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Chapter 1 Introduction The importance <strong>of</strong> irrigation for the development <strong>of</strong> agriculture on a sustainable basis had been realised even in primitive societies. For, the fact that no grain can ever be produced without water is a conventional wisdom. Given the limitations <strong>of</strong> nature in providing water for cultivation <strong>of</strong> crops during periods <strong>of</strong> moisture stress. attempts were made to harvest the rainwater during monsoon by storing in small ponds and tanks. Irrigation is, therefore, an age-old art and technology used successfully for the development <strong>of</strong> agriculture. Development <strong>of</strong> water institutions for irrigation has been perceived not merely as a legacy <strong>of</strong> culture and civilization but certainly as a socio-economic and political development strategy I ('.lan:. 1853: Weber. 1927: Wittfogel 1957). The rationale behind the development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems is to ensure that 'water' as a leading input in the process l)f agricultural production enhances crop productivity per unit <strong>of</strong> area 1 and provides insurance against the periodic famines-. Ishikawa (1967) refers to irrigation as the leading input for agricultural growth in Asian countries showing that yield differences in the early stages <strong>of</strong> agricultural development were principally explained by basic public investments in irrigation and water control. 'While Marx (1853) underscored the technical and organisational compulsions <strong>of</strong> water control [Marx (1853) as cited by Wittfogel, 1957 and Chi, 1936], Weber (1927) [cited in Chi. 1936: 73] drew a similar relationship between the necessity for irrigation and the prominent role <strong>of</strong> bureaucracy in Ancient Egypt. West Asia ,Ind China. 2 Preventing the outhn:ak <strong>of</strong> famines and augmenting food production (Paustian, 1925: Gustafson and Redlinger, 1971; Bhatia. 1965 and Tomlinson. 1992).
An attempt has been made in this chapter to present the development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in India in a historical perspective. followed by a brief discussion on the lssues related to deYt.:lllpment <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems at the national level during the plan period as well as a brief sketch <strong>of</strong> lrrigation development In Kerala. A critical assessment <strong>of</strong> the problems <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in the post-independence period has also been attempted. which may hopefully help in identit\ing the pl)liC\ dimensions for future development. 1.1 Development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in India In India. the history <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> water resources for irrigation could be broadly classified into three distinct phases. viz .. the pre-colonial. colonial and post-colonia(! post-independence periods. 1. L 1 Pre-colonial period: The pre-colonial period witnessed the development <strong>of</strong> traditional modes <strong>of</strong> water harvesting with greater emphasis on indigenous technologies based on local needs and locally available resources. The available evidence shows that developm.:nt <strong>of</strong> such traditional watn harv.:sting systems was given importance since the Vedic times as described in the RiKveda and also in Kautilya's Artlw.\u.\lhru. The archival rt:cords <strong>of</strong> tht: Mauryan era reveal that Kalltilya in his Arllw.\uslhru describt:d that tht: development <strong>of</strong> irrigation by constructing rt:servoirs and providing assistanct: \0 private individuals in the form <strong>of</strong> suitable sites and n.:ct:ssary matt:rials to construct irrigatilln works was one <strong>of</strong> the dlltit:s <strong>of</strong> tht: King (Singh. 1997 27) The irrigation structureS <strong>of</strong> the Indus ValleY Civilisation era were mostly in the form <strong>of</strong> wells, canals and tanks and were 2
Page 1 and 2: , ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT:
Page 3 and 4: DEC LARA TION I declare that the th
Page 5 and 6: I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozh
Page 7 and 8: CONTENTS Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Page 9 and 10: 4.9 Occupational Status of<
Page 11 and 12: 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 Financial Investmen
Page 13 and 14: Figures 6.1 6.2 Chart 6.1 Appendix
Page 15: Abbreviations used ASMO BFA's CADA
Page 19 and 20: among the people and the process <s
Page 21 and 22: the Indian state had followed a pol
Page 23 and 24: water harvesting 7 by arguing that
Page 25 and 26: (World Register of
Page 27 and 28: Eighth Plan has been estimated by t
Page 29 and 30: One of the most im
Page 31 and 32: integrated development of</
Page 33 and 34: inadequate attention given to OFD w
Page 35 and 36: performance of irr
Page 37 and 38: created. According to the Central W
Page 39 and 40: 7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 la
Page 41 and 42: competent and responsible agency wi
Page 43 and 44: physiographic conditions of
Page 45 and 46: (14 completed and 15 ongoing) proje
Page 47 and 48: interventions to improve the operat
Page 49 and 50: a summary of findi
Page 51 and 52: economic analysis of</stron
Page 53 and 54: een brought out by many scholars in
Page 55 and 56: While the economic benefits <strong
Page 57 and 58: sources, wasteful utilisation <stro
Page 59 and 60: such as rise in pnces, inadequate i
Page 61 and 62: the completion of
Page 63 and 64: of rainfed croppin
Page 65 and 66: areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998).
