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currant prices prevailing during various plan periods, unadjusted for inflation and the operation and maintenance costs are kept outside its purview 6 . Contrary to the conventional notion <strong>of</strong> small irrigation systems being cost effective, Dhawan (1989) states that 'surface irrigation works may score decisively over well irrigation, possibly by a margin <strong>of</strong> 3:2. He points out that the inclusion <strong>of</strong> private investments by the farmers at the farm level itself would make the minor systems cost-ineffective. Moreover, the minor works reqUire energy for countering the pull gravity, involving huge operational cost. 2.2.3 Problems in water distribution and management The problem <strong>of</strong> inequitable distribution <strong>of</strong> water across the canal commands has been widely debated and researched (Wade 1982a; Ali, 1986; Mitra, 1986, Rath and Mitra 1989). It has been pointed out that the inequity in the distribution <strong>of</strong> water is caused by violation <strong>of</strong> cropping pattern by the farmers, resulting in scarcity <strong>of</strong> water in the tail-end. The consequences <strong>of</strong> inequitable distribution <strong>of</strong> water in terms <strong>of</strong> productivity differentials leading to income inequalities as well as high cropping intensity in the head reaches have been highlighted by Linton (1982) and Padhi and Suryavanshi (1982). The power theory <strong>of</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> water has also been indicated as a source <strong>of</strong> inequality, whereby rich farmers with large holdings arc favourably placed in the head reaches <strong>of</strong> canal commands growing water intensive crops when the poor small farmers are left at the mercy • In the study by Gulati, Svendsen and Choudhury (1995). an attempt has been made to capture the capital cost per ha in real terms in the case <strong>of</strong> major, medium irrigation schemes In India. 47
<strong>of</strong> rainfed cropping (GOI, 1961; Thorner, 1962, Vekdem 1971, Reidinger, 1971: 109, Prasad, 1972). The divergence between planned and actual crop patterns and between planned 'localisation" and actual distribution <strong>of</strong> water intensive crops within the command areas have also been widely reported (GOI, 1965; Wade 1978; Ali, 1980). Vaidyanathan (1985) considers the distributive problem as an outcome <strong>of</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> conformity between distribution and allocation <strong>of</strong> water as envisaged in the original project design. The assumptions, ex-ante <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects relate to: a) availability and variability <strong>of</strong> water in the system during different seasons; b) cropping patterns and crop water requirement in different reaches <strong>of</strong> the command; and c) the losses in conveyance and field applications. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact. most <strong>of</strong> these assumptions turn out to be erroneous or inconsistent due to non·compliance <strong>of</strong> the detailed technical and socio-economic investigations and scrutiny, <strong>of</strong>ten because <strong>of</strong> political exigencies. Besides, physical control structures like channels arc either not properly maintained or are non-existent, , The problems <strong>of</strong> inequitable distribution in south Indian irrigation systems are more to do with the specific crop pattern, generally known as 'localization' and water distribution and management differs across regions. Whereas the annual operations <strong>of</strong> the canal systems in west India and North India are conditioned by the supply position in the reservoir, but deliveries are regulated on the basis <strong>of</strong> area under different crops. [n contrast, South Indian canal commands are predominated by water intensive rice based cropping system and water is released depending on the supply in the reservoir from a fixed schedule at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the crop season till the maturity <strong>of</strong> the crop. Given this, there are no codified procedures for ascertaining demand for water on a weekly or fortnightly basis. Also, the problems are accentuated by divergence in cropping pattern even in the head reaches. The divergence between planned and actual crop patterns and between planned 'localization' and actual distribution <strong>of</strong> water intensive crops within the command area has been widely reported (GOI. Planning Commission, 1965; Wade, 1978; Ali, 1980; GOAP, 1982). 48
Page 1 and 2:
, ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT:
Page 3 and 4:
DEC LARA TION I declare that the th
Page 5 and 6:
I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozh
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CONTENTS Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
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4.9 Occupational Status of<
Page 11 and 12: 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 Financial Investmen
Page 13 and 14: Figures 6.1 6.2 Chart 6.1 Appendix
Page 15 and 16: Abbreviations used ASMO BFA's CADA
Page 17 and 18: An attempt has been made in this ch
Page 19 and 20: among the people and the process <s
Page 21 and 22: the Indian state had followed a pol
Page 23 and 24: water harvesting 7 by arguing that
Page 25 and 26: (World Register of
Page 27 and 28: Eighth Plan has been estimated by t
Page 29 and 30: One of the most im
Page 31 and 32: integrated development of</
Page 33 and 34: inadequate attention given to OFD w
Page 35 and 36: performance of irr
Page 37 and 38: created. According to the Central W
Page 39 and 40: 7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 la
Page 41 and 42: competent and responsible agency wi
Page 43 and 44: physiographic conditions of
Page 45 and 46: (14 completed and 15 ongoing) proje
Page 47 and 48: interventions to improve the operat
Page 49 and 50: a summary of findi
Page 51 and 52: economic analysis of</stron
Page 53 and 54: een brought out by many scholars in
Page 55 and 56: While the economic benefits <strong
Page 57 and 58: sources, wasteful utilisation <stro
Page 59 and 60: such as rise in pnces, inadequate i
Page 61: the completion of
Page 65 and 66: areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998).
