practice, the idea <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> group <strong>farm</strong>ing was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fined merely to mechanical ploughing <strong>and</strong> there were no group ef<strong>for</strong>ts with<br />
respect to the important cultural operati<strong>on</strong>s, like sowing, transplanting, weeding,<br />
harvesting <strong>and</strong> the like.<br />
17 Ver<strong>on</strong> (200 I) observes that though these programmes were participatory in nature,<br />
the local people were not invited to reveal their problems or determine the area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
acti<strong>on</strong>; instead the programmes reflected the percepti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> policy makers, social<br />
activists <strong>and</strong> scientists.<br />
296
The viability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> was been challenged by certain PrICe:<br />
depressing policy interventi<strong>on</strong>s as an integral part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> providi ng social \\ e I fan:<br />
measures m the state. These policy interventi<strong>on</strong>s were aimed at keeping f<strong>on</strong>d<br />
gram prIces low through (a) ensurIng availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsIdised rice from the<br />
central pool; (b) inflow <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rice from neighbouring states; <strong>and</strong> (c) effective<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Public Distributi<strong>on</strong> System in the state. These policy<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s acted as a disincentive am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>farm</strong>ers to c<strong>on</strong>tinue with the<br />
otherwise cost-ineffective paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> in the state. It is important to note<br />
that paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> was less remunerative even under the group <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
programme as revealed from the lower rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> returns from two villages in the<br />
Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project (Table 7.13). As is evident from the table, the benefit<br />
cost ratio <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> under group <strong>farm</strong>ing was not very high in hoth the<br />
villages when compared to pre-group <strong>farm</strong>ing level. While there was almost 16<br />
per cent increase in yield <strong>and</strong> income in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Koodal village, it was <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
n per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kalanjoor village because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> group <strong>farm</strong>ing, which is<br />
not at all commendable. Though the group <strong>farm</strong>ing was expected to bring down<br />
the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> through ensuring ec<strong>on</strong>omies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scale, it was not<br />
achieved in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Koodal (rather, there was an increase in cost) <strong>and</strong> there<br />
was marginal improvement in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kalanjoor village. An important re~s<strong>on</strong><br />
why the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> could not be reduced under the group <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
was the enormous labour intensity involved in paddy producti<strong>on</strong> to processing.<br />
The wage rates increased substantially owing to the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tasks<br />
.:aused by fragmentati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings in the state. In the past, many<br />
297
tasks such as cutting the harvesting, carrying the load to threshing yard,<br />
winnowing <strong>and</strong> drying the hay, were part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> harvesting, <strong>for</strong> which a single wage<br />
rate existed.<br />
Table 7.13: Per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy under group <strong>farm</strong>ing in two villages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, 1991<br />
Koodal Vi lIa~ e<br />
Kalanioor Village<br />
Sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cost! Be<strong>for</strong>e After Be<strong>for</strong>e After<br />
Income (per ha.)<br />
Diff.<br />
Diff.<br />
Group Group<br />
Group Group<br />
(%)<br />
(%)<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
Cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
L<strong>and</strong> preparati<strong>on</strong> 2420 2550 5.4 1500.0 1150.0 -23.3<br />
Seedsl planting 3020 3180 5.3 1216.7 1100.0 -9.6<br />
Fertilizerl<br />
manuring<br />
1330 1480 11.3 2416.6 2200.0 -8.9<br />
Weed c<strong>on</strong>trol 680 705 3.7 833.3 683.3 -18.0<br />
Plant protecti<strong>on</strong> 525 560 6.8 41.7 33.3 -20.0<br />
Harvesting 1000 1205 21.0 1200.0 1261.7 5.1<br />
Others 530 567 7.0 575.0 638.0 10.7<br />
Total cost 9505 10247 7.8 7783.3 7066.3 -9.2<br />
Income from paddy<br />
Paddy(h) 2425 2810 15.9 2716.7 3016.7 11.0<br />
Value (Rs.) 8487.6 9853 16.1 8150.0 9050.0 11.0<br />
Straw (kg) 640 800 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0<br />
Value (Rs.) 1100 1255 14.1 2433.3 2700.0 10.7<br />
Total income 9587.6 11108 15.7 10583.3 11750 11.0<br />
Net income 82.6 861 942.4 2800.0 4683.7 67.3<br />
BCR 1.0 I 1.08 7.5 1.36 1.66 22.3<br />
Source: Complied from BasIc Data Register <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> respechve Knshl Bhavans.<br />
Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these tasks were segregated from harvesting <strong>and</strong> each task<br />
carried a separate time or piece rate. Same was the case with post-harvesting<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s. Making the hay into bundles, carrying the bundles <strong>and</strong> paddy to the<br />
customers or the homes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cultivators, etc., which were part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a single task,<br />
became independent tasks (Nair, M K S (1999:227-8). The wage increase in the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy field workers was also caused by high levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wage relativity<br />
between various sectors due to the interacti<strong>on</strong> between various instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
298
factors l8 . As a result. the agricultural wages in Kerala have been almost moving<br />
in t<strong>and</strong>em with the wages in the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> sector, as shown in table 7.14. [t<br />
may also be noted that the agricultural wage indices outpaced the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
wage indices since the mid 80s.<br />
Table 7.14: Trends in wage rates in Kerala, 1960-97 (Index <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wages, 1952 =100)<br />
Year Carpenter Mas<strong>on</strong> Paddy (male) Paddy (female)<br />
1960 117 126 122 140<br />
1970 304 294 320 370<br />
1976 558 567 526 663<br />
1980 654 645 589 739<br />
1985 1598 1618 1727 1697<br />
1990 2209 2212 2869 2372<br />
1995 4275 4240 5111 5749<br />
1997 5714 5720 9586 7792<br />
As already discussed, the price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy has never been attractive so as to<br />
motivate <strong>farm</strong>ers to stick <strong>on</strong> to paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> even at higher levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wages<br />
<strong>and</strong> cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inputs. The increase in wages at current prices has been very high in<br />
relati<strong>on</strong> to prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy during the last <strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong> half decade <strong>and</strong> this adversely<br />
affected the net barter terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> trade as the wages equivalent quantity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
substantially increased from 6.25 kg. in 1983 to 17.93 kg. in 1998 (Table 7.15).<br />
As evident from the table, there was <strong>on</strong>ly three fold increase in the price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy during the last 15 years, compared to about 8-9 fold increase in the wages<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the male agricultural labourer <strong>and</strong> 7 times increase in the wages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> female<br />
18 Numerous studies have tied wage gains in Kerala to instituti<strong>on</strong>al factors, namely,<br />
state interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> un i<strong>on</strong> isati<strong>on</strong> (Bardhan, 1970; Kannan, 1988 , Pushpangadan,<br />
1992; Krishnan, 1991; Baby, 1996) The fact that no serious reversals <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> real wage<br />
levels have occurred since the mid-70s, despite a c<strong>on</strong>tinuous decline in the price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rice, suggests that instituti<strong>on</strong>al factors have insulated wages from downward pressures.<br />
299
labourers. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> female labourer, there was three times increase from<br />
4.34 kg. to 11.39 kg. during the period under c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
This brings out very interesting dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> costineffective<br />
paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> in the state. An analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the trends in output<br />
prices <strong>and</strong> factor prices (male <strong>and</strong> female agricultural wages) using the semilogarithmic<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> has indicated that the wage increase has been higher than<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rise in output prices. When the price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy increased by about 8 per<br />
cent, the male wage rates increased by 11.83 per cent <strong>and</strong> female wages by<br />
almost 13 per cent. Thus, the rise in factor prices has increased by almost two<br />
times than the product prices in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy.<br />
Table 7.15: Trends in agricultural wages <strong>and</strong> price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy in Kerala, 1983-1998<br />
Year<br />
Kg. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy required <strong>for</strong><br />
Price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agri. Wages (Rs.)<br />
en.ll.a.ll.ing<br />
paddy<br />
Female<br />
Female<br />
(Rs.l kg.) Male labour<br />
Male labour<br />
labour<br />
labour<br />
1983 2.54 15.86 11.02 6.25 4.34<br />
1984 2.31 23.60 11.89 10.23 5.15<br />
1985 2.25 26.08 15.10 11.58 6.71<br />
1986 2.42 28.36 16.39 11.71 6.77<br />
1987 2.48 30.36 17.68 12.23 7.12<br />
1988 2.77 31.95 18.59 11.52 6.70<br />
1989 3.03 33.31 19.63 11.00 6.48<br />
1990 3.00 35.77 2l.l1 11.94 7.05<br />
1991 3.75 41.38 26.12 11.04 6.97<br />
1992 4.21 48.40 32.31 11.50 7.68<br />
1993 4.15 54.26 35.49 13.09 8.56<br />
1994 4.95 6353 41.92 12.84 8.47<br />
1995 5.47 77.17 51.17 14.11<br />
...<br />
9.35<br />
1996 6.07 92.18 60.52 15.19 9.97<br />
1997 5.83 103.72 69.35 17.79 11.90<br />
1998 6.27 112.45 71.40 17.93 11.39<br />
v f10US<br />
Source: Estimates are based <strong>on</strong> wages <strong>and</strong> pflces data complied from GOK ( a<br />
issues).<br />
300
The rise in price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy has also been less than that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other important<br />
crops grown in the state <strong>and</strong> this, in turn, has adversely affected the purchasing<br />
power <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy over time as indicated in table 7.16.<br />
Table 7.16: Purchasing power <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy in real terms, 1956-97<br />
Year Coc<strong>on</strong>ut (nos) Tapioca (kg.) Banana (nos.) Arecanu! (nos.)<br />
1956 2.31 4.53 6.16 18.05<br />
1960 1.92 4.41 6.04 15.28<br />
1970 1.59 4.38 5.41 24.13<br />
1980 1.10 4.04 3.93 20.01<br />
1990 0.99 1.99 3.97 10.55<br />
1997 1.32 1.96 3.94 13.25<br />
Source: Suresh, 2000<br />
The table shows that the purchasing power <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy has drastically<br />
declined in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all the crops. While <strong>on</strong>e kg. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy could get four kg. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tapioca in exchange during 1956, it is possible to get <strong>on</strong>ly less than two kg. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tapioca in 1997. Similarly, when the purchasing power <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy in relati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut declined from 2.31 to 1.32, that in relati<strong>on</strong> to banana, it declined from<br />
6.16 to 3.94 <strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong>.<br />
Paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> in the Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada projects<br />
The cumulative effect was that there was large-scale c<strong>on</strong>versIOn <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
fields l9 into various other l<strong>and</strong> uses, including commercial crops, resulting In<br />
tremendous decline in area under paddy over time. The overall trends in change<br />
in paddy area in Kerala including the area under high yielding variety <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
have been represented in figure 7.1.<br />
19- For a very comprehensive analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dynamics involved in the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> in Kcrala, see, Chapter 5.<br />
301
-------. ------------<br />
Figure 7.1: Trends in Paddy Area in Kerala<br />
l<br />
120<br />
~<br />
0<br />
0<br />
100<br />
- II<br />
00<br />
80<br />
0 •<br />
00<br />
0- I<br />
60 1<br />
'-' 40 1<br />
~<br />
I<br />
<br />
-0 20 ~<br />
t:<br />
- o --,--,-., I I I I I I I I<br />
, -+-Total<br />
, ,<br />
i~_ paddy I<br />
HYVpacrcry'<br />
~~L __<br />
~';I'\) '1/,\1 •. /Cl 'TJ':I~ \';b'1; b.';b'l ,\,'TJ'TJ ):fa,\ '(,?Ib. I.i<br />
\ a, '0 \ a, '\ \a,'\ \ a, '\ \a,'TJ \ a,<br />
't)<br />
\a,'TJ \ a, Cj \ a, a, \ a, a,<br />
Year<br />
The figure shows that while the total area under paddy has been <strong>on</strong> the<br />
decline ever since 1969-70, the area under HYV has been increasing till 1972-<br />
73, followed by a steep fall during 1973-75. This was followed by a further<br />
increase in area under HYV, accompanied by tremendous decline with wider<br />
fluctuati<strong>on</strong>s till 1987-88. Interestingly, the HYV area has been increasing since<br />
then, which may be explained in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the removal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the marginal <strong>and</strong> submarginal<br />
paddy fields from cultivati<strong>on</strong>. This is also evident from the increase in<br />
t\Ie proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area under current <strong>and</strong> other fallows in the state, which<br />
increased from 1.83 per cent in 1985-86 to 2.16 per cent in 1996-97.<br />
The intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> into other crops has been<br />
significant in both the Peechi <strong>and</strong> Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> areas. For instance, in the<br />
Peechi project, the paddy area has been c<strong>on</strong>verted <strong>for</strong> growing crops like banana,<br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut, arecanut <strong>and</strong> tapioca. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area c<strong>on</strong>verted ranged between<br />
9 per cent in the Killannur village to 91 per cent in the Madakathara village. It<br />
302
may be observed that the canal seepage caused groundwater replenishment <strong>and</strong><br />
induced people to grow high value crops, like banana <strong>and</strong> take advantage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
price situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the Kallada project, the c<strong>on</strong>versIOn IS<br />
mostly in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dryl<br />
perennial cash crops, mainly rubber <strong>and</strong> is mostly induced by the canopy<br />
coverage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber plantati<strong>on</strong>s over the low-lying paddy areas. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>verted was reported to be in the range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 24 per cent in Sooranad<br />
North village to 38 per cent in Mynagappally village in the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
project (Table 7.17). A more detailed view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
study villages is shown in appendix 7.2. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area c<strong>on</strong>verted<br />
is above 35 per cent in all the villages, the highest being in Punnala village at 87<br />
p'er cent. Interestingly, Punnala village comes under the head reach <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the RBMC<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada <strong>and</strong> where the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber area is also the highest.<br />
Table 7,17: Paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> in villages in Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong><br />
Name <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> village<br />
Total paddy area<br />
(Ha.)<br />
Paddy l<strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>verted (Ha.)<br />
Paddy c<strong>on</strong>verted (%)<br />
Enadimangalam 150 50 33.33<br />
Mynagappilly 247 93 37.65<br />
Soornad South 288 75.38 26.17<br />
Sooranad North 401.48 96.16 23.95<br />
Total 1086.48 314.54 28.95<br />
Source: Compiled from Vikasana Rekha <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the respective Panchayats.<br />
However, it is important to note that, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> late, the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy l<strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> has assumed certain political dimensi<strong>on</strong>s as well <strong>and</strong> has resulted in<br />
303
c<strong>on</strong>tlict 20 between the <strong>farm</strong>ers as well as agricultural labourers. The most recent<br />
crop-spoiling agitati<strong>on</strong> 21 in the Kuttanad regi<strong>on</strong> may be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as a pointer<br />
to this c<strong>on</strong>flict. Together, Kuttanad <strong>and</strong> Palakkad account <strong>for</strong> 58,0000<br />
agricultural labourers, more than <strong>on</strong>e quarter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state's total (GOI, Census,<br />
1991 ).<br />
As menti<strong>on</strong>ed earlier, the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> is going <strong>on</strong><br />
unchecked even in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. The Report <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Task Force 22 set up <strong>for</strong> the Ninth Plan <strong>for</strong> field crops bring out the c<strong>on</strong>trast that<br />
the need <strong>for</strong> arresting the decline in the area under rice cultivati<strong>on</strong> was fully<br />
realised <strong>on</strong>ly by the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Seventh Five Year Plan <strong>and</strong> by that time a larger<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area had already g<strong>on</strong>e out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crop (GOK, 1997a: 10). The<br />
20 The c<strong>on</strong>flict between labourers <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong>ers was most pr<strong>on</strong>ounced in the South<br />
Malabar district <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Palakkad, where the l<strong>and</strong> re<strong>for</strong>ms had the greatest impact <strong>and</strong> where<br />
the green revoluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large public irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the 1960s<br />
accelerated the commercialisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rice <strong>farm</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> increased dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> casual<br />
labour (Heller, 1999).<br />
21 The crop spoiling agitati<strong>on</strong> was initiated <strong>on</strong> 5th July 1997 in the Kuttanad regi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
Alapuzha district. Farmers in the area alleged that plantsl crop worth Rs. 50 lakhs were<br />
spoiled in the agitati<strong>on</strong>, which were cultivated in the c<strong>on</strong>verted paddy l<strong>and</strong>s. Agitators<br />
argued that their labour opportunities were spoiled by the <strong>farm</strong>ers by c<strong>on</strong>verting paddy<br />
fields into labour saving crops. In September 1997, the government appointed a<br />
committee headed by Dr. Shayamasundaran Nair, to look in to the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> suggest mea~ures to streamline the same.<br />
22 The Task Force Report was highly c<strong>on</strong>cerned about the declining trends in paddy<br />
area in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the commendable promoti<strong>on</strong>al ef<strong>for</strong>ts by the government. The total<br />
amount invested by the state during the Eighth Plan including the special assistance<br />
provided from the Prime Minister's Special Programme in lieu <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the withdrawal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fertiliser subsidies works out to nearly 150 crores. Despite c<strong>on</strong>siderable investment <strong>and</strong><br />
special attenti<strong>on</strong> given to the crop, the fact remains that the area under the crop<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinues to decline (GOK, 1997).<br />
304
process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> would have greater implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> water use<br />
<strong>and</strong> overall efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water instituti<strong>on</strong>s in the state because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the persistence<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> technological prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the state towards paddy.<br />
7.3.2 Socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>straints<br />
The important socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors adversely affecting <strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
