economics of on-farm development - Institute for Social and ...

,
ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT: A STUDY ~ I
OF MAJOR IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN KERALA
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE,
THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS,
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE, MYSORE.
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS
P. K. VISWANATHAN
ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS UNIT
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE
BANGALORE - 560 072
•
JULY 2001

Tele 080-3215468, 3215519
GRAMS 'ECOSOCI', Bangalore - 560040
FAX 91-80-3217008
E-Mail admn@iseckar.nic.in
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE
Nagarabhavi P.O.: BANGALORE-560 072
CERTIFICATE
I certify that I have guided and supervised the conduct <strong>of</strong> the study and
writing <strong>of</strong> the present thesis, titled, "Economics <strong>of</strong> On-Farm
Development: A Study <strong>of</strong> Major Irrigation Projects in Kerala", completed
by Mr. P K Viswanathan, who worked on the topic at the Institute for
Social and Economic Change, Bangalore.
I also certify that this study has not previously formed the basis for the
award <strong>of</strong> any Degree, Diploma or Associate Fellowship <strong>of</strong> the University
<strong>of</strong> Mysore or <strong>of</strong> the Institute for Social and Economic Change or any other
University or Institution.
Date: 16/1/ ",&61
rW fP0lL-~~~~
~ature <strong>of</strong> the uperVisor
~. M. Venkata Reddy)

DEC LARA TION
I declare that the thesis titled "Economics <strong>of</strong> On-Farm Development":
A Study <strong>of</strong> Major Irrigation Projects in Kerala", is the result <strong>of</strong> my
own work carried out at the Institute for Social and Economic Change,
, .
under the guidance and supervision <strong>of</strong> Dr. M Venkata Reddy, Associate
Pr<strong>of</strong>essor, Ecological Economics Unit, ISEC, Bangalore. This has not,
either wholly or in part, been submitted for any other degree or diploma.
Due acknowledgments have been made whenever anything has been
borrowed from other sources.
, .
(PKVi.an)
,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It has really been a great privilege that have been able to come all the way from a
remote village in Kerala and be part <strong>of</strong>/SEC for doing my doctoral work under the
guidance and supervision <strong>of</strong> Dr. M Venkata Reddy I'm extremely gratejiil to Dr. M.
Venkata Reddy for suggesting me to work on a topic <strong>of</strong> high relevance in irrigation
developmeni literature and motivating me to think on the issues pertinent to water
re.sources development. Without his constant encouragement and moral support, this
work would not have assumed this shape.
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. T R. Sathish Chandran and Dr. P. V. She nay
former Directors and Dr. M Govinda Rao, the present Director <strong>of</strong> ISEC fur
providing me adequate institutional support during the course <strong>of</strong> the study
I thank Dr. Ninan and Dr. MR. Narayana for <strong>of</strong>fering suggestions and
modifications as panel members during my pre-submission seminar. I also thank all
the faculty members <strong>of</strong> ISEC for their encouragement and academic interactions on
many occasions. Special thanks are due to Pr<strong>of</strong> B.S Bhargava, Pr<strong>of</strong> M. Prahlada
A char, Pr<strong>of</strong> Seetharamu, Pr<strong>of</strong> Rayappa, Sill!. Vani, Dr. Rajasekhar, Dr. Maathai,
AI Vivekananda, Dr. Johnson Samuel, Dr. Sharad Lele, Dr. Deshpande and Dr.
K V Raju.
f also thank the Academic Staff at the Department <strong>of</strong> Economics and the
Administrative Staj! at the University <strong>of</strong> Mysore .Ii)r their help in the sllccessfiil
completion <strong>of</strong> this work.
During the course <strong>of</strong> my study, f have benefited from the interactions with Pr<strong>of</strong>
M V. Nadkarni and Pr<strong>of</strong> R Maria Saleth and f thank them for <strong>of</strong>fering critical
inputs in furthering the study at various stages. I'm extremely grateful to Pr<strong>of</strong> B. D.
Dhawan for giving me valuable suggestions on many occasions and painstakingly
going through some <strong>of</strong> the chapters. I have immensely benefited by the discussions
with Pr<strong>of</strong> Kaushik Basu, during the final stage <strong>of</strong> the work. I sincerely thank Pr<strong>of</strong>
Basu for commenting on one <strong>of</strong> the chapters. The discussions with Pr<strong>of</strong> T Krishna
Kumar and Dr. A. Damodaran have been useful and f extend my sincere thanks to
him.
1 place on record my sincere thanks to my teacher Mr. Baby Antony for his care and
concern for me since the days <strong>of</strong> my post-graduation and introducing me to CDS,
where f had my Harisree in the pursuit <strong>of</strong> research. At CDS, f thank Dr. KJ Joseph,
Dr. (Mrs.) Mridul Eapen, Dr. KK Subrahmanian, Dr. D. Narayana, Dr. Chandan
Mukherjee, Dr. Mohanan Pillai, Dr. K Pushpangadan and Dr. E. T Mathew for
encouraging me. A special word <strong>of</strong> thanks is due to Dr. V. Sallihakumar for
extending me support and encouragement during my fieldwork. f also thank my
friends at CDS, Sunil, Dennis, Bhaskar, Sanjith, Suresh, Azeez, Hari and Kurup. I
also thank the library staff at the CDS, especially, Sri. Anil Kumar.

I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozhikode for the velY useful and constructive
suggestions on my work and giving me an opportunity to participate in the training
programme on Water Management. f sincerely thank Dr. KA. Suresh and Dr.
(Mrs.) Molly Suresh, Kerala Agriculture University. Vellanikkara. for showing
brotherly concern and encouraging me to pursue academics. Thanks are due to Dr.
A.M Jose, KAU,for introducing me to fSEC f thank Sri. H. Narayanaswamy, Chief
Engineer (Rtd.) and Sri. Kartha, Asst. Ex. Eng.. Kallada Irrigation Project and Mr.
Ani/kumar and Mr. Raghunath. Peechi Irrigation Project for helping me access the
project level information and data sources. f Sincerely pay my tributes to Sri. G.
Somasekharan Nair (Rtd. Director, Bureau <strong>of</strong> Economics and Statistics), who
<strong>of</strong>fered me all possible help in my work, till his untimely death. I also thank Dr. KN.
Syamasundaran Nair, former Vice-Chancellor, Kerala Agriculture University for
providing me with some very useful information. I remember the timely help
rendered by Sajuchellan for making me access to the Kerala Legislative Assembly
Library.
A special word <strong>of</strong> thanks is due to Sri. Kurup Sir and wife for giving me bread,
butter and shelter during the first phase <strong>of</strong> my survey in the Kallada irrigation
project. Also, I'm thankful to Sri. Georgekutty, President, and the inmates <strong>of</strong>
Pazhakulam Social Service Society (PASSS). for providing me a comfortable stay
during the second phase <strong>of</strong> my fieldwork in the Kallada project. f sincerely thank my
respondents in the Peechi and Kallada project areas for giving me a patient
listening to me.
Coming back to ISEC, I thank all the staff althe library and administration at ISEC
for facilitating my study Special thanks are due to Sri. KS Narayana, Sri.
Ramachandran. Mrs. Maragret. Mrs. Santha Kumari, Sri. H. S Sadananda, and Sri.
B.S Krishna Moorthy for rendering me help in various capacities.
I cannot leave back the sweet memories <strong>of</strong> fSEC life nourished by my friends Srijil.
Arun, Samal, Mallick, Raphael. Vibha. Sudha. Shambhavi and Anita and f
remember them all. I also thank Joseph, Sekhar, Mohanasundaram. Venkat, Govind
and Rajendran for their encouragement. f also remember my junior friends. PUlta,
Kannan, Amalendu, Gagan, Hrishikesh, Gitanjali, Mini, Deepika and Binita on this
occasion. While Subodh. Sutapa and Lija extended wholehearted support in my
endeavor. f have really been touched by the affection and the real help rendered by
Jyothis and Jeena during the final stages <strong>of</strong> the work. f have no words to express my
sincere thanks to them. I thank Mr. Krishna Chandran and Sat ish Kamath for
helping me through hardware solutions. My special thanks are due to Sri. ftagi. who
gave me nice company during my stay in fSEC and random visits, later on. I
sincerely thank Sri. V.S Parthasarathy and Anil Mascarenhas for the meticulollS
reading through the chapters.
f have immensely benefited by consulting the libraries at the CDS, the Legislative
Assembly lihrary in Tril'andrum; KERf, Peechi, KAU. Vellanikkara; and the Me.
University. Kollayam: CIVRDM and the fIAf. Kozhikode and f thank all the staff <strong>of</strong>
these libraries.

At the Rubber Research Institute, I have many faces to remember and express my
gratitude. I thank Dr. N.M Mathew, Director (Research), RRII, for enabling me
pursue my studies while on job. I am extremely gratefol to Dr. Tharian George,
Deputy Director (Economics), for his constant encouragement and inspiration as
also for his valuable suggestions on some <strong>of</strong> the chapters. My sincere thank.s are due
to Mohan, v.P., Lekshmi, Toms Joseph, Rajasekharan, Sree Vidya and Ammachi for
always giving me a feel at home. ! specially thank Mrs. Binni Chandy for her
meticulous reading through some portion <strong>of</strong> the thesis. Also, I thank Anish, Biju,
Liza, Ramesh and Naveen at the Statistics Division, RRII, for their timely help in
doing away with the Micros<strong>of</strong>t problems. I thank all the staff at the administration
and the accounts section at the RRI/.
Last, but not the least, I have no words to express my sincere gratitude to my
mother, who toiled her life in bringinK me up, never making me feel sorry about my
father's premature death, a month before I was born. I place on record, my sincere
thanks to my brothers, sisters, in-laws and all the beloved kith and kin for their great
concern and encouragement and giving me all possible help during my studies.
Suma has always been a real source <strong>of</strong> inspiration and relief during the entire
process and I have all wholehearted love and care to spare for her. With great
affection and gratitude. I dedicate this life lanK ambition <strong>of</strong> mine to the living
memory <strong>of</strong> my brother-in-law. Sri- Adattu Parameswaran Nair. who left us in
between while the study was raking this shape.
PKV~~

CONTENTS
Chapter 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
L5
1.6
Tables
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Introduction
LIST OF CONTENTS
Development <strong>of</strong> Irrigation Systems in India
The Problems And Status Of Irrigation
Development
Command Area Development Authority:
Functions and Problems
Irrigation Development in Kerala
Need for the Study
Organisation <strong>of</strong> the Study
Public Investment in Irrigation under Five Year
Plan in India
Development and Utilisation <strong>of</strong> Irrigation
Potential Under the Plans
Status <strong>of</strong> CAD Progr

2.4 Irrigation and Agricultural Development in Kerala 71
Chapter 3
Objectives, Methodology and Analytical
Framework
79-102
3.1 Scope and Objectives <strong>of</strong> the study 81
3.2 Relevance <strong>of</strong> OFD 89
3.3 Analytical Framework 92
Charts
3.1
Processes and Steps followed in the Selection <strong>of</strong>
study Area and Sample Farms
86
3.2 Water Institutions and Agriculture Development:
Alternate paradigms
94
3.3
Explaining the Failure <strong>of</strong> Water Institutions in
Kerala
98
Chapter 4 A Pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> Study Area and Sample Households 103-132
4.1 Peechi Irrigation Project 103
4.2
The Kallada Irrigation and Tree Crops Development
Project
I 10
4.3 Pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> Sample Holdings and Farmers 122
4.1 Envisaged Cropping Pattern in Kallada Command 116
4.2
Distribution <strong>of</strong> Sample Farms in the Kallada
Command Area
123
4.3
Distribution <strong>of</strong> Sample Farms in Peechi Command
area
124
4.4
Distribution <strong>of</strong> Operational holdings in the study
districts
125
4.5
Characteristics <strong>of</strong> Sample Farm Households in
Kallada Project
126
4.6
Characteristics <strong>of</strong> Sample Farm Households in
Peechi Irrigation Project
127
4.7
Location-wise Average Holding Size in the
Command Areas
127
4.8
Distribution <strong>of</strong> Working Population in the Case
Study Regions vis-ii-vis State
128
"

4.9
Occupational Status <strong>of</strong> Sample Farmers in Peechi
and Kallada Projects
129
4.10
Occupational Status <strong>of</strong> Household Memebrs <strong>of</strong>
Sample Farmers in Peechi and Kallada Projects
130
4.11 Age Classification <strong>of</strong> Sample Farmers in Kallada 130
Charts
Chart 4.1 Functioning <strong>of</strong> MCS 133
Maps
4.1 Location <strong>of</strong> Peechi Irrigation Project 104
4.2 Location <strong>of</strong> Kallada Irrigation Project 105
4.3 Peechi Ayacut 107
4.4 Kallada Ayacut 112
Appendix
4.1 Physical and Technical Characteristics <strong>of</strong> KIP & PIP 132
Chapter 5
Dynamics <strong>of</strong>Irrigation and Agricultural
Development in Kerala
5. I Irrigation Development under Five Year Plans 135
5.2 Irrigation and Agricultural Development in Kerala 148
5.3
Tables
Organisational Aspects <strong>of</strong> Irrigation Development in
Kerala
5.1 Plan-wise Public Investment in Irrigation projects 136
5.2A
5.2B
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Completed Major and Medium Irrigation Projects in
Kerala
Ongoing Major and Medium Irrigation Projects in
Kerala
Physical and Financial Performance <strong>of</strong> Completed
Projects, 1995-96
Physical and Financial Performance <strong>of</strong> Ongoing
Projects, 1998-99
Growth Rates in Cropped Area and Indicators <strong>of</strong>
Irrigation Development in Kerala, 1952-1997
Trends in Crop-wise Area in Kerala, 1960-61 to
1997-98
134-201
172
137
138
142
143
147
lSI
•
iii

5.7
Changes in Relative Share <strong>of</strong> Major Crops in Kerala,
1960 to 1998
5.8 Paddy Area Converted in Irrigation Projects 159
5.9
Decline in Area in Taluks Covered under Major
Irrigation Projects, 1966-67 to 1986-87
5.10 Land Use Pattern in Completed Irrigation Projects 164
5.11
Envisaged Cropping Pattern in the Peechi and
Malampuzha Projects
5.12 Trends in Crop-wise Irrigation Ratio, 1981 to 1997 167
5.13
5.14
5.15
Trends in Area and Productivity <strong>of</strong> Important Crops
in the CAD Projects
Season-wise Mean Yield <strong>of</strong> Paddy in CAD Projects,
1985-86 to 1997-98
Rise in Labour and Material Costs in Construction,
1959-60 to 1999
5.16 Major F actors Causing Cost Escalation 183
5.17 Revision <strong>of</strong> Estimates <strong>of</strong> Irrigation Projects 184
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.21 a
5.22
5.23
Appendix
5.1
5.2
Revenue and Capital Expenditure on Irrigation
Projects, 1990-91 and 1997-98
Escalation in Revenue and Capital Expenditure,
Project-wise
Major Reasons Stated in the Arbitration Awards in
Kallada Project
Estimates <strong>of</strong> Problem Identified Areas in Kuttiadi
Project
Budget Provision and Actual Expenditure in
Muvattupuzha Valley Irrigation Project
Irrigation Projects got Approval from CWC After
Work Started
State Expenditure and Revenue from Public Sector
Irrigation
Project-wise Share in Total Expenditure on
Irrigation
Share <strong>of</strong> Irrigation Projects in Total Area Under
Irrigation
153
160
165
169
171
182
187
188
191
194
196
197
198
200
200
IV

5.3
5.4
5.6
5.7
Financial Investment in Irrigation Projects- share <strong>of</strong>
Important Components
Revenue Expenditure in Irrigation Projects and Cost
Escalation in Kerala
Capital Expenditure and Cost Escalation in
Irrigation Projects in Kerala
Project-wise Revenue and Capital Expenditure,
1990-91 and 1997-98
201
20lA
20lB
2018
Chapter 6
Economics <strong>of</strong> On-Farm Development: An
Analysis
202-269
I
The status <strong>of</strong>OFD in CAD projects in Kerala: An
Aggregate Analysis
204
II
Impact <strong>of</strong> OFD: Peechi and Kallada Irrigation
Projects
240
Tables
6.1 Details <strong>of</strong> Irrigation Projects under CADA in Kerala 207
6.2
Physical and Financial Targets and Achievements <strong>of</strong>
CAD Schemes, 1991-1997
210
6.3
Physical Achievement <strong>of</strong> CAD Programmes Related
to Capacity Building Farmers, 1992-93 to 1997-98
213
6.4
Farmers Training Programmes by CADA: Financial
and Physical performance. 1990-91 to 1996-97
214
6.5
Implementation <strong>of</strong> CAD Programmes and Financial
Commitments, Project-wise, 1985-86 to 1994-95
215
6.6
Disbursement <strong>of</strong> Subsidy to Small and Marginal
Farmers under CAD Programme 1990-91 to 1996-97
218
6.7
Project-wise Benefit Cost Analysis for the Period
1985-86 to 1994-95
219
6.8
Share <strong>of</strong> Crops in the Net Additional Output in the
CAD projects, 1985-86 to 1994-95
220
6.9
Productivity Differences in Paddy in the Peechi
Ayacut vis-a-vis the District
223
6.10
Productivity Differences in Selected Crops in the
Peechi Ayacut vis-a-vis the District
225
6.11
Cost Benefit Analysis <strong>of</strong> Paddy in the CAD Projects
in Kerala
226
v

6.12
Impact <strong>of</strong> OFD on Crop Output in Peechi, Benefit
Cost analysis for 1985-86 to 1994-95
Details <strong>of</strong> the Revamping and Consolidation
6.13 Programme for Old Generation Irrigation Projects in 238
Kerala
Works taken up in the Peechi Project as part <strong>of</strong> the
6.14 Revamping and Consolidation Programme (1998-99 239
to 2000-0 I).
6.15
Canal Induced Groundwater Recharging in Pee chi
project
Relationship between Various Parameters with
6.16 Respect to OFD in the Peechi Project (inter- 244
correlation matrix)
6.17
6.18
6.19
6.20
6.21
6.22
Relationship between Irrigable Holding Size and
OFD Expenditure, Peechi Project
Relationship between Groundwater Recharge, Pump
Set Capacity and OFD Expenditure, Peechi Project
Costs and Returns from Different Crops in the
Peechi Project: Reach-wise (Rs. per acre)
Yield and Income Differences in Plots With and
Without OFD in the Peechi Project
Crop-wise Input Elasticities and Returns to Scale in
Pee chi Project
Status <strong>of</strong> Implementation <strong>of</strong> MCS in the Kallada
Project
6.23 Source-wise Area Irrigated in a Kallada Village 260
6.24
6.25
Farmers Benefited by MCS in the Kallada Project-
Location-wise
Percentage <strong>of</strong> Farmers Having Water Sources for
Irrigation, Including Groundwater-Location-wise
6.26 Cropping Pattern in the Kallada Study Area 263
6.27
6.28
6.29
Investment in OFD and Size <strong>of</strong> Dry holding-
I.ocation-wise
Yield and Income Differences Across the MCS and
OCS Adopted Plots in Kallada Project
Net Income from Different Crops under MCS and
OCS- Location-wise
228
243
246
246
249
251
254
260
261
261
264
265
266
VI

Figures
6.1
6.2
Chart
6.1
Appendix
6.1
District-wise CCA under CAD Projects in Kerala
Discharge <strong>of</strong> Water from Peechi Reservoir
Organisational Set up and Activities <strong>of</strong> CADA
Project-Wise Physical And Financial Performance <strong>of</strong>
CAD Programmes in Kerala, 1985-86 to 1994-95
208
223
206
268-9
Chapter 7
7.1
7.2
7.3
Tables
7.1
7.2
7.3
On-Farm Development: Determinants,
Constraints and Problems
Farmer Perceptions <strong>of</strong> OFD: A Multiple Response
Analysis
Factors Determining OFD: A Region Specific
Analysis
Constraints in the Development and Utilisation <strong>of</strong>
Water Resources for Irrigation in Kerala
Understanding <strong>of</strong> OFD Among Farmers. Peechi
Project (% <strong>of</strong> farmers)
Advantages <strong>of</strong> On Farm Development: Farmer
Responses in Peechi Project (% <strong>of</strong> farmers)
Advantages <strong>of</strong> MCS: Farmer Responses in KaIJada
(% <strong>of</strong> farmers)
270 - 313
270
282
289
271
273
274
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.9
Reasons for the Non-adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD in Kallada (%
<strong>of</strong> farmers)
275
Reasons for the Poor Performance <strong>of</strong> MCS in
Kallada Project
278
Present Status <strong>of</strong> Hydrants/ wheel Valves in Kallada 280
Farmer Responses Towards Irrigation System
Performance (% <strong>of</strong> farmers)
Determinants <strong>of</strong> OFD in Peechi Project: Regression
Results
281
286

7.11
Size-class wise and Crop-wise Average Operational
Holdings in the Kallada Command Area
291
7.12
Size-class Wise and Type -wise Average
Operational Holdings in the Peechi Command Area
292
7.13
Performance <strong>of</strong> Paddy Under Group Farming in Two
Villages <strong>of</strong> Kallada Irrigation Project, 1991
298
7.14
Trends in Wage Rates in Kerala, 1960-97 (Index <strong>of</strong>
wages, 1952 =100)
299
7.15
Trends in Agricultural Wages and Price <strong>of</strong> Paddy in
Kerala, 1983-1998
300
7.16 Purchasing Power <strong>of</strong> Paddy in Real Terms, 1956-97 301
7.17
Paddy Land Conversion in Villages in Kallada
Irrigation Command
303
7.18
Trends in Prices <strong>of</strong> Important Crops in Kerala, 1991-
92 to 1997-98
306
7.19
Productivity and Gross Income per acre <strong>of</strong> Paddy
and other Crops in Kerala, 1996-97
307
7.20
Trends in Productivity <strong>of</strong> Important Crops in Kerala,
1988-89 to 1997-98
310
7.21
Monthly Irrigation Requirement in Kallada Project
(in Mm 3 )
318
7.22 Annual Water Requirements in Peechi Project 320
Figures
7.1 Trends in Paddy Area in Kerala 302
7.2
Trends Input Use and Growth <strong>of</strong> Net Irrigated Area
in Kerala
314
Appendix
7.1
Relationship Between Various Parameters (intercorrelation
matrix) - Kallada Irrigation Project
322
7.2
Paddy Land Conversion in Study Villages in Kallada
Project (%)
323
Chapter 8 Summary and Conclusions 324-363
Bibliography 364-383
viii

Abbreviations used
ASMO
BFA's
CADA
CADP
CBIP
CCA
CDS
CI
eWC
CWRDM
FYM
GCA
GIA
IDRB
IIMI
INCOLD
IMT
KIP
KI & TCDP
LBMC
LSD
MCS
NCA
NIA
NSA
OFD
OCS
PIM
PIP
RBMC
R&C
R&D
WUAs
- Area Sown More than Once.
- Beneficiary Fanners' Associations.
- Command Area Development Agency.
- Command Area Development Programme.
- Central Board <strong>of</strong> Irrigation and Power.
- Culturable Command Area.
- Centre for Development Studies.
- Cropping Intensity.
- Central Water Commission.
- Centre for Water Resources Development and Management.
- Fann Yard Manure.
- Gross Cropped Area.
- Gross Irrigated Area.
- Irrigation and Drainage Research Board.
- International Irrigation Management Institute.
- International Council on Large Dams.
- Irrigation Management Transfer.
- Kallada Irrigation Project.
- Kallada Irrigation and Tree Crops Development Project.
- Left Bank Main Canal.
- Large Scale Demonstration.
- Minor Conveyance System.
- Net Cropped Area.
- Net Irrigated Area.
- Net sown area.
- On-Fann Development.
- Open Canal System.
- Participatory Irrigation Management.
- Peechi Irrigation Project.
- Right Bank Main Canal.
- Revamping and Consolidation.
- Research and Development.
- Water Users' Associations.
ix

Chapter 1
Introduction
The importance <strong>of</strong> irrigation for the development <strong>of</strong> agriculture on a sustainable
basis had been realised even in primitive societies. For, the fact that no grain can
ever be produced without water is a conventional wisdom. Given the limitations
<strong>of</strong> nature in providing water for cultivation <strong>of</strong> crops during periods <strong>of</strong> moisture
stress. attempts were made to harvest the rainwater during monsoon by storing in
small ponds and tanks. Irrigation is, therefore, an age-old art and technology used
successfully for the development <strong>of</strong> agriculture. Development <strong>of</strong> water
institutions for irrigation has been perceived not merely as a legacy <strong>of</strong> culture
and civilization but certainly as a socio-economic and political development
strategy I ('.lan:. 1853: Weber. 1927: Wittfogel 1957). The rationale behind the
development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems is to ensure that 'water' as a leading input in
the process l)f agricultural production enhances crop productivity per unit <strong>of</strong> area
1
and provides insurance against the periodic famines-. Ishikawa (1967) refers to
irrigation as the leading input for agricultural growth in Asian countries showing
that yield differences in the early stages <strong>of</strong> agricultural development were
principally explained by basic public investments in irrigation and water control.
'While Marx (1853) underscored the technical and organisational compulsions <strong>of</strong> water
control [Marx (1853) as cited by Wittfogel, 1957 and Chi, 1936], Weber (1927) [cited
in Chi. 1936: 73] drew a similar relationship between the necessity for irrigation and the
prominent role <strong>of</strong> bureaucracy in Ancient Egypt. West Asia ,Ind China.
2 Preventing the outhn:ak <strong>of</strong> famines and augmenting food production (Paustian, 1925:
Gustafson and Redlinger, 1971; Bhatia. 1965 and Tomlinson. 1992).