Page 67 and 68: investment In irrigation developmen
Page 69 and 70: Subsequently, an Expert Committee w
Page 71 and 72: highlighted the problems related to
Page 73 and 74: 2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong
Page 75 and 76: command area has reduced the labour
Page 77 and 78: Nanjundappa (1988), while examining
Page 79 and 80: y the CADA have led to low producti
Page 81 and 82: agents as against 90 per cent or mo
Page 83 and 84: among their members; c) insisting t
Page 85 and 86: Ansari (1989) shows that there have
Page 87 and 88: unit of land culti
Page 89 and 90: subgroup increased from 40 per cent
Page 91 and 92: 1) The maIn activity being undertak
Page 93 and 94: which are unique in several ways, t
Page 95 and 96: across the states in different agro
Page 97 and 98: and social setting In which a proje
Page 99 and 100: The indepth study to examine the fa
Page 101 and 102: \,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana s
Page 103 and 104: understand the problems related to
Page 105 and 106: of the crop produc
Page 107 and 108: greater differences between the the
Page 109 and 110: Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions an
Page 111 and 112: specific promotional programmes und
Page 113 and 114:
Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <s
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3.3.2 Crop specific promotional ins
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non-viable paddy. Even the farmers
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'- K01HIKOO --', , .-- :,' , \. ,.'
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strictly adhered to the directions
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4.1.2 Financial aspects The total e
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4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree
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Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut , IItIJrt ~
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in lands having slopes less than 3
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Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Patte
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in terms of underg
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meters. The end of
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and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II.
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lands. The average holding size is
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The characteristics of</str
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size group is the highest in the mi
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Table 4.10: Occupational status <st
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Appendix 4.1: Physical and technica
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Chapter 5 Dynamics of</stro
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plan. annual plans (1966-69) and th
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gt:ographical concentration <strong
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Concerted efforts were also made fo
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T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I - - vS
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expenditure and p~ysical achievemen
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the state cannot be treated as a pu
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in gross irrigated area. While cana
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development of lan
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The annual compound growth rates in
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5.2.1 Dynamics of
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area and yield of
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A micro level study by Narayanan (1
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ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the
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The debate on conversion of
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(Table 5.10). The table indicates t
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eqUires substantial investment for
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Source: Govt. of K
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the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For
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The overall scenario suggests that
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project, they tend to undertake yie
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the establishment expenditure (stri
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a CriSIS. As the works involved In
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(ii) In the Karapuzha project. the
Page 197 and 198:
5.15). The table indicates that the
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place. There were three revisions J
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Revenue vis Capital expenditure The
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Let us now examIne the intensity <s
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Cost escalation due to arbitration
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Another source of
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process would be very high. This al
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construction for more than 20 years
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are mainly concentrated in Thrissur
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ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot
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ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnl
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Chapter 6 Economics of</str
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conditions of the
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Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart sho
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and Palakkad together occupy 10 <st
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Table 6.2. Physical and financial t
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the total allocation has been for t
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per cent achievement in physical te
Page 233 and 234:
Besides. it has been reported that
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I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.