general <strong>and</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water use <strong>for</strong> agriculture in particular are: (i) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
interest in labour intensive <strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s; (ii) relegati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fa.rming into a sec<strong>on</strong>dary activity; <strong>and</strong> (iii) sociological factors.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>straints posed by large-scale marginalisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
holdings coupled with n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour even at higher wage rates <strong>and</strong><br />
declining prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> food crops, especially paddy, precluded the <strong>farm</strong>ers from<br />
undertaking highly labour intensive <strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s. Sociological reas<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
also indicated as adversely affecting paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>. These problems include<br />
high proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> elderly am<strong>on</strong>g the <strong>farm</strong>ing group as well as labourers. Eapen<br />
(1999) dem<strong>on</strong>strates that the spread <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> its modernising influence<br />
has played an important role in shaping people's attitude to work 23 (Eapen,<br />
1999:57). These observati<strong>on</strong>s are supported by the empirical evidences from the<br />
study regi<strong>on</strong>, the details <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which are discussed in chapter 4 (Table 4.10).<br />
It is true that the socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors also have influenced the <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s in Kerala to a greater extent. The higher rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> return in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
305
ainfed crops was a major ec<strong>on</strong>omIc incentive to the <strong>farm</strong>ers to go in <strong>for</strong><br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> high valued commercial crops. The trends in prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some<br />
important crops grown in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala are shown in table 7.18.<br />
The table indicates that there was substantial increase in average <strong>farm</strong> prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tapioca, banana <strong>and</strong> ginger when compared to paddy <strong>and</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut. However, the<br />
fluctuati<strong>on</strong> in prices has been less in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> arecanut, coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> paddy as<br />
revealed by the lower coefficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> variati<strong>on</strong> in these crops. The fluctuati<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
prices have been relatively less in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tapioca <strong>and</strong> banana in relati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
cashew <strong>and</strong> pepper.<br />
Table 7.18: Trend5 in price5 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> important crops in Kerala, 1991-92 to 1997-98<br />
Year Paddy Tapioca Pepper Ginger<br />
Coco-<br />
Areca<br />
Cashew<br />
nut<br />
-nut<br />
Banana<br />
1991-92 374.8 157.7 2950.1 2177.6 393.2 2037.7 31.5 80.7<br />
1992-93 420.8 187.2 2619.6 2490.5 420.1 2000.7 33.0 93.9<br />
1993-94 414.5 197.6 3898.0 2858.1 325.5 2134.3 33.6 108.6<br />
1994-95 494.8 217.3 6687.4 5250.3 307.8 235.4 36.7 125.7<br />
1995-96 547.0 253.0 7320.0 5871.0 331.0 2700.0 43.0 130.0<br />
1996-97 607.0 300.0 8780.0 4214.0 480.0 2730.0 43.0 161.0<br />
1997-98 583.0 297.0 17440.0 4462.0 443.0 2848.0 44.0 148.0<br />
% change 55.6 88.4 491.2 104.9 12.6 39.7 39.8 83.2<br />
CY (%) 18.4 23.9 72.2 36.5 17.1 42.7 14.2 23.7<br />
Note: Pnces <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy, tapIOca, pepper, gmger <strong>and</strong> cashew are expressed mRs.<br />
Per quintal <strong>and</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut, arecanut <strong>and</strong> banana are expressed as Rs. Per<br />
100 nos.<br />
Source. Compiled from GOK (1999).<br />
The comparative pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itabili~y<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> various crops based <strong>on</strong> the estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <strong>and</strong> Statistics <strong>for</strong> the year 1996-97 has been<br />
shown in table 7.19.<br />
2J For a very elaborate <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>vincing discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the issues related to the changing<br />
agrarian relati<strong>on</strong>s as well as the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rural labour market<br />
in Kerala, see, Thomas <strong>and</strong> Thomas (1999); Nair, ( 1999) <strong>and</strong> Kannan (1998, 1999).<br />
306
Table 7.19: Productivity <strong>and</strong> gross income per acre <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy <strong>and</strong> other crops in<br />
Kerala, 1996-97<br />
Crops<br />
Productivity per Gross income Income from paddy as % <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
acre" (Rs./acre) income from other crops<br />
Paddy 819 4972 - --<br />
Arccanut 86000 36980 13.44<br />
Banana 5646 45451 10.94<br />
Tapioca 7378 22133 22.46<br />
Coc<strong>on</strong>ut 2319 11 J31 44.66<br />
Rubber 463 22679 21.92<br />
Pepper 126 . 11091 44.83<br />
Cashew 316 8632 57.60<br />
Vegetable 5960 58284 8.53<br />
..<br />
Note: • Productlvlty <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crops IS expressed as kg. per acre except coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong><br />
arecanut, which are in numbers per acre.<br />
Source: Estimated from OOK (1997).<br />
From the table, it may be observed that the gross income from paddy per<br />
acre is far below the gross income from other crops. For instance, the income<br />
from paddy c<strong>on</strong>stitutes <strong>on</strong>ly 8 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the gross income from vegetables, 11<br />
per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the income from banana, 13 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> arecanut <strong>and</strong> 22 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
income from tapioca <strong>and</strong> rubber <strong>and</strong> 45 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the income from coc<strong>on</strong>ut.<br />
Even when the net income from paddy is compared with that from other crops,<br />
the alternate pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other crops cannot be disproved. This brings out the<br />
importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> vegetables <strong>and</strong> banana so as to<br />
optimise the returns per unit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area. But, higher order <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s is hard to come by in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the technical c<strong>on</strong>straints in<br />
~<br />
the <strong>development</strong>, distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems<br />
in Kerala. This necessitates a brief discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the important technical<br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala.<br />
307
7.3.3 Technical c<strong>on</strong>straints<br />
The major technical c<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> In Kcrala may be<br />
classified as:<br />
I) Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects exclusively <strong>for</strong> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
2) The water distributi<strong>on</strong> networks in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas do not permit to<br />
introduce dem<strong>and</strong> based supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water;<br />
3) Irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure <strong>and</strong> water distributi<strong>on</strong> networks are in dilapidated<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e, need immediate rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> to· allow designed<br />
discharge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the canals; <strong>and</strong><br />
4) Improper design <strong>and</strong> alignment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canals <strong>and</strong> field channels<br />
adversely affecting water distributi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A major c<strong>on</strong>sequence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects being designed exclusively <strong>for</strong><br />
paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> is that crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> is not legally permitted to take<br />
advantage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the abundant water available in the canals left unutilised in the<br />
absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>. Though the <strong>farm</strong>ers have undertaken crop<br />
diversificati<strong>on</strong> in some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s, there are several practical<br />
problems arising out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inflexible design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> network enabling<br />
crop diversificati<strong>on</strong>. Since the terrain in many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s in<br />
Kerala is undulating, effective utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal water necessitates significant<br />
investment <strong>on</strong> OFD both from the irrigati<strong>on</strong> department upstream side <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
canal system as well as the <strong>farm</strong>ers downstream.<br />
308
The technical c<strong>on</strong>straints In the <strong>development</strong> distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems warrant proper underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
dynamics at the local level. Given the topographical characteristics, the state<br />
would need irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects with an unique design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
network <strong>and</strong> planning to promote systems depending up<strong>on</strong> the topography as in<br />
the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. Though Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> scheme appears to be a<br />
technically sound system suitable to the specific terrain it comm<strong>and</strong>s, the scheme<br />
could not be successfully implemented <strong>for</strong> the reas<strong>on</strong>s menti<strong>on</strong>ed already. This<br />
raises an important questi<strong>on</strong> as to how the irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in Kerala could be<br />
reoriented? What should be the <strong>development</strong> priorities in the changing scenario?<br />
These are the important questi<strong>on</strong>s that policy makers should bear in mind while<br />
planning <strong>for</strong> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed projects <strong>and</strong> expediting completi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>going <strong>on</strong>es.<br />
Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the experiences In the c<strong>on</strong>temporary <strong>development</strong> scenario<br />
regarding crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> need to be reflected up<strong>on</strong> to draw less<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong><br />
future planning. For example, there are growing apprehensi<strong>on</strong>s that cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut under assured canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> may not bring the desired results.<br />
Because, the productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut had been almost stagnant since 1992-93<br />
(Table 7.20).<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> banana, tapioca <strong>and</strong> arecanut has<br />
increased substantially. There<strong>for</strong>e, to allow the present trend <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>verting paddy<br />
fields into coc<strong>on</strong>ut groves is wise enough in the l<strong>on</strong>g run. Am<strong>on</strong>g the crops, the<br />
productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut has been almost stagnant since 1992-93, compared to<br />
309
substantial rise in productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> banana, tapioca <strong>and</strong> arecanut. Surprisingly, the<br />
productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy has never crossed bey<strong>on</strong>d 2023 kg. per ha.<br />
Ta ble 7.20: Trends in productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> important crops in Kerala, 1988-89 to 1997-98<br />
Paddy Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Arecanut Tapioca<br />
Year<br />
Banana (Kg.!<br />
(Kg.! hal (nos. hal (000 nuts/ hal (Kg.! hal ha. )<br />
1988-89 1753 5159 183.29 18676 7380<br />
1989-90 1956 5236 189.37 19070 7408<br />
1990-91 1942 4864 160.05 19134 7483<br />
1991-92 1959 5377 206.76 18822 7629<br />
1992-93 2018 5843 213.41 19470 7653<br />
1993-94 2193 5890 217.56 19&66 7951<br />
1994-95 1937 5856 243.1 20511 7914<br />
1995-96 2023 5638 245.76 22008 8137<br />
1996-97 2022 5846 225.79 22353 9510<br />
1997-98 1975 5890 265.43 22586 9838<br />
Mean 1978 5560 215 20249 8090<br />
SD 108.65 373.73 31.89 1525.65 873.41<br />
CV(%l 5.49 6.72 14.83 7.53 10.80<br />
Source: OOK, Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Review (various issues).<br />
A brief discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the stagnancy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut yields in the state, in spite<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> substantial rise in area under it, may be relevant here. As highlighted in<br />
Chapter 5, coc<strong>on</strong>ut has been emerging as an important crop accounting <strong>for</strong> about<br />
28 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total cropped area. The following are the important reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
widely reported <strong>for</strong> the relatively low <strong>and</strong> stagnant yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut.<br />
1) The existing stock <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut palms in the state are very old <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e,<br />
seem to have lost their productivity potential. The productivity levels are<br />
very low when &ompared to other states. While the average annual<br />
productivity per palm per annum is in the range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 60-75 nuts in states like<br />
Tamilnadu <strong>and</strong> Andhra Pradesh, it is <strong>on</strong>ly 20-35 nuts in Kerala, which is<br />
obviously very low.<br />
310
2) Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> during summer. In the state not more than 10 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the crop receives irrigati<strong>on</strong> during summer (GOK, 1997: 12). According to<br />
the <strong>farm</strong>ers, irrigati<strong>on</strong> in frequent intervals is essential to increase the<br />
productivity levels during summer. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, during m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong>,<br />
excessive watering affects adversely the coc<strong>on</strong>ut productivity. This is a<br />
dichotomous situati<strong>on</strong> where <strong>farm</strong>ers need proper educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> training as<br />
regards water management, to tackle the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> excessive watering<br />
during summer <strong>and</strong> scarcity during summer. Use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> organic manures <strong>for</strong><br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>farm</strong>ing has also come down, thereby adversely affecting the<br />
moisture retenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> productive capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut holdings.<br />
3) The problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> root-wilt is another major problem affecting the productivity<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut. As per the survey by the state government with the help <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
CPCRI <strong>and</strong> Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Development Board c<strong>on</strong>ducted during 1984-85, out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
7.06 lakh ha. available under the crop during the period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey, 3 lakh ha.<br />
were reported to be in the grip <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the devastating root wilt (about 43 %) <strong>and</strong><br />
leaf-rot diseases resulting in a total loss <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 968 milli<strong>on</strong> nuts. A more recent<br />
estimate made by the Department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture based <strong>on</strong> a field survey<br />
jointly by the CPCRI, Coc<strong>on</strong>ut Board <strong>and</strong> the Dept. shows that about 80 lakh<br />
palms are in advanced stages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> disease requiring immediate replacement 24 .<br />
24 As per the CPCRI study (1984-85), the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> root wilt affected palms has<br />
been <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the highest in Kollam at 35.46 per cent. In Alleppey, it was 81.67 per cent,<br />
Kottayam, 82.95 per cent <strong>and</strong> Ernakulam 44.97 per cent. In Mynagappilly Panchayat<br />
(Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area) in Kollam district, it has been reported that almost 67 per cent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the coc<strong>on</strong>ut palms are affected by leaf rot disease, followed by palms affected by<br />
bud rot (31 %) <strong>and</strong> root wilt (22 %).<br />
311
In the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any systematic programme <strong>for</strong> replanting, the holdings with<br />
disease-pr<strong>on</strong>e unproductive palms will increase followed by a further declinc<br />
in coc<strong>on</strong>ut output in the state.<br />
In a survey c<strong>on</strong>ducted in a village in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area, it has<br />
been found that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 2.4 lakh coc<strong>on</strong>ut palms, about 56 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the palms are<br />
affected by leaf rot, followed by bud rot (26 per cent) <strong>and</strong> root wilt (18 per cent).<br />
4) Even though nearly 50 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers apply fertilisers the percentage<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers following the recommended level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fertiliser use was less than 10<br />
per cent.<br />
5) Average size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut holdings is as small as 0.25 ha. Out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 2.5<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut holdings about 90 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the holdings covering 60 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area under the crop are in marginal holdings not capable <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
supporting an average <strong>farm</strong> family. Given this, how a <strong>farm</strong>er could invest <strong>for</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong> supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>?<br />
6) The absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> technological diffusi<strong>on</strong> is also pointed out as an important<br />
c<strong>on</strong>straint in enhancing productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut. For instance, Narayana et al<br />
(1989) point out that the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lower levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> productivity needs to be<br />
explained as the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> technological diffusi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>founded by lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
"<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong>, lower size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings, etc. In<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> input use intensity is<br />
also interesting in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut. The plots receiving manure have<br />
declined from 65.4 per cent in 1962-63 to 43 per cent in 1978. Expenses <strong>on</strong><br />
312
manure or fertilisers are also do not show any positive trend. The major cost<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent would be labour cost <strong>for</strong> plucking the palms. IrrigClti<strong>on</strong> has not<br />
been effective in augmenting the yield <strong>and</strong> the <strong>on</strong>ly effect was that irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
lengthened the age at which yield decline set in or prol<strong>on</strong>ging the peak<br />
bearing period.<br />
Thus, the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely, adequate <strong>and</strong> dependable irrigati<strong>on</strong> 25<br />
facilities has been identified as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the major c<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>for</strong> the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
technologies developed by the research stati<strong>on</strong>s in the state. In the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
timely <strong>and</strong> adequate irrigati<strong>on</strong> facilities, the agriculture sector in the state is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>strained by lower levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> input use as widely reported<br />
elsewhere (Narayana, 1989; Geethakutty, 1993) as also brought out by the lack<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> corresp<strong>on</strong>dence between input use <strong>and</strong> net irrigated area in the state (Figure<br />
7.3).<br />
25 The lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut can partly be explained by the pol icy followed by<br />
the government regarding investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong>. The bulk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the government<br />
expenditure <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>, which came to about 16 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plan expenditure <strong>on</strong><br />
