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Since the study area under reference is in Kerala, an attempt has been made to review some <strong>of</strong> the studies, which are few and far between. dealing exclusively with the one to one correspondence between irrigation and agricultural development as well as the status and problems <strong>of</strong> irrigation sector in the state. 2.4 Irrigation and Agricultural Development in Kerala In Kerala, the importance <strong>of</strong> irrigation for agriculture development has not been realised by the scholars, in view <strong>of</strong> the high intensity <strong>of</strong> rainfall, progressive agrarian policies and the resultant commercialisation <strong>of</strong> agriculture l7 and topography IS. There seems to be no established evidences to demonstrate that irrigation has significantly influenced the agrarian prospects <strong>of</strong> the region 19 (George and Nair, 1982; Narayana and Nair, 1983; Kannan and Pushpangadan, 1989). Joseph (1984) examines the relative efficiency <strong>of</strong> cultivation under two different types <strong>of</strong> minor irrigation projects in Kerala, lifts and cross bars, in terms <strong>of</strong> input use, output, productivity and pr<strong>of</strong>itability. It is found that the output per 17 Varghese (1972) points out that redistributive public agrarian policies in Kerala dates back to the 19 th Century and they had a significant role in promoting commercialisation <strong>of</strong> the economy. 18 Kerala's terrain and topography prevented cultivation <strong>of</strong> its staple grain, i.e., paddy on the hills and slopes which have been utilised for other crops, mainly cash crops (Kieniewies, 1989 as cited in Tharakan, 1997). Mateer (1991) notes that at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the 19 th century, Travancore, which was a larger exports <strong>of</strong> rice, had changed into a net importer <strong>of</strong> rice by the last decades consequent to the import <strong>of</strong> duty free rice. And the import <strong>of</strong> cheap rice discouraged investments in paddy and shifted resources to commercial crops (Umadevi, 1984). 19 For a detailed discussion on the absence <strong>of</strong> one to one correspondence between irrigation investment and agricultural development in the state, see, Chapter 5. 71
unit <strong>of</strong> land cultivated (Net Sown Area) is higher by 24 per cent under lift irrigation than cross bar irrigation. The issues <strong>of</strong> improper financial planning and problems <strong>of</strong> irrigation development have been discussed in Netto (1990), KSSP (1988). Santhakumar el at (1995) indicates the absence <strong>of</strong> region-specific agrarian and hydrologic features in the technological planning <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects in the state. Most <strong>of</strong> the studies addresses the price and non-price factors that influences the paradigm shift in cropping pattern in the state, characterised by a tremendous decline in paddy, a principal crop in most <strong>of</strong> the irrigation systems in Kerala. Kannan and Pushpangadan (1988 and 1990) have brought out the impact <strong>of</strong> decline in area under paddy in Kerala on employment. The study says that around 35 million man-days between 1970s and early 1980s were lost due to fall in the area under paddy. The reason for the decline in area under paddy, among others, is a gradual secular reduction in the relative pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> paddy [Parthasarathy (1983); Radhakrishnan, 1983; Thomas et. al (1991, 1992); Babu et at (1993); Sreeja, 1998). In the absence <strong>of</strong> irrigation, the level <strong>of</strong> fertilizer application was lower in the state 20 than the recommended dosage. Shortage in the availability <strong>of</strong> labour as well as the changing labour relations have also been cited as important factors that influence the agrarian· activities in the region. In a study <strong>of</strong> the agricultural labour households in a wet land region <strong>of</strong> Kerala, Francis (1990: 86) finds that the participation rate <strong>of</strong> the 20 The level <strong>of</strong> fertilizer consumption has been reported to be at 53 kg. per ha. in Kerala in comparison to 159 kg. in the Punjab, 96 kg. in Tamilnadu and 75 kg. in U.P. during 1986-87 (Geethakutty, \993). 72
Page 1 and 2:
, ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT:
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DEC LARA TION I declare that the th
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I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozh
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CONTENTS Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
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4.9 Occupational Status of<
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5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 Financial Investmen
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Figures 6.1 6.2 Chart 6.1 Appendix
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Abbreviations used ASMO BFA's CADA
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An attempt has been made in this ch
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among the people and the process <s
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the Indian state had followed a pol
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water harvesting 7 by arguing that
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(World Register of
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Eighth Plan has been estimated by t
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One of the most im
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integrated development of</
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inadequate attention given to OFD w
Page 35 and 36: performance of irr
Page 37 and 38: created. According to the Central W
Page 39 and 40: 7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 la
Page 41 and 42: competent and responsible agency wi
Page 43 and 44: physiographic conditions of
Page 45 and 46: (14 completed and 15 ongoing) proje
Page 47 and 48: interventions to improve the operat
Page 49 and 50: a summary of findi
Page 51 and 52: economic analysis of</stron
Page 53 and 54: een brought out by many scholars in
Page 55 and 56: While the economic benefits <strong
Page 57 and 58: sources, wasteful utilisation <stro
Page 59 and 60: such as rise in pnces, inadequate i
Page 61 and 62: the completion of
Page 63 and 64: of rainfed croppin
Page 65 and 66: areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998).