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~~- ~- --~ In all others. the BC ra
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possible in these lands during Khar
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Hence. it may be argued that since
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It is mainly due to scarcity <stron
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project. where it is very high at R
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proper coordination between variOUS
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deficiencies that help drawing less
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conjunctive use of
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3) Again. due to the high density <
Page 255 and 256:
Table 6.13: Details of</str
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doubts about the senousness <strong
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practice IS more conspIcuous In the
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2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in t
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large holders have spent two to thr
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Farming is considered mostly as a s
Page 267 and 268:
The profitability
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noticed in the case of</str
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The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Function has
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· 13 Bank assistance programme and
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etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange fo
Page 277 and 278:
Table 6.22: Status of</stro
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Though almost all the farmers repor
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3854 in the middle reaches. The pro
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The net income from vegetables and
Page 285 and 286:
Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical
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Chapter 7 On-Farm Development: Dete
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It can be seen from the survey data
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een made to examme as to how many f
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a farmer to use water from the dist
Page 295 and 296:
The farmers were asked to reflect u
Page 297 and 298:
evamping needed to reorient the MCS
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supplies. What is more interesting
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the knowledge of i
Page 303 and 304:
All of the five ex
Page 305 and 306:
It is evident from the table that t
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implications on the dynamics <stron
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competitive monocropl2 as no other
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of conversion thro
Page 313 and 314:
involving farmers as active members
Page 315 and 316:
The viability of p
Page 317 and 318:
factors l8 . As a result. the agric
Page 319 and 320:
The rise in price of</stron
Page 321 and 322:
may be observed that the canal seep
Page 323 and 324:
process of paddy l
Page 325 and 326:
Table 7.19: Productivity and gross
Page 327 and 328:
The technical constraints In the de
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2) Lack of irrigat
Page 331 and 332:
manure or fertilisers are also do n
Page 333 and 334:
according to the conventional basin
Page 335 and 336:
Registration Act, 1860 in the erstw
Page 337 and 338:
The pattern of act
Page 339 and 340:
eported by CADA of
Page 341 and 342:
Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion
Page 343 and 344:
d,l!llS in the post-independence pc
Page 345 and 346:
all(lcatioll ill the absence <stron
Page 347 and 348:
irrigation commands. Th;; stud) was
Page 349 and 350:
comparative COSI .:conomlcs <strong
Page 351 and 352:
time lag involved in completion uf
Page 353 and 354:
the state has increased by about 46
Page 355 and 356:
cultivation of com
Page 357 and 358:
through the effective implementatiC
Page 359 and 360:
een the highest in Kallada project
Page 361 and 362:
It was noticed that among the vario
Page 363 and 364:
The institutional paradigm evolved
Page 365 and 366:
of India to be rel
Page 367 and 368:
economically viable. This underscor
Page 369 and 370:
The intensity and spread of
Page 371 and 372:
of allocation and
Page 373 and 374:
shows that filed realities have not
Page 375 and 376:
as water management related factors
Page 377 and 378:
labour intensive farming operations
Page 379 and 380:
Given the dynamics, problems and co
Page 381 and 382:
ground realities associated with cr
Page 383 and 384:
Dhawan, B.D. (1989): Sludies in Irr
Page 385 and 386:
Kothari, Rajni, (1989): Politics an
Page 387 and 388:
Vaidyanathan, A (1999): Water Resou
Page 389 and 390:
Ghosh, Prabir De, Budhadeb (1998):
Page 391 and 392:
Nair, Sukumaran, M.K. (1999): 'Rura
Page 393 and 394:
Varadan, K,~ (1999): 'Estimation <s
Page 395 and 396:
GOK (1967b): Evaluation of<
Page 397 and 398:
Ferrer. A.M., .L.e. Lucero (1988):
Page 399 and 400:
Suresh, K.A. (2000): 'Group Managem
Page 401 and 402:
Tomlinson, B.R. (1992): 'The Indian
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