An attempt has been made in this chapter to present the development <strong>of</strong>
irrigation systems in India in a historical perspective. followed by a brief
discussion on the lssues related to deYt.:lllpment <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems at the
national level during the plan period as well as a brief sketch <strong>of</strong> lrrigation
development In Kerala. A critical assessment <strong>of</strong> the problems <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development in the post-independence period has also been attempted. which
may hopefully help in identit\ing the pl)liC\ dimensions for future development.
1.1 Development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in India
In India. the history <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> water resources for irrigation could be
broadly classified into three distinct phases. viz .. the pre-colonial. colonial and
post-colonia(! post-independence periods.
1. L 1 Pre-colonial period:
The pre-colonial period witnessed the development <strong>of</strong> traditional modes <strong>of</strong> water
harvesting with greater emphasis on indigenous technologies based on local
needs and locally available resources. The available evidence shows that
developm.:nt <strong>of</strong> such traditional watn harv.:sting systems was given importance
since the Vedic times as described in the RiKveda and also in Kautilya's
Artlw.\u.\lhru. The archival rt:cords <strong>of</strong> tht: Mauryan era reveal that Kalltilya in his
Arllw.\uslhru describt:d that tht: development <strong>of</strong> irrigation by constructing
rt:servoirs and providing assistanct: \0 private individuals in the form <strong>of</strong> suitable
sites and n.:ct:ssary matt:rials to construct irrigatilln works was one <strong>of</strong> the dlltit:s
<strong>of</strong> tht: King (Singh. 1997 27) The irrigation structureS <strong>of</strong> the Indus ValleY
Civilisation era were mostly in the form <strong>of</strong> wells, canals and tanks and were
2

catering to the needs <strong>of</strong> small household farms operated by individual households
in a highly non-cooperative environment (Allchins. 1968: 258; Fairservis, 1971).
During the Mughal 3 period, the introduction <strong>of</strong> the Persian Wheel to lift water
from the wells by using draught power had brought major changes in agricultural
productivity and consequent social change. For instance, irrigation technology
was instrumental in promoting large-scale migration and agricultural settlements
in the colonial Punjab (Habib. 1970). The rulers <strong>of</strong> the Deccan promoted the
construction and repair <strong>of</strong> tanks and diversion weirs not only for agricultural
development but also to meet the water requirements <strong>of</strong> the royal gardens
(Fukazawa, 1982). Thus. it IS
technology were widely used 111
evident that different forms <strong>of</strong> irrigation
India much before the advent <strong>of</strong> the British
(Singh. 1997: :;·n
Il istorical evidence reveals the emergence <strong>of</strong> a new class <strong>of</strong> people who
were made dependent entirely on the king to get irrigation facilities. An
exchange relationship was developed between the king and the farmers to raise
revenue, maintain his sovereignty and support the military. This seems to have
created a plural society. Thus. the state intervention in irrigation development
during the pre-colonial period has led to inequality, perhaps unintentional,
J The Canal Act (1568) <strong>of</strong> "~h"r whih: detailing the Emperor's desire to 'supply the
wants <strong>of</strong> the poor' and to establish footprints <strong>of</strong> his rule, describes that "god says, sow a
grain and reap sevenfold. 1'.h dL',ire is to reap onc·hulldn:dfuld that Illy ~wwn may
hecome wealthy and that Iht: /:I111I1Hlars (landowners) may obt;lIn double returns"
IBaker (IK49:95) as ~iteJ III l'ill~l.l. 1'!lXI.lllerc ar.: also 'IH;~iti~ r"kr

among the people and the process <strong>of</strong> alienating the peasants (who were
transformed into petty producers) from irrigation water (Singh, 1997: 29).
1.1.2 Colonial period:
The colonial period witnessed a tremendous transformation in the technology <strong>of</strong>
water harvesting and marked the beginning <strong>of</strong> the modern hydraulic civilization
based on sound civil engineering principles and bureaucratic control. With the
advent <strong>of</strong> the British rule, irrigation attained greater importance and by the time
the British withdrew, th.: country had built up an unrivalled irrigation system.
Some <strong>of</strong> the works even represented a significant contribution to the science and
technology <strong>of</strong> irrigation (GOI. 1972), Macpherson (1972), therefore, described
the harnessing <strong>of</strong> the waters <strong>of</strong> India's great rivers for irrigation as one <strong>of</strong> the
great

While there are differences <strong>of</strong> opInion about the impact <strong>of</strong> colonial
irrigation development strato:gio:s on building up <strong>of</strong> water control institutions in
India (Whitcombe. 198~:
Ali. 1988. Ludden. 1988: Gilmartin. 1994). there is
unanimity among the scholars in arguing that the colonial interests were mostly
driwn by enormous revenue potential <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in India. This is
evident from the statement hv l.t. Gen. Sir Arthur Cotton (1854). the architect <strong>of</strong>
canal cl'llstruction in British India. that 'watn in India is more valuablo: than gold
llf Australia'. Apparently. de\ e!opmo:nt <strong>of</strong> canals was reckoned as a commercial
venture This was formalised in 1879 by the sekct committee <strong>of</strong> the House <strong>of</strong>
Commons hy introducing a . productivity test'4
Whltcombe (197~) also points to the 'commercial criterion' as adopted by
the colol1la! rulers In the canal construction programmes. The transformation in
the cropping pattern from thL' production <strong>of</strong> stapk food crops to lucrative
comnl

the Indian state had followed a policy <strong>of</strong> irrigation which was beneficial to the
privileged rich landed class and through loopholes in the system. it even
managed to favour a select clientele which was close to the political. bureaucratic
and engineering conglomerate (Singh. 1997: lSI). He reiterates that the objective
<strong>of</strong> the British policy was to generate more income and interestingly, at times <strong>of</strong>
drought, the revenue collected reached phenomenal proportions (Ibid.: 53).
The colonial interest in promoting irrigation in India was not only to
cultivate commercial crops and augment the state revenue, but also to meet
certain other social obligations. For instance, irrigation projects were intended to
rehabilitate the Sikh army in the Punjab, which was disbanded in 1849 (Aloys,
1967; Islam, 1997). The construction <strong>of</strong> canals provided the soldiers with
employment and they were then settled in vast areas <strong>of</strong> arable land by
introducing irrigation. Islam' 5 (1997) study traces back to the 'development
ethos' that promulgated the colonial powers in patronising massIve canal
construction programmes In the state. The 'relative dynamism' <strong>of</strong> the state in
agrarian transformation was attributed to the favourable factors that the state
inherited under the colonial patronage in terms <strong>of</strong> massive public investment for
infrastructure development, viz" construction <strong>of</strong> canals, roads and railways. The
massive canal construction and the subsequent colonisation 5 programmes have
--.-----------------------------------------
cent and 6.5 per cenl in different periods (Public Works Comminee. 1879: GOI. 1972: 249-
51 ).
5 The colonisation programme as introduced in the Punjab province differed from the
rest <strong>of</strong> India, ill tlul. there was no or little resident pllpuiation in the Crown land (vast
tracts <strong>of</strong> unou;lIpied land taken over by the British for canal construction and
colonisation programme) and it was necessary to physically transfer communities from
elsewhere tll senic dn\\n along the canal sides.
6

een effective in revolutionizing the economic transformation <strong>of</strong> the state. The
recommendations <strong>of</strong> the Famine Commission (1880) and the Indian Irrigation
Commission 6 (1901-03) highlighted the importance <strong>of</strong> canal construction as one
<strong>of</strong> the important means <strong>of</strong> protection from frequently occurring famines.
In doing so, the British irrigation schemes were said to be based on a
sketchy understanding <strong>of</strong> agricultural systems, with more emphasis on ci vi I
engineering, which was alien to the concept <strong>of</strong> irrigation science <strong>of</strong> India
(Sengupta. 1985).
Notwithstanding the divergent views over time about the colonial interest
in irrigation development, it had many dimensions. " .... on a policy level, it was
simultaneously linked with famine prevention, revenue stability, the settling <strong>of</strong>
unruly tribes. expansion <strong>of</strong> cultivation. extended culti\'ation <strong>of</strong> cash crops.
enhanced taxable capacity. improved cultivation practices and political stability"
(Stone, 1984: 9).
While the military civil eng1l1eers designed, constructed and maintained
irrigation works. the bureaucrats involved themselves in planning, generating
funds and collecting revenue. This process deprived the local farmers and
landlords <strong>of</strong> control over water and resulted in an increasing dependence on the
colonial state (Singh. 1997: II). Alongside, 'traditionalism' evolved as a critique
<strong>of</strong> the British irrigation policy and propagated the traditional technologies <strong>of</strong>
('With respect to Punjah. the Irri~:ltioll C(lllll1lissioll (olltl'lllkd that "it is here that the
greak,t prllgress h:b hc'c'" III:lde III IITlg:ltiOIl ,,\Orb <strong>of</strong>thi, (perelllli;dl el.,,< :llld III ,pile
<strong>of</strong> this fact, it is hen: lhat there IS still the greatest field for their further e'pall,i()11
(Report <strong>of</strong> the Indian Irrigatioll COllll11issioll, 1901-03: I).
7

water harvesting 7 by arguing that these systems have evolved over time through a
dialectical interaction with the geography, ecology, culture and people <strong>of</strong> the area
(Ibid: 15). In contrast, the radical alternatives emphasised that irrigation is an
important factor in agricultural production and. thereby, the social compositions
<strong>of</strong> its use. distribution and access and inter-regional linkages are very important
considerations.
In short, as explained earlier. the colonial state policies in irrigation over
time haye been framed to meet the requirements <strong>of</strong> specific interests. These have
ranged from the need for the expansion and consolidation <strong>of</strong> empires, the
interests <strong>of</strong> the upper castes and the landed, the colonial revenue and allied
requirements and in the post independence India the needs <strong>of</strong> the landed educated
elites like the engineers, bureaucrats. politicians, contractors and industrialists
(Singh. 1997: 239-40)
Thus. it is evident that the British imperialist interest in undertaking
massiye canal construction activities was mainly guided by the revenue potential
<strong>of</strong> the irrigation works. For instance. by 1892. the British had constructed nearly
~3800 miles <strong>of</strong> canals and distributaries in India irrigating about 13.4 million
acres at a capital cost <strong>of</strong> Rs. 382.6 million. yielding a net revenue <strong>of</strong> 4 to 5 per
cent per annum on the investmcnt (Singh. 1')')7). By 1945-46. about 7~656 miles
01 canais and distributaries ,cr\cd ahout 32.X million acres. one quarter <strong>of</strong>
India's cropped area. i\ total "I I{s. 1 )~.f
million had been expel1lkd nn the
syst

evenue in gross receipts (less working expenses) <strong>of</strong> Rs. 138.3 million, about Rs.
4.2 per acre (Whitcombe, 1982: 677). It is no doubt that strong foundations were
laid by the British for the massive edifice <strong>of</strong> modern irrigation systems in India.
1.1.3 The Post-independence period:
The irrigation sector witnessed new vistas <strong>of</strong> development during the postcolonial
or post-independence period. A major shift in the paradigm <strong>of</strong>
development had taken place with the emergence <strong>of</strong> big storage dams. The
increasingly high requirements <strong>of</strong> food by the burgeoning population necessitated
the building <strong>of</strong> dams to expand the irrigated area, besides encouraging and using
traditionally built irrigation systems. This had led to state intervention on a larger
scale followed by an explosion in investment in irrigation systems. Subsequently,
the irrigation potential increased from 22.6 million ha. in 1950 (pre-plan) to 89.6
million ha. by 1996-97 under major and medium irrigation projects (CWe.
1998 ).
The Central Water Commission has estimated India's total water
availability at 2301 km 3 . Out <strong>of</strong> this. surface water resources are estimated at
1869 km 3 and rechargeable groundwater resources at 432 km 3 . It is expected that
o'nly 690 km 3 <strong>of</strong> surface water resources (out <strong>of</strong> 1869 km 3 ) can be utilised by
storage. The estimated water utilisation is expected to be 1122 km 3 . At present.
the storage capacity <strong>of</strong> all dams in Im.!!:l is 174 km 3
The projects under
construction will have a storage capacity <strong>of</strong> about 75 km' (CWe. 1998). As <strong>of</strong>
now. there are 40 I 0 dams in India, excluding thust: dams under conslructiun.
--------------------------------------------
(l'n7): SCllgupta(19S2; 1985; 1991: 19'),). i\tlSra(I')')3; 1(95).
9

(World Register <strong>of</strong> Dams, 1998) to harvest available v.ater resources. Out <strong>of</strong>
these. about 250 dams are <strong>of</strong> pre-independence vint~gc. ~bout 75 dams art: nHHe
than 90 years old. 300 are more than 50 years old and 30()() art: bcllm 25 > c~r~
old.
The investment on irrigation development has increased significantly In
the successive Five Year Plans. There was. however, a marked decline III
investment after the Sixth Plan 8 . In absolute terms, the investment in irrigation
infrastructure development in India has increased more than 60 times from Rs.
446 crores in the First Plan (1951-56) to Rs.28391 crores in the Eighth Plan
(1992-97) (Table 1.1). Out <strong>of</strong> the total expenditure on irrigation and flood
control. more than 55 per cent had been earmarked for the development <strong>of</strong> major
and medium irrigation projects during most <strong>of</strong> the plan periods except during the
Third and Fourth Plan periods. The cost per hectare <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential created
under major and medium projects has increased by almost 29 times (from Rs.
1200 per ha. during the First Plan to Rs. 35081 during the Seventh Plan). while it
is 10 times in the case <strong>of</strong> minor irrigation projects (from Rs. 691 to Rs. 7331
during the same period).
H The oUllay ,HI irrigallnll \\hich cl)nstituted 23 per cent nf the t,)lal Plan outlay in the
First Plan has declined to 10 per (ent in the Sixth Plan. 7.6 per (ent in the Seventh Plan
and 7.5 per cent in the Ei"dlth Plan. This decline in public i'1\CSllllelit in irrigation sub­
,,-,clor has be(l)nIC a Illajnr Sl\llrCe ,)f debale in vie\\ <strong>of</strong> the IIIlj1I""llllilS that would have
on the CXl

Table 1.1: Public investment in irrigation undel'" Five YeaI'" Plan in India
(Rs. crol'"es)
Plan Period
Major/ Cost! ha.
Maj.l
Minor CAD Grand med. (Rs.)#
Med.
Irrig. Prog. total$ (% Maj.l
Irrig.
Minor
share) med.
I Plan (1951-56) 380 66 ----- 460 83 1200 691
II Plan (1956-61) 380 161 ----- 590 64 1810 2012
III Plan (1961-66) 581 443 ----- I I 10 52 2526 2014
Ann. Plans (1966-69) 434 561 ----- 1039 42 2893 2805
IV Plan (1969-74) 1237 1174 ----- 2583 48 4758 2609
V Plan (1974-79) 2442 14 II 122 4274 57 6075 3713
Ann.Plans (1979-80) 2056 987 88 3359 61 10936 3651
VI Plan (1980-85) 7516 3240 521 11873 63 21610 4544
VII Plan (1985-90) 11107 6427 1428 19904 55 35081 7331
VIII Plan (1992-97) 22414 5977 2510 32525 69 ----. -----
Note: S - Includes expenditure on flood control.
Source: GOI. various Plan documents; # Ashok K. Mitra 1997: 19.
The ultimate irrigation potential in the country, both surface and
groundwater, is 139.89 million ha. The cumulative irrigation potential expected
to be achieved by 1998-99 is 92.79 million ha. The potential actually utilised was
83.66 million ha. by the end <strong>of</strong> 1998-99 (GOL 2000). Of the total irrigation
potential created. 34.68 million ha. (37 %) is contributed by major and medium
surface irrigation projects and 58.11 million ha. (63 %) by minor irrigation
projects. In the Ninth Plan, a target IS set for creating additional irrigation
capacity <strong>of</strong> 17.05 million ha. compnsIng 9.81 million ha. from major and
medium irrigation projects and 7.24 million ha. from minor irrigation projects
(GOI. 2000).
The massive investment in irrigation and the consequent increase in the
number <strong>of</strong> projects has obviously !cd to a perceptible increase ill food security.
Food grain production increased from 51 million tonnes ill 1951 to 199 million
tonnes by 1997, registenng ~I
L'llll1pound annual growth rale <strong>of</strong> 3 per cent. The
incremental employment gencratcd by the irrigation potcntial creatcd during the
11

Eighth Plan has been estimated by the government at 8.7 million man years. A
significant inverse relation between the incidence <strong>of</strong> poverty9 and the extent <strong>of</strong>
irrigation development has been found in several cross-sectional studies based on
agro-climatic zones (Rao el ai, 1988; Saleth. 1997). Furthermore. forward and
backward linkages <strong>of</strong> irrigation development across the regions and sectors tend
to have an impact on employment and income, apart from several multiplier
effects.
1.2 The problems and status <strong>of</strong> irrigation development
In spite <strong>of</strong> the huge investments for the development <strong>of</strong> large-scale canal-based
irrigation projects in the country, the results have not been encouraging enough
in terms <strong>of</strong> achievement <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential on the one hand and the overall
performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems on the other. The Sixth Plan document has
admitted that huge investments made in irrigation has yielded disappointingly
low results, as is evident from the national average food production per ha. for
irrigated
lands, which was 1.7 tonnes <strong>of</strong> grain as against 4.5 tonnes at the
international level. Moreover. the gap between irrigation potential created and
utilised over the plan periods. has increased. which has led to the questionable
validity <strong>of</strong> the thrust laid on major and medium irrigation projects. A number <strong>of</strong>
problems and operational level constraints adversely affecting the performance
9 While the incidence <strong>of</strong> poverty is as high as 69 per cent in districts with less than 10
per cent <strong>of</strong> cropped area undn irrigation. it is about 26 per Cellt in districts where
irrigation covers more than 50 p

<strong>of</strong> irrigation systems seem to have emerged over time. Some <strong>of</strong> the widely
debated problems are as follows:
a) widespread under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential;
b) significant lag in the completion <strong>of</strong> the irrigation projects, resulting in time
and cost over- runs;
c) inadequate and inequitable distribution <strong>of</strong> water across the different locations
<strong>of</strong> the command areas;
d) large-scale violation <strong>of</strong> cropping patterns leading to water shortage and
distribution problems;
e) lack <strong>of</strong> effective maintenance <strong>of</strong> water distribution networks as well as
hydraul ic structures;
f) lack <strong>of</strong> scientific land development and water management measures;
g) environmental problems like water logging, salinity and alkalinity have
adversely affected the fertility <strong>of</strong> the soil, leading to a decline in productivity
potential over time, apart from giving rise to the spread <strong>of</strong> waterborne
diseases;
h) non-pricing or under-pricing <strong>of</strong> irrigation water and delivery services.
leading to non-recovery <strong>of</strong> operational e:-:penses; and
i) inadequate and improper policies on rehabilitation and resettlement <strong>of</strong>
project-Jtlectt:d pt:ople (PAP).
13

One <strong>of</strong> the most important widely discussed problems <strong>of</strong> major and medium
irrigation works is the widening gap between the irrigation potential created and
utilised in the successive plan periods. which is termed as under-utilisation <strong>of</strong>
irrigation potential created. The cumulative statistics on the status <strong>of</strong> utilisation
<strong>of</strong> irrigation potential already created against the ultimate irrigation potential
show very poor results. While the <strong>of</strong>ficially reported gap as between irrigation
potential created and utilised (Table 1.2) is in the range <strong>of</strong> 14-15 per cent in the
case <strong>of</strong> major! medium irrigation projects, the overall trends suggest that India
could so far achieve only 57 per cent <strong>of</strong> the ultimate irrigation potential. The
utilisation rate is further low at 47 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> major! medium
projects.
Table 1.2; Development and utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential under the plans
(Cumulative area in million ha.)
Major and Medium Irrigation Total Irrigation Maj./
Plan periods
med.(%)
PC PU PU (%) PC PU share in
total #
Pre-plan (Till 1951) 9.70 9.70 100.00 22.60 22.60 42.92
1 Plan (1951-56) 12.20 10.98 90.00 26.26 25.04 43.85
11 Plan (1956-61) 14.33 13.05 91.07 29.08 27.80 46.95
III Plan (1961-66) 16.57 15.17 91.55 33.57 32.17 4i .15
Annual Plan (1966-69) 18.10 16.75 92.54 37.10 35.75 46.85
IV Plan (1969-74) 20.70 18.69 90.28 44.20 42.19 44.30
V Plan (1974-78) 24.70 22.11 89.51 52.02 48.46 45.63
Annual Plan (1978-80) 26.61 22.64 85.08 56.61 52.64 43.00
VI Plan (1980-85) 27.70 23.57 85.09 65.22 58.82 40.08
VII Plan (1985-90) 29.92 25.47 8512 76.53 68.59 37.14
Annual Plan (1990-92) 30.74 26.32 85.62 81.09 72.86 36.12
Eighth Plan ( 1992-97) 32.96 28.44 86.28 89.56 80.75 35.22
lJltilllate Irri;oation potential (M ha.) 5846 139.89 41.79_
Utilisatioll:h % <strong>of</strong>llitilllatc potential .j X. 64 57.72
. .
N()te: I'C - Potclltlal (reated; I'll - PotcntlallJtlilscd
..
.
# Share <strong>of</strong> Illajor/ lllCdilllll irrigation sector in the total irrigation potential utilised.
Source' COlllpikd frnlll (jOI (2000). Ninth Fivc Year Plan (1997-2002).
14

The performance <strong>of</strong> major irrigation projects was, therefore,
unsatisfactory. Apart from the nuances <strong>of</strong> the definition <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential
created. the fact remains that potential created was unutilised or misutilised. for
various reasons. needing further empirical analysis. Despite the lion's share <strong>of</strong>
the investment in irrigation sector taken by the major and medium projects, its
contribution to the total potential was lower than that <strong>of</strong> minor projects.
This attracted the attention <strong>of</strong> planners and they started analysing the
problems and constraints, if any, contributing to the alleged inefficiency <strong>of</strong>
irrigation systems.
The Irrigation Commission (GO!, 1972) had gone in detail into the
problem and attributed the under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential to the
following causes:
a) deficiencies in the design and implementation <strong>of</strong> projects. including
completion <strong>of</strong> reservoirs ahead <strong>of</strong> canal works;
b) lack <strong>of</strong> field channels to carry water from the government-created irrigation
outlets to the individual farms;
c) inadequate attention given to proper development <strong>of</strong> land; and
d) poor planning <strong>of</strong> cropping patterns suited to the varying soil and drainage
conditions in different parts <strong>of</strong> the command area.
Besides. th~
National Commission on Agriculture in its interim Report (GOI,
1974) had als() highlighted the lower levels <strong>of</strong> productivity <strong>of</strong> irrigated
agriculture and ~ll1phasised
the need for modernising irrigation systems and
15

integrated development <strong>of</strong> command areas for improving water use efficiency <strong>of</strong>
existing irrigation systems. Subsequently, the Commission suggested setting up
an agency to integrate various programmes with respect to irrigation sector
development. Accordingly, the Command Area Development Agency (CADA)
was set up during 1974-75 to reduce the time lag between creation and utilisation
<strong>of</strong> irrigation potential.
1.3 Command Area Development Authority: Functions and Problems
The primary objective <strong>of</strong> CADA was to improve water use efficiency through
"integrated area development in the irrigation command, including modernisation
<strong>of</strong> the distribution system, the provision <strong>of</strong> drainage and the maintenance and
operation <strong>of</strong> both the distribution and drainage systems' (GO!, 1984: 20).
Initially. 60 major and medium irrigation projects were brought into the ambit
<strong>of</strong> CADA. which, later increased to 203 projects with a total command area <strong>of</strong>
about 21.4 million ha in 22 States and 2 UTs. As per the Report <strong>of</strong> the Ninth Five
Year Plan (GO!, 2000). the potential created till March 1995 was 14.95 million
ha and the utilisation was 11.98 million ha. (80.14 %). The cumulative
expenditure on CADP till the end <strong>of</strong> the Eighth Plan has been Rs. 5238.79 crores.
The objectives and functions <strong>of</strong> CADA, as laid out in the original CAD
programme (GO!, 1984). were. broadly, as follows:
1) Modernisation. maintenance and efficient operation <strong>of</strong> the irrigation system
up to the outlet <strong>of</strong> one cLlsec capacity.
2) Development and maintenance <strong>of</strong> the 1ll~lin and intermediate drainage system.
16

3) Development <strong>of</strong> field channels and field drains within the command <strong>of</strong> each
outlet.
4) Land levelling on an outlet command basis for the type <strong>of</strong> irrigated crop that
is to be grown.
5) Consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdings and redrawing <strong>of</strong> field boundaries on an outlet
command basis.
6) Enforcement <strong>of</strong> a proper system <strong>of</strong> 'Warabandi' and fair distribution <strong>of</strong> water
to individual fields.
7) Development <strong>of</strong> groundwater to supplement surface irrigation,
8) Selection and introduction <strong>of</strong> suitable cropping pattern.
9) Supply <strong>of</strong> all inputs and senices including credit.
10) Development <strong>of</strong> marketing and processing facilities and communications.
II) Preparing individual programmes <strong>of</strong> action for small and marginal farmers
and agricultural labourers as part <strong>of</strong> the master plan.
12) Diversification <strong>of</strong> agriculture and development activities like animal
husbandry, farm forestry, poultry, etc.
13) Soil conservation and afforestation, where necessary.
14)Town planning.
Till: Command Art:a lkvt:lopllll:nt Programme (CADP) was, tht:refore,
meant for execution <strong>of</strong> On-Farm Developm..:nt (OrD) works sil11ultan":llusly with
the release <strong>of</strong> water for irrigation in the canals. For, it was realised that
17

inadequate attention given to OFD works in canal command areas was mainly
responsible for the alleged under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential created.
The Central Water Commission defines On-Farm Development as follows:
"On-Farm Development (OFD) is an integrated process <strong>of</strong>
levelling and shaping the land for smooth flow <strong>of</strong> water,
constructing field irrigation channels, providing drainage
facilities, forming. the farm roads and realigning the field
boundaries through appropriate consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdings" (001,
1984).
Thus, OFD includes works, such as field channels, land levelling, field
drains and conjunctive use <strong>of</strong> surface and groundwater sources; introduction <strong>of</strong>
rotational system <strong>of</strong> water distribution (RWS) to ensure equitable and timely
supply <strong>of</strong> water to each and every farm holding; and evolving and propagating
crop patterns and water management practices appropriate to each command
area. Other ancillary activities like construction <strong>of</strong> link roads, godowns and
market centres, arrangements for supply <strong>of</strong> inputs and credits, agricultural
extension and development <strong>of</strong> groundwater for conjunctive use are also taken up
as part <strong>of</strong> the relevant sectoral programmes in the state plan.
The objectives <strong>of</strong> CADA as mentioned above, are said to be very
comprehensive and would help in improving water use efficiency at the field
level, if implemented properly. But in reality, the functions and effectiveness <strong>of</strong>
CADA in improving water use efficiency seem to be far from satisfactory. It is
stated that:
.. Fmlll IiiI' experience gained in implementing the CAD progralllme.
il II/ay he mentioned thaI allhollgh Ih.: CAD programme envisages (//]
inlL'grated programme covering \'(/riolls items, it is felt (hat for fhe
presenl, this programme shoilid inclllde primarily on On-Farm
DeI'elopment (OFD) work ami Ihat investment on items like roads,
markels, etc., should he deferred/or Ihe present" (001, 1984: 29).
18

Accordingly, the scope <strong>of</strong> the CAD programmes has been narrowed down to
include On-Farm Development alone. As per the newly proposed CAD
programmes, the CAD activities include:
I) On-Farm Development (OFD) works which involve:
a) development <strong>of</strong> field channels and field drains within the command <strong>of</strong>
each outlet;
b) land levelling on an outlet command basis;
c) realignment <strong>of</strong> field boundaries wherever necessary (where possible,
consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdings should also be combined);
d) enforcement <strong>of</strong> a proper system <strong>of</strong> 'Warabandi' and fair distribution <strong>of</strong>
water to individual fields; and
e) supply <strong>of</strong> all inputs and services including credit.
2) Strengthening <strong>of</strong> extension services.
3) Selection and introduction <strong>of</strong> suitable cropping patterns.
4) Development <strong>of</strong> groundwater to supplement surface irrigation (conjunctive
usc <strong>of</strong> surface and groundwater).
5) Development and maintenance <strong>of</strong> the main and intermediate drainage system.
6) Modernisation, maintenance and efficient operation <strong>of</strong> the irrigation system
up to the outlet <strong>of</strong> one Cllsee capacity.
In spite <strong>of</strong> a comprehensive institutional intervention by the CADA,
undt:r-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential continues to be a major drag on the
19

performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in India. Even after almost two decades <strong>of</strong> its
existence. the CADA has not been able to meet even its basic objectives <strong>of</strong> land
de\clopmem and improvement in distribution network in the command area
especially below the outlet (Mitra. 1983. 1997: 26).
The Eighth Plan also revealed that 'the scope <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes has
turned out to be considerably narrower than originally envisaged. The progress in
terms <strong>of</strong> land improvements and drainage facilities has been meagre and so has
the effort and research involving and propagating cropping patterns and
agricultural practices for optimum use <strong>of</strong> water under the conditions prevailing in
each irrigation command" (001, 1992: 60-61).
It may also be noted that the scope <strong>of</strong> the CAD programme has been
confined mostly to construction <strong>of</strong> field channels. introduction <strong>of</strong> . Warabandi'
and land levelling. Accordingly. by the end <strong>of</strong> the Seventh Plan. an estimated 8
million ha. had been brought under ·Warabandi'. 2 million ha. had been levelled
and shaped, and field channels constructed in an area <strong>of</strong> 11.3 million ha. There
was no progress in land consolidation programmes, and in most cases,
achievements had been consistently below targets. For instance, during the
Seventh Plan, the achievements in respect <strong>of</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> field channels were
below 48 per cent and that in the case <strong>of</strong> Warabandi it was 54 per cent and only
23 per eent in the case <strong>of</strong> lal1lllevelling (001, 1992).
The data on the status uf performance in physical and tinancial terms under
various CAD programmes in India are presented in table 1.3.
20

Table 1. 3 .Status <strong>of</strong> C A DP rOl!.rammes in India, 1974-1997
Type <strong>of</strong> programme
Achievement during
Share <strong>of</strong> each
Total up to
1974-75
item (%)
1992-97 end <strong>of</strong> VIII
VIII Plan
plan
I. Phl'sical status (Area in million fill.)
Construction <strong>of</strong> field
channels
12.19 1.77 13.96 39.35
Warabandhi 16.12 2.52 18.64 52.54
Land levelling 1.99 0.11 2.10 5.92
Field drains 0.59 0.19 0.78 2.19
Total 30.89 4.59 35.48 100.00
/I. Financial status (Rs. in crores)
Central sector expo 1081.22 607.07 1688.29 32.23
State sector expo 2091.73 1458.77 3550.50 67.77
Total 3172.95 2065.84 5238.79 100.00
Source: GOI, Plannmg CommissIOn, Nmth Five Year Plan (1997-2002).
Since its inception, the total area covered under different CAD
programmes till the end <strong>of</strong> the Eighth Plan was 35.48 million ha. with an
investment <strong>of</strong> Rs. 5238.79 crores. The achievement <strong>of</strong> targets, as revealed by the
data presented in the table, seems to be encouraging enough in implementing
warabandi programmes (53 %) followed by construction <strong>of</strong> field channels (39
%). It is somewhat disappointing to note that the progress in land levelling and
field drains has been poor and negligible, particularly, since these two aspects <strong>of</strong>
OFD are very crucial to ensuring water use efficiency and to the avoidance <strong>of</strong>
adverse effects on soil in the long run.
Hence, it is necessary to examme the problems and constraints, if any,
contributing to the less efficient performance <strong>of</strong> CADA in implementing OFD
works in the commanu areas. It is a fact that lack ur systematic and scientific
land development (OFD) works have led to several adverse effects on soil and
the environment apart from the under-utilisatioll <strong>of</strong> the irrigation potential
21

created. According to the Central Water Commission. under normal
circumstances. 71 per cent <strong>of</strong> the water released from the reservoir was lost in
transit. In the absence <strong>of</strong> adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD by the farmers. the field application
losses tend to be much higher. This. in turn. would adversely affect the
sustainability <strong>of</strong> the resource base and the farming systems based on it.
Given the problems and constraints faced by the irrigation sector in the
post-independence period. the policy initiatives are continued to increase the
positive gain. particularly from large storage dams. from irrigation. For instance.
in the Ninth Plan, emphasis has been laid on: a) improving water use efficiency
by progressive reduction in conveyance and application losses; b) strengthening
the CADP, institutional reforms and promoting farmers' involvement in
irrigation management; c) expediting completion <strong>of</strong> projects started during the
pre-
and post-Fifth Plan periods: d) restoration and modernisation <strong>of</strong> old
irrigation systems which were executed during the pre-independence period and
after that; e) introduction <strong>of</strong> rational pricing <strong>of</strong> irrigation water; f) concrete steps
towards comprehensive and integrated development <strong>of</strong> natural water resources,
taking into account the possibility <strong>of</strong> inter-basin transfer <strong>of</strong> surplus water; g)
promoting participatory irrigation management; h) encouraging conjunctive use;
and i) accelerating the development and utilisation <strong>of</strong> groundwater.
The escalation in costs and gestation are the two important operational
constraints in irrigation develupment in India. It is reported that by the end <strong>of</strong>
1996-97,362 major. 1081 medium and a multitude <strong>of</strong> minor irrigation projects
had been undertaken with an investment <strong>of</strong> Rs. 80000 crores. Of these. 200 major
projects and 841
medium irrigation projects have been completed, the
22

achievement being 55 per cent and 78 per cent respectively (ewe, 1999). The
cost <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential at current prices has increased from
Rs. 1200 per ha. during the First Plan to Rs. 66570 during 1990-92. showing a
55-fold increase over time. and at constant prices, it has increased from Rs. 8620
to Rs. 29587 during the above period (GO!, 2000). It is reported that the cost
over runs were due to a change in the scope <strong>of</strong> the project (leading to 35-43 %
increase in the cost in some projects), followed by one-time provisions for
rehabilitation and resettlement (R&R) activities and others (40-47 %), increase
due to price rise/ inflation (ranging from 8 % to 63 %) (GO!, 2000: 2.30 I).
The discussion, so far, gives a fairly good idea <strong>of</strong> the status <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development in India, its problems, prospects and institutional support needed to
improve the operational efficiency <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. A brief review <strong>of</strong> the
development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in Kerala State, from where the irrigation
projects for this study have been selected, is presented in the following section.
1.4 Irrigation Development in Kerala:
A brief account <strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in Kerala is necessary to
understand the problems <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in the proper perspective. It
may also be necessary to examine the divergences, if any, in the pattern <strong>of</strong>
irrigation development experienced by the state compared with the irrigation
development scenario at the national level.
Kerala is known for its abundant natural resources, especially water. The
state has 44 rivers, 27 backwaters (mostly in the form <strong>of</strong> lakes and ocean inlets),
23