an average during the plan periods, has been <strong>on</strong> medium <strong>and</strong> major projects <strong>and</strong> most<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these projects were designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating low lying paddy l<strong>and</strong>s (Narayana <strong>and</strong><br />
Nair, \983).<br />
313
Rg.re 7-2Tre d:; in irpl Lre crd gruth d ra<br />
irTig:tEd crea in f:)<br />
,<br />
C)<br />
C>:)<br />
0-<br />
......<br />
I<br />
-,---,-- T<br />
"" "') "l- V) '0<br />
" C>:) C>, C) -. "" "') ..,.<br />
C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:)<br />
, ,<br />
C>:)<br />
, ,<br />
C>:)<br />
,<br />
C>:)<br />
, , 0- C>, 0- C>, 0- C>,<br />
, , , , , , '"<br />
......<br />
,<br />
"') "I-<br />
'" '0 " C>:) 0- C) ......<br />
C>:) C>:)<br />
"" "') "I-<br />
C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:) C>, 0- 0- 0- 0-<br />
C>, C>, C>, 0- C>, C>, 0- 0- C>, C>, 0- 0- C>,<br />
""<br />
~<br />
...... ...... -. -. -. -'JIb--' -. -. -. -. -. -.<br />
[he figure shows that the growth in net irrigated area in the state has<br />
been almost stagnant <strong>and</strong> the growth in the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> mJ;or inputs like fertiliser <strong>and</strong><br />
plant protecti<strong>on</strong> (PP) chemicals has been far from satisfactory. Interestingly, the<br />
use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> hybrid seed varieties has been fluctuating since the mid 80s till 1990-91,<br />
followed by a rise thereafter. Though there was an increase in the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> seed,<br />
the corresp<strong>on</strong>ding increase in the complementary inputs, viz., fertliser <strong>and</strong> PP<br />
chemicals was not there_<br />
Given the dynamics, problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints as discussed above, it may<br />
be c<strong>on</strong>cluded that reorienting the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop<br />
diversificati<strong>on</strong>, especially, coc<strong>on</strong>ut, needs further investment at the system level<br />
to redesign the irrigati<strong>on</strong> structures <strong>for</strong> facilitating irrigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these crops, that<br />
are grown in homesteads, much above the low lying paddy fields. This also calls<br />
<strong>for</strong> huge investment at the <strong>farm</strong> level in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD to irrigate coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
314
according to the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al basin irrigati<strong>on</strong> method. As the existing coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
palms are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the traditi<strong>on</strong>al variety, an important step is needed to initiate a<br />
massive replanting programme <strong>for</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut with HYY planting, coupled with<br />
R&D support. Crops like banana, arecanut, vegetable, tapioca, may also be<br />
brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong> with the redesign intended <strong>for</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut.<br />
7,3.4 Financial c<strong>on</strong>straints<br />
The major financial c<strong>on</strong>straints in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala have already<br />
been discussed in detail in Chapter 4. These c<strong>on</strong>straints mostly relate to<br />
inefficient financial management by the Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Department in the state, which<br />
have resulted in gross under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects, time <strong>and</strong> cost overruns, thin spread <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> financial resources over an array<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes, etc.<br />
The state government has already initiated several programmes to<br />
improve water use efficiency in the old generati<strong>on</strong> projects through the nt:w<br />
programme <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> revamping <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong>. A serious problem in which Kallada<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, selected <strong>for</strong> the study is that the project has not been<br />
commissi<strong>on</strong>ed fully even after 40 years. The Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System (MCS)<br />
meant <strong>for</strong> efficient water distributi<strong>on</strong> in the comm<strong>and</strong> area is almost defunct <strong>and</strong><br />
its replacement cost today would be more than the original cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
project. Given these operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints, the efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
system remains questi<strong>on</strong>able. An amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 907 lakhs is envisaged <strong>for</strong><br />
completing the essential works in the Kallada project to c<strong>on</strong>vey water to the<br />
fields during the period 1999-2000.<br />
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7.3.5 C<strong>on</strong>straints in water distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management<br />
The issues in water distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s in<br />
Kerala are yet to receive adequate attenti<strong>on</strong> in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> management<br />
literature. A possible explanati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> this could be the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>er's interest in<br />
irrigated <strong>farm</strong>ing per se. Furthermore, there are not many reports or complaints<br />
<strong>on</strong> inequitable distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>and</strong> water- related c<strong>on</strong>flicts across the canal<br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s in the state. However, based <strong>on</strong> the findings <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the present study,<br />
some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the water management related c<strong>on</strong>straints could be identified as: (i)<br />
inadequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water across the canal reaches; (ii) n<strong>on</strong>-pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
<strong>and</strong> the subsequent wasteful utilisati<strong>on</strong>; (iii) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficient co-ordinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water management activities; <strong>and</strong> (iv) n<strong>on</strong>-functioining <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water users'<br />
associati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The questi<strong>on</strong> 'why <strong>farm</strong>ers do not participate in irrigati<strong>on</strong> management at<br />
the desired level' needs a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing in Kerala's c<strong>on</strong>text. This issue<br />
has greater relevance in the present day c<strong>on</strong>text when the new c<strong>on</strong>cept <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Participatory Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Management (PIM) is highlighted as an integral aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>al re<strong>for</strong>ms in irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in India.<br />
The PIM has been implemented in Kerala as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Comm<strong>and</strong> Area<br />
...<br />
Development Programme. A three-tier <strong>farm</strong>ers' associati<strong>on</strong>s at the outiet, canal<br />
<strong>and</strong> project levels have been c<strong>on</strong>templated under the PIM programme. There is a<br />
provisi<strong>on</strong> under secti<strong>on</strong> 17 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Kerala Comm<strong>and</strong> Area Development Act, 1986<br />
(Act 37 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1986) <strong>for</strong> the <strong>for</strong>mulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beneficiary Farmers' Associati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(BFAs) <strong>for</strong> <strong>on</strong>e or more pipe outlets. These have been registered under Societies<br />
316
Registrati<strong>on</strong> Act, 1860 in the erstwhile Malabar area or under the Travancore<br />
Cochin (Literacy, Scientific <strong>and</strong> Charitable) Societies Registrati<strong>on</strong> Act, 1955<br />
(Joshi 2000).<br />
However, in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the thrust given <strong>for</strong> the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> PIM in<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects, the BF As were found to be ineffective in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> in Kerala. It has been reported that most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>er associati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong>med in Kerala by the CADA were not functi<strong>on</strong>ing even in<br />
its initial years (Jacob, 1990). Besides, seven WUAs <strong>for</strong>med as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Operati<strong>on</strong>al Research Project (ORP) (1979-88) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Centre <strong>for</strong> Water<br />
Resources Development <strong>and</strong> Management (CWRDM) in the comm<strong>and</strong> area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Kuttiadi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project were active in the initial years. However, these<br />
associati<strong>on</strong>s became n<strong>on</strong>-functi<strong>on</strong>al after the withdrawal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ORP staff from<br />
the area. Ananthakrishnan (1981) observes that bey<strong>on</strong>d letting water into the<br />
canals, branches <strong>and</strong> distributaries, or en<strong>for</strong>cing a turn system, no other<br />
management activity worth menti<strong>on</strong>ing is being d<strong>on</strong>e in the canal system in<br />
Kerala. As a result, the field channels have become no man's property.<br />
Madhavach<strong>and</strong>ran (1999) has found that in Malampuzha project, physical<br />
locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BFA did not have any impact <strong>on</strong> <strong>farm</strong>er participati<strong>on</strong>. This was<br />
because, the tail e\1d BFA did not face water scarcity.<br />
The above studies point to the ineffectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
BFAs in Kerala's irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. Moreover, whatever organisati<strong>on</strong>s have<br />
been <strong>for</strong>med, they remained to be associati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> academic importance <strong>on</strong> paper.<br />
For instance, in the Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, as per the CAD report, there were<br />
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465 WUAs as at the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1994-95. Of these associati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>on</strong>ly 43 per cent were<br />
reported to be functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>on</strong> records. Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these associati<strong>on</strong>s have been<br />
<strong>for</strong>med during the period between 1985 <strong>and</strong> 1989 <strong>and</strong> there was no renewal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the registrati<strong>on</strong>s. In the right bank canal system, about 26 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
associati<strong>on</strong>s have been found to be functi<strong>on</strong>ing. In the Kallada project, it was<br />
envisaged to <strong>for</strong>m about 2,500 WUAs by March 1992. The resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>for</strong>ming these WUAs was vested with 31 Agricultural Officers <strong>and</strong> three<br />
Assistant Directors <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture. A review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the progress in f<strong>on</strong>ning the<br />
WUAs, revealed that <strong>on</strong>ly about 260 WUAs had been <strong>for</strong>med by February 1992.<br />
An important aspect with respect to water distributi<strong>on</strong> is that there are<br />
wide differences in water requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different crops in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s. The water distributi<strong>on</strong> plan needs to be flexible so as to cater to the<br />
water requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> both dry as well as wet crops. For instance, the Kallada<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, which is dominated by dry crops, the water requirements are<br />
different in different seas<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Table 7.21: M<strong>on</strong>thly irrigati<strong>on</strong> requirement in Kallada project (in MmJ)<br />
M<strong>on</strong>th/ seas<strong>on</strong> Dry l<strong>and</strong> Wet l<strong>and</strong> Total<br />
% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> maximum<br />
dem<strong>and</strong><br />
Janual}' 57.890 28.234 86.1240 72.32<br />
February 60.980 33.150 94.130 79.05<br />
March 72.740 46.340 119.080 100.00<br />
Aj:>ri I 30.650 15.387 46.037 38.66<br />
M~ 17.900 1.444 19.344 16.24<br />
June 3.00 26.670 29.670 24.92<br />
JulY ---- 12.560 12.560 10.55<br />
August 3.460 25.732 29.192 24.51<br />
September 2.380 35.247 37.627 31.60<br />
October 1.940 21.844 23.784 19.97<br />
November 9.886 34.267 44.153 37.08<br />
December 40.350 62.248 102.59R 86.16<br />
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The pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> actual m<strong>on</strong>thly requirement 26 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water in the<br />
Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> area based <strong>on</strong> the Joint Report <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Project Planning <strong>and</strong><br />
M<strong>on</strong>itoring (PPM) cell <strong>and</strong> the Departments <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture <strong>and</strong> Co-operati<strong>on</strong> has<br />
been given in Table 7.21.<br />
It shows that the water requirement varies across crops <strong>and</strong> seas<strong>on</strong>s. For<br />
instance, the max~mum water dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> dry crops is in the m<strong>on</strong>th <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> March,<br />
whereas, that <strong>for</strong> wet crops, it is in the m<strong>on</strong>th <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> December. In other words, it<br />
implies that the opening <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal <strong>for</strong> irrigating dry crops during the m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> January to March, may cause crop damage in the wet l<strong>and</strong>, because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
water logging problems caused by the canal seepage. It is important to note that<br />
during the six m<strong>on</strong>ths period from January till June (start <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>so<strong>on</strong>) the water<br />
requirement is the highest <strong>for</strong> the dry crops compared to rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the m<strong>on</strong>ths when<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> requirement is very high <strong>for</strong> wet crops, mainly paddy.<br />
However, no canal operati<strong>on</strong>al plans are prepared in advance to supply<br />
<strong>and</strong> regulate water according to the requirements in different seas<strong>on</strong>s. Moreover,<br />
as the existing MCS infrastructure is almost defunct, release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>for</strong> dry<br />
crops is out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
26 The crop water requirements have been computed <strong>for</strong>tnightly <strong>for</strong> the projected<br />
cropping pattern. For computing the field irrigati<strong>on</strong> requirement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy percolati<strong>on</strong><br />
rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6.5 mm / day, 7 mm / day <strong>and</strong> 10 mm / day have been taken <strong>for</strong> loam soil <strong>for</strong><br />
Kharif, Rabi <strong>and</strong> summer seas<strong>on</strong>s respectively. The overall efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 75 per cent<br />
has been taken <strong>for</strong> arriving at the irrigati<strong>on</strong> requirements at the canal head assuming 84<br />
per cent c<strong>on</strong>veyance efficiency (the entire distributi<strong>on</strong> system being lined) <strong>and</strong> field<br />
efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 90 per cent. Since the system is lined <strong>and</strong> improved system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>veyance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> (through MCS) is effected <strong>and</strong> because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
319
The water requirement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crops grown in Peechi project also indicates<br />
the wide differences between m<strong>on</strong>ths <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the year as shown in table 7.22.<br />
Table 7.22: Annual water requirements in Peechi project<br />
Total<br />
M<strong>on</strong>th requirement Wet crops (%) Dry crops (%)<br />
! (Cu.m)<br />
January 64.34 36.18 63.82<br />
February 354.08 87.66 12.34<br />
March 440.96 88.37 11.63<br />
April 337.71 84.17 15.83<br />
May 62.57 0.00 100.00<br />
September 8.27 100.00 0.00<br />
October 181.68 96.31 3.69<br />
November 193.38 96.65 3.35<br />
December 177.22 96.03 3.97<br />
Total 1820.21 85.04 14.96<br />
The table. shows that the dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> water is high <strong>for</strong> dry crops <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
during the m<strong>on</strong>ths <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> January <strong>and</strong> May. During the rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the year, the water<br />
dem<strong>and</strong> from wet crops is in the range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 84 to 96 per cent.<br />
Like elsewhere in the country, there is no incentive to use water<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omically <strong>and</strong> no punishment <strong>for</strong> excessive <strong>and</strong> wasteful use. For, water<br />
pricing is based <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong> area <strong>and</strong> crop basis. Farmers show hardly any interest in<br />
efficient <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. The problems related to water distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> use are compounded by n<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD at the field level due to the<br />
wide range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>and</strong> problems reported in the <strong>for</strong>egoing.<br />
In many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects coming under CADA, the field channels<br />
are not c<strong>on</strong>structed, or left incomplete. The cost estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works, as<br />
undulating topography, 75 per cent efficiency is expected to be realised after a few<br />
year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system in a scientific manner.<br />
320
eported by CADA <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials, have to be necessarily c<strong>on</strong><strong>for</strong>med to the norms <strong>and</strong><br />
guidelines stipulated by the Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India. But due to the special<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s prevailing in Kerala, such as undulating topography. high cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> high cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> transportati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials, high lahour<br />
charges, high density <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong>, etc., it is not possible to cover the targeted<br />
area with the given investment allocati<strong>on</strong>. As a result, some ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
project will be left without OFD works, even after spending the full amount<br />
allotted to a project as per norms <strong>for</strong> coverage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the entire ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> that project.<br />
The discussi<strong>on</strong> so far reveals that the awareness levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers about<br />
the need <strong>for</strong> <strong>and</strong> importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD are fairly high. However, its progress at the<br />
<strong>farm</strong> level is not up to the expected levels. The complexities <strong>and</strong> dynamics<br />
related to the design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects, cropping pattern envisaged <strong>and</strong> realised,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> networks, crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequent changes in water balance <strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong> are wide <strong>and</strong> varied. The<br />
important instituti<strong>on</strong>al, socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic, technical <strong>and</strong> management related<br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints noticed in the <strong>development</strong>, distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
water resources in Kerala call <strong>for</strong> a judicious plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
sector. It is more so because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the changing scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural<br />
<strong>development</strong> in the state. The effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> planning, however,<br />
depends up<strong>on</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ground realities associated with crop based<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use dynamics in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>and</strong> its implicati<strong>on</strong>s in efficient<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources. A n<strong>on</strong>-c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al approach to irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector<br />