Page 67 and 68: investment In irrigation developmen
Page 69 and 70: Subsequently, an Expert Committee w
Page 71 and 72: highlighted the problems related to
Page 73 and 74: 2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong
Page 75 and 76: command area has reduced the labour
Page 77 and 78: Nanjundappa (1988), while examining
Page 79 and 80: y the CADA have led to low producti
Page 81 and 82: agents as against 90 per cent or mo
Page 83 and 84: among their members; c) insisting t
Page 85: Ansari (1989) shows that there have
Page 89 and 90: subgroup increased from 40 per cent
Page 91 and 92: 1) The maIn activity being undertak
Page 93 and 94: which are unique in several ways, t
Page 95 and 96: across the states in different agro
Page 97 and 98: and social setting In which a proje
Page 99 and 100: The indepth study to examine the fa
Page 101 and 102: \,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana s
Page 103 and 104: understand the problems related to
Page 105 and 106: of the crop produc
Page 107 and 108: greater differences between the the
Page 109 and 110: Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions an
Page 111 and 112: specific promotional programmes und
Page 113 and 114: Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <s
Page 115 and 116: 3.3.2 Crop specific promotional ins
Page 117 and 118: non-viable paddy. Even the farmers
Page 119 and 120: '- K01HIKOO --', , .-- :,' , \. ,.'
Page 121 and 122: strictly adhered to the directions
Page 123 and 124: 4.1.2 Financial aspects The total e
Page 125 and 126: 4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree
Page 127 and 128: Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut , IItIJrt ~
Page 129 and 130: in lands having slopes less than 3
Page 131 and 132: Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Patte
Page 133 and 134: in terms of underg
Page 135 and 136: meters. The end of
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and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II.
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lands. The average holding size is
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The characteristics of</str
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size group is the highest in the mi
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Table 4.10: Occupational status <st
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Appendix 4.1: Physical and technica
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Chapter 5 Dynamics of</stro
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plan. annual plans (1966-69) and th
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gt:ographical concentration <strong
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Concerted efforts were also made fo
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T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I - - vS
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expenditure and p~ysical achievemen
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the state cannot be treated as a pu
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in gross irrigated area. While cana
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development of lan
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The annual compound growth rates in
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5.2.1 Dynamics of
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area and yield of
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A micro level study by Narayanan (1
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ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the
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The debate on conversion of
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(Table 5.10). The table indicates t
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eqUires substantial investment for
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Source: Govt. of K
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the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For
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The overall scenario suggests that
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project, they tend to undertake yie
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the establishment expenditure (stri
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a CriSIS. As the works involved In
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(ii) In the Karapuzha project. the
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5.15). The table indicates that the
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place. There were three revisions J
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Revenue vis Capital expenditure The
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Let us now examIne the intensity <s
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Cost escalation due to arbitration
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Another source of
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process would be very high. This al
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construction for more than 20 years
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are mainly concentrated in Thrissur
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ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot
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ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnl
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Chapter 6 Economics of</str
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conditions of the
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Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart sho
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and Palakkad together occupy 10 <st
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Table 6.2. Physical and financial t
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the total allocation has been for t
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per cent achievement in physical te
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Besides. it has been reported that
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I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.
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~~- ~- --~ In all others. the BC ra
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possible in these lands during Khar
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Hence. it may be argued that since
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It is mainly due to scarcity <stron
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project. where it is very high at R
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proper coordination between variOUS
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deficiencies that help drawing less
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conjunctive use of
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3) Again. due to the high density <
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Table 6.13: Details of</str
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doubts about the senousness <strong
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practice IS more conspIcuous In the
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2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in t
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large holders have spent two to thr
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Farming is considered mostly as a s
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The profitability
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noticed in the case of</str
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The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Function has
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· 13 Bank assistance programme and
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etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange fo
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Table 6.22: Status of</stro
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Though almost all the farmers repor
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3854 in the middle reaches. The pro
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The net income from vegetables and
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Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical
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Chapter 7 On-Farm Development: Dete
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It can be seen from the survey data
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een made to examme as to how many f
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a farmer to use water from the dist
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The farmers were asked to reflect u
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evamping needed to reorient the MCS
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supplies. What is more interesting
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the knowledge of i
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All of the five ex
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It is evident from the table that t
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implications on the dynamics <stron
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competitive monocropl2 as no other
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of conversion thro
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involving farmers as active members
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The viability of p
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factors l8 . As a result. the agric
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The rise in price of</stron
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may be observed that the canal seep
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process of paddy l
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Table 7.19: Productivity and gross
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The technical constraints In the de
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2) Lack of irrigat
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manure or fertilisers are also do n
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according to the conventional basin
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Registration Act, 1860 in the erstw
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The pattern of act
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eported by CADA of
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Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion
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d,l!llS in the post-independence pc
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all(lcatioll ill the absence <stron
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irrigation commands. Th;; stud) was
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comparative COSI .:conomlcs <strong
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time lag involved in completion uf
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the state has increased by about 46
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cultivation of com
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through the effective implementatiC
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een the highest in Kallada project
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It was noticed that among the vario
Page 363 and 364:
The institutional paradigm evolved
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of India to be rel
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economically viable. This underscor
Page 369 and 370:
The intensity and spread of
Page 371 and 372:
of allocation and
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shows that filed realities have not
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as water management related factors
Page 377 and 378:
labour intensive farming operations
Page 379 and 380:
Given the dynamics, problems and co
Page 381 and 382:
ground realities associated with cr
Page 383 and 384:
Dhawan, B.D. (1989): Sludies in Irr
Page 385 and 386:
Kothari, Rajni, (1989): Politics an
Page 387 and 388:
Vaidyanathan, A (1999): Water Resou
Page 389 and 390:
Ghosh, Prabir De, Budhadeb (1998):
Page 391 and 392:
Nair, Sukumaran, M.K. (1999): 'Rura
Page 393 and 394:
Varadan, K,~ (1999): 'Estimation <s
Page 395 and 396:
GOK (1967b): Evaluation of<
Page 397 and 398:
Ferrer. A.M., .L.e. Lucero (1988):
Page 399 and 400:
Suresh, K.A. (2000): 'Group Managem
Page 401 and 402:
Tomlinson, B.R. (1992): 'The Indian
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