7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 lakh wells lo . Vembanadu is the bIggest lake.
with an area <strong>of</strong> 200 square kilometers (sq. km). Manv <strong>of</strong> the rivers like I'ni\ar.
- .
Pampa. Manimala. Achanko\il. Meenachil and Muvattupuzha draIn (lut to
backwaters. Out <strong>of</strong> the 27 backwaters. two are fresh water resources. viz .. Pookot
(Kalpetta in Kozhikode) and Sasthamkotta (in Kollam district). Out <strong>of</strong> the 44
rivers, 41 are west flowing and three are east flowing which are tributaries <strong>of</strong> the
Cauvery river. Of the 44 rivers. 33 are less than 100 km long. with a total length
<strong>of</strong> 1577 kms covering a catchment area <strong>of</strong> 14949 sq. km. The remaining I I riycrs
are above 100 kms in length and their total length is 1643 km .. with a catchment
area <strong>of</strong> 25058 sq. km. and the effective catchment area <strong>of</strong> all the river basins is
38864 sq. kmll. Five major rivers, viz .. Periyar, Bhrathapuzha, Pampa. Chaliyar
and Chalakudy altogether drain 40 per cent <strong>of</strong> the geographical area <strong>of</strong> the state.
Apart from rivers. backwaters. tanks and wells. springs also contribute to the
water resources in Kerala. The non-conventional fresh water source in northern
Malabar. viz .. Slirangams (horizontal wells) is a unique source <strong>of</strong> freshwater.
Kerala also has good groundwater potential. The annual utili sable groundwater
10 A survey made by the Centre for Water Resources Development and Management
(CWRDM) reveals that there are 901 tanks and that Kerala has the highest density <strong>of</strong>
family based open wells. the density <strong>of</strong> wells being 120/ sq. km. Tube wells also form a
major source <strong>of</strong> water. The estimated quantity <strong>of</strong> groundwater resources in Kcrala is
7900 MeM. (GOK, 1999). There are 236 springs, <strong>of</strong> which. 104 are having a discharge
<strong>of</strong> 10 to 100 liters per minute and 37 having more than 100 liters/ minute. Similarly the
Sural/gall/s in north Malabar are having a discharge <strong>of</strong> 10 to 12 liters/minute. Thc~ arc
largely used as a water resource in semi-dry an:a <strong>of</strong> Malabar for drinking purpose,
II Though the total catchment area works out to be 40007 Sq. km .. about 1200 Sq. kill.
is in Tamilnadu and the effective catchment area within Kerala is 38864 Sq. km.
24

potential in the state is 6.59 Cu. km, <strong>of</strong> which the net utilisation was only 1.01
Cu. km (15.32 %) (CWe. 1994)
1.4.1 Pre-independence period
Prior to independence. the potential role <strong>of</strong> irrigation in agricultural development
was not well recognised in Kerala; thus, Kerala does not have a very long history
<strong>of</strong> evolution <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems. Information on the gro'W1h <strong>of</strong> irrigation
facilities in Kerala during the pre-independence period either in terms <strong>of</strong> the
projects or area irrigated and the total number <strong>of</strong> beneficiaries is scanty (Joseph,
1983: 16). The Irrigation Commission has gone further to note that prior to 1947,
Kerala had no irrigation to speak <strong>of</strong>. It depended on the heavy rainfall <strong>of</strong> the
South-West monsoon to raise one or even two paddy crops in a year. In lowlying
areas. which accumulated water. even a third crop could be grown (GO!,
1972: 17l). This was mainly due to the notion that Kerala is sufficiently
endowed with timely monsoon. Moreover. before its formation as a separate
State in 1956. Kerala comprised three independent administrative units called
provinces. viz., Travancore, Cochin and Malabar with distinct political and
administrative cultures 12 , financial resources, outlooks and motives with different
policies in respect <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems lJ . Besides, there was no
12 The Malayalam _ speaking Kerala was formed as a State in 1956 when most <strong>of</strong> the
Indian states were reorganised on linguistic basis. The two native princely States <strong>of</strong>
Travancorc and Cochin and the Malabar district illal Kasargod taluk <strong>of</strong> the Madras
Presidency <strong>of</strong> British India were united to form Kerala.
13 Travancore had a large number <strong>of</strong> tanks for irrigating paddy during the early IS 'h
century itself. King Marthanda Varma in the 18 'h century (1729-1758 AD) and the rulers
who followed, gave special attention to the construction <strong>of</strong> irrigation works and also
25

competent and responsible agency with well-defined functions to carry out
irrigation works in the three regions. This seems to have been compounded by
the absence <strong>of</strong> essential data like rainfall, run-<strong>of</strong>f, catchment area and
classification <strong>of</strong> soils for planning and designing irrigation projects. which
resulted in abandoning <strong>of</strong> projects half-way through and revising their estimates.
In the year 1068 <strong>of</strong> Malayalam Era (began in 825 AD), only 15 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
outlay on irrigation could be expended (Government <strong>of</strong> Travancore, 1068 as
cited in Netto. 1990:54). Thus. administrative bottlenecks as well as the peculiar
agrarian relations 14
that existed have deterred the development <strong>of</strong> irrigation
systems in Kerala during the colonial era.
1.4.2 Post - independence period
However. the post-independence period witnessed tremendous changes in respect
.
<strong>of</strong> policies towards irrigation devclopment in the State. This has been due to the
canals, tanks and reservoirs in the Southern taluks <strong>of</strong> Travancore (Gazetteer <strong>of</strong> India,
1962: 314). The erstwhile Travancore state had an irrigation project in Southern
Travancore, which was transferred to the Madras state at the time <strong>of</strong> State's
reorganisation in 1956 (GOK, 1967). In the Cochin region, irrigation development had
marked its beginning only during the 1860s when the construction <strong>of</strong> embankments and
drainage canals were taken up by the government. Whereas, the history <strong>of</strong> irrigation in
Malabar since the beginning <strong>of</strong> the 19 'h century is a story <strong>of</strong> gross neglect by the Madras
Government (Joseph, 1983: 18).
U With the prevalence <strong>of</strong> absentee landlordism on the one hand and the defective land
tenure system by which the tenants faced the threat <strong>of</strong> eviction on the other in all the
three regions, there was no sustained interest in improving cultivation through
development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems.
26

groWing demand for food grains ls in the immediate post-war period. It was
realised that there was a need for harvesting the abundantly available rainwater
during the monsoon to increase cropping intensity and augment agricultural
production.
As already observed, the state is blessed with 44 rivers. Most <strong>of</strong> the rivers
are rainfed and are swollen during the monsoon and dry up during summer. The
two seasonal monsoons l6 , viz., "Edavapathy" (south-west) and" Thulavarsham"
(north-east) together provide abundant annual rainfall <strong>of</strong> the order <strong>of</strong> 3000 mm.
However, like other parts <strong>of</strong> the country, there are temporal and spatial variations
in its distribution. The south-west monsoon yields almost 70 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
annual rainfall and the remaining by the north-east monsoon (20 %) and
occasional rains (10 %) between these monsoons. The distribution <strong>of</strong> rainfall
differs across the regions in the state as it is uni-modal in the northern districts
(Kannur and Kasargod) and bi-modal in the southern districts. But the effective
rainfall l7 varies from 40 to 80 per cent between the northern and southern
districts. The rest is lost through run<strong>of</strong>f and deep percolation due to the
15 The grow-more-food (GMF) campaIgn was galOlOg ground immediately after
independence, which resulted in initiating investment programmes for irrigation
development.
16 The two monsoons arc referred colloquially as Edavapatlwy and Thulavarsham.
Edavapathy and Thulavarsham are formally known as South-West monsoon and North­
East monsoon respectively. While the Edavapathy spans from June to September,
Thulavarsham is effective during October to December.
17 Effective rainfall is the useful or utilisable rainfall. Rainfall is not necessarily useful
or desirable at the time, rate or amount ill which it is received. Some <strong>of</strong> it may be
unavoidably wasted while some may even be destructive leading to water logging.
27

physiographic conditions <strong>of</strong> the State l8 , high intensity and uneven distribution <strong>of</strong>
rainfall. The rainwater collected in the rivers gets drained out to the sea within 24
hours due to the steep slope <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats as well as the smaller courses
<strong>of</strong> river in terms <strong>of</strong> width. Moreover. the rivers due to their smaller cross-section.
cannot accommodate the entire rainwater. These physiographic limitations on the
one hand and the abundance as well as the seasonal concentration <strong>of</strong> rainfall on
the other are the <strong>of</strong>t-cited justifications by the planners for a high-cost and
capital-intensive irrigation infrastructure development strategy for the state.
Investment on infrastructure development in terms <strong>of</strong> large-scale canal-based
irrigation systems in the state is also justified on grounds <strong>of</strong> food security. Kerala
has been a food- deficit state and the per capita food grain production is one <strong>of</strong>
the lowest in the country. It was only 38.38 kg. per annum against the national
average <strong>of</strong> 175.20 kg. in 1987-88. The annual per-capita production has further
fallen to 37.34 kg in 1990-91 (GOK. 1993). This works out to a per capita daily
availability <strong>of</strong> only 102.30 gm. which is Jess than the consumption norm <strong>of</strong> 370
gm per capita per day. as suggested by the Indian Council <strong>of</strong> Medical Research
(lCMR) (Suryanarayana, 1999: 328). In 1990, while the production <strong>of</strong> rice in the
state was 10.87 lakh tonnes, the <strong>of</strong>f-take through PDS was 14.60 lakh tonnes and
the food deficit was about 26 per cent. The deficit has increased further to 39 per
18 Based on the physiographic features, the geographical area <strong>of</strong> Kerala is divided into
five topographic zones, viz., a) Mountain Peak Area, b) High Lands. c) the Mid Lands.
d) the Low Lands, and e) the Coastal Plains and lagoons. However. the 1110st commonly
used classification is in terms <strong>of</strong> lowland. midland and highland. Highlands account for
the highest proportion <strong>of</strong> the geographical area in Kerala. which accounts for 48 per
cent. followed by midland (42 %) and low land (10 %).
28

cent in 1993 and to about 46 per cent in 1996, though it declined to 43 per cent in
1997 (GOK, 1998).
Development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems was given immediate priority to ensure
self-sufficiency in the production <strong>of</strong> paddy, which is the staple food crop <strong>of</strong>
Kerala. Paddy, which is grown throughout the year l9 , requires ponded water for
better crop growth and yield. The monsoon rainfall caters only to the needs <strong>of</strong> the
first crop and the second crop limited manner. The third crop <strong>of</strong>ten fails due to
the non-availability <strong>of</strong> water. In the remaining period, no water was available to
grow crops. Because <strong>of</strong> limited land was available for cultivation, no extensive
farming was possible. The only option, therefore, was intensive cultivation <strong>of</strong>
food crops, which was not possible without irrigation. This being so, it is
expected that with assured irrigation facilities, yield levels <strong>of</strong> the second and
third crops could be substantially improved and stabilised. Also, as almost 90 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the cultivable area has been brought under the plough, the scope for
extensive method <strong>of</strong> cultivation is very limited and the only option worth
exploring is intensification through irrigation and use <strong>of</strong> other yield augmenting
supplementary inputs.
There were earnest efforts to build up a strong infrastructure base with
respect to irrigation systems in the state under the state initiatives. As a result, at
present, the irrigation sector in the state comprises 29 major/ medium irrigation
1'1 Paddy is grown three times a year and the three crops are known as Virippll.
Mlil/Jukul/ al/d /'/II/chu respectively. These three crops are otherwise known as autumn
crop (May to August), winter crop (September- December) and summer crop (January -
April).
29

(14 completed and 15 ongoing) projects and numerous minor irrigation works,
including groundwater and lift irrigation schemes. The pattern <strong>of</strong> investment has
been mostly favouring the large-scale canal-based irrigation systems as evident
from the resource allocation <strong>of</strong> more than 60 per cent <strong>of</strong> the plan outlays except
during the Third and Fourth Plan periods. The cumulative investment on
irrigation till the end <strong>of</strong> 1998-99 was Rs. 2510 crores, out <strong>of</strong> which Rs. 1736
crores (about 70 %) have been on major and medium irrigation and the
corresponding area brought under irrigation including minor irrigation has been
4.45 lakh ha. (net) and 7.25 lakh ha. (gross). The Eighth Plan outlay on irrigation
development has been Rs. 692 crores, <strong>of</strong> which the major/ medium irrigation
sector accounts for 63 per cent, compared with 19 per cent for minor irrigation
(table 1.4).
Table 1.4: Sector-wise innstmcnt in irrigation during Eighth Five Year plan in
Kerala (Rs. Crores)
\ Plan! year
Major! Minor Flood CAD
medium irrigation control prog.
Total
Plan outlav 437 (631) 130 (IS8) 65(9.4) 60 (87) 692.00
1992-93 SO.SO 15.03 9.32 8.93 I 14.0S
1993-94 103.39 21.17 27.56 10.00 162.12
1994-95 11375 32.11 26.19 I I. 54 183.59
1995-96 146.56 38.68 26.55 Il.3S 223.17
1996-97 130.00 45.35 35.50 12.00 222.S5
Total expo (1992-97) 574.5 152.34 125.12 53.S5 905.S1
Exp. as % <strong>of</strong> Plan
131.46 117.IS 192.49 89.75 130.90
outlay
Note: FIgures In parenthesIs are respectIve shares In total EIghth Plan outlay.
Suurce. GOK ( 1999).
The expenditure on irrigation has been more than the outlay in all the
cases, including flood control and Command Area Development programme. The
cumulative expenditure during the Plan period (1992-97) has becn Rs. 574.5
crorcs in the case <strong>of</strong> major/ medium irrigation projects, compared with Rs.
30

152.34 crores in the minor irrigation sector, Rs. 125.12 crores for flood control
and Rs. 53.85 crort:, for the CAD programme.
However. ,,-, with the national scenario the overall performance <strong>of</strong> the
irrigation sector in Kerala has been far from satisfactory. The extent <strong>of</strong> utilisation
<strong>of</strong> irrigation potentJal created has been the lowest at 47 per cent, ranging between
below 80 per cent In the case <strong>of</strong> completed schemes and 22 per cent in the case
<strong>of</strong> the ongoing im ""tion projects (table 1.5).
T a hi e 1 . 5 . P er f ormance 0 fM' aJor I rngahon . P rOJects In
. K era a, 1999
PhY~lca Achievement Original Exp. Up to
Status <strong>of</strong>
I target
As % <strong>of</strong> esti.(Rs. March '99
projects
(Ha)
(Ha.)
target crores) (Rs. crores)
205573 163079
I.Completed
79.33 31.74 225.67
(~~) (74)
') 0 . 263625 56848
~. ngolng
21.57 184.59
(S 6) (26)
Total 46'1198 219927 46.67 216.33
Sale: Figures In parentheses arc respective percentages.
Source: GOK (rele'"nt years).
5224.41
5450.08
Cost
escalation
(%)
611.00
2730.28
2419.34
The status (If achievement in the case <strong>of</strong> completed projects has been 79
per cent and onl:- ~~
per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing schemes. While the cost
escalation in respell <strong>of</strong> completed schemes has been 611 per cent; it has been
very high at 2730 p~r cent in the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing schemes. A detailed account <strong>of</strong>
the problem and prospects <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in Kerala has been
presented in a separate chapter.
1.5 Need for the 5tudy:
The discussion so far highlights the complex nature <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in the
country as they have evolved. The chapter elaborates on the evolutionary
processes <strong>of</strong> irrigatIOn systems, the dimensions <strong>of</strong> political economy influencing
the nature and scale <strong>of</strong> water institutions, technological and institutional
31

interventions to improve the operational efficiency, and other related issues and
problems. The importance given to the irrigation sector in the contemporary
scenario <strong>of</strong> economic development and the problems and prospects associated
with it have also been discussed at length. While there are several studies
addressing the wide range <strong>of</strong> issues and problems allegedly contributing to the
emergence <strong>of</strong> cost ineffective and socially less relevant"irrigation systems, quite
a few issues merit the attention <strong>of</strong> researchers and call for an in-depth analysis.
This is more so because <strong>of</strong> the diverse range <strong>of</strong> agro-c1imatic. socio-economic
and environmental problems specific to the states and regions, where irrigation
projects are constructed.
On-Farm Development (OFD) was considered as one <strong>of</strong> the strategies to
improve water use efficiency and to reduce adverse effects on soil fertility. But
its successful implementation at the field level seems to be far from satisfactory.
Therefore. it is necessary to address both technical and institutional factors
influencing the adoption or otherwise <strong>of</strong> OFD by the farmers and its impact on
productivity <strong>of</strong> crops. This empirical study undertaken in two <strong>of</strong> the major
irrigation projects in Kerala. would hopefully help in
understanding the
dynamics <strong>of</strong> OFD under different agro-c1imatic settings and in devising policy
measures to improve water usc efficiency.
1.6 Organisation <strong>of</strong> the Study
Chapter I provides an overview <strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> irrigation
svstems
.
in India with particular reference to Kerala. It also critically examines
.
the problems related to under-utilisation and management <strong>of</strong> water resources in
32

-,.
canal commands in India. The chapter extensively draws upon the political
economy approach as used by the scholars to explain the process <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development in India during the pre-coloniaL colonial and postcolonial periods.
[n Chapler 2, a comprehensive review <strong>of</strong> the studies on irrigation development in
India and Kerala is attempted. It also brings out the important issues and
problems identified by researchers, affecting the performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation
systems in India. Chapler 3 gives the research design, which includes the need
for and scope <strong>of</strong> the study, objectives, methodology and statistical tools used for
data analysis. It also presents an analytical framework based on the problem and
issues related to irrigation development and its impact on socio-economic and
environmental conditions. The analytical approach is based on the insights drawn
from the new institutional economIcs (NIE) explaining the simultaneous
causation <strong>of</strong> heterogeneous institutions with conflicting interests leading to
failure <strong>of</strong> weak institutions. A pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> the irrigation projects considered for
detailed analysis and the sample farm households is provided in Chapler 4.
Chapler 5 deals with a critical appraisal <strong>of</strong> the status, prospects and
problems <strong>of</strong> agricultural development in irrigation projects in Kerala. It also
critically examines the role and effectiveness <strong>of</strong> CADA as an overarching
institution to coordinate and implement scientific OFD works and water
management in the irrigation projects. Chapter 6 deals with the economic
analysis <strong>of</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation in the two irrigation projects, the status <strong>of</strong>
adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD and the its effect on crop performance. Chapler 7 brings out the
institutional, technical, social and organisational constraints in the development
and utilisation <strong>of</strong> land and water resources for irrigation in Kerala. In Chapter 8,
33

a summary <strong>of</strong> findings and conclusions is presented, followed by some
suggestions and recommendations to reorient the irrigation sector in the state in
the context <strong>of</strong> changing scenario <strong>of</strong> agricultural development and the growing
concerns over development, distribution and management <strong>of</strong> water resources on a
sustainable basis.
34

Chapter 2
Irrigation and Agricultural Development: A review <strong>of</strong> select literature
Given the strategic importance <strong>of</strong> irrigation for the development <strong>of</strong> agriculture
and the consequent rural transformation, commendable efforts have been made
(as discussed in Chapter I) to enhance irrigation potential in India. While
investment in irrigation sector has been on the increase over time, it is all the
more important to examine its impact on agriculture and economic development
in general <strong>of</strong> the regions. Several researchers· have attempted to examine the
impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation development on economic, social and environmental
I. '2
conditions in the irrigated regions.
? ';.l:'" v
-) \ ,
J I s:.
:\n attempt has. therefore. been made in this chapter to critically reVIew
some <strong>of</strong> the important ,;tudie,; ,)n various aspects <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in
India and elsewhere in the world. For, it helps to highlight and understand the
issues and constraints. if any. adversely affecting the process <strong>of</strong> development,
distribution and management <strong>of</strong> water resources in different agro-climatic and
socio-economic environments. Furthermore. a critical evaluation <strong>of</strong> the irrigation
development would help in identifying and incorporating corrective measures in
the planning. design. operation. maintenance and management <strong>of</strong> irrigation
systems to improve their allocative and technical efficiencies with respect to
water usc.
The irrigation literature is repkte \\ith studies cutting across wide range
<strong>of</strong> disciplines and themes covering development. environmental and institutional
aspects. For instance. the developmental issues <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in terms <strong>of</strong>

economic analysis <strong>of</strong> development projects have been the major thrust <strong>of</strong>
development <strong>economics</strong>. While the issues relating to externalities <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development have formed the subject <strong>of</strong> enquiry in the environmental <strong>economics</strong>.
the aspects <strong>of</strong> governance and institutional arrangements in the water sector have
formed the basis <strong>of</strong> the analytical perspective <strong>of</strong> the institutional <strong>economics</strong>.
There is also a large body <strong>of</strong> literature examining the organisational aspects <strong>of</strong>
irrigation development including water management, technological as well as
engineering aspects.
The studies reviewed here cover a broad spectrum <strong>of</strong> issues in an interdisciplinary
perspective. The literature on vanous aspects <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development in India may be broadly classified in terms <strong>of</strong> studies pertaining to:
a) impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation on agricultural development. in general. and also on
employment. rural
transformation.
. .
soclO-economlc and environmental
implications, in particular; and
b) the operational and organisational constraints for efficient management <strong>of</strong>
systems and the impact <strong>of</strong> institutional interventions on On-Farm
Development (OFD) and water management for better utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation
water and the managerial aspects <strong>of</strong> such interventions.
While the studies coming under the first category try to examIne the
socio-economic and environmental implications <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. the second
category is mostly evaluation studies examining the performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation
systems, institutional interventions by CADA. impact <strong>of</strong> specific command an:a
development activities. mainly, OFD and water management. A brief discussion
36

<strong>of</strong> the important studies on the performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation In India has been
presented in what follows.
2.1 Studies on impact <strong>of</strong> Irrigation
The positive effect <strong>of</strong> irrigation on the farm economy is widely recognised
among the researchers. However, researchers, by and large, are faced with the
problem <strong>of</strong> decomposing the irrigation effec{ where a host <strong>of</strong> complementary
and intervening variables are to be considered. For, the productivity augmenting
effect <strong>of</strong> irrigation is determined by various factors, such as change in land use,
intensity <strong>of</strong> cropping. efficiency in the use <strong>of</strong> fertiliser and nutrients, quality <strong>of</strong>
irrigation (quantum, assurance and timeliness In supply), agro-climatic
conditions, pattern <strong>of</strong> rainfall and its distribution. bio-chemical technology. seed
varieties. chemicals and other inputs.
The impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation with particular reference to canal irrigation, on
production, productivity and income from farming has, however, been analysed
by many researchers, especially since independence. These studies have found
positive association between income and the farm size in the canal irrigated
areas. apart from stabilisation <strong>of</strong> farm output (Dhawan 1982, 1985, 1988; Rao el
ul.. 1988). The increase in output per unit <strong>of</strong> irrigated area, though obvious. has
I Dhawan, who has extensively addressed the question <strong>of</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation, with
particular reference to canal irrigation, suggests a pragmatic approach in analysing the
irrigation impact. lie concludes that: "One interesting way <strong>of</strong> skirting the problem <strong>of</strong>
output decomposition in the case <strong>of</strong> irrigation and its complementary inputs is to take
the logic view that irrigation. being an enabling factor for the use <strong>of</strong> its complementar)
Inputs like chemical fertilisers and HYV seeds. ought to get the entire credit for
whatever rise in output occurs in the wake <strong>of</strong> a switch over from dry to irrigated
farming" (Dhawan, 1988: 31).
37

een brought out by
many scholars in different agro-c1imatic regIons
(Vaidyanathan, 1987; Ray, 1991; Dhawan, 1992; Vaidyanathan et a!.. 1994).
Based on the source-wise ratio <strong>of</strong> net irrigated to net sown area across the major
states in India. Vaidyanathan (1999) finds that the coefficient <strong>of</strong> variation (CV)
has fallen from 77 per cent in the early 1960s to 54 per cent in the late 1980s.
This reduction in regional disparities has been largely due to a more even spread
<strong>of</strong> canal irrigation stimulated by public investment.
The FAO study shows that the well-endowed green revolution areas (in
terms <strong>of</strong> good soils and assured irrigation) have experienced tremendous decline
in poverty levels owing to consistent agricultural growth. The elasticity <strong>of</strong>
cropping intensity with respect to irrigation has been around 0.3 and <strong>of</strong> land
productivity with respect to irrigation has been above 0.5 (FAO. 1993. as cited
in Alagh. 200 I)
However, the impact <strong>of</strong> spatial and temporal variations in rainfall, spread
<strong>of</strong> irrigation and its quality and fertiliser on productivity <strong>of</strong> crops estimated
through multiple regressIon analysis by some <strong>of</strong> the scholars. has not been
conclusive and convincing (Mukherjee and Vaidyanathan. 1988; Vaidyanathan et
(1/ (1994). This is mainly because <strong>of</strong> the estimated coefficients not showing any
pattern owing to the infirmities in irrigation statistics. This shows the inadequacy
<strong>of</strong> data available for reliable estimates <strong>of</strong> irrigation impact. Moreover. the
multiple regression models implicitly assume linear additive relations between
input and output. which is unrealistic in view <strong>of</strong> the complex. non-linear and
interactive relationship between variables (Vaidyanathan. 1999:80).
38

Based on the National Accounts Statistics (NAS), Dhawan (19983., 1998b,
and 2000) makes a prognostic attempt to estimate the benefits and costs <strong>of</strong> canal
irrigation in India. It is found that the production benefits (aggregate irrigated
yield) from canal irrigation (expresses as value <strong>of</strong> yield per hectare) increased
from Rs. 4038 in 1980-81 to Rs. 12617 in 1992-93 and the yield gain increased
from Rs. 2087 to Rs. 7132. On the other, the total annual cost <strong>of</strong> provision <strong>of</strong>
canal irrigation has increased from Rs. 909 per ha. to Rs. 4986 during the same
period and the unit cost <strong>of</strong> canal irrigation has increased from Rs. 488 to Rs.
2277 at current prices. However. he cautions that the reported benefits have not
been reconciled in terms <strong>of</strong> irrigation charges paid by the beneficiary farmers and
incremental associated costs <strong>of</strong> irrigation development incurred by the individual
farmers for the usc <strong>of</strong> farm inputs.
Dhawan (1998b) also points to an important lapse in the conventional cost
<strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong> canal irrigation. which is the non-consideration <strong>of</strong> 'incidental
benefits,1 caused by the canals. An important incidental benefit is the canal
(seepage) induced artificial groundwater recharging and this not only improves
returns to investments in well irrigation. but also expands the very base for
groundwater based agriculture (Dhawan. 1986. 1989). Other incidental benefits
which need serious consideration are reduction in instability in the farm
economy. multiple uses <strong>of</strong> irrigation water. like civic needs <strong>of</strong> urban and rural
populations. especially. drinking water needs. employment benefits. etc.
2 Incidental henefits are akin to pril1lar~ henefit> and 'Ieft out <strong>of</strong> the reckoning. either
because <strong>of</strong> the difficulties in measuring them in monetary terms. or because <strong>of</strong> their
Intangible nature (food security. sense <strong>of</strong> self reliance in food grains, poverty
alleviation. etc.) (Dhawan. 1998h 10).
39