<strong>development</strong> may prove to be a feasible propositi<strong>on</strong>, taking into account the<br />
agro-c1imatic as well as ecological variables, wherein irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are<br />
situated.<br />
321
OFDEXP 1,000 -0.241" 0.878" 0.089 0.656· • -0,042 -0,091 0,109 -0.040 -0.167"<br />
LOCATION -0,241 1.000 ·().IS3" 0,025 -0.116 -0,157' 0.124 0,132' -0,019 0.047<br />
PADCONVERT 0,878" -0.153- 1.000 0.164 • 0.596' - 0.003 ·0,046 o 158 -0,028 -0,151-<br />
GWEXT 0.089 0.025 0.164' 1.000 0.071 0.068 ·0,053 0.331'· 0,051 -0,028<br />
HOLDS1ZE 0,656-· -0.116 0.596" 0.071 1.000 0.466" -0,132' 0,100 ·0.010 -0.099<br />
RUI3SHARE -0,042 -0.157' 0,003 0,068 0.466·· 1,000 -0,139· 0119 -0.()21 0.109<br />
MCS -0.091 0,124 -0.046 -0.053 -0.132· -0,139- \.000 0,027 0,066 0.073<br />
PUMSET 0.109 0,132- 0.158' 0.331" 0.100 0.119 0,027 1,000 0.098 0.017<br />
OCSTATUS -0.040 -0.019 -0,028 0,051 -0.010 -0.021 0,066 0,098 1,000 0,018<br />
AGE -0.167- 0.047 -0.151· -0.028 -0,099 0.109 0.073 0,017 0.018 1000<br />
• Correlati<strong>on</strong> IS significant at 5 per cent level.; " Correlati<strong>on</strong> IS Significant at 1 per cent leve1.<br />
Appi'nd ix: 7.1: Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between various parameters (inter-correlati<strong>on</strong> matrix) - Kallada<br />
. Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Project . , .<br />
Variable.l OFDEXP LOCATl PADCON GWEXT HOLD SIZE RUB- MCS PUMSET OCSTATUS AGE<br />
(n = 200)<br />
ON<br />
SHARE<br />
322
Appendix 7.2: Paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> in study villages in Kallada project (%)<br />
Village<br />
Enadimangalarn<br />
Ezhamkularn<br />
Kodurn<strong>on</strong><br />
Kulasekharapuram<br />
Koodal<br />
Kunnathoor<br />
Mvnagappallv<br />
Nooranad<br />
Pallickal<br />
Palamd<br />
P<strong>and</strong>alam Theckckara<br />
Peringanadu<br />
Pirvanthoor<br />
Punnala<br />
Sooranad North<br />
Sooranad South<br />
Tharnarakularn<br />
Thazha\'a<br />
Theck umbra<br />
Vallikunnarn<br />
Total<br />
Nole: # Percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wet area.<br />
Source. Sample Survey<br />
Wet area (%)<br />
40.38<br />
13.33<br />
26.67<br />
18.75<br />
45.54<br />
25.11<br />
15.63<br />
16.45<br />
24.19<br />
32.81<br />
20.99<br />
19.73<br />
30.90<br />
28.31<br />
27.29<br />
14.73<br />
6.53<br />
29.76<br />
25.95<br />
12.94<br />
22.65<br />
Drv area (%) .----<br />
Paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>verted (%)#<br />
59.62 45.92<br />
86.67 66.67<br />
73.33 55.00<br />
81.25 50.51<br />
54.46 36.96<br />
74.89 54.16<br />
84.37 35.38<br />
83.55 35.71<br />
.<br />
.--.-<br />
75.81 77.78<br />
67.19 50.10<br />
79.01 48.78<br />
80.27 39.22<br />
69.10 45.80<br />
71.69 86.84<br />
72.71 42.40<br />
85.27 46.27<br />
93.47 68.81<br />
-<br />
70.24 55.00<br />
74.05 51.43<br />
87.06 46.61<br />
77.35 49.87<br />
323
Chaplc'r S<br />
Summary <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
three distinct. but c<strong>on</strong>tinuuu~<br />
phases. llal
d,l!llS in the post-independence pcriod. the prodU(llOn uf lood graIns had<br />
increased from 51 milli<strong>on</strong> l<strong>on</strong>ne~ in 1950-51 to 20X milllOll t<strong>on</strong>nes in 2000.<br />
Almost 60 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the t(ltal food gr,lins producti<strong>on</strong> comes irrigated t;mning.<br />
The benefits from irrigati<strong>on</strong> an:. however. saId to be l1\lt up to the<br />
expected levels <strong>and</strong> in the desired directi<strong>on</strong>. For example. the p[(lductivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
crops has been well below the desirahle levels. the irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created<br />
has not been utilised fully. envir<strong>on</strong>mcl1tal problems. like waterlogging. salinitv<br />
<strong>and</strong> alkalinity have been increasing. income inequalities arising out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
inequitable distributi<strong>on</strong> water have been <strong>on</strong> the increase. hesides a numher <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water related litigati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> problems in rural areas. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the increasing<br />
externalities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>. particularlv. from major <strong>and</strong> medium irrIgatI<strong>on</strong>. the<br />
\'ery de\e1opmental thrust <strong>on</strong> irrigati\ln In the successive plan pCrI\)ds is heing<br />
subjected to questi<strong>on</strong>able validity.<br />
A<br />
wide range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> social. ec<strong>on</strong>omIc. techmcal. organisati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong><br />
managerial factors have been identified as resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> the alleged<br />
inefficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. Improper or lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> On-Farm Development.<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g others. was found to he a major factor affecting adversel: the efficil'l1t<br />
<strong>and</strong> productive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> "ater al the <strong>farm</strong> level. Though DFD was <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the malor<br />
objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA. it has not been implemented successfully. This study.<br />
there<strong>for</strong>e, aims at examining the status. progress <strong>and</strong> problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong> costs <strong>and</strong> return, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ing.<br />
325
The empirical studies <strong>on</strong> th.: ec<strong>on</strong>(1mics .,f !)fD have by <strong>and</strong> large<br />
followed a c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al analytical approach underlined by the nco-classical<br />
perspective, c<strong>on</strong>fining mostly to the analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the -:osts <strong>and</strong> returns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the resultant water use efficien.:} at the system level. While<br />
explaining the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO. the researchers tend to<br />
ignore various n<strong>on</strong>-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors as well as the technical. instituti<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
financial <strong>and</strong> other c<strong>on</strong>straints in the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OfO. More<br />
importantly, there are growing evidences suggesting that the instituti<strong>on</strong>al Issues<br />
al<strong>on</strong>e could better explain the sub-optimal per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems,<br />
These instituti<strong>on</strong>al issues <strong>and</strong> \'arious other operatIOnal c<strong>on</strong>straints interact<br />
simultaneously both at the system level as \\ell as at the <strong>farm</strong> level. Moreover.<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>tradicti<strong>on</strong>s in the mterests <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the stakeholders aiso need to he addressed.<br />
The <strong>farm</strong>ers who an: the maJor stakeholders <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. are diverse in<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource endowments <strong>and</strong> attitudes, It may, there<strong>for</strong>e be. not easy to<br />
ensure rati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
behaviour am<strong>on</strong>g them to use water ec<strong>on</strong>omically <strong>and</strong><br />
productively <strong>for</strong> a given cropping system. Rati<strong>on</strong>ality being <strong>farm</strong>er/ <strong>farm</strong> as well<br />
as regi<strong>on</strong> specitic. mere provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure may not by itself<br />
induce <strong>farm</strong>ers to observe rali<strong>on</strong>ality while moving from the existing plane <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
resource allocati<strong>on</strong> (which he c<strong>on</strong>siders optimal) to a higher plane <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource<br />
allocati<strong>on</strong>, under the gIven resource endowment.<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints.<br />
. .<br />
SOCIO-ec<strong>on</strong>omlc<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
The applicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the above logic c)J' ratlOnalit\ to irrigati<strong>on</strong> induced<br />
agricultural <strong>development</strong>. may kad to the emergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> two possible scenarios.<br />
One is that the <strong>farm</strong>er c<strong>on</strong>tinues to operate in a sub-optimal c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource<br />
326
all(lcatioll ill the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>
perennial cash crops is an outward expn:ssi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the peas am rati<strong>on</strong>alit: •. !1 ma~<br />
be argued that this decisi<strong>on</strong> process induced the <strong>farm</strong>er to move <strong>on</strong> l
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. Th;; stud) was framcd in such a way as to cover the entire<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in Kerala. comm<strong>and</strong>ed hy major irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. Since there<br />
are no studies which have comprehensively covered all the issues related to<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> agriculture de\t:lopment in the state. a modest attempt has he en<br />
made to examine its complex nature in this study.<br />
The basic objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study were to: (i) analyse the trends in<br />
investment in irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure devclopment in Kerala <strong>and</strong> its impact <strong>on</strong><br />
agricultural <strong>development</strong>: (ii) to critically examine the instituti<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong><br />
organisati<strong>on</strong>al strategies in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s to accomplish scientific On<strong>farm</strong><br />
Development <strong>and</strong> water management practices: (iii) to assess the impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
OFO <strong>on</strong> yield <strong>and</strong> income <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s: \iv) to examine<br />
the factors determining adopti<strong>on</strong> or n<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in irrigati<strong>on</strong> project,:<br />
<strong>and</strong> (v) to bring out the instItuti<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al level c<strong>on</strong>straints in the<br />
<strong>development</strong>. distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The limited availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> reliable sec<strong>on</strong>dary sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong><br />
pertaining to the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects at the state level. was the main c<strong>on</strong>straint <strong>for</strong><br />
analysing the problems at the macro level. For the micro level indepth study. two<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. viz .. Kallada <strong>and</strong> Peechi. situated in the Kollam <strong>and</strong> Thrissur<br />
districts respectively have been selected.<br />
A sample <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 200 <strong>farm</strong>ers from the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project <strong>and</strong> I 15<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers from the Peechi Irrigati<strong>on</strong> project have been selected <strong>for</strong> the study hased<br />
<strong>on</strong> r<strong>and</strong>om jampling. The two irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects represer..l diverse socioec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
as well as agro-climatic setting. including topography. Also. they are<br />
329
different in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the wurk as well a, the designed cropptng<br />
pattern. While Peechi project is a completed scheme. Kallada is an <strong>on</strong>-gotng<br />
project with an unproductive lag <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> more than three decades. The projects are<br />
also different in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> technical design. For instance. while the Peechi<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> project is a c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al paddy oriented irrigati<strong>on</strong> system. the Kallada<br />
project is the <strong>on</strong>ly project in the country technically designed <strong>for</strong> irrigating tree<br />
crops <strong>and</strong> the project is other wise known as the Kallada Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tree Crop<br />
Development Project (Kl &<br />
TCDP). Water distributi<strong>on</strong> systems are also<br />
different. While in Peeehi. it is through open canal system (OCS). in Kallada. it<br />
is a combinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> underground pipeline system [called the Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance<br />
System (MCS)) <strong>and</strong> open canal system.<br />
The reference year <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study was 1997-9li agriculture year <strong>and</strong> the data<br />
collecti<strong>on</strong> has been d<strong>on</strong>e during December 1998 to April 1999. The in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong><br />
gathered was pertaining to previous crop seas<strong>on</strong>s. viz .. autumn. winter <strong>and</strong><br />
summer crops <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy. The qualitative in<strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong><br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints have been gathered through in<strong>for</strong>mal meetings with<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> enlightened pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> local leaders.<br />
The study is organised into eight chapters. An overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the history <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in India <strong>and</strong> KeraIa are attempted in chapter <strong>on</strong>e,<br />
followed by a comprehensive review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies <strong>on</strong> various aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in India. especially the studies pertaining to <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in<br />
Chapter two. Chapter three c<strong>on</strong>tains the research design. Chapter four provides a<br />
brief outline <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study area <strong>and</strong> sample holdings. Chapter Ii ve attempts a<br />
comprehensive analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in Kerala. The<br />
330
comparative COSI .:c<strong>on</strong>omlcs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD is attempted in chapt.:r SIX. The major<br />
determinants <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints in the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD at the <strong>farm</strong> level are<br />
discussed in detail in chapter seven. followed by c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> in chapter eight.<br />
An analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the status. problems <strong>and</strong><br />
prospects or irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in the state brings out several c<strong>on</strong>trasting insights. Irrigati<strong>on</strong> has<br />
been <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the major priority areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>development</strong> in the post-independence<br />
period. Irrigati<strong>on</strong> in the state was mostly c<strong>on</strong>fined to c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large dams<br />
across the rivers mainly <strong>for</strong> the cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy, the staple food crop <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
state. unlike other southern states where majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects are designed<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly <strong>for</strong> protective irrigati<strong>on</strong> where semi-dry crops have to be cultivated.<br />
Accordingly. more than 60 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plan outlays hav.: been earmarked <strong>for</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large-scale canal based irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems during most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plan<br />
periods. The cumulative investment <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> till the end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1998-99 was Rs. 25 I 0 crores, out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which Rs. 1736 crores (about 70%) <strong>for</strong><br />
major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects.<br />
There are 29 major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. besides numerous<br />
minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> works, including ground water <strong>and</strong> lift irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes. Of the<br />
29 majorl medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes. 14 are completed <strong>and</strong> 15 schemes are<br />
under various stages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> or completi<strong>on</strong>. While the completed.<br />
schemes have created an irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 181363 ha., the partially<br />
commissi<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>-going irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are expected to generate a<br />
potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ~65370<br />
ha. <strong>on</strong> completi<strong>on</strong> Thus the total irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential<br />
expected to be generated through the majorl medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the<br />
state would be a little under half a milli<strong>on</strong> ha.<br />
331
Regi<strong>on</strong>al imbalances in irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> are very c<strong>on</strong>spicuous. For<br />
example. 10 out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14 (72 %) completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are located in<br />
Palakkad <strong>and</strong> Thrissur districts. The skewed distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects<br />
needs to be explained in tenns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the specitic objective <strong>for</strong> which the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
schemes have been designed in the state. Since the objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major <strong>and</strong><br />
medium projects is to provide irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> paddy. thc projects might have been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrated where agro-c1imatie c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are more c<strong>on</strong>ducive <strong>for</strong> paddy<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>siderable investment in the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major!<br />
medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems. the potential created <strong>and</strong> utilised is neither<br />
commensurate with the scale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> investment made nor In terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area expansi<strong>on</strong><br />
as targeted under various plans. The area brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong> upto 1998-99<br />
including minor irrigati<strong>on</strong> has been 4.45 lakh ha. (net) <strong>and</strong> 7.25 lakh ha. (gross).<br />
The overall scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector, particularly major <strong>and</strong><br />
medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state indicate grave mismatch between<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> actual realisati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major <strong>and</strong> medium irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector measured 111<br />
terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential created has been 79 per cent in the case ot<br />
completed schemes <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly less than 22 per cent in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>-going<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes, with an overall rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> less than 47 per cent. On<br />
the other. the problems such as cost <strong>and</strong> time O\'er runs. caused by enormous<br />
delays in completi<strong>on</strong>. have been assuming alarming proporti<strong>on</strong>s. While the cost<br />
escalati<strong>on</strong> in nominal terms has been 611 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes. it was 1633 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going schemes. The<br />
332
time lag involved in completi<strong>on</strong> uf the schemes was 19 years <strong>on</strong> an average in the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed schemes. However. the magnitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> unproductive lag appears<br />
to be enormous in the <strong>on</strong>-going schemes <strong>and</strong> is almost double that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
completed schemes, with an an:rage lag <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 23.6 years. Menti<strong>on</strong> may be made <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Kallada <strong>and</strong> Kanjirapuzha schemes that have already completed 38 years<br />
without any substantial benefit to speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The cost per hectare <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
potential created under completed schemes was Rs. 1.39 lakhs <strong>on</strong> an average.<br />
Whereas, in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going schemes, it was more than rupees <strong>on</strong>e lakh in 9<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 15 schemes. It is important to note that this expenditure has remained as<br />
sunk capital in the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any commensurate additi<strong>on</strong> to migated area.<br />
The physical <strong>and</strong> financial per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>going<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects points to the phenomen<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> gross under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