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investment In irrigation developmen
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Subsequently, an Expert Committee w
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highlighted the problems related to
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2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong
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command area has reduced the labour
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Nanjundappa (1988), while examining
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y the CADA have led to low producti
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agents as against 90 per cent or mo
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among their members; c) insisting t
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Ansari (1989) shows that there have
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unit of land culti
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subgroup increased from 40 per cent
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1) The maIn activity being undertak
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which are unique in several ways, t
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across the states in different agro
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and social setting In which a proje
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The indepth study to examine the fa
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\,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana s
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understand the problems related to
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of the crop produc
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greater differences between the the
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Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions an
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specific promotional programmes und
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Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <s
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3.3.2 Crop specific promotional ins
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non-viable paddy. Even the farmers
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'- K01HIKOO --', , .-- :,' , \. ,.'
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strictly adhered to the directions
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4.1.2 Financial aspects The total e
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4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree
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Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut , IItIJrt ~
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in lands having slopes less than 3
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Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Patte
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in terms of underg
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meters. The end of
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and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II.
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lands. The average holding size is
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The characteristics of</str
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size group is the highest in the mi
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Table 4.10: Occupational status <st
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Appendix 4.1: Physical and technica
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Chapter 5 Dynamics of</stro
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plan. annual plans (1966-69) and th
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gt:ographical concentration <strong
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Concerted efforts were also made fo
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T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I - - vS
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expenditure and p~ysical achievemen
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the state cannot be treated as a pu
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in gross irrigated area. While cana
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development of lan
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The annual compound growth rates in
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5.2.1 Dynamics of
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area and yield of
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A micro level study by Narayanan (1
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ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the
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The debate on conversion of
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(Table 5.10). The table indicates t
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eqUires substantial investment for
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Source: Govt. of K
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the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For
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The overall scenario suggests that
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project, they tend to undertake yie
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the establishment expenditure (stri
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a CriSIS. As the works involved In
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(ii) In the Karapuzha project. the
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5.15). The table indicates that the
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place. There were three revisions J
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Revenue vis Capital expenditure The
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Let us now examIne the intensity <s
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Cost escalation due to arbitration
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Another source of
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process would be very high. This al
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construction for more than 20 years
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are mainly concentrated in Thrissur
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ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot
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ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnl
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Chapter 6 Economics of</str
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conditions of the
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Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart sho
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and Palakkad together occupy 10 <st
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Table 6.2. Physical and financial t
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the total allocation has been for t
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per cent achievement in physical te
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Besides. it has been reported that
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I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.
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~~- ~- --~ In all others. the BC ra
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possible in these lands during Khar
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Hence. it may be argued that since
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It is mainly due to scarcity <stron
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project. where it is very high at R
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proper coordination between variOUS
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deficiencies that help drawing less
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conjunctive use of
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3) Again. due to the high density <
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Table 6.13: Details of</str
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doubts about the senousness <strong
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practice IS more conspIcuous In the
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2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in t
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large holders have spent two to thr
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Farming is considered mostly as a s
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The profitability
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noticed in the case of</str
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The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Function has
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· 13 Bank assistance programme and
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etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange fo
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Table 6.22: Status of</stro
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Though almost all the farmers repor
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3854 in the middle reaches. The pro
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The net income from vegetables and
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Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical
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Chapter 7 On-Farm Development: Dete
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It can be seen from the survey data
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een made to examme as to how many f
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a farmer to use water from the dist
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The farmers were asked to reflect u
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evamping needed to reorient the MCS
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supplies. What is more interesting
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the knowledge of i
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All of the five ex
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It is evident from the table that t
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implications on the dynamics <stron
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competitive monocropl2 as no other
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of conversion thro
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involving farmers as active members
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The viability of p
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factors l8 . As a result. the agric
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The rise in price of</stron
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may be observed that the canal seep
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process of paddy l
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Table 7.19: Productivity and gross
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The technical constraints In the de
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2) Lack of irrigat
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manure or fertilisers are also do n
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according to the conventional basin
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Registration Act, 1860 in the erstw
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The pattern of act
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eported by CADA of
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Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion
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d,l!llS in the post-independence pc
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all(lcatioll ill the absence <stron
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irrigation commands. Th;; stud) was
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comparative COSI .:conomlcs <strong
Page 351 and 352:
time lag involved in completion uf
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the state has increased by about 46
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cultivation of com
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through the effective implementatiC
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een the highest in Kallada project
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It was noticed that among the vario
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The institutional paradigm evolved
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of India to be rel
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economically viable. This underscor
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The intensity and spread of
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of allocation and
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shows that filed realities have not
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as water management related factors
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labour intensive farming operations
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Given the dynamics, problems and co
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ground realities associated with cr
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Dhawan, B.D. (1989): Sludies in Irr
Page 385 and 386:
Kothari, Rajni, (1989): Politics an
Page 387 and 388:
Vaidyanathan, A (1999): Water Resou
Page 389 and 390:
Ghosh, Prabir De, Budhadeb (1998):
Page 391 and 392:
Nair, Sukumaran, M.K. (1999): 'Rura
Page 393 and 394:
Varadan, K,~ (1999): 'Estimation <s
Page 395 and 396:
GOK (1967b): Evaluation of<
Page 397 and 398:
Ferrer. A.M., .L.e. Lucero (1988):
Page 399 and 400:
Suresh, K.A. (2000): 'Group Managem
Page 401 and 402:
Tomlinson, B.R. (1992): 'The Indian
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