While the economic benefits <strong>of</strong> canal irrigation are widely appreciated in
the literature, there are also evidences highlighting the concentration <strong>of</strong> benefit's
<strong>of</strong> green revolution in certain regions and that too favouring specific farmer
groups. In this regard. Singh (1997) shows that the Green Revolution as a means
<strong>of</strong> enhancing agricultural productivity has, in turn. led to a spurt in agro-based
industrial activities, in the form <strong>of</strong> pumps, tractors, harvesters, etc. as also
expansion <strong>of</strong> certain sectors like cement and steel required for the construction <strong>of</strong>
large irrigation projects. The introduction <strong>of</strong> large scale canal irrigation
particularly large dams. could change the ecology <strong>of</strong> the region and provide the
required water for water- intensive green revolution crops that could not have
been grown in the region earlier. Further. the HYV based new agricultural
strategy (NAS), which was aimed at productivity enhancement, has in the
process. led to the gross neglect <strong>of</strong> ecological issues which emerged in course <strong>of</strong>
time, making agro-ecosystems unsustainable.
In spite <strong>of</strong> phenomenal increase in investment in irrigation, its impact on
private investment has been discouraging, particularly, since the early 80s and
had led to a debate as to how this trend could be tackled. For instance. Mishra
and Chand (1995); Mishra and Hazell (1996) and Mitra (1996) have shown that
private investment has been rising despite the continued decline in public
investment. This problem <strong>of</strong> movement <strong>of</strong> public and private investments In
diverse directions instigated a controversy regarding the weakening <strong>of</strong>
complementarity between the two. Invalidating this position. Dhawan (1996.
1997. 1998, and 2000) brings forth an important policy implication that private
40

investment has acquired autonomy <strong>of</strong> its own so that it can continue to grow
without the stimulus <strong>of</strong> public investment J .
Yet another argument in respect <strong>of</strong> the debate is that, since the benefits <strong>of</strong>
canal irrigation are spread over a long period, the complementarity would persist,
as long as the stream <strong>of</strong> benefits continues. In such cases, the reduction in public
investment may not be coincided with a reduction in farm level secondary
investments by the farmers. In fact, Dhawan (1998) reports a high degree <strong>of</strong>
association between canal irrigation and private capital formation as revealed by
the high correlation coefficient (r= 0.65), followed by the elasticity <strong>of</strong> private
fixed capital formation in canal irrigated areas to the extent <strong>of</strong> 0.25.
Thus, a brief review <strong>of</strong> important studies on the impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation on
farm output and incomc as well as the complementarity between public
investment in canal irrigation and private farm level investments show that canal
irrigation has been an important source <strong>of</strong> growth to India's rural economy in
terms <strong>of</strong> its linkage effects. However, canal irrigation in India has not been
without any problems, which has even put the future course <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong>
irrigation systems at stake.
2.2 Studies on organisational aspects and operational constraints in
irrigation development in India:
Irrigation development in India is constrained by many problems. The challenges
<strong>of</strong> growing water scarcity are exacerbated by increasing costs <strong>of</strong> new water
J Whi Ie Dhawan (1996) and Rao ( 1997) indicated a positive relationship between power/
rural electrification as well as gross capital formation in agriculture (GCFA), Chand's
(2000) analysis fails to capture the inducement effect (Gulati and Bathla. 2001).
41

sources, wasteful utilisation <strong>of</strong> already developed water supplies, degradation <strong>of</strong>
soils in irrigated areas, depletion <strong>of</strong> groundwater, pollution <strong>of</strong> water and its
impact on human health and massive subsidies and distorted incentives structure.
Rosegrant (1995), reflecting on the growing problems <strong>of</strong> water scarcity,
cautions that the potential for expansion <strong>of</strong> new sources <strong>of</strong> water is hard to come
by and increasingly expensive to exploit. In countries, including India. Indonesia,
the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand, the real capital costs <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development on an unweighted average increased from US $ 1744 per ha. in
1966-69 to US $ 4385 per ha. in 1986-88. Further, the average investment cost
for medium and large-scale irrigation with full water control is estimated at US $
8300 per ha. in 1992 (FAO. 1992). This apart, the water use efficiency <strong>of</strong>
irrigation farming in most regions <strong>of</strong> the developing world typically ranges from
25 to 40 per cent (Wolf and Hubener. 1999).
2.2.1 Under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential
The problem <strong>of</strong> capacity under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential in India has been
a widely debated issue. Though the <strong>of</strong>ficially reported estimates <strong>of</strong> underutilisation
in irrigation projects hover around 15 to 20 per cent over the plan
periods. this has been disproved by many. Especially, the Ninth Plan provides a
realistic explanation as regards the problem <strong>of</strong> under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation
potential in irrigation commands. The plan document states that the data
<strong>of</strong>ficially reported (by the Planning Commission) does not give a correct picture
<strong>of</strong> utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential. mainly because <strong>of</strong> the different criteria!
norms adopted by the states in reporting the rates <strong>of</strong> creation and utilisation <strong>of</strong>
irrigation potential. A lag <strong>of</strong> few years between potential creation and utilisation
42

is more obvious in canal irrigation, due to the time required for the construction
<strong>of</strong> the distribution system as well as switching over from rainfed to irrigated
agriculture involving major changes in techniques, which the farmers take time
to master. Moreover, poh:ntial utilisation also depends on several variables,
including, besides, the availability <strong>of</strong> distribution networks, the volume and
seasonal pattern <strong>of</strong> water availability, the losses in conveyance, distribution and
application on fields, the extent to which the conjunctive use is developed and
the actual crop pattern on ground. In so far as the assumptions in respect <strong>of</strong> these
parameters underlying the project design are not actually realised in full, there is
bound to be divergence between the actual area irrigated and potential created
(GOI. 2000: 2.290-0 I). Again. the plan document considers the reported gap as
dubious as it does not give a correct picture <strong>of</strong> utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential,
mainly because <strong>of</strong> the reason that the criteria! norms for reporting the data
adopted by the States are not uniform.
Vaidyanathan (1999) considers capacity under-utilisation in irrigation
projects as an outcome <strong>of</strong> the lack <strong>of</strong> complementarity between the state
initiatives in constructing the main reservoir, main and branch canals and
distributaries up to outlets as well as the beneficiary efforts in constructing field
channels in their own fields necessary for irrigation.
2.2.2 Cost and time over runs in irrigation development
The escalation in cost <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects and the time lag
involved in completion are the other t\\O important problems widely discussed in
the literature. A pioneering analysis on the rise in costs <strong>of</strong> irrigation and multipurpose
projects by the Expert Committee (GOI, 1973b) identifies the reasons
43

such as rise in pnces, inadequate investigation and provISIOn, change in the
scope, design and additional requirements and high expenditure fo"r rehabilitation
measures as instrumental in cost escalation. Since then, the issue has been
addressed in many studies (Chaturvedi, 1976; INCOLD, 1979; Pant 1982; and
GOI, 1983).
A more recent study by the National Commission for Integrated Water
Resources Development (GOI, 1999) examines the trends in costs <strong>of</strong> nine
projects, which have been started during the first and second plan periods. The
estimated cost <strong>of</strong> these projects together was Rs. 922.09 crores during the Sixth
Plan, which increased to Rs. 3220.15 crores as per the revised cost estimates as at
the beginning <strong>of</strong> the Ninth Plan. the increase in estimated cost being 346 per
cent. The corresponding actual expenditure has increased from Rs. 642.11 crores
to Rs. 1901.22 crores. registering an increase <strong>of</strong> 246 per cent (CWC as cited in
GOI, 1999). Subsequently, there was revision in the outlay from Rs. 210.14
crores for all the projects taken together during the Sixth plan to Rs. 257.56
crores (an increase <strong>of</strong> 23 %) as per the Ninth plan estimates.
The cost escalation in most cases is attributed to the delays in the
completion <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. In most cases. the delay in completion <strong>of</strong>
irrigation projects is caused by change in design <strong>of</strong> the project consequent on the
land use in the command area 4 . Vaidyanathan (1999) observes that very <strong>of</strong>ten,
~ For a detailed discussion on these issues. see CBI? 1997 and Vaidyanathan, 1999: 90-
102. The CBI? study observes that "'In many cases, contour surveys <strong>of</strong> the command
area are not carried out. The extent <strong>of</strong> command area is not assessed on a real istic basis.
The norms for the design <strong>of</strong> distribution system are not laid down in the project report.
Surface and sub-surface drainage requirement <strong>of</strong> the project are not studied. and
44

the hydrological basis on which the initial surveyors favour a specific project,
appear to be altogether different by the time the project is completed. Thus, the
hydrological and environmental parameters are kept static at the planning stage
and are not in tune with the changing patterns <strong>of</strong> resource use. In the process, the
standards <strong>of</strong> scrutiny and evaluation become lax and the project proposals get
approved under political pressure without adequate hydrological data and
preparatory investigation.
Many <strong>of</strong> the projects have been initiated by the states without any
approval by the Technical Advisory Committee (T AC) <strong>of</strong> the Central Water
Resources Ministry. This results in frequent changes in the scope, design and
cost estimates. thus leading to cost escalation. More importantly, political
interests are also successful in making the government commit to new projects
without the necessary technical preparation and financial and economic
justification. The political pressure also induces the engineers to prepare projects
in a hurry and obtain the necessary clearance [later on] and to start far more
projects than can be accommodated within the available resources
(Vaidyanathan, 1999). In this regard. Singh (1997) explains the inherent
contradiction between the 'efficiency in the use <strong>of</strong> available resources' and the
'propensity to have more projects' as a populist" measure. The resulting delays in
generally, no provision there <strong>of</strong> is made in the estimates. Cropping patterns are not
realistic. Benefit-cost ratio is not worked out on realistic basis. Specific problems, if
any, for the projects, which are likely to be met during construction, are not discussed.
Ifall these cost variables are considered, none uf the projects wuuld yield a better BCR
to speak <strong>of</strong>(CBIP, 1977: 5).
~ The wide gap between theoretical expectations and the realisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems
in India in the Post-independence period reveals this 'populism' (Ramamurthy, 1995;
45

the completion <strong>of</strong> the works and serious imbalances between water supply,
itrigated area and crop patterns in the command area <strong>of</strong> completed projects,
accentuated the conflicts over water allocation and added to uncertainty <strong>of</strong> water
supply, its cost and productivity.
The growing problems <strong>of</strong> cost and time over-runs have, in turn, created
mounting antagonism towards big dams. followed by contrasting estimates on the
comparative cost effectiveness <strong>of</strong> large dams vis-a.-vis smaller ones. For instance,
the Planning Commission arrived at the unit cost <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in the
case <strong>of</strong> major! medium irrigation schemes at Rs.2800 per ha. against Rs. 800 for
groundwater. Kanwar (1988) reports the cost <strong>of</strong> groundwater development as
hardly one fourth <strong>of</strong> surface water development. Mitra (1997) shows that the cost
<strong>of</strong> major and medium irrigation projects per hectare was Rs. 1200 in the First
Plan against Rs. 691 for minor irrigation, which increased respectively to Rs.
35081 and Rs. 7331 during the Seventh Plan, registering an increase in costs to
the extent <strong>of</strong> 2834 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> the former and 961 per cent in the
latter. However, such cost comparison is unrealistic, as these costs are reported at
Mollinga 1998), which, in turn, neutralised potential antagonism between different
classes. For example, in the recent past, there have been various agitations for farmer
rights, mainly representing the interests <strong>of</strong> rich peasants for subsidised electricity for
irrigation pumpsets, higher agricultural support prices and the like. Yet the fight is
presented as one between rural and urban areas thus masking both class antagonisms
within the agricultural sector and the rural rich and other groups (Ramamurthy, 1995).
46

currant prices prevailing during various plan periods, unadjusted for inflation and
the operation and maintenance costs are kept outside its purview 6 .
Contrary to the conventional notion <strong>of</strong> small irrigation systems being cost
effective, Dhawan (1989) states that 'surface irrigation works may score
decisively over well irrigation, possibly by a margin <strong>of</strong> 3:2. He points out that the
inclusion <strong>of</strong> private investments by the farmers at the farm level itself would
make the minor systems cost-ineffective. Moreover, the minor works reqUire
energy for countering the pull gravity, involving huge operational cost.
2.2.3 Problems in water distribution and management
The problem <strong>of</strong> inequitable distribution <strong>of</strong> water across the canal commands has
been widely debated and researched (Wade 1982a; Ali, 1986; Mitra, 1986, Rath
and Mitra 1989). It has been pointed out that the inequity in the distribution <strong>of</strong>
water is caused by violation <strong>of</strong> cropping pattern by the farmers, resulting in
scarcity <strong>of</strong> water in the tail-end. The consequences <strong>of</strong> inequitable distribution <strong>of</strong>
water in terms <strong>of</strong> productivity differentials leading to income inequalities as well
as high cropping intensity in the head reaches have been highlighted by Linton
(1982) and Padhi and Suryavanshi (1982). The power theory <strong>of</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong>
water has also been indicated as a source <strong>of</strong> inequality, whereby rich farmers
with large holdings arc favourably placed in the head reaches <strong>of</strong> canal commands
growing water intensive crops when the poor small farmers are left at the mercy
• In the study by Gulati, Svendsen and Choudhury (1995). an attempt has been made to
capture the capital cost per ha in real terms in the case <strong>of</strong> major, medium irrigation
schemes In India.
47

<strong>of</strong> rainfed cropping (GOI, 1961; Thorner, 1962, Vekdem 1971, Reidinger, 1971:
109, Prasad, 1972).
The divergence between planned and actual crop patterns and between
planned 'localisation" and actual distribution <strong>of</strong> water intensive crops within the
command areas have also been widely reported (GOI, 1965; Wade 1978; Ali,
1980). Vaidyanathan (1985) considers the distributive problem as an outcome <strong>of</strong>
lack <strong>of</strong> conformity between distribution and allocation <strong>of</strong> water as envisaged in
the original project design. The assumptions, ex-ante <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects relate
to: a) availability and variability <strong>of</strong> water in the system during different seasons;
b) cropping patterns and crop water requirement in different reaches <strong>of</strong> the
command; and c) the losses in conveyance and field applications. As a matter <strong>of</strong>
fact. most <strong>of</strong> these assumptions turn out to be erroneous or inconsistent due to
non·compliance <strong>of</strong> the detailed technical and socio-economic investigations and
scrutiny, <strong>of</strong>ten because <strong>of</strong> political exigencies. Besides, physical control
structures like channels arc either not properly maintained or are non-existent,
, The problems <strong>of</strong> inequitable distribution in south Indian irrigation systems are more to
do with the specific crop pattern, generally known as 'localization' and water
distribution and management differs across regions. Whereas the annual operations <strong>of</strong>
the canal systems in west India and North India are conditioned by the supply position
in the reservoir, but deliveries are regulated on the basis <strong>of</strong> area under different crops. [n
contrast, South Indian canal commands are predominated by water intensive rice based
cropping system and water is released depending on the supply in the reservoir from a
fixed schedule at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the crop season till the maturity <strong>of</strong> the crop. Given
this, there are no codified procedures for ascertaining demand for water on a weekly or
fortnightly basis. Also, the problems are accentuated by divergence in cropping pattern
even in the head reaches. The divergence between planned and actual crop patterns and
between planned 'localization' and actual distribution <strong>of</strong> water intensive crops within
the command area has been widely reported (GOI. Planning Commission, 1965; Wade,
1978; Ali, 1980; GOAP, 1982).
48

leading to enonnous transmission and distribution losses. causmg iniquitous
distribution and rampant corruption (Vaidyanathan. 1999: 25).
2.2.4 Studies on environmental implications <strong>of</strong> irrigation development
There has also been growing antagonism towards the adversities caused by large
canal based irrigation projects in India. The multitude <strong>of</strong> ecological issues
emerging out <strong>of</strong> irrigation development point to the failure <strong>of</strong> scientific,
bureaucratic and planning institutions to recognize the inherent socio-economic
and environmental contradictions associated with large dams.
The' financial productivity test' applied by the British to test the viability
<strong>of</strong> a project was followed even after Independence up to 1964. Because <strong>of</strong> the
limited validity <strong>of</strong> this criterion, the social benefit cost analysis has replaced it
(GOl. I 972a: 256). Apart from this, the environmental clearance is a necessary
condition for the approval <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects.
Much <strong>of</strong> the environmental issues reported from irrigation projects relate
to water logging and salinity, which are mostly caused by neglect <strong>of</strong> adequate
land development works before the release <strong>of</strong> canal water. The Central Water and
Power Commission (CWPC) has estimated way back in 1967 that as much as 71
per cent <strong>of</strong> the water is lost in transit from the reservoir to the field (CSE,
1985: III). As per the latest estimates <strong>of</strong> the Central Water Commission, the total
degraded area has been reported to be 33.70 million ha., <strong>of</strong> which, 2S per cent <strong>of</strong>
area has been affected by water logging, followed by salinity (16 %), acidity (13
%J and alkalinity (II %). Besides, the area degraded due to ravines and gullies
has been 18 per cent, shifting cultivation 15 per cent and other problem affected
49

areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998). Mitra (1996) suggests that the estimates <strong>of</strong>
utilisation <strong>of</strong> potential created will have to be discounted to the extent productive
land is going out <strong>of</strong> use from agricultural production. This will make the extent
<strong>of</strong> under-utilisation much higher than what is reported (Mitra, 1996: A 33).
Thanh and Biswas (1990) examine the interface between irrigation
systems and the environment and highlight the importance <strong>of</strong> monitoring and
evaluation <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects with respect to environmental implications.
Singh gives a very comprehensive and detailed account <strong>of</strong> the canal caused
ecological issues and health hazards (Singh. 1997: 133-163) and underscores the
necessity <strong>of</strong> incorporating ecological impact studies as an integral part <strong>of</strong> the
planning process <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems. He feels that the problems concerning the
possibility <strong>of</strong> dam failures, in particular. the occurrence <strong>of</strong> earthquakes. etc.,
needs careful empirical probing.
The problems <strong>of</strong> rehabilitation and resettlement <strong>of</strong> the project affected
people (PAP)I communities have also been on the increase in the absence <strong>of</strong> a
comprehensive rehabilitation policy. According to the Land Acquisition Act <strong>of</strong>
1894, the project-displaced people were paid only cash compensation. Though
this Act was amended in 1984, which allowed the state to provide alternative
land as compensation, this act was not legally binding (Singh, 1997: 183). It is
widely held that large dams do little to alleviate the existing social inequalities,
rather, they further aggravate the already skewed social structure in favour <strong>of</strong> the
socially, economically and politically powerful. thus throwing to the winds the
socialist pretensions laid down in the constitution (Singh. 1997: 203).
50

D' Souzaet a1 (1998) based on the study on three projects, VIZ., Hirakud
(Orissa), Ukai (Gujarat) and Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (Rajasthan) have
brought out glaring and complete dichotomy between pre-construction
projections and post-construction realities. The problems <strong>of</strong> water logging,
salinity, sedimentation and health hazards have been increasing enormously.
Moreover, the objectives <strong>of</strong> flood control, irrigation and power generation have
not been achieved as envisaged. Cropping patterns have been influenced by the
market forces rather than suiting to the specific irrigation design.
Thus, the studies relating to the environmental implications <strong>of</strong> irrigation
projects are vast in tenns <strong>of</strong> issues addressed. However, the reasons for such
problems are not well explored in many <strong>of</strong> the studies. The studies, in general.
have confined to identifying the magnitude and veracity <strong>of</strong> problems caused by
irrigation development and the reasons for these problems have not been well
appreciated in the literature.
2.2.5 Studies on problems <strong>of</strong> groundwater development
As the problems <strong>of</strong> unequal distribution <strong>of</strong> water in the canal commands
increased over time, there have also been earnest efforts towards the
development <strong>of</strong> groundwater irrigation sources. There are three distinct
arguments as to why development <strong>of</strong> groundwater sources is essential in
irrigation commands. On the one hand, development <strong>of</strong> groundwater sources
become imperative in view <strong>of</strong> the problem <strong>of</strong> water shortage in irrigation
commands caused primarily by violation <strong>of</strong> the cropping pattern as well as
unauthorized irrigation practices (Reddy, 1994). On the other. the public
51

investment In irrigation development induces private farm level investments,
mainly in terms <strong>of</strong> extraction <strong>of</strong> groundwater sources (Dhawan, 1995). While the
former perceives groundwater development as an essential component <strong>of</strong> the
. conjunctive principle', the latter underlies the' complementarity' principle. A
third and most important argument is the logic that groundwater sources act as
. vertical drains' in canal commands and helps preventing the adverse effects <strong>of</strong>
water logging and salinity, thereby arresting the rise <strong>of</strong> water table.
In view <strong>of</strong> the above. there has been greater emphasis on groundwater
development even in irrigation commands and by now, the extent <strong>of</strong> extraction <strong>of</strong>
groundwater sources has reached extensive margin in certain parts, threatening
the sustainability <strong>of</strong> the resource base. The progressive decline in groundwater
table in several parts <strong>of</strong>tlle country has been extensively discussed (Prihar et al.,
1990; Bhatia. 1992; Sivanappan. et al., 1987; Shah, 1993; Dhawan, 1995;
Janakarajan, 1996; Janakarajan and Vaidyanathan. 1998; Vaidyanathan 1999).
A three-pronged approach to regulate groundwater use in India was
suggested by Vaidyanathan (1999). which includes a mix <strong>of</strong> centralised
regulation <strong>of</strong> the groundwater by the government combined with community
management as well as the introduction <strong>of</strong> competitive groundwater markets.
However, the implementation <strong>of</strong> such policies calls for according legal sanction
to private property rights over groundwater and the freedom to trade in the same.
There are also apprehensions regarding the success <strong>of</strong> community management
<strong>of</strong> the resource base, especially in terms <strong>of</strong> sharing the costs and benefits among
the beneficiaries. Cost-effective institutional arrangements are also necessary for
the distribution <strong>of</strong> groundwater corroborated with systematic and continuous
52

monitoring <strong>of</strong> the parameters <strong>of</strong> groundwater development, viz. average yield per
well, the proportion <strong>of</strong> dried up wells, area irrigated per well, and the cropping
intensity and crop pattern in well irrigated areas.
2.2.6 Studies on issues related to water pricing
There are growing evidences suggesting that much <strong>of</strong> the problems <strong>of</strong> under
performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation sector in India is due to under-pricing or non-pricing <strong>of</strong>
irrigation water. Though the rationale for fixing up <strong>of</strong> water tariff was clearly
spelt out in the report <strong>of</strong> the Second Irrigation Commission 8 (GOI, 1972), the
states did not adhere to it, the result being that the actual receipts varied from
less than one percent to a maximum <strong>of</strong> 2.9 per cent <strong>of</strong> gross income. The Sixth
Finance Commission observed that the losses due to under-pricing or non-pricing
went up nearly II times from 4.84 crores in 1955-56 to Rs. 56.59 crores in 1967-
68 (GOI, 1973a: 68). The National Water Policy (1987) also insisted on fixing up
water rates to convey its scarcity value to the users as well as to cover annual
operation and maintenance charges so as to recover part <strong>of</strong> the fixed cost.
Accordingly, though a few states had revised the characteristically low water
rates 9 during 1981-86, in some cases, the rates had been even withheld lO
8 The Irrigation Commission argued for fixing up water charges based on I) quantity <strong>of</strong>
watet consumed by particular crops, 2) paying capacity <strong>of</strong> the irrigators, 3) assurances
<strong>of</strong> water supplies, and 4) the need to cover the annual costs incurred in providing
irrigation. Besides, the Commission also prescribed optimum level <strong>of</strong> charges for
irrigation water such that it worked out to be around 5 and 12 per cent <strong>of</strong> gross income
<strong>of</strong> food and cash crops respectively.
• The Ninth Plan indicates that most <strong>of</strong> the northeastern states (except Assam and
Manipur) do not even charge any water rate. Maharashtra is the only state where the
irrigation water rates are announced for a five year period at a time with provision for
yearly escalation so as to cover the full 0 & M cost as well as the interest payable on
53

Subsequently, an Expert Committee was appointed by the Planning Commission
(GOI, 1992) in October 1991 under the Chairmanship <strong>of</strong>Vaidyanathan to review
the irrigation pricing policy. The Commission proposed a three phased transition
in the policy, viz., a) rationalisation <strong>of</strong> the existing system <strong>of</strong> individual
assessment based on area under different crops to one <strong>of</strong> season and crop-specific
area rates; b) shift to a full-fledged volumetric distribution system with necessary
physical changes; and c) reworking <strong>of</strong> the operational rules and procedures for
effective regulation <strong>of</strong> water allocation and deliveries.
However, there was no attempt to implement the recommendations <strong>of</strong> the
committee and the seriousness <strong>of</strong> the problem <strong>of</strong> non-pricing or under-pricing <strong>of</strong>
water continue to perpetuate inefficiency.
It was found that by 1993-94, the
losses on account <strong>of</strong> irrigation had increased to Rs. 124 billion, about 2.3 times
the plan outlay on irrigation (MundIe and Rao, 1997; Srivastava and Sen, 1997,
as quoted in Vaidyanathan, 1999: p.1 0 I). There was also a marked decline in the
cost recovery ratio from 12.60 per cent to mere 4.40 per cent.
Thus, the problem <strong>of</strong> under-pricing or non-pricing <strong>of</strong> irrigation water acts
as a major constraint in the effective utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation water in canal
the public deposits raised through irrigation bonds. The state governments <strong>of</strong> Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana and Orissa have revised the water rates recently (GO!,
2000: 2.293).
10 The Expert Committee (1992) denotes that water rates in Tamilnadu were last revised
30 years back. In Punjab, Kerala, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh,
there has been no change in rates since the mid-70s. Several states (including Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
and West Bengal) announced revisions during 1981-86, but in some cases (Gujarat and
Karnataka), the implementation <strong>of</strong> the revised rates was held up by the governments,
and in the case <strong>of</strong> Andhra Pradesh, because <strong>of</strong> stay orders from the courts (GOI, 1992).
54

command areas in India. All the more, it is important to note that there are not
much emphasIs given to ensure water availability at the right time in adequate
measures. It is also important to note that the farmers are not to be made to pay
for the inefficient and poor delivery services. All these eventualities invariably
points to the need for institutional reforms in the water sector in India.
2.2.7 Institutional reforms in Indian irrigation
There has also been a growing academic interest in understanding and explaining
the process <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in the broad framework <strong>of</strong> the
New Institutional Economics (NIE). Much <strong>of</strong> this literature has been necessitated
by the growing realisation that the mainstream (neo-c1assical) economists, by and
large, have tended to neglect the interaction between economic policy and the
complex institutional arrangements II as well as the transaction costs in the water
. 12
sector .
In India, the wide range <strong>of</strong> issues and problems emerging in the irrigation
sector over a period <strong>of</strong> time necessitated thinking in terms <strong>of</strong> institutional
reforms necessary to ensure efficient and productive use <strong>of</strong> water on a
sustainable basis. Scholars, by and large, have addressed these issues and
II
For an extensive and comprehensive revIew and discussion <strong>of</strong> the institutional
arrangements in the water sector and the divergent theoretical positions as well as
experiments, see Runge (1981, 1986); Carruthers and Morrison (1996); Stone et al
( 1996), Alston et al (1996); Thobani (1997); Easter et al (1999); Hearne and Easter
(1997); Potkanski and Adams (1998); Easter et al (1999); Saleth and Dinar (1999);
Kemper and Larry D. Simpson (1999)
12 Both the rent-seeking as well as game theoretic approaches are used by scholars to
explain this institutional processes (Repetto, 1986).
55

highlighted the problems related to institutional reforms ll and capacity building
in irrigation sector in India and its impact on water use efficiency.
Vaidyanathan (1999) reviews various approaches to institutional reform
in India's irrigation sector and considers self management by user communities 14
with well defined property rights over water supply, including the freedom to
buy and sell these rights as an important step in this regard. According to him, an
appropriate institutional reform in India requires the state to undertake part or
full costs <strong>of</strong> irrigation development on the condition that the system fetches back
the expenses incurred in a specified manner with minimum interference as
regards the rules <strong>of</strong> water transaction.
Examining the fl?asibility <strong>of</strong> institutional reforms in India, Saleth and
Dinar (1999) bring out the contrast that while policy makers realise the heavy
socio-economic costs <strong>of</strong> prevailing institutional inadequacy within the water
sector, the political economy constraints remain as a powerful obstacle for
initiating any substantive institutional reform. This study <strong>of</strong>fers an analytical
framework to
identify various layers <strong>of</strong> institutional inter-linkages and
institution-performance linkages within the water sector. The Central Water
Commission (CWC) and the Planning Commission have also placed the
13 Institutional reforms in the water sector necessarily calls for definite principles in
terms <strong>of</strong> water law, water policy and water administration, all <strong>of</strong> the three having well
laid out institutional aspects to be strictly adhered to. For a detailed discussion on the
performance <strong>of</strong> water institutions in India, see Hashim Ali, 1980; Jayaraman, 1981;
Uph<strong>of</strong>f. 1986; APO, 1991; Singh. 1992; Mitra, 1993; Lele and Patil, 1994; Maloney and
Raju, 1994, and Vaidyanathan, 1999.
I' The literature on user participation in water management largely rely on the
framework <strong>of</strong> the collective action theory [Olson. 1965; Ostrom. 1990; Sengupta, 1991,
Johnston et aI, 1993; Coward Jr. (ed.), 1980).
56

importance <strong>of</strong> instinaional reforms on the agenda. The institutional refor:n
measures are perceived in a broad spectrum <strong>of</strong> activities. viz., providing a legal
framework to the problems <strong>of</strong> sharing <strong>of</strong> water resources, inter-state water
disputes, inter-basin water transfers. conferring rights to trade in water resources
as well as riparian rights, groundwater regulation, and farmer participation in
irrigation management (CWC, 1999: 223). However, institutional reforms are yet
tu take a definite shape in India and are emerging gradually.
2.3 Studies on aspects <strong>of</strong> On-Farm Development and water management
in irrigation commands
The studies addressing the problems related to the efficient use and management
<strong>of</strong> water for irrigation have highlighted two critical parameters, namely, the
absence <strong>of</strong> scientific land development (OFD) in irrigation commands and the
lack <strong>of</strong> discipline among stakeholders regarding development, distribution and
management <strong>of</strong> water. The realisation and understanding <strong>of</strong> the ground realities
that are purportedly affecting water use efficiency have made the irrigation
planners, management specialists and technocrats to take both preventive and
curative measures in canal commands. Moreover, given the importance <strong>of</strong> OFD
and OFWM in the efficient performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems, there have been
commendable efforts by researchers to examine the <strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong> OFD as well as
the dynamics <strong>of</strong> water management practices in canal commands. Many <strong>of</strong> these
studies are region-specific and project-specific.
57