potential to the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 35 to 45 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed<br />
projects <strong>and</strong> almost 78 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>going schemes. Surprisingly, in<br />
I lout <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 projects, no potential was created yet, in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> massive flow <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
investment over the last two decades <strong>and</strong> more.<br />
An analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the trends In the financial expenditure <strong>and</strong> physical<br />
achievement in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>-going irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <strong>for</strong> the period \970-71<br />
to \999-2000 shows that during 1979-80, major chunk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total investment<br />
earmarked <strong>for</strong> <strong>on</strong>going irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects has g<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>for</strong> four projects, viz.,<br />
Kuttiadi (23 to 32 %), followed by Periyar Valley (18-27 %), Pamba (\8-21 %)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pazhassi pruject (11-18 %). From 1980-81 <strong>on</strong>wards. the trend has, however,<br />
changed in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada. Periyar Valley <strong>and</strong> Mmattupuzha valley projects.<br />
The percentage share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kallada in the total investment has increased from 21<br />
333
per cent in 1980-81 to 42 per ~ent in 1998-99, followed by further jump to 70 per<br />
cent in 1999-2000. This has resulteJ in thin spread <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> financial resources am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the remaining projects.<br />
The trends in ph~ sical achie\"L'mcnt show that irrigated area expansi<strong>on</strong> has<br />
ta~cn<br />
place <strong>on</strong>ly in four protccts. \ iz.. Periyar Valley, Pamha. Kallada <strong>and</strong><br />
Kuttiadi. Thcre was no potential ~rcated<br />
in five irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. VIZ.,<br />
\lu\atlUpul.ha valle\". Idamalayar. Karapuzha, Meenachil Rivcr valley <strong>and</strong><br />
('hamravattom. inspltc <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>siderahk tinancial invcstment over the years.<br />
As re\ eat.:d h\ the l<strong>and</strong> usc statistics in Kerala, the net sown area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
state has incr.:ascd h\ ahout :;2 per cent frpm I n milli<strong>on</strong> ha. in 19:i~ to ~.27<br />
miliulIl ha III 1997. \\hile the gnmth In nct Irrigated area in the st:.lte \\as <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
9.R7 per cent p\ er tlllle I he cwppinc Intensity has increased from II R pcr ccnt<br />
to I:; I per ccnt. \dllch IS dhovc the natipnal a\'cragc Howevcr. the high nopping<br />
intensity In the state mJ\ not he a purc effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Because, most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
projects represent Im\ Irrigati<strong>on</strong> ratios as well as the specific l<strong>and</strong> use pattern <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the state. characterised hy predominance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> plantati<strong>on</strong> crops with high density<br />
planting.<br />
Though the ,tatlstics <strong>on</strong> net Irrq,!a\(:d arL'~1 <strong>and</strong> inl
the state has increased by about 46 per cent during the period 1952-1 'N7. net<br />
irrigated area increased <strong>on</strong>ly by less than 10 per cent. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> net<br />
irrigated area is almost stagnant at 15 per cent since the 1990s. In sharp c<strong>on</strong>trast,<br />
the source-wise irrigated area indicates wide variati<strong>on</strong> between area under canals<br />
<strong>and</strong> other sources, especially wells. While the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area under canal<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> marked sharp decline from 46 per cent in 1952 to below 30 per cent in<br />
1997, the area irrigated by wells has increased by 108 per cent during 1980-1997.<br />
This essentially brings out the growing mismatch between capital investment <strong>for</strong><br />
canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> activities <strong>and</strong> the corresp<strong>on</strong>ding area expansi<strong>on</strong> in the state.<br />
II is important 10 nOle Ihal the projects were exclusively designed <strong>for</strong><br />
culti\ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> padd). But in reality. crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> has laken place un a<br />
larger scale <strong>and</strong> the area under paddy declined over lime. There was also a<br />
remarkabk decline in area unda crops. such as tapioca (cassava) <strong>and</strong> pulses over<br />
the period 1960-61 to 1997-98. While the area under paddy <strong>and</strong> tapioca have<br />
..<br />
declined by almost by 50 per cent, that under pulses declined by about 66 per<br />
cent. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the area under rubber has increased by 243 per cent,<br />
followed by arecanul. 202 per cent. banana 82 per cent. pepper 81 per cent <strong>and</strong><br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut (77 %). While the area under other crops such as ginger <strong>and</strong> tea were<br />
almost stagnating. it was fluctuating in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cashew <strong>and</strong> c<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fee. It is<br />
noteworthy that area under food crops cashew <strong>and</strong> c<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fee was highly fluctuating.<br />
Subsequently, while the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area under food crops declined from 49 per cent<br />
in 1975 to 25 per cenl in 199R. <strong>and</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-food/ commercial crops increased<br />
from 51 per cent to 75 per cent during the same period.<br />
335
, .<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy field, <strong>for</strong> agricultural <strong>and</strong> nun-agricultural uses<br />
has been widely debated in the statc. An important finding is that paddy is<br />
rcplaced by coc<strong>on</strong>ut in some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dIstricts in the state. The c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s into coc<strong>on</strong>ut gardens is a gradual process. wherein two indigenous means<br />
are involved. The c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> usc <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields tor purposes other than<br />
crop cultivati<strong>on</strong> has greater implicati<strong>on</strong>s in so far as the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irri!!ati<strong>on</strong> water is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerned. One <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important reas<strong>on</strong>s tor paddy l<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> is the decline<br />
in per-capita availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> arable l<strong>and</strong> even in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. The ayacut<br />
c<strong>on</strong>verted (mainly paddy area) tor n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural uses c<strong>on</strong>stitute about 15 per<br />
cent in the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ayacut area c<strong>on</strong>verted<br />
<strong>for</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural uses across the comm<strong>and</strong> areas ranged between II per cent<br />
In the Neyyar project to 24.73 per cent in the Karapuzha scheme. A sample<br />
SUf\ey c<strong>on</strong>du~ted in eight completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in the state has revealed<br />
that 19 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers have c<strong>on</strong>verted their paddy fields permanently.<br />
The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area c<strong>on</strong>verted was the highest in the Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> project<br />
as 56 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers reported to have c<strong>on</strong>verted their paddy fields <strong>and</strong><br />
the area c<strong>on</strong>verted was 44 per cent. In the Chalakudy scheme. 43 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers have c<strong>on</strong>verted <strong>and</strong> the paddy area c<strong>on</strong>verted was 39 per cent.<br />
In the light <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this emerging scenario, it has to be tested, may be <strong>on</strong> an<br />
experimental basis; whether rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the physical infrastructure <strong>for</strong> water<br />
d~stributi<strong>on</strong><br />
followed by assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water will influence the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
dCClsi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> crop divcrsificati<strong>on</strong>. therd" arresting the c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy areas.<br />
It appears that even such experiments have very little impact <strong>on</strong> the process, in<br />
view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comparative pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability as well as the less labour intensity in the<br />
336
cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial crops. This is evidenced by the c<strong>on</strong>siderable decline <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
almost 20 per cent in the area under sec<strong>on</strong>d crop (Mundakan) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy in seven<br />
taluks comm<strong>and</strong>ed by major irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects during 1974-75 to 1986-87.<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the taluks, the highest decline reported was in Neyyattinkara taluk<br />
comm<strong>and</strong>ed by the Neyyar irrigati<strong>on</strong> project (46%), followed by Peechi in<br />
Thrissur (36 %), <strong>and</strong> Malampuzha project in Chittur (23 %). The major reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
attributed <strong>for</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields are: a) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability, b) n<strong>on</strong>availability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour <strong>and</strong> high wage rates; c) n<strong>on</strong>-availability <strong>and</strong> scarcity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water: d) water logging in the paddy fields; e) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interest am<strong>on</strong>g the younger<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>s; <strong>and</strong> f) the declining operati<strong>on</strong>al size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy fields.<br />
The l<strong>and</strong> utilisati<strong>on</strong> pattern as reported by the CADA in the ayacuts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects need further examinati<strong>on</strong> to arrive at realistic<br />
estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the current status. The CAD statistics has to be interpreted with<br />
cauti<strong>on</strong>. It is reported that 70 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects are under paddy, followed by coc<strong>on</strong>ut (47 %). But the ground realities<br />
are different. For example, the paddy area reported as irrigated included the gross<br />
area cultivated during the first. sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>and</strong> third crop seas<strong>on</strong>s thus glvmg an<br />
impressi<strong>on</strong> that the decline is paddy area is not much. While irrigati<strong>on</strong> is required<br />
mostly <strong>for</strong> the sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>and</strong> third crops <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy, the first crop is also err<strong>on</strong>eously<br />
taken as canal irrigated. Thus, the gross area anticipated to be irrigated by the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects is taken as actual irrigated area.<br />
Further. it is reported that the area under coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> banana has<br />
increased in the completed, which may not be true in view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>straints in<br />
technical design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects, which do not allow irrigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other crops. To<br />
337
elahorate this argument further. it may be noted that the method <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field to field<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> is the existing practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> followed in case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy <strong>and</strong><br />
water courses have not been c<strong>on</strong>nected to individual plots. Field to field<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> is not possihle <strong>for</strong> garcen l<strong>and</strong> crops. such as coc<strong>on</strong>ut. since upper plots<br />
will be completely inundated. The irrigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these crops requires substantial<br />
investment <strong>for</strong> redesigning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the watercourses <strong>and</strong> corresp<strong>on</strong>ding <strong>farm</strong> level<br />
Investments by the <strong>farm</strong>ers. However. the local field level dynamics need further<br />
scrutiny.<br />
The trends in the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important crops in the gross irrigated area.<br />
h.owevef.<br />
lends support to the argument that irrigated paddy fields have been<br />
gradually c<strong>on</strong>\ erted into wc<strong>on</strong>ut. arecanut <strong>and</strong> banana to some extent <strong>on</strong> account<br />
Llf the irrigallDn facilities a\ailable. It is no doubt that the <strong>farm</strong>ers are guided<br />
more by comparative protitability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternate crops than the assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water per Sf. The pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability ratios <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> those crops are much higher than paddy.<br />
For instance. the estimates based <strong>on</strong> productivity <strong>and</strong> prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> important crops<br />
during 1997 show that the gross income realised from paddy per ha. is equivalent<br />
to <strong>on</strong>ly 13 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the income from arecanut. 10 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> banana. 22 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tapioca. 44 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut. 21 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber <strong>and</strong> 8 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
horticulture crops. In spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the average productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy increasing in the<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> areas, the relative pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability is less. But the reported increase in<br />
average productivity may be explained in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> marginal l<strong>and</strong> going out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> nl)t the productivity increase per sc. In the given scenario.<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the otherwise limited paddy in the state could be sustained <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
338
through the effective implementatiClIl <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>holdings. group<br />
<strong>farm</strong> management <strong>and</strong> assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water during summer.<br />
The problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> under-utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential as well as time<br />
<strong>and</strong> cost Clver runs are some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important Issues relating to irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>development</strong> in any regIOn. including Kerala. Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important reglOnspecific<br />
factors adversely affecting the irrigati<strong>on</strong> per<strong>for</strong>mance in Kerala may be<br />
explained in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical features. socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors as well as the<br />
political interests. The physical features include the undulating terrain <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. <strong>and</strong> high rainfall intensity causing damages to the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
structures. These two factJrs have erippling effect <strong>on</strong> the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
dC\elopmcn! Thc socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic !actors leading to cost escalatiCln <strong>and</strong> time<br />
over runs include: (a) substantial declIne in area under paddy in the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s. (bl perceptible change ill crupping path:rn in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainfed <strong>and</strong><br />
pnennial cash crups. (c) rise in costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong>. labour <strong>and</strong> material involved in the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal systems. (d) disproporti<strong>on</strong>ate rise in establishment<br />
expenditure in irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes, (e) change in design! alignment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal<br />
systems. <strong>and</strong> (I) l<strong>and</strong> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> aligning canals <strong>and</strong> the earthwork involved.<br />
The political rall<strong>on</strong>ale behind the de\e1opment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the post<br />
II1dependence era was to ensure balanced regi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>development</strong>. The rent seeking<br />
behaviour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> bureaucracy, lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>al approach in appropriate<br />
<strong>and</strong> realistic planning has resulted in huge unproductive expenditure in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
claims <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tractors <strong>and</strong> other agencies in\'olvcd. Unprokssi<strong>on</strong>alism <strong>and</strong> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
accountability is reflected in the avoidable expenditure incurred <strong>on</strong>: (a) extra<br />
expenditure due to delay in communicallng acceptance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenders; (b) extra<br />
339
expenditure due to change <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> specificati<strong>on</strong>i defective estimati<strong>on</strong>: (c I n<strong>on</strong>recovery<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> advances, cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials from c<strong>on</strong>tractors: (d) extra expenditure<br />
due to departmental delays: (e) defective <strong>for</strong>mati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal systems: (vi) change<br />
in scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scheme in the course <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> executi<strong>on</strong>: <strong>and</strong> (f) irregular additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
payment <strong>for</strong> earthwork excavati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The rise in factor costs, namely, l<strong>and</strong>, labour <strong>and</strong> materials also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed to cost escalati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. Since the opportunity Cllst llf<br />
l<strong>and</strong> is high in Kerala due to the high density <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong> as well as agricultural<br />
<strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural dem<strong>and</strong>, l<strong>and</strong> has become an important asset rather than<br />
input in the agricultural producti<strong>on</strong> process. This resulted in high transacti<strong>on</strong> cost<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> even in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas. The rise in labour costs as well as material<br />
costs have been substantial in nominal terms. While wages increased almost 2 to<br />
3 times across categories during the period between 1960 <strong>and</strong> 1999. the material<br />
costs also have increased. Maximum rise in costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials has been noticed in<br />
the prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<strong>and</strong> (11199 %), bricks (7900 %) <strong>and</strong> cement (2245 %) during the<br />
entire period.<br />
Another important source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost escalati<strong>on</strong> has been the abnormal rise in<br />
revenue (establishment) expenditure. According to the norms fixed by ewe in<br />
September 1990, the establishment expenditure in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects should not<br />
to exceed 15 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the capital expenditure including expenditure <strong>on</strong><br />
investigati<strong>on</strong>. But. it was found that establishment expenditure has been more<br />
than the stipulated norm <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 per cent in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> eight irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes. It<br />
ranges from as high as 78 per cent in Meenachil project to 57 per cent in<br />
Chamravattom. Am<strong>on</strong>g the projects, the escalati<strong>on</strong> in revenue expenditure has<br />
340
een the highest in Kallada project at 5666 per cent against escalati<strong>on</strong> in capital<br />
expenditure, ie., 3148 per cent. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pamba irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. the<br />
escalati<strong>on</strong> in revenue expenditure has been 4171 per cent compared to 1432 per<br />
cent escalati<strong>on</strong> in capital expenditure. Only in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kakkadavu irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