2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong>of</strong> OFD
Sen (1955), who examines the <strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong> land development In river valley
projects, has made a pioneering attempt in this regard. The study suggests that
utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation facilities in an optimum manner with the shortest time lag
could ensure optimum return on the large amount <strong>of</strong> capital invested in major
irrigation projects.
According to Chauhan and Sewa Ram (1977), land levelling, which is an
essential aspect <strong>of</strong> OFD, is a crucial non-engineering measure for efficient
utilisation <strong>of</strong> water in irrigation projects. They advocate for an underground
pipeline system with pre-fabricated channels so as to ensure optimum water use.
The need for training the farmers as well as local masons on fabrication <strong>of</strong>
moulds, construction <strong>of</strong> channels using these moulds and field layout <strong>of</strong> such
pre-fabricated channels to ensure cost-effective OFD works have also been
appreciated.
Narayan and Reddy (1978) have brought out the role <strong>of</strong>land development
in water management with special reference to the Ghataprabha and Malaprabha
commands in Karnataka. The study examines the importance <strong>of</strong> scientific OFD in
the better utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential, the problems, both financial as well
as lack <strong>of</strong> awareness about OFD works, improper deployment <strong>of</strong> land
development staff, timely availability <strong>of</strong> credit facilities from Land Development
Banks (LDBs), etc. The study reports the problem <strong>of</strong> distributive inequalities
across the irrigation command in view <strong>of</strong> the widespread practice <strong>of</strong> overirrigation
and violation <strong>of</strong> cropping pattern. It is found that the farmers were
reluctant! hesitant in pursuing OFD works in spite <strong>of</strong> their awareness <strong>of</strong> the
58

incremental yield (due to adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD) and financial position. The study
argues that"the choice <strong>of</strong> crop pattern with weightage for less water intensive and
low value crops (as per the CADA directives) with a more or less determined
seasonal fixation makes heavy investment on land development uneconomic. The
total expenditure incurred for land levelling per acre in the study villages was Rs.
451 for one per cent slope, Rs. 409 for two per cent slope and Rs. 645 for three
per cent slope.
Singh et al (1978) in their study, "An economic appraisal <strong>of</strong> OFD
programme- a hard core <strong>of</strong> Ramganga command area development project" in
Uttar Pradesh find the immediate effect <strong>of</strong> OFD works in terms <strong>of</strong> extension <strong>of</strong>
irrigation, avoidance <strong>of</strong> seepage losses and enhanced cropping intensity.
However, the returns on investment in OFD works are poor mainly due to the
short-time lag between programme planning and achievement <strong>of</strong> results
(production) and lack <strong>of</strong> funds and inadequate staffing pattern.
Sisodia (1978) in his . economic analysis <strong>of</strong> OFD programme 10 the
Chambal command area in Madhya Pradesh', examines whether an investment
on the project is viable in terms <strong>of</strong> change in cropping pattern, cropping intensity
and yield levels in relation to the pre-OFD situation. The study concludes that
while it is pr<strong>of</strong>itable to undertake OFD, its adoption is justified by the net income
earned by farmers through increase in production, input use efficiency and
managerial ability for realising the full potential <strong>of</strong> the land and water resources.
Wade (1976) in his study on Command Area Development Programme
observes that the emphasis on mechanized land shaping and furrowing in the
59

command area has reduced the labour input and favours the rich fanners in the
matter <strong>of</strong> redistribution <strong>of</strong> benefits.
The importance <strong>of</strong> incorporating Research and Development (R&D) in the
process <strong>of</strong> irrigation development has been considered to be essential to bridge
the gap between techno-centric modem fann technology and traditional approach
<strong>of</strong> the users (farmers) <strong>of</strong> such technology (Wade, 1976; Biggs, 1981). Wade
(1976) indicates the emulative model <strong>of</strong> Chambal basin near Kota in Rajasthan,
wherein, an integrated OFD involving a full-scale reconstruction <strong>of</strong> land surfaces
and water distribution structures as well as ownership by means <strong>of</strong> consolidation
<strong>of</strong> holdings and realignment <strong>of</strong> boundaries is widely acclaimed. However, such a
model needs considerable reworking before getting replicated elsewhere. Biggs
(1981) emphasises the importance <strong>of</strong> R&D at the grass root level to monitor
irrigation works. He also proposes a formal and informal R&D for river basin
development.
Kumar (1978) examines the impact <strong>of</strong> field channels on cropping pattern,
cropping intensity, input use, farm income, elasticity <strong>of</strong> production <strong>of</strong> farm
inputs in different farms <strong>of</strong> the Hirakud canal system. Using a logarithmic
regression model with random coefficients to express the relationships between
the explanatory and dependent variables, he concludes that the field channels
have led to an overall increase <strong>of</strong> 13 per cent in the irrigated area and 9 per cent
increase in the cropping intensity. The field channels lead to a reduction in the
utilisation <strong>of</strong> family labour per acre' and also an increase in the utilisation <strong>of</strong>
casual labour.
60

Ouncan (1979) analyses the factors affecting farmers' willingness and
ability to operate and maintain on-farm irrigation systems. He also refers to the
organisational aspects <strong>of</strong> local irrigators groups.
Joshi and Agnihotri (1984) examines the magnitude and socio-economic
consequences <strong>of</strong> soil salinity and waterlogging in the canal commands and
suggests measures, such as drainage, canal lining, on-farm water management,
etc., to overcome such problems.
Tripathi (1984) examines the impact <strong>of</strong> physical improvements In
irrigation command through OFO on agricultural productivity. The impact on
productivity has been measured by comparing 'before and after implementation
<strong>of</strong> OFO' and also 'with and without OFO'. According to him, the latter approach,
i.e., 'with and without OFO' provides a realistic measure <strong>of</strong> the impact as it takes
into account the various aspects and other programmes operating simultaneously
with the main CAO programmes. He indicates that the yield differential in the
'before and after OFD' approach may not reflect the realistic picture <strong>of</strong>
implementation <strong>of</strong> OFD because <strong>of</strong> the simultaneous causation <strong>of</strong> other related
programmes having a bearing on productivity, and the possibility <strong>of</strong> overestimation
in the yields due to the OFO intervention. Moreover, most <strong>of</strong> the
irrigation projects lack in terms <strong>of</strong> comprehensive benchmark surveys to compare
and contrast the comparative performance <strong>of</strong> irrigated farms before and after
implementing OFO.
61

Nanjundappa (1988), while examining the financial aspects <strong>of</strong> OFD,
argues for integrating financing <strong>of</strong> OFD works with the CAD programme so as to
facilitate the co-ordination <strong>of</strong> activities at a single point.
Yousuf (1988) considers the lack <strong>of</strong> OFD causing considerable reduction
In the utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential. The departure from the localised
cropping pattern in favor <strong>of</strong> water intensive crops especially in the head reaches
is yet another problem affecting water availability across the canal system on a
uniform basis. As a result, a declining trend in adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD has been
observed while moving from the head to tail-end.
Gopinath and Kalro (1991) examines the performance objectives <strong>of</strong> an
irrigation system in relation to sustainability <strong>of</strong> managerial interventions to
upgrade the system performance. A clear distinction is made with respect to
managerial interventions in terms <strong>of</strong> hardware measures and s<strong>of</strong>tware measures,
which together signify the relevance <strong>of</strong> OFD in attaining the goals <strong>of</strong>
productivity, equity, reliability, flexibility, environmental stability and economic
viability.
The study identifies various performance objectives for irrigation
development and management. These objectives are: i) attaining land and water
productivity through reduction in water losses, ii) better crop yields and shift in
cropping; iii) ensuring equity, dependability, stability and sustainability as well
as economic viability <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems. These objectives are expected to be
achieved through management interventions in terms <strong>of</strong> hardware and s<strong>of</strong>tware
measures, involving OFD works (Gopinath and Kalro, 1991: 160-61).
62

The Eighth Plan also reiterates the importance <strong>of</strong> OFD works and water
management programmes based on detailed soil surveys and land use capability
(GOI, 1992: 59). The poor performance <strong>of</strong> OFD implementation in different
states was clearly brought out in the Ninth Plan document. The survey <strong>of</strong> relevant
legal provisions in the existing Irrigation Acts in various states shows that most
<strong>of</strong> the states do not have OFD works included in their ActslS. The
implementation <strong>of</strong> OFD entails willful possession <strong>of</strong> land from the concerned
farmers, for which no compensation is paid, which may have serious
implications. Consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdings is yet another activity, which is not being
undertaken by many states.
2.3.2 Evaluation studies on CAD programmes and OFD
There are a few evaluation studies on the impact <strong>of</strong> the CAD programmes on the
utilisation <strong>of</strong> potential created and adoption <strong>of</strong> desired cropping patterns as well
as the constraints in the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD in irrigation commands. Many <strong>of</strong> the
studies have covered the organisational aspects and the constraints in the
implementation <strong>of</strong> certain physical programmes for improvements in the system.
Reddy (1991) extensively discusses the problems and prospects <strong>of</strong>
Command Area Development programmes with particular reference to the
Ghataprabha and Malaprabha irrigation projects in Karnataka. It is found that the
low progress <strong>of</strong> OFD and non-implementation <strong>of</strong> land consolidation programme
1~ For instance. the North India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873 (as applicable to Punjab,
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh), the Bengal Irrigation Act 1876 (applicable to Bihar and
West Bengal), the Bombay Irrigation Act 1979, the Rajasthan Irrigation and Drainage
Act, 1954 and Orissa Irrigation Act do not provide for direct! effective OFD works as
63

y the CADA have led to low productivity. The study brings out a strong case for
adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD by the farmers, which is essential for the effective utilisation <strong>of</strong>
irrigation potential as also for ensuring sustainability <strong>of</strong> the system. The study
throws light on a good number <strong>of</strong> issues concerning OFD, like the impact <strong>of</strong>
adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD on farm business, farmers' perceptions <strong>of</strong> land development,
distributive inequalities in the irrigation command, problems in the non-adoption
<strong>of</strong> localization pattern by the farmers, issues in water management and
environmental issues. The study concludes that " ... the future research on
irrigation among other issues, should concentrate more on non-water factors,
particularly, land development".
Pant (1992) examines the status <strong>of</strong> OFD works in the Shard a Sahayak
command <strong>of</strong> Uttar Pradesh and found that the absence <strong>of</strong> efficient field irrigation
channels within the outlet command has been responsible for under-utilisation <strong>of</strong>
irrigation potential. The impact <strong>of</strong> OFD works on increasing the area under
irrigation has been found to be marginal, being positive III some outlets and
negative in some others. Again, it is noted that in spite <strong>of</strong> considerable
investment on OFD works, the overall increase in command area has been only
43 acres per year which represents an increase <strong>of</strong> only 10.7 per cent. However.
the study is silent about the reasons for the poor status <strong>of</strong> OFD adoption in the
command area.
Reddy (1998) has made a comprehensive attempt to understand the
problems and prospects <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in canal commands The
----------------------------------------------------
well as involvement <strong>of</strong> beneficiaries In overall management and administration <strong>of</strong>
irrigation systems (GOl, 2000: 2.308).
64

approach and thrust given in the study are different from contemporary studies
as: a) it is a longitudinal study; and b) the focus is on farmers' underst~nding <strong>of</strong>
the various irrigation related factors and its impact on the implementation <strong>of</strong>
CAD programmes. The study identifies perceptible gap between area notified for
irrigation and the area actually irrigated and this has been on account <strong>of</strong> a host <strong>of</strong>
factors as reported by the farmers including non-levelling <strong>of</strong> land before the
actual release <strong>of</strong> water (40.7 %), followed by lack <strong>of</strong> adequate water in the canal
(32.2 %), undependable and untimely supply (27.1 %) and non-availability <strong>of</strong>
labour (24.7 %). The impact <strong>of</strong> OFD on water use efficiency in terms <strong>of</strong> value <strong>of</strong>
crop output per unit <strong>of</strong> water used and productivity <strong>of</strong> crops have also been
examined. The productivity <strong>of</strong> crops grown in the plots where OFD is done
scientifically is invariably higher than those grown in undeveloped plots. The
empirical results discussed in Reddy (1998) on localization in the command area
appear to be very interesting. While the project envisages localization pattern <strong>of</strong>
Rabi (40 %), Kharif (40 %) and two seasonal crops (20 %), the actual pattern
found in 1975-76 was Rabi (77.7 %), Kharif (8.9 %) and two seasonal (13.4 %).
The pattern changed further to Rabi (42.5 %), Kharif (19 %) and two seasonal
crops (38.5 %) in 1984-85.
The impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation (and OFD) on farm business income has been
found to be significant as demonstrated by the increase in return on investment in
irrigated farming from 9.6 per cent in 1975-76 to 49 per cent in 1984-85. Thus,
the hypothesis that irrigation helps increasing income per acre 'has been wellfounded
(Reddy, 1998: 220). On the impact <strong>of</strong> extension activities, it is found
that only 36 per cent <strong>of</strong> the marginal farmers have contact with the extension
65

agents as against 90 per cent or more in the case <strong>of</strong> big farmers. The study
highlights the unfortunate aspect <strong>of</strong> Indian irrigation development, wherein, the
crucial elements <strong>of</strong> irrigated farming, viz., land levelling and development,
drainage facilities and adverse effects <strong>of</strong> over irrigation do not figure
prominently in the extension counseling (Reddy, 1998: 20 I).
Vaidyanathan (1999) contends that, in large reservoir based irrigation
systems, the ability <strong>of</strong> the system managers to ensure efficient water distribution
is constrained by the rigidity <strong>of</strong> the distribution networks, the extent <strong>of</strong>
sophistication <strong>of</strong> control structures to regulate the volume and timing <strong>of</strong> flow to
different parts <strong>of</strong> the command area, the capacity to collate and analyse the
enormous amount <strong>of</strong> information available bearing on crop water needs at
different times in different segments <strong>of</strong> the command area and the ability <strong>of</strong> the
system managers to enforce the allocation on the ground (Vaidyanathan, 1999).
Attempts to bring about improvements at the user level by constructing field
channels, consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdings and land levelling have also not made much
headway. The uncertainty <strong>of</strong> returns on investment as well as the bureaucratically
conceived and implemented programmes with only marginal involvement <strong>of</strong> the
users and the organisational weakness <strong>of</strong> the state apparatus are some <strong>of</strong> the
important constraints.
2,3.3 Studies on user participation and irrigation management transfer
O'Mara (1984) considers beneficiary participation as an important measure to
resolve much <strong>of</strong> the problems <strong>of</strong> water utilisation. A system which is responsive
to farmer's demand is far more likely to achieve an efficient allocation than any
66

system which presupposes superior information and decision-making capacity on
the part <strong>of</strong> the irrigation bureaucracy and neglects feedback from farmers.
It was thought that the effective management <strong>of</strong> water distribution and
operation <strong>of</strong> canal systems could be ensured through the National Water
Management projects (NWMPs). But, in reality not much improvement had taken
place after introducing NWMP. This underscores the importance <strong>of</strong> user
participation in irrigation management. Vaidyanathan (1999) points out that so
far, the efforts to ensure user participation have been confined to the formation <strong>of</strong>
such groups at the tertiary level, without effective management in the process <strong>of</strong>
water transaction at the field level.
There are studies highlighting the importance <strong>of</strong> Participatory Irrigation
Management (PIM). Country level experiences suggest that the principle <strong>of</strong> PIM
has been effective in terms <strong>of</strong>: a) getting farmers assistance in water distribution;
b) in facilitating the maintenance <strong>of</strong> the farm level facilities and improvements or
repair <strong>of</strong> canals; and c) in resolving irrigation related conflicts, previously being
dealt with by the government authorities (Ferrer and Lucero, 1988). Kolawole
(1993) argues that high crop productivity is a requirement to achiev~ and sustain
the required level <strong>of</strong> user participation.
Vaidyanathan (1999), like Patel and Lele (1995), concludes that 'the
success <strong>of</strong> active user involvement in water management at the outlet level
depends to a greater extent on: a) credible assurance regarding the quantum and
duration <strong>of</strong> water supply that each group can expect; b) giving users' groups the
freedom to create local storage below the outlet and to determine allocations
67

among their members; c) insisting that these groups assume responsibility for
maintenance and ensuring that users pay for the cost <strong>of</strong> providing them; d)
vesting the powers for regulating conj unctive use <strong>of</strong> groundwater in the outlet
command to the respective user groups; and e) direct participation <strong>of</strong> user groups
and their representatives in the management <strong>of</strong> the system with autonomy to
decide, monitor and enforce operational rules at all levels <strong>of</strong> the system to levy
and collect water rates and apply them for better operations <strong>of</strong> their system.
The case for efficiency in water use emanates from the fact that already a
large portion <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential is exploited and the scope for new systems is
limited. The main source <strong>of</strong> incremental water supplies will thus have to come
from saving water through demand management and more efficient use <strong>of</strong>
existing water supplies. Dick and Mendoza (1996) focus on the comparative
analysis <strong>of</strong> three types <strong>of</strong> alternative water allocation mechanisms, VIZ., a)
administrative allocation; b) user-managed allocation; and c) the market
allocation l6 . Mitra (1997) calls for a critical review and examination <strong>of</strong> the
management systems in its technical, organisational and institutional aspects as
well as in its financial parameters including pricing <strong>of</strong> water in view <strong>of</strong> the poor
status <strong>of</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation system in India (Mitra, 1997: 2).
Pant (1998) examines the controversy over centralised -
decentralised
authority structure in the management <strong>of</strong> irrigation water. While Steward (l949)
and Wittfogel (1957) argues in favour <strong>of</strong> a centralised co-ordination and
1. See, IFPRI (1994) for a detailed description <strong>of</strong> these mechanisms. There are numerous
anecdotal reports and a growing number <strong>of</strong> studies <strong>of</strong> water markets in UP. Haryana,
Punjab, Bihar. West Bengal. Orissa and AP in India [Shankar. 1992; Pant. 1991;
68

direction <strong>of</strong> water harvesting leading to greater political integration and
emergence <strong>of</strong> powerful bureaucracy, Pant (1998) shows evidences <strong>of</strong> success <strong>of</strong>
decentralised governance <strong>of</strong> water control and management systems. Narrating
the success story <strong>of</strong> the' Ahar - Pyne' system in South Bihar, Pant concludes that
the performance <strong>of</strong> indigenous irrigation systems is more effective in terms <strong>of</strong>
ensuring better farmer coordination in management, collective action and
sustaining equitable distribution <strong>of</strong> water. However, the indigenous systems
declined owing to: 1) the institutional reforms resulting in the abolition <strong>of</strong>
zamindari system; 2) alternative canal development schemes in the postindependence
and post-green revolution era; and 3) non-integration between
traditional and modern systems in the post-independence phase.
Pant (1999) shows that the management transfer to the WUAs in
Maharashtra is effective in terms <strong>of</strong> area expansion under irrigation as well as
water use efficiency_ The WUAs have considerably improved the recovery <strong>of</strong>
water charges thereby bringing revenue to the government. Moreover, by
charging much higher amount from the water users, the WUAs have accumulated
funds for the maintenance <strong>of</strong> their microstructures and continue to survive and
thrive even after management subsidy <strong>of</strong> the government has ceased to exist.
Vermilion (1997) states that irrigation management transfer in the
Philippines has resulted in substantial increase <strong>of</strong> over 50 per cent in the water
fee collection rate, improvements in O&M and a rise in cropping intensity.
----------------------------------------------------
Kolavalli and Atheeq, 1990; Kolavalli, Kalro and Asopa, 1989; Saleth, 1991; Shah and
Raju, 19881_
69

Ansari (1989) shows that there have been changes in cropping pattern and an
increase in cropping intensity by 75 per cent in Nepal due to PIM.
Brewer 1'1 al (1999) give a more comprehensive analysis <strong>of</strong> the processes
and the present status <strong>of</strong> irrigation management transfer (IMT) in India. The
stuqy based on experiences <strong>of</strong> implementation <strong>of</strong> IMT in six states, viz., Bihar,
Haryana. Gujarat. Maharshtra, Tamilnadu and Kerala shows that the IMT as
currently practices in India is not' demand driven', as there is no pressure from
the farmers as well as political interest groups. Rather, it is a policy devised by
irrigation pr<strong>of</strong>essionals. bureaucrats and academics concerned with irrigation
development in India.
However. it needs further empirical probing that how far the efforts to
ensure beneficiary participation in irrigation management through lMT could be
successful in Indian conditions. where much <strong>of</strong> the irrigation commands are
characterised by dominance <strong>of</strong> landed aristocracy and divergence in cropping
patterns. etc. The Planning Commission appears to be pessimistic about the
success as revealed by its observation that... "the area covered by these
initiatives [beneficiary participation] is vcry small. less than one per cent <strong>of</strong> the
area irrigated at present. .... For the most part, the outlet and canal committees
are there only in name; their functions are vague; they seldom meet; they are not
consulted on substantive issues; nor are department <strong>of</strong>ficers required to follow
their advice. There is also considerable reluctance, if not opposition, from the
operational staff <strong>of</strong> irrigation departments to involving users in management: and
even users themselves tend to be apathetic to the idea" (GOl, 1992: 126-7).
70

Since the study area under reference is in Kerala, an attempt has been
made to review some <strong>of</strong> the studies, which are few and far between. dealing
exclusively with the one to one correspondence between irrigation and
agricultural development as well as the status and problems <strong>of</strong> irrigation sector in
the state.
2.4 Irrigation and Agricultural Development in Kerala
In Kerala, the importance <strong>of</strong> irrigation for agriculture development has not been
realised by the scholars, in view <strong>of</strong> the high intensity <strong>of</strong> rainfall, progressive
agrarian policies and the resultant commercialisation <strong>of</strong> agriculture l7
and
topography IS. There seems to be no established evidences to demonstrate that
irrigation has significantly influenced the agrarian prospects <strong>of</strong> the region 19
(George and Nair, 1982; Narayana and Nair, 1983; Kannan and Pushpangadan,
1989). Joseph (1984) examines the relative efficiency <strong>of</strong> cultivation under two
different types <strong>of</strong> minor irrigation projects in Kerala, lifts and cross bars, in terms
<strong>of</strong> input use, output, productivity and pr<strong>of</strong>itability. It is found that the output per
17 Varghese (1972) points out that redistributive public agrarian policies in Kerala dates
back to the 19 th Century and they had a significant role in promoting commercialisation
<strong>of</strong> the economy.
18 Kerala's terrain and topography prevented cultivation <strong>of</strong> its staple grain, i.e., paddy on
the hills and slopes which have been utilised for other crops, mainly cash crops
(Kieniewies, 1989 as cited in Tharakan, 1997). Mateer (1991) notes that at the
beginning <strong>of</strong> the 19 th century, Travancore, which was a larger exports <strong>of</strong> rice, had
changed into a net importer <strong>of</strong> rice by the last decades consequent to the import <strong>of</strong> duty
free rice. And the import <strong>of</strong> cheap rice discouraged investments in paddy and shifted
resources to commercial crops (Umadevi, 1984).
19 For a detailed discussion on the absence <strong>of</strong> one to one correspondence between
irrigation investment and agricultural development in the state, see, Chapter 5.
71

unit <strong>of</strong> land cultivated (Net Sown Area) is higher by 24 per cent under lift
irrigation than cross bar irrigation.
The issues <strong>of</strong> improper financial planning and problems <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development have been discussed in Netto (1990), KSSP (1988). Santhakumar el
at (1995) indicates the absence <strong>of</strong> region-specific agrarian and hydrologic
features in the technological planning <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects in the state.
Most <strong>of</strong> the studies addresses the price and non-price factors that
influences the paradigm shift in cropping pattern in the state, characterised by a
tremendous decline in paddy, a principal crop in most <strong>of</strong> the irrigation systems in
Kerala. Kannan and Pushpangadan (1988 and 1990) have brought out the impact
<strong>of</strong> decline in area under paddy in Kerala on employment. The study says that
around 35 million man-days between 1970s and early 1980s were lost due to fall
in the area under paddy. The reason for the decline in area under paddy, among
others, is a gradual secular reduction in the relative pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> paddy
[Parthasarathy (1983); Radhakrishnan, 1983; Thomas et. al (1991, 1992); Babu et
at (1993); Sreeja, 1998). In the absence <strong>of</strong> irrigation, the level <strong>of</strong> fertilizer
application was lower in the state 20 than the recommended dosage.
Shortage in the availability <strong>of</strong> labour as well as the changing labour
relations have also been cited as important factors that influence the agrarian·
activities in the region. In a study <strong>of</strong> the agricultural labour households in a wet
land region <strong>of</strong> Kerala, Francis (1990: 86) finds that the participation rate <strong>of</strong> the
20 The level <strong>of</strong> fertilizer consumption has been reported to be at 53 kg. per ha. in Kerala
in comparison to 159 kg. in the Punjab, 96 kg. in Tamilnadu and 75 kg. in U.P. during
1986-87 (Geethakutty, \993).
72

younger age group (16-30) in agricultural activities is only 51 per cent, as against
over 70 per cent for the other higher age groups. Of the total unemployed, 88 per
cent are in the young age group (1990:91). Labour shortage has been felt in
coconut plucking as well as cashew-processing factories for shelling (Oeepa,
1994). The preference <strong>of</strong> labourers, especially those in the younger age groups,
has been clearly demonstrated to be for stable employment even if that involves a
compromise on the level <strong>of</strong> earnings (Kannan, 1998: L-68).
Kannan (1999) demonstrates that the militant labour unionism in the state
has been effective in terms <strong>of</strong> putting in place a system <strong>of</strong> wage payment to
agricultural labourers even when the labour was not actually employed as in the
case <strong>of</strong> head load services. This system is enforced in paddy cultivation in the
wet land region <strong>of</strong> Kuttanad in Southern Kerala (which still retains powerful
labour unions). In this case, farmers are made to agree to make payments to
traditional ploughmen (who do animal ploughing in the fields) when tractors are
introduced for such ploughing. He points to the contrast that though the union
strategy <strong>of</strong> securing better conditions <strong>of</strong> work and enhancing wage rates could be
successful, it fails to prevent a decline in employment as there is no farm level
investment forthcoming and a shift to less labour absorbing cropping pattern in
agriculture. This dilemma he explains as one <strong>of</strong> 'wage gain and job loss'.
Another important factor indicated has been the decline in operational
size <strong>of</strong> holdings due to sub-division and fragmentation. This has serious
consequences affecting scale economies <strong>of</strong> farm operations in the state. The NSS
estimates show that while the percentage share <strong>of</strong> marginal holdings increased
from 89 per cent during 1971-72 to 93 per cent in 1992, the area held by this
73

subgroup increased from 40 per cent to 54 per cent. The increase in proportion <strong>of</strong>
marginal holdings has been far above the national level, as it increased from 62
to 72 per cent (NSSO. 1971-72: 1992).
There are also apprehensions about the problems <strong>of</strong> water availability, in
spite <strong>of</strong> massive investment in irrigation infrastructure development in the state.
Using a physical infrastructure development index (PIDI), Ghosh et aI., (1998),
examine the impact <strong>of</strong> public investment on regional economic development in
the Indian states. It is found that in terms <strong>of</strong> overall physical infrastructure
development index. Kerala's position declined from 4th rank (1971-72) to 10 th
rank (1994-95) in terms <strong>of</strong> individual values <strong>of</strong> physical infrastructure
development indicators. With respect to the per capita consumption <strong>of</strong> electricity
(peE) and irrigation. the ranks slide down from 11 to 13 and 11 to 24
respectively during the abo\C period. t>.loreover, the state has been identified as
lagging behind in terms <strong>of</strong> irrigation infrastructure. Similar finding has been
reported by Lall (1999). However. it is wrong to conclude that the state has been
lagging behind in terms <strong>of</strong> irrigation infrastructure facilities. Rather, the
performance <strong>of</strong> irngation infrastructure has been weak, resulting in various
operational level problems.
Among the major problems discussed. the cost escalation and time lag in
completion arc the most important ones. It may be argued that the reasons for
such e\entualitics could be region specific as well. The INCOLD study reports a
delay <strong>of</strong> ahout 160 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> 15 irrigation projects and the highest
lag in compil:tlOn has been 466 per cent in the Malampuzha project in Kerala as
it took almost 17 years for completion. The puhlic accounts committee (PAC)
74