project that the capital expenditure exceeded revenue expenditure by more than<br />
three times. Thus, the disproporti<strong>on</strong>ate increase in revenue expenditure might<br />
have affected the actual <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential.<br />
The negative externalities in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adverse effects <strong>on</strong> soli like<br />
waterlogging, salinity <strong>and</strong> alkalinity have been widely reported in some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. A realistic estimate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems are yet to<br />
be made. These problems not <strong>on</strong>ly make the l<strong>and</strong> unfit <strong>for</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong> but also<br />
entail huge cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> reclamati<strong>on</strong>. For instance, in the Kuttiadi comm<strong>and</strong> area,<br />
about 64 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the original ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14568.70 ha. has been degraded <strong>and</strong><br />
became less productive. Timely measures to reclaim could have saved about 41<br />
per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> area which has been degraded. The waterlogged area<br />
unfit <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> has been 19.46 per cent, followed by area left unirrigated due<br />
to lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels (2.6 %) <strong>and</strong> unec<strong>on</strong>omic holdings (1.16%).<br />
Sedimentati<strong>on</strong> problems have also been found in some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reservoirs.<br />
For instance, the original capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Malampuzha reservoir was 228.40<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> cU.m, according to the project report, which, later<strong>on</strong>, has declined to<br />
220.15 milli<strong>on</strong> cU.m as a result <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sedimentati<strong>on</strong>. In Peechi, average annual<br />
sedimentati<strong>on</strong> rate has been 0.91 per cent, higher than that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sedimentati<strong>on</strong><br />
rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 0.25 per cent found in Malampuzha project.<br />
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The overall per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> agriculture <strong>development</strong> in<br />
Kerala took many twists <strong>and</strong> turns in successive plan periods. Reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> it are<br />
wide <strong>and</strong> varied, covering technical. managerial, social, political <strong>and</strong><br />
bureaucratic, besides agro-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental issues.<br />
The implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works under the Comm<strong>and</strong> Area<br />
Development (CAD) programme in the completed irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects has been<br />
slow <strong>and</strong> unscientific, if viewed from the CAD perspectives. The CADA was<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible <strong>for</strong> taking up soil <strong>and</strong> topographical surveys, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field<br />
channels <strong>and</strong> drains with related structures, introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> warab<strong>and</strong>i,<br />
organisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> beneficiary <strong>farm</strong>ers' associati<strong>on</strong>s (SF As), adaptive trials <strong>and</strong><br />
large scale dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> (LSD) <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricutlural practices.<br />
But in reality. implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects In the<br />
state shows that n<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the schemes could achieve physical <strong>and</strong> financial<br />
targets. Even the most important items <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD, viz., field channels <strong>and</strong> drains<br />
have not been completed as envisaged. The achievement in the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
field channels in smaller plots (below 5 ha.) has been very disappointing both in<br />
financial <strong>and</strong> physical terms. The shortfall was attributed by CADA to smallness<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings, as small <strong>farm</strong>ers were reluctant to part with l<strong>and</strong> free <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost <strong>for</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels <strong>and</strong> drains. It was mainly due to the unwillingness<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers to c<strong>on</strong>struct field channels <strong>and</strong> drains as the expenses required<br />
would be more than the nominal loan <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 200 per ha. <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fered by the C ADA <strong>for</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong>.<br />
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It was noticed that am<strong>on</strong>g the various CAD programmes, major thrust was<br />
<strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels <strong>and</strong> drains <strong>and</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
WuruhunJi. which together accounted <strong>for</strong> almost 68 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the total<br />
expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFD. Soil c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>. including l<strong>and</strong> levelling <strong>and</strong> shaping was<br />
carried out in <strong>on</strong>ly 43 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the targeted area. The slow pace was attributed<br />
to the delay in identifying areas <strong>for</strong> l<strong>and</strong> levelling <strong>and</strong> shaping, because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
inadequate staff in the soil c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> wing.<br />
Farmers' training programmes. meant <strong>for</strong> capacity building am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers to take <strong>on</strong> to irrigated <strong>farm</strong>ing have been c<strong>on</strong>ducted cost effectively. The<br />
ratio <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> training programmes to CCA varies from I: 12.8 in Cheerakuzhi project<br />
to I :59.1 in Walayar project. The efficiency in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coverage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> training<br />
programmes seems to be high in relatively smaller projects in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CCA.<br />
This was perhaps d<strong>on</strong>e with a view to improve the efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects with less<br />
CCA. where local dynamics <strong>and</strong> complicati<strong>on</strong>s involving l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> water<br />
"<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management may be relatively less. The number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beneficiary<br />
Farmers Associati<strong>on</strong>s (BFAs) has, however, drastically declined from 479 to<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly 87. Subsidy to small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers also has been declining over<br />
time. which may be to the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interest am<strong>on</strong>g this group to undertake <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s with the subsidy, or, the failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA in disbursing the same.<br />
The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD programmes <strong>on</strong> the crop productivity <strong>and</strong> output (in<br />
value terms) has been found to be quite encouraging. There has been a seven-fold<br />
increase in output (at current prices) after the implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CAD<br />
programmes, which enabled better <strong>and</strong> efficient use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>on</strong> the <strong>farm</strong>.<br />
However, these results need to be interpreted with cauti<strong>on</strong>. Because, the<br />
343
difference is attributed exclusively to CAD programme implementati<strong>on</strong>. which.<br />
in reality may not be correct. The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> other yield-enhancing inputs such as<br />
fertilisers, pesticides, etc. used by the <strong>farm</strong>ers is not brought out. Its impact<br />
across the crops has not been uni<strong>for</strong>m as revealed by the c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> made by<br />
individual crops to the total earnings from <strong>farm</strong>ing.<br />
The productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy in the Peechi comm<strong>and</strong> area has been found to<br />
be higher than the average productivity in the district in the initial years.<br />
However, difference has become marginal over time <strong>and</strong> in some years it as been<br />
even less than the district average during Kharif <strong>and</strong> Rabi seas<strong>on</strong>s. But the yield<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> summer paddy is invariably lower in the comm<strong>and</strong> area than that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
district. This is a paradoxical situati<strong>on</strong>. Because. the yields <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> summer paddy are<br />
generally expected to be higher than in other seas<strong>on</strong>s. because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> better sunshine<br />
<strong>and</strong> other favourable climatic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Moreover. in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water from the irrigati<strong>on</strong> project, the productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy is lesser than the<br />
district average. This shows that mere provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water may not by itself<br />
promote higher productivity unless the supply is timely <strong>and</strong> adequate. The<br />
coefficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> variati<strong>on</strong> (CV) in productivity has been higher in the comm<strong>and</strong><br />
area than at the district level. For instance, the CV in the productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kharif<br />
paddy is 10.9 per cent as against 8.6 per cent in the district. Same is the case with<br />
Rabi <strong>and</strong> summer paddy. The variati<strong>on</strong> in productivity in the ayacut was higher<br />
at 22 per cent compared to Kharif (10.9 %) <strong>and</strong> Rabi (18.7 %) seas<strong>on</strong>s. The<br />
designed discharge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water seems to be not adequate to meet fully the cropwater<br />
requirements, where l<strong>and</strong>s are not levelled <strong>and</strong> developed scientifically.<br />
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The instituti<strong>on</strong>al paradigm evolved under CADA has not been effective<br />
enough to reduce the gap between irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential created <strong>and</strong> utilised<br />
through the scientific adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. A<br />
wide range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> technical <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints have resulted in<br />
unsatisfactory irrigati<strong>on</strong> management, particularly, the delivery <strong>and</strong> equitable<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water at the <strong>farm</strong> level. Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the important reas<strong>on</strong>s leading to<br />
poor per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CADA are: lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources, including timely availability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> credit <strong>and</strong> technical support required <strong>for</strong> OFD works, lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> people's<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> in the programme, etc. Since the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely <strong>and</strong> adequate<br />
supply was a casualty in almost all irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects, <strong>farm</strong>ers have been<br />
reluctant to invest in OFD works, some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which are cost-intensive. Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
proper coordinati<strong>on</strong> between various line departments has been yet :motht::r<br />
problem. The progress in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> improvements <strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
drainage facilities have been meagre <strong>and</strong> so has been the ef<strong>for</strong>t <strong>and</strong> research<br />
involving <strong>and</strong> propagating cropping patterns <strong>and</strong> agricultural practices <strong>for</strong><br />
optimum use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water under the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s prevailing in each irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>. In spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the laudable objectives with which CADA was launched, in<br />
practice, the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the programme proved to be much narrower than<br />
envisaged, focusing largely <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels, introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
.. Warab<strong>and</strong>i" <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> levelling. The subsidy programme meant <strong>for</strong> OFD has<br />
been skewed more in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> medium <strong>and</strong> large <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> small <strong>and</strong><br />
marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers have been totally neglected in the process. The OFD works<br />
undertaken under the CAD have, there<strong>for</strong>e. not been effective in reducing the<br />
345
c<strong>on</strong>veyance loss <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water, improving distributi<strong>on</strong>al efficiency with equity In<br />
almost all the projects.<br />
The prioritisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> programmes have also been<br />
influenced by political <strong>and</strong> local dynamics. According to the government<br />
guidelines <strong>and</strong> orders, <strong>on</strong>ly completed projects should be brought under CAD<br />
programmes. But three partially commissi<strong>on</strong>ed projects, viz., Pamba, Periyar<br />
Valley <strong>and</strong> Kuttiadi were included under the programme since 1992-93 <strong>and</strong> an<br />
amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> about Rs. 26 crores was spent. Obviously, the targeted works in other<br />
projects cannot get adequate funds <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e, their implementati<strong>on</strong> gets<br />
delayed adding further to the alleged inefficiency in irrigati<strong>on</strong> management. The<br />
ad-hoc <strong>and</strong> unscientific way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementing the OFD works. without preparing<br />
systematic project reports <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al plans have led to increase In<br />
transacti<strong>on</strong> costs involved in the programmes. Furthermore, it has also led to<br />
lesser productivity than what was expected. For instance, the mean yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
summer irrigated paddy from dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> plots in four projects, viz., Walayar,<br />
Malampuzha, Peechi <strong>and</strong> Vazhani, was lesser than those from the normal plots.<br />
Such results tend to demotivate <strong>farm</strong>ers from undertaking scientific OFD <strong>and</strong><br />
applicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> optimum doses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> yield-enhancing inputs like fertilisers <strong>and</strong><br />
pesticides. It will have a negative impact <strong>on</strong> modern <strong>farm</strong> technology adopti<strong>on</strong> by<br />
the <strong>farm</strong>ers.<br />
Water Users' Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUAs) are to be gIven subsidy to meet<br />
managerial <strong>and</strong> other operati<strong>on</strong>al costs In the <strong>for</strong>mative years. But, it IS<br />
un<strong>for</strong>tunate that <strong>on</strong>ly 34 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the associati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong>med as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1997 had<br />
received management subsidy. Further, the amount allocated by the government<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India to be released to the <strong>farm</strong>ers to take up<br />
OFD works was not even<br />
disbursed to the <strong>farm</strong>ers. The state government. there<strong>for</strong>e. had to bear the debt<br />
servlcmg charges. Same was the case with subsidy to be given to small <strong>and</strong><br />
marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>for</strong> dIgging wells <strong>and</strong> installing pumpsets to encourage<br />
c<strong>on</strong>junctive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal <strong>and</strong> ground water. Only 22 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the m<strong>on</strong>ey<br />
earmarked <strong>for</strong> the purpose was disbursed. If this programme was properly<br />
implemented. <strong>farm</strong>ers would have resorted to c<strong>on</strong>junctive use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. which<br />
would have helped reducing adverse effects like waterlogging <strong>and</strong> salinity. For.<br />
wells in canal comm<strong>and</strong> areas work as vertical drains to arrest rise in water table.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field channels. an important aspect 0f OFD has been<br />
far behind the expected levels in smaller blocks <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5 ha. <strong>and</strong> less. Farmers from<br />
the smaller blocks have been given loans <strong>for</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structing field channels. The<br />
loan amount is <strong>on</strong>ly nominal (ie.. Rs. 200 per ha.), which is inadequate. Since<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers were unable to mobilise the additi<strong>on</strong>al funds required <strong>for</strong> the purpose,<br />
they did not c<strong>on</strong>struct field channels. It had, there<strong>for</strong>e. adversely affected water<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong>, use <strong>and</strong> management, particularly in smaller plots. This calls <strong>for</strong> a<br />
realistic estimati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> expenditure taking the locati<strong>on</strong>-specific c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s like<br />
topography, slope <strong>and</strong> type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> soils, <strong>for</strong> carrying out OFD works.<br />
Most neglected aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD is the drainage. Depending up<strong>on</strong> the type<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the soil <strong>and</strong> other topographic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, the nature, type <strong>and</strong> extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
drainage works will be decided. This calls <strong>for</strong> systematic <strong>and</strong> scientific survey to<br />
estimate the drainage works. But, it is un<strong>for</strong>tunate that in all the 14 projects<br />
completed, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> March 1998, it was not carried out. With the result, <strong>on</strong>ly 8 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the targeted area identified <strong>for</strong> drainage. was completed by 1997. The<br />
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loan comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 500 per ha. to c<strong>on</strong>struct drainage channels was very<br />
meager <strong>and</strong> does not match with actual requirement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rs. 2500 to 3000 as<br />
reported by the <strong>farm</strong>ers. For instance, the expenditure per ha. at the nati<strong>on</strong>al level<br />
was fixed at Rs. 2500, which was subsequently increased to Rs. 4000 <strong>and</strong><br />
currently to Rs. 6000. Based <strong>on</strong> the Kerala experiences, this norm does not hold<br />
good because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> topographical reas<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Farmers' percepti<strong>on</strong>s about OFD are different from what CADA expects<br />
them to do. The <strong>farm</strong>ers. by <strong>and</strong> large. have understood OFD as merely levelling<br />
the l<strong>and</strong> by filling the gullies <strong>and</strong> other depressi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the field <strong>and</strong> providing<br />
earthen channels be<strong>for</strong>e the release <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. The drastic decline in the size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings <strong>and</strong> uncertainty in getting timely <strong>and</strong> adequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water has made <strong>farm</strong>ers to avoid cost intensive methods necessary <strong>for</strong> scientific<br />
OFO package as promoted by the CAOA. The <strong>farm</strong>ers resorted to undertake<br />
OFO with minimum human labour, some times <strong>on</strong>ly with family labour.<br />
An important positive externality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> in general IS its<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to groundwater recharge. Depending up<strong>on</strong> the intensity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
groundwater recharge <strong>and</strong> its reliability <strong>farm</strong>ers have invested in dugwells <strong>for</strong><br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> purposes. A marked improvement in the groundwater levels in Peechi<br />
comm<strong>and</strong> area has made the <strong>farm</strong>ers to undertake OFD <strong>on</strong> a limited scale, even<br />