Report has been extremely critical in stating that not a single project has been
completed since independence within the stipulated target date (as cited in
CBIP), 1977: I). Swaminathan's study specific to Kerala puts the cost escalation
for major and medium projects at about 675 percent, the highest being 2260 per
cent in the Kaillada Irrigation project as on 31.8.1988 (Swami nathan, 1990).
As labour component is an important aspect, higher wage rates may lead
to higher costs <strong>of</strong> construction. In this regard. Viswanathan (2000) examines the
problem <strong>of</strong> cost escalation and time lag in the completed and ongoing major and
medium irrigation projects in Kerala 21 ,
where wage rates in general and
construction wages in particular are relatively higher. The cost escalation in the
case <strong>of</strong> 14 completed major and medium irrigation projects has been estimated at
611 per cent as <strong>of</strong> 1995-96.
There have not been many studies examining the impact <strong>of</strong> institutional
intervention on irrigation developnlent in the specific irrigation commands in the
state, except Varadan (1989). Chackecherry (1995), Varadan (1998) and
Madhavachandran (1999). Madhavachandran
(1999) shows that in respect <strong>of</strong>
Malampuzha and Chitturpuzha irrigation projects in Kerala, the productivity
levels <strong>of</strong> irrigated paddy have been 3200 kg. per ha. and 2750 kg. per ha. against
the potential yield <strong>of</strong> about 5000 kg. per ha. As a result, the user participation in
terms <strong>of</strong> incurring expenses on maintenance <strong>of</strong> OFD structures is 50 per cent in
the Malampu/ha scheme and 56 per cent in the Cheerakuzhi project. The study
also brings out the following evidences <strong>of</strong> user participation in irrigation
management in Kerala:
75

1) The maIn activity being undertaken by most <strong>of</strong> the BFAs related to
maintenance work <strong>of</strong> the field channels using the management subsidy from
C ADA along with farmer contributions.
2) A system <strong>of</strong> earthen or concrete farm channels in continuation <strong>of</strong> the field
channels (for effecting channel to field irrigation) ha been implemented by
less than 20 per cent <strong>of</strong> BF As in both the irrigation projects.
3) The absence <strong>of</strong> farm channels deterred the implementation <strong>of</strong> Rotational
Water Supply System (RWS) in the irrigation commands.
Brewer (1997) reports that many <strong>of</strong> the Beneficiary Farmer Associations
under CADA in Kerala are not functioning, where, the canal! project level
committees are severely weakened because <strong>of</strong> the absence <strong>of</strong> farmers'
representatives. Reportedly. many canal committees do not exist at all. The poor
performance <strong>of</strong> BF As in Kerala conditions could also be attributed to the lack <strong>of</strong>
supportive institutional environment.
A sample survey conducted by the CADA covering 255 farmers in eight
irrigation projects in Kerala during 1994 has reported the BFA membership as 64
per cent. But only 42 per cent <strong>of</strong> the members are benefited out <strong>of</strong> the BF As. The
farmers have a feeling <strong>of</strong> shortage <strong>of</strong> water during summer months and the major
reasons for the shortage <strong>of</strong> water have been: a) water scarcity in the reservoir; b)
lack <strong>of</strong> proper repairs/ maintenance <strong>of</strong> branch canals and field channels; c)
insufficient coverage <strong>of</strong> CAD works; d) the level <strong>of</strong> fields being above the field
channels; and e) silt! damages <strong>of</strong> the field/ farm channels (CADA, 1997).
----------------------------------------------------
21 A detailed discussion on these issues is presented in Chapter 5.
76

Given the range <strong>of</strong> Issues and problems associated with irrigation
development in the country. it is important to note that that scholars tend to
address them in isolation. depending upon the location-specific problems. As
shown in the review. studies have covered the impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation on economic,
social and environmental conditions in different agro-climatic and environmental
contexts where the projects are located. But, not many studies have examined the
linkages. ground realities and stakeholders' capacities to adopt themselves to
irrigated farming. Though OFD is one <strong>of</strong> the major objectives <strong>of</strong> CADA. its
performance continues to be poor as brought out by the limited studies on this
important issue. It has been proved beyond doubt that neglecting OFD is one <strong>of</strong>
the main reasons for the under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> the potential created and to the
increasing adverse effects on soiL waterlogging. salinity and alkalinity. There are
demonstrated evidences. though limited. to show that productivity <strong>of</strong> crops in
plots with OFD is much higher than the plots without it, besides ensuring water
use efficiency. Even so. this problem has not adequately been addressed by the
planners and the kind <strong>of</strong> importance and attention it deserves is not given in the
irrigation planning process.
In Kerala, the studies on irrigation development and its impact on socioeconomic
conditions are few and far between. None <strong>of</strong> the studies address the
reasons for poor performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects in the state, particularly, the
impact <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes on productivity as well as effecting better utilisation
and management <strong>of</strong> water. There is no single study where the problems and
. .
constraints with respect to adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD are given even m a passmg
reference. Given the topography and other geographical conditions in the state,
77

which are unique in several ways, the OFD should have formed as an integral
part <strong>of</strong> irrigation planning and design. In this backdrop, the study makes a
modest attempt to examine the <strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong> On-Farm Development as an interface
between divergent processes <strong>of</strong> irrigation and agricultural development in
the state. The problems and constraints in the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD at the farm level
in the irrigation projects have been examined in greater detail with reference to
two major irrigation projects. which are diverse in terms <strong>of</strong> agro-c1imatic and
geographical setting. This study. therefore. will have greater relevance to the
policy formulation in irrigation, especially in the wake <strong>of</strong> emerging reforms in
the water sector. It may also hopefully help delineating policy guidelines for
incorporating corrective measures in the completed projects and preventive and
promotional measures in the new and on-going irrigation projects.
78

Chapter 3
Objectives, Methodology and Analytical Framework
A detailed review <strong>of</strong> the important studies on irrigation development in India in
general. with special reference to Kerala and the studies on performance
evaluation <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes with respect to On-Farm Development (OF D) in
particular. discussed in Chapter 2, highlights the range <strong>of</strong> problems and issues
associated with the promotion and development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems. Though
scholars have addressed the research issues related to the impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation on
socio-economic and environmental problems, there are still some dimensions
which need further probing empirically.
I. The analyses <strong>of</strong> OFD \vorks have been broadly perceived to examine the
economic benefits <strong>of</strong> adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD. While some studies are mere case
studies. some have <strong>of</strong>fered more theoretical explanations <strong>of</strong> the potential
benefits from OF D at the farm level.
2. A positive relationship between OFD and utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential
created has been established by several research studies. But, the interface
and linkages between supply and demand for water which influences the
pattern, scale and intensity <strong>of</strong> OFD have not been adequately discussed in the
Ii terat ure.
3. There are not many studies which have identified the operational constraints
in implementing OFD at the farm level except the studies by Narayan and
Reddy (1978) and Reddy (1990, 1998). There is a need for more such studies

across the states in different agro-climatic and social settings where the
present study region is located.
4. No study has examined the relation between the cropping pattern envisaged
in a project and the kind <strong>of</strong> OFD works suitable to it, taking the topographical
conditions into account. This dimension is important to formulate locationspecific
and need-based operational plans in the command areas.
5. The issues. other than water per se, like the socio-economic conditions <strong>of</strong> the
farmers. institutional, technological and hydrological constraints governIng
water distribution in a given irrigation system as well as the agro-climatic
conditions. which may directly or indirectly influence the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD
by the farmers, have not been well appreciated by the researchers.
6. While the aspects <strong>of</strong> complementarity or the causality between public and
private investments have been discussed in the literature, there is no mention
as to how the lack <strong>of</strong> integration between massive public investment for
irrigation development and distribution policies would lead to institutional
failure as well as crowding out <strong>of</strong> farm level secondary investments.
The review <strong>of</strong> studies attempted in the foregoing chapter also identifies some <strong>of</strong>
the research issues need to be studied further, given their importance in the
contemporary development scenario. Some <strong>of</strong> the questions are as follows:
I. Why the institutional interventions by the agency, based on top-down
approach in irrigation development have not been successful enough?
80

2. Why the complementarity (as anticipated by the irrigation planners) between
irrigation infrastructure development and farm level investments on OFO has
been far from the expected levels?
3. How the region-specific factors could be integrated in the project design to
overcome the operational level constraints with a view to make water
institutions more successful in implementing scientific land and water
management practices in canal commands?
4. How to reconcile the contrast between irreversibility <strong>of</strong> public investment in
irrigation development and the irreversibility <strong>of</strong> cropping decisions (as is the
case <strong>of</strong> Kerala)?
3.1 Scope and objectives <strong>of</strong> the study
Given the seriousness <strong>of</strong> the problem <strong>of</strong> under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential
increasing in the successive plan periods and the consequent problems in terms
<strong>of</strong> cost-ineffectiveness <strong>of</strong> the irrigation investments. impact on socio-economic
and environmental conditions in the region, the need for identifying the factors
necessary to improve irrigation efficiency <strong>of</strong> the projects was on the increase.
Several scholars. as brought out by the review <strong>of</strong> literature, have been trying to
diagnose the reasons for the poor performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. But, still
quite a few issues, as mentioned above, need further enquiry to understand the
local dynamics to formulate nppropriate strategies. Therefore, this study tries to
focus on the problems nnd prospects <strong>of</strong> OFD, an important and critical strategy to
improve water use efficiency. In doing so, it tries to identify the design and
technical constraints, if any, for the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO in a given agro-climatic
81

and social setting In which a project IS located. The study covers two major
irrigation projects in Kerala. namely. Kallada In Kollam district and Peechi in
Thrissur district.
The broader objective <strong>of</strong> the study is to examine the status <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development in Kerala, in general, with special emphasis on the emerging land
use dynamics in irrigation projects and the implications on land development and
\\ ater management at the farm level. The major thrust is. however. on the issues
and problems related to OFD in the completed irrigation projects. Furthermore,
the study aims at identifying the ground realities in the contemporary irrigation
development scenario by conducting an indepth field survey in the two major
irrigation projects mentioned above. The specific objectives <strong>of</strong> the study are to:
I. analyse the pattern and tTl:nds in irrigation development in Kerala and its
impact on agricultural de\e]opment:
')
critically examine the Institutional and organisational strategies In the
irrigation commands to accomplish scientific On-farm Development and
water management practIces:
3. assess the impact <strong>of</strong> OFD on yield and Income <strong>of</strong> farmers in the irrigation
commands;
4. examine the factors determining adoption or non-adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD In
irrigation projects: and
5. bring out the institutional and operational level constraints In the
development, distributIOn and management <strong>of</strong> water resources for irrigation
in Kerala.
82

3.1.1 Hypotheses
The objectives as presented above have been examined by formulating the
following hypotheses. They are based on the apparent mismatch between
creation <strong>of</strong> irrigation infrastructure and agricultural development in Kerala as
broadly discussed in the development literature specific to the state.
I. The agricultural development in Kerala has not been commensurate with the
scale and intensity <strong>of</strong> public investment in irrigation development.
2. Organisational and institutional strategies (especially, CAOA) have not been
effective in accomplishing scientific OFO and ensuring better water
management.
3. The adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO has led to higher yields <strong>of</strong> crops and consequent higher
net returns at farm level.
4. Farmers are motivated to adopt scientific OFD and water management
practices not necessarily by water availability per se. but by vanous
institutional factors and other operational constraints including reglOnspecific
issues.
3.1.2 Methodology and sample design
In order to study the problems and prospects <strong>of</strong> OFO, two major irrigation
projects in Kerala , namely, Kallada and Peechi have been selected. However, in
order to understand the problems in generaL the analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong> OFD at
the macro level covers all the 14 irrigation projects completed in the state so far.
83

The indepth study to examine the factors influencing OFD at the micro level
confines only to two irrigation projects mentioned above. The multi-stage
sampling has been followed to select the sample units, the stages being selection
<strong>of</strong>: (a) command area, (b) main canals, and (c) location <strong>of</strong> the canal reach, (d)
villages, and (e) households.
3.1.3 Selection <strong>of</strong> irrigation commands
The two command areas under reference have been selected based on: (a) the
total life <strong>of</strong> the scheme; (b) potential area expected to be irrigated; (c) level <strong>of</strong>
institutional interventions; (d) cropping pattern; and (e) topography and other
specifics <strong>of</strong> the command areas. Both the irrigation projects are old generation
projects in the state. While the Peechi project was started in 1947, Kallada was
started in 1961. The Peechi project is commissioned fully and is brought under
the Command Area Development Programmes (CADPs). It is technically
designed for irrigating paddy. The groundwater recharge is reported to be one <strong>of</strong>
the highest among the irrigation projects. Whereas, the Kallada is still an
ongoing scheme (and partially commissioned), in spite <strong>of</strong> it being started more
than 40 years ago. It is designed for providing irrigation to garden and tree crops.
The Minor Conveyance System (MCS) designed for water distribution in the
Kallada command area is unique. The topography <strong>of</strong> the two projects is distinctly
different. While Peechi command is plain and levelled, Kallada has highly
undulating topography.
The Right Bank Main Canal (RBMC) systems <strong>of</strong> both the irrigation
projects have heen selected based on the area covered and number <strong>of</strong> villages
benefited. The RBMC has been selected purposively because the MCS for water
84

distribution in an undulating terrain. The RBMC <strong>of</strong> Kallada covers a wide ayacut
area. The RBMC <strong>of</strong> Peechi commands 23 villages as against only 89 villages in
the case <strong>of</strong> LBMC.
3.1.4 Selection <strong>of</strong> sample villages and farm households
After selecting the right bank main canals from the two sample projects, the
entire canal system is divided into three zones, viz., the head reach, middle reach
and the tail-end. This is based on the distance from the head regulator <strong>of</strong> the
main canal to the tail-end <strong>of</strong> the canal l . The list <strong>of</strong> villages coming under each <strong>of</strong>
the reaches has been prepared based on the information available from the
respective project reports. There are 22 villages coming under RBMC <strong>of</strong> Kallada
command area and 17 villages under RBMC <strong>of</strong> Peechi command. The selection
<strong>of</strong> the sample farm households for the study from villages was has bcen on
stratified random sampling. The strata being small and marginal medium and big
farmers. The different processes involved in the sample selection are explained in
Chart 3.1.
From the Kallada irrigation project, 200 farmers have been selected- 78
from the head, 65 from the middle reach and 57 farmers from the tail end. From
the Peechi irrigation project, a total <strong>of</strong> lIS farmers have been selected- 50 from
the head, 45 from the middle and 20 from the tail reach. The sample farm
holdings have been drawn from a wider coverage <strong>of</strong> the entire canal systems.
'For instance, if the total length <strong>of</strong> the main canal is 12 kms from the reservoir to the tail
ehd, the first 4 kms stretch <strong>of</strong> the canal is called as head reach, from 5 th to 8 th kms as
middle reach and from 9 th to 12th kms as tail-end.
85

\,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana sl.eps lUlluweu IlL l.ll.e ~'CJ.'C~l..J.VJ.1. VI. .... 014 ..... y Q. ...... Q. Q. .........
sample area farms
STUDY AREA AND IRRIGATION PROJECTS
MIDDLE REACH
... .. MIDDLE REACH
(8/65)
~
... (5/45)
~ If , •
KALLADA IRRIGATION PROJECT
(Kollam! Alapuzha & I'EECHlIRRIGA TlON I'HOJECT
Path3namthitta Districts) (Thrissur District)
..
~ ..
RIGHT BANK MAIN CANAL SYSTEM
HEAD REACH
..... .. ilEAl) I~EACH
(10178) '"
~
(8/50)
TAIL REACH
..... .. TAIL REACH
(5/57) ...
( 4120)
86

For instance, in the KalJada project, 23 villages have been covered out <strong>of</strong> the
total number <strong>of</strong> 92 villages and in Peechi, 17 <strong>of</strong> the 23 villages have been
covered. However, there were some problems in identifying the ultimate
beneficiaries from each reach <strong>of</strong> the canal system. Because, the land records are
not updated., though the properties were sold and transferred more than once.
A pre-tested and structured schedule has been used for eliciting
information from the sample farmers. The ficld level information gathered
include: details as regards cropping pattern, input use. returns from farming,
water availability, problems in adopting on-farm development works, besides
others like age, education <strong>of</strong> the head <strong>of</strong> the household and demographic details
<strong>of</strong> the family, including occupation and other related information.
Apart from the farmers. the local leaders who are knowledgeable about
the land development and water management related problems, have been
consulted to understand dimensions and problems. The <strong>of</strong>ficials <strong>of</strong> Irrigation
Department, CADA, field staff, Agriculture Officers, etc. have also been
contacted and discussed about the operational level constraints at the field level
and the water management problems.
The reference year <strong>of</strong> the survey was 1997-98 agricultural year for both
the command areas. The survey was carried out from October 1998 to April
1999. The information gathered pertained to previous crop seasons, viz., Virippu
(autumn), Afundakall (winter). and PU/lchll (summer) sea~ons
<strong>of</strong> 1997-98. The
field survey was deliberately extended 10
summer period to observe and
87

understand the problems related to water use and management by \i~iting
the
farms.
3.1.5 Secondary data
Secondary data for all-India have been collected mainly from \'anous plan
documents and other sources <strong>of</strong> information from the Central Water
Commission. Irrigation department and CADAs <strong>of</strong> the government <strong>of</strong> Kerala.
besides all India reports. The Expert Committee Report <strong>of</strong> Pricing <strong>of</strong> Irrigation
Water: Evaluation reports <strong>of</strong> CADA: crop cutting survey reports from the
respective irrigation projects: Audit Review Reports pertaining to IrngatlOn
department by the Comptroller and Auditor General <strong>of</strong> India (CAGI):
Government <strong>of</strong> Kerala. the publications <strong>of</strong> the Government <strong>of</strong> Kerala (Economic
Review. Statistics for Planning): Perfonnance Budget <strong>of</strong> the Irrigation
Department; Plan documents. etc. have also been perused. The project-wise timeseries
data on the trends in area. production and productivity <strong>of</strong> important crops
have been collected for the period 1985-86 to 1994-95 in the case <strong>of</strong> crops other
than paddy and from 1985-86 to 1999-2000 in the case <strong>of</strong> paddy.
3.1.6 Data Analysis
Simple and descriptive statistical tools have been used to analyse the scale and
intensity <strong>of</strong> area expansion and cropping pattern and other related factors at a
given level <strong>of</strong> investment in irrigation. Multiple regression analysis has been
used to determine tbe factors intluencing the farm level adoption <strong>of</strong> OrD in the
irrigation projects. The Cobh-Douglas production function bas heen applied to
determine the scale cconomi.:s <strong>of</strong> different crops grown in the command areas.
88

The concept <strong>of</strong> "Incidental Benefits" approach as discussed in Dhawan (1998)
has been used to explain the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> 'canal seepage induced'
groundwater potential for irrigation exploited by the farmers by the farmers in
the Peechi Irrigation Project. The conventional life-cycle approach to project
evaluation has been used to explain the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> cost and time oveT-Tuns
and delays in completion <strong>of</strong> the irrigation projects,
3,2 Relevance <strong>of</strong> OFD
The concept, On-Farm Development (OFD) is widely understood in irrigation
development and water management literature as the process <strong>of</strong> land
development for the smooth flow <strong>of</strong> water in the field leading to its uniform and
efficient application in the crop root zone, ensuring the growth <strong>of</strong> the plant.
According to the Central Water Commission (ewC), "On-Farm Development
(OFD) is an integrated process <strong>of</strong> leveling and shaping the land for smooth flow
<strong>of</strong> water, constructing field irrigation channels. providing drainage facilities.
forming the farm roads and realigning the field boundaries through appropriate
consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdings". Since land and water are the critical factors in the
agricultural production process. efficiency <strong>of</strong> water use or efficiency <strong>of</strong> an
irrigation system (irrespective <strong>of</strong> scale) and the resultant efficiency <strong>of</strong> crop
production system is largely determined by the way in which land is developed
and managed, Given this, the concept <strong>of</strong> OFD has much wider implications in the
agricultural development <strong>of</strong> any region (both under rainfed and irrigated
conditions) and its relevance cut across natural, physical and social sciences.
Various agronomic practices involving scientific land development and water
management at the farm level results in increase in crop yield and sustainability
89

<strong>of</strong> the crop production system trough agronomic measures <strong>of</strong> soil and water
conservation adequately supplemented with mechanical measures such as
contour bunding. bench terracing. etc. Agronomic measures help conserving
water and reducing the evaporation losses from the soil surface, improving soil
structure, soil fertility, etc. The choice <strong>of</strong> appropriate vegetation and cropping
system depending upon the land capability necessitates adequate land
development works. Land preparation and leveling including post harvest
cultivation and preparatory tillage results in enhanced water intake <strong>of</strong> the soil ami
sustains soil moisture status. The formation <strong>of</strong> appropriate seed bedsl ridges and
furrows matching the spacing requirements <strong>of</strong> crops help control erosion and
increase water use efficiency.
The physiological parameters affecting plant growth necessitates
replenishment <strong>of</strong> soil moisture and thereby help avoiding soil moisture loss due
to evapo-transpiration (ET). The moisture availability in the crop root zone is
positively related to the nutrient status. The total quantity <strong>of</strong> water required for
the essential physiological functions <strong>of</strong> the plantl crop is usually less than five
per cent <strong>of</strong> the total water absorbed and this entails three stages, viz., absorption,
translocation and transpiration. This metabolism requires adequate and timely
supply <strong>of</strong> water to the crop root zone, sufficiently conditioned by OFD works.
From the engineering perspective, construction <strong>of</strong> water control structures
is essential for water delivery according to the crop water requirements per unit
area as well as for the timely removal <strong>of</strong> excess water from the fields. On-Farm
Development (OFD) works involving surface drainage. sub-surface or pipe
drainage in adequate depth and width are important to let out water to the ayacut
90

commanded by an irrigation system and the scale and magnitude <strong>of</strong> such OFD
works would depend on the size <strong>of</strong> the irrigation system being designed. The
absence <strong>of</strong> such water control structures leads to problems <strong>of</strong> water logging, soil
salinity and alkalinity. Moreover, the OFD structures are invariably influenced
by factors, such as climate, topography, soil texture and water permeability <strong>of</strong> the
soil.
From the
. .
soclo-economlc perspective, OFD assumes much more
importance as it involves substantial investment from the part <strong>of</strong> the state as well
as individual farmers. More importantly, adoption <strong>of</strong> scientific OFD works
would result in increased crop yield and income to the farmer and the state and
improved water use efficiency <strong>of</strong> the irrigation system, thus help sustain the
resource base for the future. For the society. it amounts to effective and equitable
distribution <strong>of</strong> water across the command area.
It is important to note that achievement <strong>of</strong> water use efficiency or
optimum utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential in an irrigation system (irrespective <strong>of</strong>
scale) warrants OFD as an integral part <strong>of</strong> water management at the field level. In
other words, integration <strong>of</strong> OFD and On-Farm Water Management (OFWM)
constitutes the crux <strong>of</strong> any strategy towards planning for the development <strong>of</strong>
water resources and sustaining the resource base for the future.
However, given the agro-economic, physiological and englneenng
importance <strong>of</strong> OFD as an essential activity in achieving water use efficiency,
increase in productivity and income. its adoption is largely constrained in terms
<strong>of</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong> factors at the farm level. Moreover, there is bound to happen
91

greater differences between the theoretically perceived OFD measures and the
actual OFD and water conservation practices at the farm leHI. This mismatch is
quite likely as the farmers are diverse in terms <strong>of</strong> cropping practices. resource
endowment position and the very attitude towards farming as a major economic
activity. Keeping this empirical reality in mind. we conceptualise On-Farm
Development by <strong>of</strong>fering an operational definition as follows:
"On-Farm Development is Ihe process in which Ihe farmers
prepare Iheir lands before irrigalion for Ihe smoolh flow <strong>of</strong> water
and the land preparation is non-mechanical and involves minimum
inputs <strong>of</strong> labour and other factor use ".
This operational definition is based on the filed level perceptions <strong>of</strong> the
implementation status <strong>of</strong> OFD in the irrigation commands in Kerala in view <strong>of</strong>
the various socio-economic and technical constraints involved in the process <strong>of</strong>
farming, in generaL and uti lisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation Water, in particular.
3.3 Analytical framework
An important theoretical contention behind the promotion <strong>of</strong> public investment in
agriculture and infrastructure development is the complementarity hypothesis,
which suggests that the private investment always increases with the increase in
public investment, which is termed as 'crowding in' effect Farm level investment
by individual farmers, particularly, to undertake On-Farm Development depends
a great deal on the quality <strong>of</strong> irrigation service provided to the farmers. Merely
building the physical infrastructure to store and convey water to the fields by
itself may not induce farmers to invest in OFD works. There are empirical
evidences to prove that scientific adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO prior to or concurrently with
the release <strong>of</strong> water results in improved farm productivity and incremental
92

eturns per unit area and ensures water use efficiency In irrigation systems 2
(Reddy. 1998).
Theoretically. the complementarity hypothesis may hold good as long as
the development <strong>of</strong> irrigation leads to changes in cropping pattern from low
value inferior varieties to high value superior varieties <strong>of</strong> grain or commercial
crops. with an assured and sustainable increase In income to the beneficiary
farmers. It would then automatically lead to a rise in factor use intensity and
output expansIOn (Dhawan. 1998a; 1999b: Winpenny. 1997). An antithetical
situation would emerge, if the changes are not on the expected lines. This
implies. as already mentioned. that mere development <strong>of</strong> physical infrastructure
for providing irrigation water need not or may not automatically increase
effectiye demand for water and corroborate with farm
level secondary
imestments on OFD related structures to protect land from adverse effects in the
long run and to improve water use efficiency.
The agricultural development experience <strong>of</strong> Kerala needs to be examined
in terms <strong>of</strong> this antithetical process as discussed above. Because, in spite <strong>of</strong> the
strong infrastructure base for irrigation development, the utilisation <strong>of</strong> the
potential already created has not been very encouraging. This aspect <strong>of</strong> the
problem is critically reviewed in chapter 2 and empirically verified in the
subsequent chapters. The increasing under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential in the
completed irrigation projects and less or no potential to meet the effective
demand in a majority <strong>of</strong> the on-f!oing irrigation schemes in the: state need to be
explained in nn nntitheticnl framcwork <strong>of</strong> irrigntion development (Chnrt 3.2).
I A detailed discussion on the beneficial effed <strong>of</strong> OFD on farm output and water use
efficiency in irrigation commands is given in Chapter 2.
93

Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions and Ag,rinlltuntl ()eve!oJ)llll'lIl: Alternate p"I·"dil!llls
Irrigation infrastrUl'lure Agricultural Devciopmenl
de\Tloprnenl
1 Ir 1 ..
E ffic i l' II c\ In Institutional Performance Institutilln:t1 Faililre
~
,
-
(' .. upping Pallenl Challgt.'s
~ ~
\\'ater intensive / High I>r~'/ Rainfedl Pl"'ennial Cash
Value crops crops
- -
• r , ,.
Effective Demand for water Lad;, <strong>of</strong> F:ffectivc Demand for Irrigation
from Farmers- Regular 0 & :\1 \\':lIl'r- Neglect <strong>of</strong> wall'" courses, Time &
Wo,.ks- Reli:lble Water supply cost over runs
1)4