though the cost has been high. The cost was particularly more where<br />
groundwater replenishment has been more, because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the installati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pump<br />
sets with higher capacity. However, the small <strong>and</strong> marginal <strong>farm</strong>ers need special<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> in this respect. as many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> them cannot af<strong>for</strong>d to have an independent<br />
pumpset <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> high capacity <strong>and</strong> even if some can af<strong>for</strong>d, it would not be<br />
348
ec<strong>on</strong>omically viable. This underscores the need <strong>for</strong> developing an instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
mechanism to promote water markets in the comm<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
It was noticed that the returns <strong>on</strong> investment in the crops grown in head<br />
<strong>and</strong> middle reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peechi irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects have been high when compared<br />
to those in the tail end. A relatively more assured supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the head <strong>and</strong><br />
middle reaches enable the <strong>farm</strong>ers to apply more doses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> yield-enhancing inputs.<br />
The cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> material inputs per acre <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> banana has been as high as Rs. 4880 in the<br />
head reaches as against Rs. 2717 <strong>and</strong> Rs. 1647, in the middle <strong>and</strong> tail reaches<br />
respectively. Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>for</strong> the tail enders obviously resulted in low input use.<br />
The impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO <strong>on</strong> yields <strong>and</strong> returns has been significant in the<br />
Peechi project. It is noteworthy that the net additi<strong>on</strong>al earnings from crops grown<br />
in the plots with OFO have been more than those without OFO works. Am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the crops. tapioca <strong>and</strong> banana are more pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itable. For instance. the additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
output from the developed plots is 231 per cent more. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> banana, the<br />
productivity in developed plots is higher by 1377 kg. per acre than the<br />
undeveloped plots. The yield differentials are quite perceptible in case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all<br />
other crops. though not as high as in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tapioca <strong>and</strong> banana.<br />
Though rubber is a rainfed crop. its yield has been more in the developed<br />
plots. This has been facilitated by high moisture retenti<strong>on</strong> capacity due to<br />
availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water during summer, coupled with l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong>. The<br />
improved soil moisture status obviously enabled more number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> tapping days<br />
during summer, resulting in higher output.<br />
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_.--_._---<br />
The relative pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itability has been examined by applying the returns to scale<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept as defined in the Cobb-Douglas producti<strong>on</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>. The costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inputs<br />
expressed in rupee terms included OFD expenditure, labour <strong>and</strong> material costs.<br />
The analysis shows that the returns from coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> banana cultivati<strong>on</strong> have<br />
been more compared to other crops. The lowest returns has been observed in the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy (0.697), which indicates decreasing returns to scale per unit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
investment. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut, the returns to scale is almost <strong>on</strong>e, indicating<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant returns. The crop combinati<strong>on</strong>, ie., coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> banana give better<br />
returns to scale (1.033) in comparis<strong>on</strong> to coc<strong>on</strong>ut <strong>and</strong> arecanut (0.997). The<br />
analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comparative returns from different crops <strong>and</strong> crop combinati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
signify that the returns to scale could be further increased if canal water supply is<br />
adequate <strong>and</strong> assured.<br />
The Kallada project was designed <strong>for</strong> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>. Even so, almost<br />
60 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comm<strong>and</strong> area is under dry crops. which require irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
during summer. Since the topography <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project area is undulating, the<br />
underground pipe line system, called the Minor C<strong>on</strong>veyance System (MCS) was<br />
proposed, instead <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> open canal system. The MCS is laid out through the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
plots <strong>and</strong> the financial burden <strong>on</strong> them has been very marginal or some times nil.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal network to feed the MCS was delayed <strong>for</strong> more<br />
than a decade. This mismatch between the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal network <strong>and</strong> the<br />
<strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> water distributi<strong>on</strong> system had made the investment in MCS infructuous<br />
or unproductive sunk capital. Furthermore, the material used to lay the pipes <strong>and</strong><br />
associated structures have been completely spoiled <strong>and</strong> became useless. This has<br />
resulted in several changes in l<strong>and</strong> use pattern in the comm<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
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The intensity <strong>and</strong> spread <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge in the Kallada project<br />
was very less unlike the Peechi project. This may be due to the lining <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> major<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal system. because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which percolati<strong>on</strong> was obviously low.<br />
Even so. a sizeable proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers has reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> having benefited by<br />
groundwater. Almost all the <strong>farm</strong>ers reporting groundwater recharge have<br />
installed pump sets. but water availability has been less in the comm<strong>and</strong> area.<br />
Farm level investment <strong>on</strong> OFD has been low. It was Rs. 1184 per acre in<br />
the head reach plots. Rs. 1198 in the middle reaches <strong>and</strong> Rs. 1156 in the tail end.<br />
Across the different size classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings. the average expenditure incurred by<br />
the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the 2 to 4 acre size class was high. especially in the tail reaches at<br />
Rs. 4260 as against Rs. 3874 In the head reaches <strong>and</strong> Rs. 3854 in the middle<br />
reaches. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers in that size class is. however. not high in all<br />
the three lOCuti<strong>on</strong>s. Thus. the positive relati<strong>on</strong>ship between size class <strong>and</strong> OFO<br />
expenditure as observed in the Peechi project is not found in Kallada project.<br />
This may be due to topographical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in which Kallada project is located.<br />
The uneven <strong>and</strong> highly undulating topography requires substantial <strong>farm</strong> level<br />
investment <strong>for</strong> cutting the mounds. some times very deeply to level the plots <strong>and</strong><br />
bring it to an Uni<strong>for</strong>m slope.<br />
It is important to note that in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the critical importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO <strong>for</strong><br />
effective <strong>and</strong> efficient utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water, its adopti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a limited scale. has not<br />
been <strong>on</strong> scientific lines as envisaged by the CAOA. For instance, in the Peechi<br />
project. 17 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers surveyed reported that OFO is just removing<br />
shrubs <strong>and</strong> bushes in the fields. More than <strong>on</strong>e fourth understood it as an<br />
integrated process, which includes removmg shrubs <strong>and</strong> bushes, levelling the<br />
351
field, providing uni<strong>for</strong>m <strong>and</strong> drainage channels. What is noteworthy is that 2S per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers are aware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the need <strong>for</strong> <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> drainage. This is very<br />
important to avoid adverse effects <strong>on</strong> soil. Furthermore. 26 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tail<br />
end <strong>farm</strong>ers felt the need <strong>for</strong> drainage. Because. they have been facing the<br />
problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> seepage caused by the unlined canals. There<strong>for</strong>e, <strong>on</strong>-<strong>farm</strong> drainage<br />
has been a major c<strong>on</strong>cern am<strong>on</strong>g the <strong>farm</strong>ers. The survey revealed that 97 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers did not realise the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> survey be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
undertaking levelling operati<strong>on</strong>s. to know the exact slope it requires <strong>and</strong> other<br />
related aspects c<strong>on</strong>cerned with spacing <strong>and</strong> thickness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the bunds.<br />
The major benefits expected from undertaking OFD as realised by the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers included uni<strong>for</strong>m spread <strong>and</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water to the plants. avoiding<br />
wastage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the c<strong>on</strong>veyance <strong>and</strong> thereby minimises the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
waterlogging <strong>and</strong> (iii) efficiency in water use in the fields. More than <strong>on</strong>e fourth<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sample <strong>farm</strong>ers felt that all the benefits menti<strong>on</strong>ed above could be realised<br />
by undertaking OFD works. While 18 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers in the head reaches<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sider that OFD enables to ensure efficiency in water use, it is I S per cent in<br />
the middle reaches <strong>and</strong> 20 per cent in the tail end. The tail enders seem to be<br />
more c<strong>on</strong>scious about the efficiency in water use <strong>for</strong> obvious reas<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scarcity.<br />
The percentage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers finding OFD beneficial in more than <strong>on</strong>e way is the<br />
highest at 32 in the middle reaches. followed by 26 in the head <strong>and</strong> 25 in the tail<br />
reaches.<br />
In terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scope <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tent. MCS in the Kallada project may be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered as syn<strong>on</strong>ymous to OFD followed in the open canal system In the<br />
Peechi project. MCS may be regarded as much more efficient than OFD in terms<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> allocati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> efficiency. According to the <strong>farm</strong>ers, MCS is a<br />
sound system enabling better utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. For instance, 18 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers reveal that MCS is useful to reduce <strong>on</strong>ly c<strong>on</strong>veyance losses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> saving as an important advantage has been highlighted by 22 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers. In fact, in the absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS. the l<strong>and</strong> would have g<strong>on</strong>e <strong>for</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> open canals. About 25 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers think that MCS is<br />
more ec<strong>on</strong>omical than the open canal c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>. The underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong><br />
saving dimensi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS by the <strong>farm</strong>ers is equally important where majority<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the holdings are small <strong>and</strong> marginal. The proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers reporting this<br />
benefit is more in the middle reaches (25 %), compared to 22 per cent in the head<br />
reaches <strong>and</strong> 21 per cent in the tail end. Thus. the MeS. in a way. is l<strong>and</strong>-saving<br />
<strong>and</strong> water-augmenting technology. as there will be no c<strong>on</strong>veyance losses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
water.<br />
Farmers in Kallada project felt that the MCS network provided <strong>for</strong> <strong>on</strong><strong>farm</strong><br />
water distributi<strong>on</strong> do not warrant any investment <strong>for</strong> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>development</strong>. For,<br />
the tree crops are irrigated through flexible hose pipes <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e, no l<strong>and</strong><br />
levelling is required. Sixteen per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers have indicated the reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
such as lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> finance, lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>necting field channels <strong>and</strong> existence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber<br />
plantati<strong>on</strong>s as the reas<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong> not adopting OFD works, in spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> having MeS.<br />
Twenty three per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers did not go <strong>for</strong> OFD due to lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> field<br />
channels, c<strong>on</strong>necting their plots to the distributory or minor. This appears to be<br />
strange, because, unless field channels are provided to the plots. it would be<br />
difficult <strong>for</strong> a <strong>farm</strong>er to use water from the distributory canal. Since the <strong>farm</strong>ers<br />
353
have no easy accessibility to water. it is obvious that they have not taken up<br />
OFD.<br />
Another important factor c<strong>on</strong>tributing to the n<strong>on</strong>-adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD in the<br />
Kallada is the crop shift from paddy to rubber. Since rubber is a rainfed crop,<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers do not feel the need <strong>for</strong> OFD. However, as observed earlier. the<br />
productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber is relatively high in developed plots than in undeveloped<br />
plots. though it is a rainfed crop.<br />
Regarding the current status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS. 30 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers from the head <strong>and</strong> 26 per cent from the middle reaches felt that MCS has<br />
become defunct due to broken water distributi<strong>on</strong> net works. Improper design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the system. not c<strong>on</strong><strong>for</strong>ming to the ground realities is another problem. For<br />
example. the hydrants are fixed at lower layers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plot <strong>and</strong> crops are grown in<br />
upper layers. This is a major problem in the head reaches as reported by 29 per<br />
cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers. followed by 26 per cent in the tail reach <strong>and</strong> 22 per cent in<br />
the middle. Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adequate pressure in the flow <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water is also reported as a<br />
major problem across the three reaches. Timely repair or replacement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
broken parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the distributi<strong>on</strong> systems is hardly attended to. This is partly due<br />
to <strong>farm</strong>ers indifference to bring it to the notice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the department. since they are<br />
not using the system.<br />
Thus. various problems rangmg from technical to management have<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the less efficient functi<strong>on</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the MCS. though a limited<br />
potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system is actually utilised. The technical sophisticati<strong>on</strong>. with<br />
which MCS has been installed <strong>and</strong> practical difficulties to use it effectively<br />
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shows that filed realities have not been understood properly. Not fixing the<br />
hydrants at appropriate levels <strong>and</strong> places clearly dem<strong>on</strong>strates the ignorance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the engineers about the ground realities. Interestingly, local <strong>farm</strong>ers were not<br />
taken into c<strong>on</strong>fidence while laying the system. This brings out the uutright<br />
neglect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers' participati<strong>on</strong> in the design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong> network.<br />
Though hoses are provided to <strong>farm</strong>ers <strong>for</strong> taking water from the hydrant to the<br />
upper layers. lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pressure make water flow difficult <strong>and</strong> inadequate.<br />
I nterpers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> local dynamics also play an important role in<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>alising the system more efficiently.<br />
The role <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regi<strong>on</strong>-specific factors in influencing the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO<br />
in both the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s has been examined using the multiple regressi<strong>on</strong><br />
analysis. The important explanatory variables used in the analysis included<br />
extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ground water recharged by the seepage in the Peechi canal, capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the pump set, proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry area that could be brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
occupati<strong>on</strong>al status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er <strong>and</strong> the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> family labour. The<br />
analysis indicated that <strong>farm</strong> level adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in the Peechi comm<strong>and</strong> has<br />
been well explained by all the variables selected. except family labour, which<br />
showed a negative coefficient. Thus. the <strong>farm</strong> level expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFO in the<br />
Peechi project is determined by the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater replenishment caused<br />
by the seepage in canals, capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pump set available <strong>for</strong> irrigating the plot<br />
<strong>and</strong> the proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry area that could be brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
occupati<strong>on</strong>al status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>ers has also been found to be important. which<br />
implies that if <strong>farm</strong>ing is the main source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> income <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er, he invariably<br />
undertakes OFD in whatsoever limited scale possible. The functi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>for</strong>m with<br />
355
the set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> variables appears to be a good fit as evident from the 'R square' values<br />
as well other parameters estimated.<br />
The analytical model used <strong>for</strong> explaining the various factors determining<br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in the Kallada project identified factors such as: holding size,<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area c<strong>on</strong>verted, extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubber area, the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
groundwater recharging caused, age <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er, occupati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
status,<br />
effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> MCS, availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumpset. etc. It is found that the variables<br />
used in the analysis explain almost 73 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong> level adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO<br />
by the <strong>farm</strong>ers. Am<strong>on</strong>g the important factors identified, the area under rubber has<br />
been found to be negatively influencing OFO. In other words, the negative<br />
regressi<strong>on</strong> coefficient in respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the variable. RUBSHARE implies that the<br />
<strong>farm</strong>ers having higher proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area under rubber do not undertake OFO<br />
works. as they c<strong>on</strong>sider rubber as a rainfed crop. Age <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er was also<br />
inversely related to expenditure <strong>on</strong> OFO. implying that the <strong>farm</strong>ers become less<br />
interested in doing <strong>farm</strong>ing activities as they become old. The average age <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
sample <strong>farm</strong>ers in the Kallada comm<strong>and</strong> was 53 years. The variables such as<br />
extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater recharge, the availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumpset, the presence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
effective MCS network. the share <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy area c<strong>on</strong>verted into wet crops as well<br />
as the full time <strong>farm</strong>ing status <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>farm</strong>er have been found to be positively<br />
influencing the <strong>farm</strong> level adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFO in the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong> as<br />
revealed by the significantly positive regressi<strong>on</strong> coefficients.<br />
The various problems <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints In the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
effective utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water resources in Kerala have been broadly<br />
explained in a framework <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al. socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic, technological as well<br />
356
as water management related factors. These factors have posed serious problems<br />
<strong>on</strong> the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> water management practices in irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s in the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the interface between irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> agricultural<br />
<strong>development</strong> in the state.<br />
The major instituti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints hindering the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> better<br />
utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water in the canal comm<strong>and</strong>s are (i) the declining size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings. leading to th~<br />
failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
promoting paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>. (ii) lahour related problems. (iii) un-remunerative<br />
rric.:s <strong>for</strong> paddy coupled with rising wage rates. <strong>and</strong> (v) large scale c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
raddy l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>for</strong> ocher crops <strong>and</strong> also <strong>for</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural purposes.<br />
The Group Farming (GF) has heen an important instituti<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
hv the government In<br />
Kerab <strong>for</strong> augmenting paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> through<br />
c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdings <strong>and</strong> ensure \iability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy. It has also been intended<br />
to arrest the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> further c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong>. However. the programme was <strong>on</strong>ly a<br />
temporary success. as it could neither arrest the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> area c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> nor<br />
ensure increase in returns to rice growers.<br />
An Important reas<strong>on</strong> why the cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> could not he<br />
reduced under the group <strong>farm</strong>ing is the bbour intensity coupled with high wage<br />
rate. The wage cost has increased substantially owing to the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tasks caused by fragmentati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings <strong>and</strong> also operati<strong>on</strong>-linked<br />
wage rate. On the other h<strong>and</strong>. prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy have never been attractive. The<br />
increase in wages at current prices has been very high in relati<strong>on</strong> to prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
paddy during the last <strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong> half decade <strong>and</strong> this adversely affected the net<br />
357
arter terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> trade as the wages equivalent quantity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy has substantially<br />
increased from 6.25 kg. in 1983 to i 7.93 kg. in 1998. While the price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy<br />
registered <strong>on</strong>ly three- fold increase. the wages increased by about 8-9 fold. If<br />
wage payment were to be made in kind as widely practiced in the good old days,<br />
it is interesting to note that the wage equivalent quantity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy required to<br />
engage <strong>on</strong>e male labourer was 6.25 kg. in 1983. which has increased almost three<br />
times to 17.93 kg. in 1998. In the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> female labourer. there was three times<br />
increase from 4.34 kg. to 11.39 kg. during the period under reference.<br />
This brings out very interesting dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> costineffective<br />
paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> in the state. An analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the trends in output<br />
prices <strong>and</strong> factor prices (male <strong>and</strong> female agricultural wages) using the semilogarithmic<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> has indicated that the wage increase has been higher than<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rise in output prices. When the price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy increased by ahout 8 per<br />
cent. the male wage rates increased by 11.83 per cent <strong>and</strong> female wages by<br />
almost 13 per cent. Thus, the rise in factor prices has increased by almost two<br />
times than the product prices in the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy. In view <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this, the purchasing<br />
power <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy has drastically declined in the respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all the crops.<br />
The important socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors adversely affecting <strong>farm</strong>ing<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s in general <strong>and</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> water use <strong>for</strong> agriculture in particular are: (i)<br />
lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interest in labour intensive <strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s, (ii) relegati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the status<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ing into a sec<strong>on</strong>dary activity. <strong>and</strong> (iii) sociological factors. The<br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints posed by large-scale marginalisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>al holdings coupled<br />
with n<strong>on</strong>-availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour even at higher wage rates <strong>and</strong> declining prices <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
food crops, especially. paddy, precluded the <strong>farm</strong>ers from undertaking highly<br />
358
labour intensive <strong>farm</strong>ing operati<strong>on</strong>s. Sociological reas<strong>on</strong>s are also indicated as<br />
adversely affecting paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>. These problems include high proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
elderly am<strong>on</strong>g the <strong>farm</strong>ers as well as labourers.<br />
The major technical c<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>for</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>development</strong> in Kerala as<br />
brought out by the study are: (i) design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects exclusively <strong>for</strong> paddy<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>; (ii) the water distributi<strong>on</strong> networks in the comm<strong>and</strong> areas do not<br />
permit to introduce dem<strong>and</strong> based supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water; (iii) irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure<br />
<strong>and</strong> water distributi<strong>on</strong> networks are in dilapidated c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e. need<br />
immediate rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> to allow designed discharge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in the canals: (iv)<br />
improper design <strong>and</strong> alignment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canals <strong>and</strong> field channels<br />
adversely affecting water distributi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A major c<strong>on</strong>sequence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the projects being designed exclusively <strong>for</strong><br />
paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> is that crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> is not legally permitted to take<br />
advantage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the abundant water available in the canals left unutilised in the<br />
absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong>. Though the <strong>farm</strong>ers have undertaken crop<br />
diversificati<strong>on</strong> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s. there are several practical<br />
problems arising out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inflexible design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the water distributi<strong>on</strong> network<br />
enabling crop diversificati<strong>on</strong>. Since the terrain in many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s in Kerala is undulating. effective utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> canal water<br />
necessitates significant investment <strong>on</strong> OFD both from the irrigati<strong>on</strong> department<br />
upstream side <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the canal system as well as the <strong>farm</strong>ers downstream.<br />
The technical c<strong>on</strong>straints III the <strong>development</strong> distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems warrants proper underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
359
dynamics at the local level. Given th ...<br />
topographical characteristics, the state<br />
would need irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects with an unique design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water distributi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
network <strong>and</strong> planning to promote systems depending up<strong>on</strong> the topography, as in<br />
the Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> project. Though Kallada irrigati<strong>on</strong> scheme appears to be a<br />
technically sound system suitable to the specific terrain it comm<strong>and</strong>s, the scheme<br />
could not be successfully implemented <strong>for</strong> the reas<strong>on</strong>s menti<strong>on</strong>ed already. This<br />
raIses an important questi<strong>on</strong> as to how the irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in Kerala could be<br />
reoriented,) What should be the <strong>development</strong> priorities in the changing scenario?<br />
These are the important questi<strong>on</strong>s that policy makers should bear in mind while<br />
planning <strong>for</strong> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the completed projects <strong>and</strong> expediting completi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>going <strong>on</strong>es.<br />
Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the expenences In the c<strong>on</strong>temporary <strong>development</strong> scenano<br />
regarding crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> need to be retlected up<strong>on</strong> to drav,i less<strong>on</strong>s <strong>for</strong><br />
future planning. For example, there are growing apprehensi<strong>on</strong>s that cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
coc<strong>on</strong>ut under assured canal irrigati<strong>on</strong> may not bring the desired results, in view<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the various problems affecting stagnant per<strong>for</strong>mance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut in the state. It<br />
is relevant to note that the stagnancy in yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut has been persisting in<br />
spite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tremendous increase in area under coc<strong>on</strong>ut in the state. The important<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s widely reported <strong>for</strong> the relatively low <strong>and</strong> stagnant yield <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
include: (i) higher proporti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> old generati<strong>on</strong> palms; (ii) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
facilities during summer: (iii) the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> root-wilt: (iv) low input use; (v)<br />
decline in average size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coc<strong>on</strong>ut holdings; <strong>and</strong> (vi) absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> technological<br />
innovati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
360
Given the dynamics, problems <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>straints as discussed above. it may<br />
be c<strong>on</strong>cluded that reorienting the scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop<br />
diversificati<strong>on</strong>. especially, coc<strong>on</strong>ut. needs further investment at the system !evel<br />
to redesign the irrigati<strong>on</strong> structures <strong>for</strong> facilitating irrigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> these crops. that<br />
are grown in homesteads, much above the low lying paddy fields. This also calls<br />
<strong>for</strong> huge investment at the <strong>farm</strong> level in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD to irrigate coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
according to the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al basin irrigati<strong>on</strong> method. As the existing coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
palms are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the traditi<strong>on</strong>al variety. an important step is needed to initiate a<br />
massive replanting programme <strong>for</strong> coc<strong>on</strong>ut with HYV planting, coupled with<br />
R&D support. The crops like banana. arecanut. vegetable. tapioca. may also be<br />
brought under irrigati<strong>on</strong> by redesigning water distributi<strong>on</strong> netwroks ..<br />
Tht issues in water distrihuti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s<br />
In Kerala are yet to receive adequate attenti<strong>on</strong> in the irrigati<strong>on</strong> management<br />
literature. A possible explanati<strong>on</strong> <strong>for</strong> this could be the lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>er interest in<br />
irrigated <strong>farm</strong>ing per se. Furthermore. there are not many reports or complaints<br />
<strong>on</strong> inequitable distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>and</strong> water- related c<strong>on</strong>flicts across the canal<br />
comm<strong>and</strong>s in the state. However. based <strong>on</strong> the findings <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the present study.<br />
some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the watcr management related c<strong>on</strong>straints could bc identified as: (i)<br />
inadequate supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water across the canal reaches. (ii) n<strong>on</strong>-pricing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <strong>and</strong><br />
the subsequent wasteful utilisati<strong>on</strong>; (iii) lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficient co-ordinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
management activities. <strong>and</strong> (iv) n<strong>on</strong>-functioining <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water users associati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
An important aspect with respect to water distributi<strong>on</strong> is that there are<br />
wide differences in water requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different crops in irrigati<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
The water distributi<strong>on</strong> plan needs to be flexible so as to cater to the water<br />
361
equirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> both dry as well as wet crops. No canal operati<strong>on</strong>al plans are<br />
prepared in advance to supply <strong>and</strong> regulate water according to the requirements<br />
in di ffc:rent seas<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
In many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects coming under CADA, the field channels<br />
arc not c<strong>on</strong>structed, or left incomplete. The cost estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> OFD works as<br />
reported by CADA <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials, have to be necessarily c<strong>on</strong><strong>for</strong>med to the norms <strong>and</strong><br />
guidelines stipulated by the Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> India. But due to the special<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s prevailing in Kerala, such as undulating topography, high cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> account <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> transportati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials, labour charges,<br />
density <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong>. etc .. it is not possible to cover the targeted area within the<br />
stipulated in\'estment allocati<strong>on</strong>. As a result. some ayacut <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project had to be<br />
left without 01'0 works. e\en alier spending the full amount allotted to a project<br />
as per norms.<br />
The awareness levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>farm</strong>ers about the need <strong>for</strong> <strong>and</strong> importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
OFD are fairly high. However, its progress at the <strong>farm</strong> level is not up to the<br />
expected levels. The complexities <strong>and</strong> dynamics related to the design <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
projects, cropping pattern envisaged <strong>and</strong> realised, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> networks. crop diversificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent changes in water<br />
balance <strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong> arc wide <strong>and</strong> varied. The important instituti<strong>on</strong>al, socioec<strong>on</strong>omic,<br />
technical <strong>and</strong> management related c<strong>on</strong>straints noticed in the<br />
<strong>development</strong>. distrihuti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water resources in Kerala<br />
calls <strong>for</strong> a judicious plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong> 1'0. the irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector. It is more so because<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the changing scenario <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural <strong>development</strong> in the state. The<br />
effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> planning however, depends up<strong>on</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
362
ground realities associated with crop based l<strong>and</strong> use dynamics ill irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
projects <strong>and</strong> its implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> efficient utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources.<br />
The study <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>ec<strong>on</strong>omics</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>OFD in irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Kerala brings<br />
out very interesting dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> theoretically well c<strong>on</strong>ceived <strong>and</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>ally<br />
ill-operated irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems in the state. The regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>farm</strong> specific<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>straints in the <strong>development</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> systems as revealed by<br />
the study need to be understood, diagnosed in proper perspective to <strong>for</strong>mulate<br />
corrective measures. Given the complexities involved in underst<strong>and</strong>ing end<br />
explaining the dynamics, the study makes a modest attempt to explain the<br />
apparent divergences between irrigati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure <strong>development</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
agricultural per<strong>for</strong>mance. This study throws open number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues <strong>for</strong> research,<br />
based or. the experienc.:s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kerala. One <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the issues need addressing is to<br />
examine the implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> from paddy based food crops to<br />
commercial crops <strong>on</strong> the utilisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state. In the light <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the emerging re<strong>for</strong>ms in the water sector, how the newly emerged local level<br />
planning could be effectively integrated in the process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>s in the state, which are fraught with number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> technical, operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<strong>and</strong> managerial problems.<br />
363
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