Further, the hypothesis that the irrigation water institutions In the state have
failed in motivate the stakeholders. viz .. irrigation planners/ designers. project
implementing agencies and field staff at the system level and beneficiary farmers
at the micro lewl to adhere to a cropping pattern designed for a given project.
need empirical testing. It is in this context that the institutional base available at
the field level and its ineffectiveness in coordinating and motivating the
stakeholders to adopt and implement modern farm technology needs to be
analysed. Given this. it is quite likely that this problem <strong>of</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> correspondence
between the development <strong>of</strong> irrigation infrastructure and the processes <strong>of</strong>
agriculture development in the state have made the institutional arrangements in
the water sector ineffective. And this. in turn. have resulted in sub-optimal
performance. characterised by under/ non-utilisation or under/ non-development
<strong>of</strong> irrigation potential. time ami cost over runs and the det.:rioration <strong>of</strong> the water
de!i\'ery! conveyance systems. thus leading to institutional failures.
~ .. ....
The dimensions <strong>of</strong> institutional failure need a clear understanding in terms
<strong>of</strong> the causality and simultaneous interaction between various factors as well as
institutions affecting thc process <strong>of</strong> agriculture development in the state.
characterised by paradigm shi ft III cropping pattern. These intervening factors
and institutional linkages an: necessary to Improve the
performance <strong>of</strong>
agriculture in the state needs to be analysed properly.
The analytical srhere \\e examine is the broad spectrum <strong>of</strong> agriculture as
an aggregate <strong>of</strong> various crorring systems. interacting on a small or marginal
holding. The cropping syslt:1ll followed by the small/ marginal farmer is
intlucllced hy scveral factors and is induced mostly by thc incentive linked crop-
9S

specific promotional programmes undertaken b, ,'arious institutions with distinct
strategies <strong>of</strong> inlt:r\'enllon to Increase production through timely suppl~
<strong>of</strong> Inputs.
marketing and prict: policies The analytical frame IS d,:veloped on tht: baSIS <strong>of</strong>
certain axioms and they are as follows,
Axiom 1: There ar!' \'arious institlllions opl'r(ltinR simultaneously ami tht!
interactioll and co-ordination between these inslillllions is coniiwllded hI
{
various constraillts.
Axiom 2: Water institutions (Ire one <strong>of</strong> Ihe insrirlllions complemellling rht! paddl
based food crop produclion system.
Axiom 3: The occurrence <strong>of</strong> axiom I has iliadI' paddy cU/limlion cosl-inerfeclil'/!
and there 11'(1.1'
perceptible decline in Ihe area under podell' ill rhe
irrigation COIIIIIIOIit/I'
Axiom ./: Simul/al1l'o/l.I·/.I" rhere \I'as also cOl1Sideruhie dn'lin!' in liIe operatHIIlo/
holdings J (ll1d rhis (/(h'ersely aJlt'Cf!'d rile ('COllOlllles <strong>of</strong> scale III
cultivation. As a resu/I, rhere emerged a t,\pical homesread basedfarming
system~,
dOlllil1(1/ed hy dr)'lperennial crop orietlled mixed! lIIultiple ('Yops.
) The high population density cuupled with the prevalence <strong>of</strong> the law <strong>of</strong> inheritance has
resulted ill the sub-diVision Jilt! fragmentation <strong>of</strong> holdings leading tn prnliferation <strong>of</strong>
small/marginal and sub-marginal holdings in the stale!. The average size <strong>of</strong> operational
holding which was OA6 ha. in 1980-81 has declined to 0.3-1 in 19X5-XC) and further to
0.31 ha. in 1990-91 (GOK, 1(97).
4 The home garden agricult ure. mostly refem:d to as 'homl'stl'ad !;lrIll i ng'. \\ here. a
small/ marginal hulding is illtl'rspl'rsed with annual/ $e3sonal as \\cll as pcrl'nilial cwps.
requiring less labour and other inputs, including water. This ,ystem l)f land use is aimed
at deriving maxillluill helletit out <strong>of</strong> the limited land resource hase both spatially and
96

Axiom 5.-
Farming ceased to be a major economic activity and this adversely
atrected farm-ln'el im'cstmenls (or accomplishing OFD in the irrigation
commands. This \1'(1.1'
also coincided lI'ith lack <strong>of</strong> effective demand for
\\'ater for growing food crops, leading to IInder-lItilisalion <strong>of</strong> lI'mer
resollrces.
Axiom 6.-
The technical constraints in lhe existing instilU/ional arrangements do
nOl permit crop-diversification based on irrigation Imter and this
accel1llloted the process insliflllionalfailure.
The processes <strong>of</strong> simultaneous interaction between vanous institutions
and the constraints arising there on are schematically shown in Chart 3.3, The
important axioms dcveloped and the specific features <strong>of</strong> the various institutions
and the constraints are discussed in some detail in the following.
The important institutions that complement the o\erall development <strong>of</strong>
agricultun: are: (i) \\al

Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <strong>of</strong> water institutions in Kerala
CROP-SPECIFIC PROMOTIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Note: DoHed lines indicate weak relationship due to technical problems in the design <strong>of</strong> the
schemes and constraints in the use <strong>of</strong> land and water resources
98
, ~
, ~
, II'
PADDY (Group COCONUT
Farming) •
, r , Ir ..
..
PLANTATION
Commodity specific L
.... CROPS
institutions
,Ir •
• ..
~
• SMALL & MARGINAL
• .. ....
• • HOLDINGS
WATER INSTITUTIONS }·······················f························:
l+
-- Labour institutions
-- Market as an institution ...
-JIll'
__ Social institutions
•
W High cost. less remunerative paddy cultivation
{/j
.'
High transaction costs <strong>of</strong> land
~ Lack <strong>of</strong> effective demand for water for irrigation
VXJ'
+ Neglect <strong>of</strong>watcr distribution systems
v}::.! Failure <strong>of</strong> water institutions

3.3.1 Water institutions
By water institutions. it is meant to include the state managed irrigation systems
in the state. viz.. major and medium irrigation systems. The irrigation institutions
in the state are characterised by bureaucratic domination with minimum or no
users participation in development and management <strong>of</strong> the resources.
Institutional arrangements in the water sector call for certain strict rules
and regulations to ensure fair transaction'-
Therefore. the problems and
constraints need to be analysed in the context <strong>of</strong> existing norms and procedures
like user rights. rigid cropping pattern and canal operation. It may be argued that
the water institutions in the state are widely known for the inefficient
performance due to various factors. viz.. under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> the irrigation
potential already created. cost and time o\'er-runs and other operational level
constraints as widely reported hampering the performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems
within and outside the countr~.
The process <strong>of</strong> On-Farm Development under the Command Area Development
programmes forms the major institutional intervention at the micro level and this
needs to be examined in the framework <strong>of</strong> stipulated rules.
~ Institutional arrangements in the water sector require specific rules, development
strategies, poli\:ies for water Ji,tribution. water rights entitlements to the farmers. More
importantly. there arc different activities that need to be carried out in the water sector,
which includc colledion and/ or abstraction, water share allocation and resource
mobilisation ti,r lllailltcn

3.3.2 Crop specific promotional institutions/ agencies
The crop specific promotional institutions are the various interventions by the
state for promoting crop-based activities. They are various crop-based activIties.
which are aimed at stabilising and augmenting crop production and productivity.
Some <strong>of</strong> these institutions are mutually exclusive and competitive in the sense
that the promotion <strong>of</strong> a particular crop by the respective institution may be at the
cost <strong>of</strong> the other 6 . In certain cases. this institutional intermediation also involves
policies for protecting the price from falling beyond a level. The various cropspecific
institutional interventions are:
I. 'Group Farming' and the Group Approach for Locally Adjusted
Sustainable Agriculture (GALASA) for revampmg paddy production in
7
the state.
11. The various commodity boards for the promotion <strong>of</strong> specitic crops. These
crop-specific agencIes are Rubber Board for expansIon <strong>of</strong> rubber
cultivation. the Spices Board for promoting cultivation <strong>of</strong> spices, Coconut
Development Board for coconut development and the Kerala Horticulture
Development Project aimed at the promotion <strong>of</strong> horticultural crops. These
crop-specific promotional agencies! institutions promote crop production
6 The crop-specific promotional agencies function in isolation. As most <strong>of</strong> the
promotional schemes are incentive-linked. they recommend the adoption <strong>of</strong> the specific
crop, for which the agency stands for. This very <strong>of</strong>ten contradicts with the functioning
<strong>of</strong> other institutions as well.
1 lIowever. these interventions also havc becomc ineffective as they failed in the prime
objective <strong>of</strong> consolidating the otherwise fragmented small and marginal holdings.
100

acked up by financial incentives and subsidies, research and
development (R&D) support and extension activities.
3.3.3 Labour institutions
Labour institutions are otherwise called labour unions! organisations have
emerged to ensure better wage and improved working conditions for the
agricultural labourers. It needs to be examined as to how these institutions have
influenced the agricultural operations in irrigation commands. The labour
institutions act as wage setters. irrespective <strong>of</strong> the production gains to the farmers
from farming activities. Labour institutions also affect the production process
through various push and pull factors.
3.3.4 Development interventions by the state
The development interventions by the state as a social institution and its impact
on paddy cultivation needs to be examined. These interventions have been
mainlY in terms <strong>of</strong> re-distribution <strong>of</strong> land as part <strong>of</strong> the land reforms in the state;
ensuring food security through an effective public distribution system; and the
labour oriented social welfare programmes. These development interventions
have also been instrumental in enhancing the reserve price <strong>of</strong> labour in most
cases (Kannan. 1999). Further. the effective implementation <strong>of</strong> the public
distribution system in the state as well as the cheap import <strong>of</strong> food grains. mainly
rice had depressing effect on the price <strong>of</strong> rice in the open market and farmers
have become reluctant to continue the otherwise cost-ineffective paddy
cultivation. This sounded the gradual but definite withdrawal <strong>of</strong> farmers from the
Moreover. the group efforts at various stages <strong>of</strong> cultivation from sowing to harvesting
a[1d processing have also failed.
101

non-viable paddy. Even the farmers preferred keeping paddy land fallow for
years together rather than pursuing paddy cultivation.
3.3.5 Market as an institution
Market signals playa vital role in the adoption <strong>of</strong> a specific cropping pattern by
the farmers in irrigation commands. The price incentives for commercial crops
tend to change cropping pattern from the originally designed to market friendly
ones. Thus. the consistent remunerative prices and the resultant pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong>
cash cropsl perennial and dry crops influenced the cropping decisions <strong>of</strong> the
farmers. who always preferred a less labour intensive cash crop production
system as an alternative to the high-cost and labour intensive paddy. The
attractive prices <strong>of</strong> commercial crops may also boost the land values leading to
enormous capital gains to landowners. Thus. the peasant rationality plays a vital
role in deciding a crop pattern.
It is in this institutional framework that the problems and prospects <strong>of</strong>
irrigation development are analysed. The details presented above may help
understanding the results presented in the subsequent chapters In proper
perspective.
The process <strong>of</strong> institutional failure as theoretically argued out above
needs to be critically examined in terms <strong>of</strong> explaining the empirical scenario <strong>of</strong>
the performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in the state and its effect on the process <strong>of</strong>
agricultural development in the state. This has been presented in chapter four,
where a detailed and critical analysis <strong>of</strong> the lack <strong>of</strong> one to one correspondence
between irrigation and agricultural development in Kerala is attempted and the
missing links highlighted.
102

Chapter 4
A Pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> Study Area and Sample Households
This study has been undertaken in the command areas <strong>of</strong> two major irrigation
projects in Kerala State, namely, the Peechi irrigation project located in Central
Kerala (Map 4.1) and the Kallada Irrigation and Tree Crop Development Project
(K1& TCDP) located in Kollam district in Southern Kerala (Map 4.2). The
command areas haw been selected based on the life <strong>of</strong> the irrigation project,
potential irrigable area, institutional strategies for effecting On-Farm
Development (OFD) and geographical location. Other important considerations
for selecting these two projects under reference are the land use and water
management practices. especially, OFD measures (see Appendix 4.1).
4.1 Peechi Irrigation Project
I) The Peechi Irrigation Pruiect (PIP) is situated in Thrissur district. The
ultimate irrigation potential <strong>of</strong> the project is 45700 ha. The ayacut includes an
area <strong>of</strong> 14000 ha. <strong>of</strong> single cropped paddy to be brought under irrigation and
I

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I PROJECT
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strictly adhered to the directions by the CADA.
4) The right bank main canal (RBMC) <strong>of</strong> the Peechi project commands 23
\'illages spread over 23 miles and the left bank main canal (LBMC) covers 9
villages spread over 88 miles.
5) The irrigation scheme is envisaged for irrigating two crops <strong>of</strong> paddy. More
emphasis is given for irrigating Kale lands during summer.
6) Farmers resorted to conjunctive use <strong>of</strong> canal and groundwater on a larger
scale in the command area. Since the canals are unlined, seepage and
percolation <strong>of</strong> water enabled substantial groundwater recharge which is being
exploited by the farmers to grow garden crops.
4.1.1 History and salient features <strong>of</strong> the Peechi Irrigation Project
The Peechi dam is constructed across the Karuvannur river having a total length
<strong>of</strong> 48 kms. The catchment area is 1054 sq km. The Peechi project benefits 32
\illages in the Thrissur district (see, Map 4.3 for Peechi ayacut).
The project investigation took place as early as 1930-35 along with other
projects such as Chalakudy and Cheerakuzhi in Trichur district. The
construction, was. however. not taken up for execution owing to financial
difficulties. It was only after the end <strong>of</strong> Second World War that the then Cochin
government seriously considered taking these projects for execution. By about
1946-47. the increasing food scarcity and the consequent high cost <strong>of</strong> food grains
prompted the government to undertake the construction <strong>of</strong> Peechi reservoir and
the Chalakudy river Diversion schemes. Thus, prior to independence. the district
had no major irrigation system except the salt exclusion work <strong>of</strong> Enamakkal dam
(Kcrala State Gazetteer. 19(2).
106

Map 4.3: Peechi Ayacut
,. 5 ~o p" ... v J\
. ,
fIg. AYACUT MAP - F~£c::..Hl- f>R.C JE:c.:r
107

4.1.2 Financial aspects
The total estimated cost <strong>of</strong> the scheme was Rs. 235 lakhs. An amount <strong>of</strong> Rs. 229
lakhs was spent till the end <strong>of</strong> the Second plan. Deducting the amount expected
from betterment levy (Rs. 144 lakhs). the net cost <strong>of</strong> the scheme was estimated to
be Rs. 85 lakhs. After deducting maintenance charges. an amount <strong>of</strong> Rs. 2.80
lakhs was expected annually by way <strong>of</strong> water cess (1.2% <strong>of</strong> the total cost). Thus.
the annual return from the scheme \\as targeted at Rs. 3.29 per cent (GOK.
1967b). The project was estimated to irrigate. as mentioned earlier. an area <strong>of</strong>
about 0.46 lakh acres with an estimated output <strong>of</strong>25000 tons <strong>of</strong> paddy per year.
4.1.3 Crops and crop seasons
The project was originally designed to irrigate only paddy in all the three
seasons. viz .. r·irip!,11 I Kharin . .\/rmdilkon (Rabi) and 1'1I1lcha (Summer). The
r ·irippII season spreads o\er June-
September. therefore. does not require
irril.!ation
-
because <strong>of</strong> I.!ood rainfall durinl.! the South-West monsoon. The second
~ -
crop (}vlundaknn) is grown between September- January and requires adequate
supply <strong>of</strong> water if the ~orth-Fast
monsoon fails. Summer paddy (I'linchil) IS
grown in limited area by using the seepage water from the canals as water IS
released in the canals for irrigating the J\o/(' lands. J\o/(' lands constitute almost
60 per cent <strong>of</strong> the ayacut area <strong>of</strong> the "eeehi project. It was reported that as a
result <strong>of</strong> the introduction <strong>of</strong> the sch':Jl1':. the productivity per acre has incr.:ascd
by 1104 Ibs. Based on this. the total incr.:as.: in th.: production <strong>of</strong> paddy p.:r
annum was estimat.:d to h.: 21.1XII luns p.:r year against th.: original estimated
increase in production <strong>of</strong> 250()1I tun~ tWill 433llO acr.:s <strong>of</strong> paddy land.
108

As per the studies conducted by the CADA in the Peechi ayacut, paddy is
cultivated in 62 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area, followed by crops like coconut, arecanut,
tapioca, banana, pulses and other crops cultivated in 20 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area.
4.1.4 Kole lands
Kale lands are a typical landform lying two meters below the mean sea level. As
cultural operations are possible under rainfed conditions and the land being
below the mean sea level. growing any crop was risky and thus emerged the
colloquial terminology. Kale. meaning 'bumper crop at chance'. Historically.
Kole lands were reclaimed from Thrissur lake for paddy cultivation. Kale lands
remain submerged with water during June to January. Adequate amount <strong>of</strong>
freshwater was necessary to do any cultural operations. As the Kale lands remain
waterlogged during most part <strong>of</strong> the year. dewatering is essential to make the
entire area fit for cultivation which requires adequate amount <strong>of</strong> freshwater. The
water from the Peechi project \\as expected to bring the entire kole land under
cultivation during summer. Kole lands are connected to the sea through
backwaters and thus the danger <strong>of</strong> intrusion <strong>of</strong> seawater will always be there.
This problem is expected to be overcome through the freshwater made available
hy the Peechi irrigation project.
4.1.5 Operation <strong>of</strong> the irrigation system
Water is supplied for the sc'ulIld crup (A411I1dakall)
during Septemher to
Decemher and for the third C[l)1' 1/'/II1Chll) Juring January to April. Water is let
into the hranch canals by rotation system and taken to the fields through field
channels. As a result, conveyance lusses tend to he more.
109

4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree Crop Development Project (K I &
TeDP)
I) Th(' Kallada Irrigation and Tr('e Crop Devclopment Project (KI & TCDP) or
KIP is th~ oldest irrigation project in the state and is located in an undulating
topography. Simultaneous irrigation <strong>of</strong> garden crops in the valley slopes and
paddy in th~ nlley bottom as propos~d in this major irrigation project is
rather unique and is not practised anywhere in the country.
2) In view <strong>of</strong> its undulating topography. the irrigation project has a unIque
system <strong>of</strong> water distribution. called the Minor Conveyance System (MCS).
\\ hieh is technicall\ designed for irrigating each and every tree crop in the
garJ~n land through an und~rground pipeline system using gravitation flow.
3) L:nlil,e oth~r Irrigation rrolt:ets in the state. which are technically designed
fnr Irrigating tht: ml))1t)Cfl\j' ,)r paddy. tht: KIP is a tree crop dcvelopment
proJect. cn\')saged to irngatt: an intt:gratt:d cropping pattern comprising <strong>of</strong>
coconut. ruhher. cocoa. clm·t:s. banana. paddy. vegetables. pulses. etc.
4) Th~ ultimatt: irrigation pPtL'ntial <strong>of</strong> KIP is 61630 ha. Of this. 39530 ha. (65
°0) \\111 ht: uJl(kr tht: RI['ht Bank t>bin Canal (RI3MC) and nlOO ha. under
the l.t:ft hank Main CaIl~d
(I.BMC). It is intended to cover a Cultivable
Command Area (CCA) ul 27000 ha. under the Minor Convt:yance System
(\1('

the project are not commensurate with the size <strong>of</strong> investment. Furthermore,
the irrigation project still remains to be partially commissioned, though it is
under construction for more than 40 years.
6) The irrigation project was originally designed to irrigate tree crops. like
coconut along with the third crop <strong>of</strong> paddy (Puncha). In view <strong>of</strong> this, the
project is also known as Kallada Irrigation and Tree Crop Development
Project. But as there had taken place considerable crop shift from coconut to
rubber on an extensive scale over time, not much attention was paid to
improve and stabilise the irrigation infrastructure in the command area.
4.2.1 History and salient features <strong>of</strong> the Kallada Irrigation Project
The Kallada dam is located at Parappar near Thenmala across the Kallada river at
the dovillstream <strong>of</strong> the contluence <strong>of</strong> the three major tributaries. \lZ..
Kulathupuzha, Shentharuni and Kalthuruthipuzha, all <strong>of</strong> them originating from
the Kulathupuzha ranges <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats. The latitude <strong>of</strong> Parappar dam is
80 5T north and longitude 7780 49' 4' 20" east. The project area is surrounded
by the Western Ghats on the cast, Ashtamudi backwater and Arabian sea on the
West, Achencoil river on the north and )thikkara river on the south. The Kallada
river flows westwards through Pathanapuram taluk and through the boundaries <strong>of</strong>
the taluks <strong>of</strong> Kottarakara, Adoor, Kollam and Kunnattur. The river covers a
distance <strong>of</strong> 119 Km before it falls into the Ashtamudi backwaters. The Project
area lies between latitudes 80 ~9' north and 90 IT north and longi tudes 770 16'
east and 76024' east (see, Map ~.4 <strong>of</strong> the Kallada river basin and the location <strong>of</strong>
Kallada ayal.:ut).
111

Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut
, IItIJrt ~ BRWJIESIJlI) O1SHl~\1l~
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112

The site <strong>of</strong> pickup weir is at Ottackal 5 km. downstream <strong>of</strong> the reservoir
bv the side <strong>of</strong> Kollam - Shenkottah Road. The right and left bank main canals
take <strong>of</strong>f from Ottackal. The Right Bank canal and its branches serve areas in
Kozhencherry. Pathanapuram. Adoor. Kunnathoor. Mavelikkara. Karunagappally
and Karthikappally taluks and Left Bank canal benefits areas in Pathanapuram.
Kottarakkara and Kollam taluks. The powerhouse is located at the foot <strong>of</strong> the
dam on the Right Bank.
The KIP is the largest and oldest irrigation Project In Kerala. which was
started in 196 I and partially commissioned in 1986. It envisages the construction
<strong>of</strong> a gravity masonry dam across the Kallada River at Parappar near Thenmala in
Kollam district. A weir constructed 5 km down stream <strong>of</strong> the reservoir diverts the
water let out from the dam to the right and left bank main canals to irrigate a net
area <strong>of</strong> 61630 ha. unlike the other irrigation schemes in the state l which are
primarily designed for stabilising the second crop <strong>of</strong> paddy (Mundakan) and
growing the third crop]. the KIP \\as envisaged to promote a composite
cultivation <strong>of</strong> crops like paddy. coconut. banana. arecanut. cashew. pepper.
ginger. pulses. vegetables etc.
The water distribution In the Kallada irrigation project IS peculiar as it
combines the conventional opcn can~d
systclll (OCS) <strong>of</strong> water distribution to low
lying paddy fields and a uni4uc system called Minor Conveyance System (MCS).
The MCS is a system where watn is distributed through underground pipe
system laid through hydrants and tlc\iblc hoses that arc connccted to the spouts
<strong>of</strong> main canals. branch can;lk distribllt;lries and minors. Water is applied
through hoses for garden erops above'; per cent slopes and open lined channcis
113

in lands having slopes less than 3 per cent.
Originally. the project was conceived for irrigating paddy alone but later.
the scope <strong>of</strong> the scheme was extended to irrigate garden crops also in view <strong>of</strong> the
change in the policy <strong>of</strong> the government. In addition to this, it is anticipated that
the scheme would solve drinking water problem to a considerable extent. The
scheme is also expected to generate power to the extent <strong>of</strong> 15 MW. Besides,
intensive agricultural activities are expected to create additional employment
potential <strong>of</strong> 11.5 million mandays.
Eventhough scattered efforts have been on to investigate the possibilities
<strong>of</strong> constructing a dam across the river Kallada even before 1958. an oT(J.anised
setup to investigate the possibility was started only in November 1958. The
Government <strong>of</strong> Kerala in 1961 administratively sanctioned the proposal <strong>of</strong>
KalLda Irrigation project with an estimated cost <strong>of</strong> Rs. I 3 .28 crores. Thus the
project was formally started in 1961. The budget allotment for the project up to
1966 was so meager that there were no tangible works carried out during the
period. The expenditure up to 1980 March was only Rs.34 crores while the
estimated cost at 1980 price levels was Rs. I 76 crores. The project was proposed
to the World Bank aid in 1980 and the bank accepted the proposal in October
1982 so as to complete the project hy March 1987. Later, it was extended up to
March 1989. The World Bank aid n:ceived was 80.3 million US Dollars.
equivalent to 97.77 crores <strong>of</strong> rupees (hased on the then exchange rate <strong>of</strong> Dollar).
The spillover works were carried out thereafter utilising the budget allotment <strong>of</strong>
the state government. The partial commissioning <strong>of</strong> the Right Bank main canal
114

was executed on 24.05.1986 and that <strong>of</strong> LB main canal on 30.06.1992.
The
works <strong>of</strong> dam. saddle dam. weir at Ottackal and LB & RB main canals are fully
completed. The RBMC is 68 km long with 4 branches and distributary system to
irrigate an area <strong>of</strong> 39500 ha. the Left Bank main canal sYstem
.
in 56 km/lone
-
with three branches and distriturary system and irrigates 22.600 ha, Both the
canals are designed with the capacity to irrigate the originally planned command
area <strong>of</strong> 61.600 ha in the Taluks <strong>of</strong> Pathanapuram. Kottarakkara. Quilon and
Karunagappally in the Kollam district. Kunnathoor and Kozhenchery in the
Pathanapuram district and parts <strong>of</strong> Mavelikkara and Karthikappally taluks <strong>of</strong>
Alappuzha district.
4.2.2 Cropping pattern
As per the re\ised project report. a total CCA <strong>of</strong> 61630 ha. comprises <strong>of</strong> 20430
ha. <strong>of</strong> wet land (33.15 %) mainly under paddy and the balance being garden
lands <strong>of</strong> 41200 ha. (66.85 %). The most important among the garden crops is
coconut. w'hich covers an area <strong>of</strong> 6000 ha. (14.56 % <strong>of</strong> the garden lands).
Besides. an area <strong>of</strong> 13100 ha. are interplanted with coconut and other crops.
Other crops grown in the project area are cashewnut (2200 ha.), rubber (500 ha.)
and arecanut ( 11 00 ha.).
Tapioca (6200 ha.) and sugarcane (600 ha.) are the
other important crops grown in the irri~ation command (GOK. 1996). The World
Rank financing <strong>of</strong> the project which commenced from 1981-82 and ended with
September 1989. was continued to a command area <strong>of</strong> 37,600 ha in phase I as
detailed in table 4.1.
115

Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Pattern in Kallada Command
Cropping pattern
Area (ha)
Gardell lalld
Coconut with out inter crops 19000 (68.84)
Mixed tree crops (with coconut) 4300 (1558)
Annual crops (tapioca) 4300 (15.58)
Sub total 27600 (73.40)
Wet lalld
Padd~ 10000 (26.60)
Total 37600
Note: Figures In parenthesIs are percentages.
It \\as expected that with the relatiwly more assured availability <strong>of</strong> water.
I
it would b~
possible to increase the cropping intensity by introducing crops like
c1oycs. hybrid coconut etc. in the garden lands.
In the wet lands besides
increasing the area under kharif and rabi paddy marginally, it was anticipated to
increase substantially the area under paddy during summer. It was thought that
the crops. like ground nut. sweet potato and pulses could also be introduced In
\\ c't l'IIlJs t" increase areJ under tuher and \cgetables in summer season.
~.2.3 Evapo - transpiration and crop water requirement
The daily evapo-transpiration rates for the different months in the Project area
l13w been computed adopting the modified Penman method on the basis <strong>of</strong> the
agro-meteorological data obser\'ed at Kayamkulam station in the proJect Area.
The ET rates during the summer months vary between 4.1 mm/ day in the month
<strong>of</strong> Fd,ruJry to 4.5 mm/day during March and 4.4 mm! day during April.
I he crop water requirements are computed fortnightly for the projected
cr"pplIlg p'ltt

efficiency <strong>of</strong> 75 per cent has been taken for arnvmg at the irrigation
requirements at the canal head assuming 84 per cent conveyance efficiency (the
entire distribution system being lined) and field efficiency <strong>of</strong> 90 per cent. Since
the system is lined. an improved system <strong>of</strong> on-farm conveyance <strong>of</strong> water
distribution (through MCS) is effected and because <strong>of</strong> the undulating topography,
75 per cent efficiency is expected to be realised after a few year <strong>of</strong> operation <strong>of</strong>
the system in a scientific manner.
4.2.4 The Minor Conveyance System (:\lCS)
Kallada Irrigation Project is the first Project in India to adopt a distinct system
for water distribution called the Minor Conveyance System (MCS) in the ayacut
for water distribution. The MCS commands long strips <strong>of</strong> land containing side
slopes and \alley bottoms. Since the terrain <strong>of</strong> the Kallada command area is
undulating and where a majority <strong>of</strong> the farmers are small and marginal holders.
wata distribution system should be planned in such a way that the land acquired
for canal construction is minimum. Accordingly, under the MCS, underground
pipeline system with low pressure PVC pipes is designed and laid for 10 ha.
blocks within the KIP command. Farmers are able to tap water through flexible
plastic/ rubber hoses <strong>of</strong> 45 meters in length that are attached to hydrants located
at intervals <strong>of</strong> 90 meters in the pipe system. In areas where topography is plain
and the slope is less than 3 per cent, the conveyance system is a combination <strong>of</strong>
largn diamd

in terms <strong>of</strong> underground pipeline system, water loss in the conveyance will be
minimum. This system works under gravity flow. A minimum slope <strong>of</strong> three per
cent is necessary for the effective working <strong>of</strong> the system. In places where the
required slope is available the spout is connected to the hydrant in case <strong>of</strong> dry
lands and Alpha / wheel valves in case <strong>of</strong> wet lands through underground PVC
pipes. In places where the slope <strong>of</strong> three per cent is not possible open field
boothies are constructt:J for distribution <strong>of</strong> \\ater.
The success <strong>of</strong> the MCS depends on the coordinated efforts <strong>of</strong> the three
agencies. viz .. the Irrigation Department. the Agriculture Department and the
Water Users' Associations (WUAs). While the responsibility <strong>of</strong> supplying water
from the head works up to the spout level through the canals and pipe system
rests with the organisation and management (0 & M) division <strong>of</strong> the Irrigation
Department. the :\griculture Ikpartment initiates the registration <strong>of</strong> WUAs for
each spout and advice farmers to evolve a suitable cropping pattern so as to
achieve maximum production per unit water delivered.
Components <strong>of</strong> the l\1CS
The major components <strong>of</strong> the MCS are: a) spout; b) pipeline system; and c)
delivery points. The spout is constructed on the bank <strong>of</strong> the main canal! branch
canal/ Jistributory from where water is let into the system. It consists <strong>of</strong> an inlet
chamber control valve leading channel, measuring device and an outlet channel.
These arc covered at top with slab anJ locking arrangements. The water from the
canal is let in the inlet chamber through pipes <strong>of</strong> required diameter with a control
valve. The inlet end <strong>of</strong> the pipe is protecteJ with GI mesh to prevent the cotry <strong>of</strong>
118

floating materials. The water thus entered in the inlet chamber flows to the outlet
chambt:r through a It:ading channt:1. This is fixed with a "V" notch to measure the
dischargt: into the outkt chamber. The supply <strong>of</strong> water to the ayacut will be
through pipes <strong>of</strong> lesser diameter as per the design. The inlet ends <strong>of</strong> the pipes are
covered with welded mesh to prevent entry <strong>of</strong> debris.
The pipelines are so aligned to form a network <strong>of</strong> pipes so as to command
the entire ayacut by gravity !l(n\,. The pipes and specials used under this system
are <strong>of</strong> PVC type varying in diameter from 200 lTllTl to 90 mm depending on the
water requirement at each delivery point. Necessary pressure release
arrangements are being made to rekase the pressure created in the pipeline at
suitabk points. called. risers.
h\ ,) t: pe~ ,)1' Jell\ cry 1")II1IS are there in the ': stelll. \'JZ .• hydrants and
alpha. wlh:e1 \aln: chamhers. ilydrants is a pipe connection taken from the end
<strong>of</strong> thl' hUrled pipe ahove ground I.:\cl using GI pipe <strong>of</strong> I m. with 50 mm. wheel
valve outlets. These are encased in a concrete shell called hydrant having a
diametn <strong>of</strong> 60 Clll. And 1.2 Ill. hcil!ht with cover and locking arrangements to
regulate the opening valves. Two 50 mm. diameter GI pipe outlets from the 50
mm. wheel valves protrude outside the shell above the ground level so as to
connect deliverv hoses havinl! a length <strong>of</strong> 45 meter long. The hydrants are
. ,
located at about 90 m. apart. The discharge <strong>of</strong> water from each outlet is 2.5 litersl
sel:ond making the total discharge frolll (lnL' hydr:Jnt as live litersl second. These
hydrants ;,Jre located at pLl.:es in the ayacut where there is sufiicient pressure
head <strong>of</strong> water to command the an:a with two hoses (45 m. long each). For the
efficient functioning <strong>of</strong> the system. the pressure head should not be less than 1.2
•
119

meters. The end <strong>of</strong> the buried pipeline is connected to alpha! wheel valve <strong>of</strong> size
ISO mm or ~OO
mm. This system is encased in a chamber covering a slab and
with locking arrangements. This is applicable at places where the pipe line ends
to feed wet land where the pressure head is low (see, Chart 4.1, for understanding
the functioning <strong>of</strong> the MCS).
The MCS is implemented in farmers' plots not by acquiring the plot. but
with the legal consent <strong>of</strong> the farmers or the public under the provisions <strong>of</strong> the
CADA act. The \1CS schemes taken up in the KIP are sent to CADA for
appro"'al and later it is published in the gazette for the information <strong>of</strong> the
farmers! public before the scheme IS taken up. The responsibility <strong>of</strong>
implementation <strong>of</strong> ~1CS
in the KIP rests with the Super-intending Engineer,
\ICS Circk .. \ddor. l:ndcr this circle. there is one 0 & M division and four MCS
\\orks dl\lsl(1n,. six Assistant Directors (Agri.) and 5~ Agriculture Officers.
4.2.5 Farmers' participation in irrigation management and \Vater Users'
Associations
Farmers' participation in irrigation management IS
expected to be ensured
through the formation <strong>of</strong> Water User's Associations (WUAs). On completion <strong>of</strong>
the MCS bv the Irrigation Department. which will be handed over to the Water
Users' ASSOCiations
Three tier committees arc formed to coordinate water
distribution activities; and they an:: Water User's Association. Canal Committee,
., he brrm:rs cDming under the ayaclIt Df an MCS scheme will be the
members <strong>of</strong> the WI lAs.
The Association will have an elected President.
120

Secretary. Treasurer and Working Committee.
The Assistant Engineers and
Agricultural Officers will be Ex-<strong>of</strong>ficio members <strong>of</strong> the Association.
Canal Committee
This is an advisory committee formed for a particular branch canal with the
Presidents <strong>of</strong> the WUAs. Assistant Executive Engineer. Assistant Engineers. and
Agricultural Officer as members and Deputy Tahsildar in charge <strong>of</strong> collection <strong>of</strong>
cess as the Ex-<strong>of</strong>ficio member. :'l.ssistant Executive Engineer is the President <strong>of</strong>
the Committee and Agricultural Officer is the vice President. Secretary.
Treasurer and working committee members are elected representatives <strong>of</strong>
farmers.
The committee looks after the proper distribution <strong>of</strong> water among
spouts and also among wet and dry lands.
Project Advisory Committee
This is the proiect le\el Cllll1ll1itlce with District Colkctor. Kollam as Chairman
and Fxecuti\"t.~ Engineer Ilk~ld Worksl as Conn~nor. Project Advisory
Committee is constituted as per the Government Order. The committee will meet
every three months ~nd re\ie\\ the situation regarding water distribution and give
necessary guidance for cffccll\ e functioning.
4.2.6 Present stage <strong>of</strong> the Project
The m~s{)nr:
dam. s;]ddk dam. weir at Oll

and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II. All the Phase I branches are completed and
Kayamkulam branch is yet to be taken up. In the RB canal system 40
distributaries are fully completed. The works <strong>of</strong> Kayamkulam branch and 9
distibutaries are to be completed.
There are three branches In LB canal system, VIZ.,
Oyoor branch.
Kulakkada branch and Kottiyam branch out <strong>of</strong> which. Oyoor branch is the only
one completed. Twenty five distributaries have been fully completed in the LB
canal system while II distributaries are to be completed. Regarding MCS. the
work <strong>of</strong> 28902 ha. are reportedly completed and schemes were prepared and
works arranged for 1170 I ha., which are in progress. Schemes are yet to be
prepared for 21027 ha. including the Phase II portion. Thus, the total anticipated
extent <strong>of</strong>MCS works is 32728 ha.
4.2.7 Financial requirement for balance works
It was estimated that an amount <strong>of</strong> RS.620 crores will be required for the
completion <strong>of</strong> the project as per the 1992 schedule <strong>of</strong> rates. But the schedule <strong>of</strong>
rates was revised with effect from 01.07.1996.
4.3 Pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> sample holdings and farmers
In the following, we examine the pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> the farms and farmers covered under
the study. As

differences in topography. there are wide differences in the envisaged and
realized cropping patterns across these two command areas. This being so, a
strict comparison <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the attributes and characteristic features <strong>of</strong> the
farms and farming community IS not possible and hence. each <strong>of</strong> them are
considered separately and comparison is made wherever possible.
The sample villages and sample farms are classified based on their
position along the canal system divided into head. middle and tail reaches.
Sufficient care has been taken to arrange the sample farmers in the sub-canal
systems according to the location <strong>of</strong> their plots in the distribution network. The
sample farms in the Kallada project are classified as shown in table 4.2. Of the
23 villages covered. 10 are in the head reaches with a sample size <strong>of</strong> 78 (39 %)
farm households. followed hy 8 villages in the middle reaches covering 65
farmers (33 %) and 5 villages in the tail end with a sample coverage <strong>of</strong> 57
farmers (29 %).
Table 4.2: Distribution <strong>of</strong> sample farms in the Kallada command area
Avg.
Location <strong>of</strong> No. <strong>of</strong> No. <strong>of</strong> Wet area Dry area Total area
hold. size
the farm vi llages farmers (Acres) (Acres) (Acres)
(acres)
Head 10 78
56.92 108.13
(34.49) (65.51)
165.05 2.12
Middle 8 65
41.38 130.60
(24.06) (75.94)
171. 98 2.65
Tail 5 57
32.85 91.67
(26.38) J,73.62)
124.52 2.18
Total
--,
,~
200
131.15 330.40
(28.42) (71.58)
461.55 2.31
-
>
Nole: Figures III parenthesIs are respective percentages.
The proportioll <strong>of</strong> wet area ranges between 24 to 26 per cellt in tIl(: middle·
and tail reaches, indicating the predominance <strong>of</strong> dry crops grown in the garden
--
123

lands. The average holding size is below 2.5 acres in all locations and less than
one hectare in head and tail-end villages.
In the Peechi project. a total sample <strong>of</strong> 115 farmers covering the entire
right bank canal system spread over 17 villages have been surveyed (Table 4.3).
The proportion <strong>of</strong> dry area has been the highest in the head reaches at 69 per cent
against 60 per cent in the middle reaches and 56 per cent the tail end. The
average size <strong>of</strong> the operational holding has also been the highest in the head
reaches (2.06 acres) compared to middle reaches (1.52 acres) and tail reaches
(1.42 acres). The total number <strong>of</strong> farmers selected for the study is II S from the
right bank main canal system. spread over 17 villages.
T able 43 . : n' Istn 'b utlOn 0 f samp I e f arms In t h e P eec h' I cornman d area
Location No. <strong>of</strong> No. <strong>of</strong> ! Wet area Dry area Total Avg. hold.
<strong>of</strong> the vi lIages farmers (Acres)
,
(Acres) area size (acres)
farm
(Acres)
32.24 70.84
Head 8 50
103.08 2.06
(31.34) (68.66)
nso 40.88
~1iddlc S -l5 68.38 1.52
(40.22) (59.78)
12.48 15.83
Tail
4 20
28.31 1.42
( 44.08) (55.92)
72.22 127.55
Total
17 I I 5
199.77 1.74
, (36.15) (69.85)
Note: Figures In parenthesIs are respecllve percentages.
--
The distribution <strong>of</strong> operational holdings in the study districts as per the
1991 Census indicates that ahollt 97 per cent <strong>of</strong> the operational holdings in the
Kollam district (where the Kallada project is located) are below one hectare
occupying 76 per cent <strong>of</strong> the afl:a Cfable 4.4).
124

Table 4.4: Distribution <strong>of</strong> operational holdings in the study districts, 1991
Size Kollam district Thrissur district
class Holdings Area Avg. hold. Holdings I Area Avg. hold.
(ha.) (000 nos.) (000 ha.) Size (ha.) (000 nos.) (000 ha.) Size (ha.)
Belo" I
465.04 71.68 199.1 33.10
0.15
(97.04 ) (76.30)
(81.46) (19.74)
0.17
1-2
I I. 81 15.33 22 31.30
1.30
('.46) (16.32)
(9.00) (18.66)
1.42
2-4
2.07 5.22 15.3 40.90
2.52
(0.43 ) (5.56)
(6.26)
(24.39)
2.67
4-10
0.29 1.49 6.8 41.70
5.14
(006) ( 1.59)
(2.78) (24.87)
6.13
Above 0.02 0.23
20.70
I 1.50 1.2 (0.49)
10 (00 I) (0.24)
(12.34)
17.25
Total
479.23 93.95
244.4 167.7
0.20
(10000) ( 100.00) ( 100.00) (10000)
0.69
Note: Figures In parenthesIs are respective percentages.
Source: Census, 1991.
Whereas. in Thrissur district (where the Peechi project is located) 81 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the operational holdings are below one ha. with an area share <strong>of</strong> below 20
per cent. This indicates the magnitude <strong>of</strong> the problem <strong>of</strong> marginalisation <strong>of</strong>
operational holdings in the Kollam district. Among the other size groups. while
two per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers in the size group <strong>of</strong> 1- 2 ha. in Kollam district holds
16 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area, in Thrissur district 20 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area is held by 81
per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers. Though the proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers holding higher sizes <strong>of</strong>
operational holdings in the Thrissur district is less than 10 per cent, the area
owned is more than 24 per cent in the 2-4 and 4-10 ha. size classes. The
proportion <strong>of</strong> area held by the farmers in the above 10 ha. is also the highest in
the Thrissur district at 12 per cent and it is less than one per cent in the Kollam
district. Thus. the pattern <strong>of</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> operational holdings in the Kollam
district is skewed largely in favour <strong>of</strong> the lower size groups
125

The characteristics <strong>of</strong> the sample holdings in terms <strong>of</strong> the land use being
followed across the three locations are furnished in tables 4.5 and 4.6. From the
table 4.5. it is apparent that in the Kallada project. the effective area under paddy
is less than 50 per cent. which shows that most <strong>of</strong> the farmers have converted
their paddy fields for other uses. The proportion <strong>of</strong> rubber area is 56 per cent and
the highest percentage is found in the head reaches at 59 per cent compared to 56
per cent in the tail reaches and 52 per cent in the middle. The average size <strong>of</strong>
paddy holding is 0.45 acres across the three locations.
Table 4.5: Characteristics <strong>of</strong> Sample farm households in Kallada project
Characteristics Head Middle Tail Total
Total sample (No.) 78 65 57 200
Wet area (acres) 56.92 41.38 32.85 131.15
Drv area (acres) 108.13 130.6 91.67 330.4
Total area (acres) 165.05 171.98 124.52 461.55
Effective paddv area (%) 49.77 38.02 44.67 41.58
Share <strong>of</strong> rubber area (%) 49.33 51.13 49.73 50.11
Rubber area holders (%) 58.97 52.31 56.14 56.00
Average holding size (acres) 2.12 2.65 2.18 2.31
Average rubber area (acres) 1.77 2.59 1.94 2.07
Average paddv area (acres) 0.44 0.45 0.43 0.45
In the Peechi project. the area under paddy continues to be almost 57 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the cropped area (Tahle 4.6). But in the head reaches. the area under
paddy is 61 per cent. followed by 57 per cent in the middle reach and 46 per cent
in the tail end. Rubber is gnlWn predominantly in the tail reaches where 63 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers in the tail end grow rubber. The proportion <strong>of</strong> paddy fields
leased out for banana cultivation is more in the tail reaches (38 %). followed by
21 per cent in the middle: reaches. The conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy area for other land
uses is rdativdy high in the tail reaches at 25 per cent as against 22 per cent in
the head and 20 per cent in the middle reaches.
126

Table 4.6: Characteristics <strong>of</strong> sample farm households in Peechi Irrigation
P rOlec . t
Characteristics Head Middle Tail Total
Total sample (No.) 50 45 20 115
Wet area (acres) 32.24 27.5 12.48 72.22
Dry area (acres) ! 70.84 40.88 15.83 127.55
Total area (acres) 103.08 68.38 28.31 199.77
Effective paddy area (%) 60.73 57.60 45.99 56.99
Share <strong>of</strong> rubber area (%) Nil Nil 62.88 8.91
Rubber area holders (%) Nil Nil 80.00 13.91
Average holding size (acres) 2.06 1.52 1.42 1.74
A veral!e paddv area (acres) 0.63 0.79 0.96 0.72
A veral!c rubber area (acres) Nil Nil 1. 11 1.11
Paddy leased out (%) Nil 21.60 38.30 14.84
Paddy converted (%) 22.92 20.8 25.47 23.06
The average size <strong>of</strong> the operational holdings across the size classes and
also locations in each <strong>of</strong> the irrigation project is presented in table 4.7.
Table 4.7: Location-wise average holding size in the command areas
i Size class I Kallada Irri!!ation Project
Peechi Irri!!ation Project
(acres) I Head Middle Tail Head Middle Tail
Below 0.5 0.26 0.46 0.55 0.43 0.38 0.48
0.5 to I 0.76 0.71 0.86 0.81 0.78 0.76
I to 2 I 1.86 1.78 1.65 1.50 1.73 1.91
2 to -l 3.34 3.72 3.59 3.20 3.76 3.84
Above -I 6.65 I 1 .3 1 6.78 7.52 4.25 5.36
Total 2.12 2.65 2.18 2.06 1.52 1.42
The average size <strong>of</strong> holding in the class <strong>of</strong> below 0.5 acres in the Kallada
irrigation project is only 0.26 acres in the head reaches, followed by 0.46 in the
middle and 0.55 acres in the tail end. The average size <strong>of</strong> holding in this group is
th~
highest 3t 0.48 acres in the tail reaches <strong>of</strong> Peechi eomp3red to 0.43 acres in
the: h~ad
and 0.38 3cres in the: middle. In the size group <strong>of</strong> 0.5 to I acres, the

size group is the highest in the middle reaches <strong>of</strong> Kallada at 11.31 acres and
lowest in the middle reaches <strong>of</strong> Peechi at 4.25 acres.
The distribution <strong>of</strong> working population in the study regions as per the
Census report shows that the proportion <strong>of</strong> cultivators is the highest in the
Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts (Table 4.8). It may be due to the cultivation
<strong>of</strong> rubber on larger scale in these districts .. which could be explained in terms <strong>of</strong>
the dominance <strong>of</strong> rubber plantations in these districts. The proportion <strong>of</strong>
agricultural labourers is also more in the Pathanamthitta district. where it is
higher than the state average <strong>of</strong> 25.54 per cent.
Table 4.8: Distribution <strong>of</strong> working population in the ease study regiolls
vis-a-vis State (%)
Tvpe <strong>of</strong> population Kollam Alapuzha Pathanamthitta Thrissur State
Cultivators 16.10 7.97 15.81 9.20 12.14
Al!ri. labourers 22.95 , 14.17 27.11 11.81 15.54
,
,
Household industry I
workers
I
1.85 9.77 1.18 I 4.46 1.58
Other workers I 59.10 58.10 45.89 63.52 59.64
Total 672712 60260-1 321595 804738 8301087
.
Source: Farm GUide. 1999 .
The details <strong>of</strong> occupational status <strong>of</strong> the sample farmers have been
presented in table 4.9. The proportion <strong>of</strong> full time farmers in Kallada command
area is about 48 per cent. A significant proportion <strong>of</strong> them are rubber growers
and this may be an important reason why a large percentage <strong>of</strong> them is reported
to be full time farmers. About 16 per cent is engaged in rubber tapping. followed
by 12 as agricultural labourers. Whereas. in the Peechi project. 38 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
farmers surveyed arc full time farmers. followed by agricultural labourers 24 per
cent. Thus. it is evident that a majority <strong>of</strong> the farmers arc unable to stick to
agriculture due to the small size <strong>of</strong> operational holdings. Therefore. they consider
128

farming as a secondary occupation and engage themselves in other gainful
employment. This is also ref1ected in not undertaking land development works
for effective utilisation <strong>of</strong> water. Other activities. like sen·ice. private jobs! gulf
employed etc .. constitute about 27 per cent <strong>of</strong> the sample farmers in Peechi
project, followed by 25 per cent in the Kallada command area.
Table 4.9: Occupational status <strong>of</strong> sample farmers in Peechi and Kallada
projects
Peechi proiect Kallada project
Farmers (%) (%)
Tvpe <strong>of</strong> occupation (0:0.) share Farmers (No.) share
Agriculture!
Plantation 44 38.26 95 47.50
Rubber tapping 7 6.09 32 16.00
Agricultural labour 28 24.35 24 12.00
Service 14 12.17 18 9.00
Private! Gulf 12 10.43 17 8.50
Others 10 8.70 14 7.00
Total 115 10000 200 100.00
The occupational status <strong>of</strong> family members is presented in table 4.10. In
,
Kallada project. 17 per Cen! <strong>of</strong> the family members are involved in farming
activities against 24 per cent in the Peechi project. While almost 16 per cent <strong>of</strong>
the family members are doing rubber tapping in the Kallada project area, about
17 per cent in the Peechi is doing agricultural labour. The table shows that family
labour involved in Peechi project is relatively high. For instance. 24 per cent <strong>of</strong>
the members are involved in farming operations and another 17 per cent work as
agricultural labourers. 1 n Kall ada project, it is only 13 per cent.
129

Table 4.10: Occupational status <strong>of</strong> household members <strong>of</strong> sample farmers
in Peechi and Kallada Projects
Peechi project Kallada project I
Occupation No. <strong>of</strong>
-,
No. <strong>of</strong>
persons
Share (%)
Share (%)
persons
Agriculture 139 24.17 156 17 AI
Agricultural labour 97 16.87 118 13.17
Rubber tapping 24 4.17 149 16.63
Service! Private 88 15.30 15 I 16.85
Students 168 29.22 186 20.76
Business 21 3.65 45 5.02
Others 38 6.61 91 10.16
Total 575 100.00 896 100.00
Many <strong>of</strong> the studies on agrarian change consider age <strong>of</strong> the farmer as
an important variable in explaining the adoption <strong>of</strong> improved cultural
practices as well as scientific method <strong>of</strong> farming operations. An inverse
relationship is said to exist between farmers age and the adoption <strong>of</strong> scientific
farming operations. Bearing this in mind. a comparison <strong>of</strong> the age pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong>
the sample farmers is attempted and the details are presented in table 4.11
Table 4.11: Age classification <strong>of</strong> sample farmers in Kallada
Peechi Project area
Kallada Irrigation area
Age (Years)
Avg. age
Farmers (%)
(Years)
Farmers (%) Avg. age (Years)
Below 45 16.52 36 9.50 41
45 - 55 19.13 46 23.50 52
·55- 65 50.43 57 43.00 62
Above 6S 13.91 66 24.00 69
Total 100.00 51 100.00 56
.~
The table shows that th.: rrorortion <strong>of</strong> farmers belonging to tl1(: age-group
below 45 years is only 9.5 ref cellt in Kallada project comparcd to 16 per ccnt in
the Pccchi. The highest proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers in Kallada belong to the age group
130

<strong>of</strong> 55 to 65 years and the average age is 62 years. Whereas in Peechi, about 50
per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers are in the age-group <strong>of</strong> 55 to 65 years. The proportion <strong>of</strong>
farmers in the age group above 65 years is the highest in the Kallada command,
ie .. 24 per cent. as against only 13.91 per cent in Peechi project. It shows that the
younger generation do not find farming attractive. This may be due to
educational quali fication and other skills acquired by them to get better
employment opportunities.
131

Appendix 4.1: Physical and technical characteristics <strong>of</strong> KIP and PIP
Characteristics
Kallada irrigatioll Peechi irrigatioll
Pro;ect (KiP)
Project (PiP)
1. River basin Kallada Karuvannur
1
~. Type <strong>of</strong> dam
Masonry straight
Straight gravity
gravity type with spill
masonry dam
way
~
Y. Length <strong>of</strong> dam (m) 335 225
4. Maximum height (m) 85.35 39
5. Total storage (Mm j ) 504.92 110.436
6. Live stora£e (Mm") 487.9 108.17
7. Catchment area (Km-) 549 107
8. Water sQfead area (Km") 23 12.95
9. Forest land in water
spread area (Km 2 )
39.63 Nil
10. Design flood (Cumecs) 2830 368
11. Net ayacut (ha.) 61630 17555
12. Gross ayacut (ha.) 92800 28080
13. Length <strong>of</strong> main canals RBC = 69.67; RBC = 37.3;
(Km) LBC = 56 LBC = 44.9
14. Total length <strong>of</strong> branches RB - 467.6;
1:17.20
& distributories (Kms) LB = 345.2
15. Original estimated cost I
13.28 2.35
(Rs. Crores)
16. Recast <strong>of</strong> latest cost (Rs.
1 ~-
457.80
_.,»)
Crores)
17. Year <strong>of</strong> starting 1961 1947
18. Year <strong>of</strong> commissioning
1986 (partially
commissioned)
1959
19. Ayacut area
Kollam, Pathamthitta
and A1apuzha
Thrissur district
132

Chart No. 4.1: FUNCTIONING OF MINOR CONNVEY ANCE
SYSTEM IN KALLADA PROJECT
MAIN CANAL! BRANCH CANAL! MINORS
II
SPOliTS
\1
Hl'RIED PVC
PI PE LJ1'IE
...
...
Pressure
Risers
FAR\1[R'S
PLOT ~~~
IIYDRA;-';TI
WHEEL VALVE
(Water delivery
point)
FARMER'S
PLOT
133

Chapter 5
Dynamics <strong>of</strong> Irrigation and Agricultural
Development in Kerala
This chapter divided into two sections. examines the status. problems and prospects
<strong>of</strong> irrigation infrastructure l deyelopment in Kerala in the post-independence period.
The first section examines the scale and intensity <strong>of</strong> public investment in irrigation
development in the state in successive Five Year Plans. The financial as well as
physical aspects <strong>of</strong> irrigation development are also examined. While the financial
performance is analysed using the conventional project cycle approach <strong>of</strong> cost and
time over-runs involved in the development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems. the physical
performance is examined in terms <strong>of</strong> achievements in area expansion under
irrigation. improvements in crop production and productivity. etc. Information on
the project-wise costs and benefits are collated so as to facilitate the spatial and
inter-temporal analysis <strong>of</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in the state. The
agricultural development experience <strong>of</strong> the state is discussed at length in the second
section. Section three deals with the organisational aspects <strong>of</strong> irrigation development
in Kerala. While discussing the complexities involved in irrigation development in
the state, it tries to trace the region-specific factors contrihuting to sub-optimal
I Hayami and Ruttan (1971) distinguish between physical and institulional infrastructure
development. Going by this. investment for irrigation infrastructure devciopmcnl is
invariably a creation <strong>of</strong> social overhead capital (SOC).

performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems. leading to cost t:scalation and time o\n·runs :Jnd
socio-economic and institutional issues affecting irrigation devdopment in tht: state.
5.1 Irrigation Development under Five Year Plans
In Kerala. as elsewhere in the country. development <strong>of</strong> water resources for IrrIgation
has been one <strong>of</strong> the major priority areas <strong>of</strong> the state in the post-independence penod
and the process gathered momentum under the Fiv

plan. annual plans (1966-69) and the fourth plan periods there was marked increase
in .investment on minor irrigation. The public investment in the majorl medium
irrigation sector had increased from Rs. 11.79 crores in the First Plan to Rs. 437.90
crores during the Eighth Plan. On the other hand. the investment in minor irrigation
development had increased from Rs. 2.07 crores to Rs. 130 crores during the same
period. The cumulative expenditure on irrigation development up to the end <strong>of</strong> the
Eighth plan was Rs. 1050.96 crores. <strong>of</strong> which 73 per cent was on major and medium
projects.
Table 5.1: Plan-wise public investment in irrigation projects
Investment on Irrigation (Rs. Crores) Major/ medium
Plan period
irrigation (%)
Majorl medium Minor Total
share
First Plan (1951-56) 11.79 Nil 11.79 100.00 .. I
Second Plan ( 1956-61 ) 7.91 2.07 9.98 79.26 :
Third Plan (1961-66) 10.29 7.20 17.49 58.83
Annual Plans ( 1966-69) 9.16 7.87 17.03 53.79 ,
Fourth Plan (1969-74) 27.36 2l.l8 48.54 56.37
Fifth Plan (1974-78) 75.13 31.15 106.28 70.69
Annual Plans (1978-80) 74.97 29.09 104.06 72.04
Sixth Plan (1980-85) 259.53 58.94 318.47 81.49
Seventh Plan (1985-90) 301.90 137.71 439.61 68.67
Eighth Plan (1990-95) 437.90 130.00 567.90 77.11
Ninth Plan (1997-2002) 761.04 289.92 1050.96 72.41
Cumulative 1976.98 715. I3 2692.11 73.44
Source: Gov!. <strong>of</strong> Kerala, various plan documents.
The cumulative investment for irrigation development till the end <strong>of</strong> 1998-99
was Rs. 2510 crores. out <strong>of</strong> which. a major chunk <strong>of</strong> Rs. 1736 crores (about 70%)
was on major and medium projects.
mean that lar~e-scale irrigation is synonymous with major and medium irrigation and minor
irrigation for small scale works (Dhawan, 1998: 2).
136

The irrigation sector in the state compnses 29 irrigation projects and about 5000
minor irrigation works. including groundwater and lift irrigation schemes. Of the 29
major/ medium irrigation schemes, 14 are completed and IS schemes are under
various stages <strong>of</strong> completion. The details regarding the year <strong>of</strong> commencement and
completion <strong>of</strong> the ayacut area and districts benefited are provided in tables 5.2A and
5.2B.
Table S.2A: Completed major and medium irrigation projects in Kerala
Name <strong>of</strong> the project
Year <strong>of</strong>
CCA#
Starting Completion (ha.)
Districts benefited
I. Malampuzha 1949 1964 21732
Palakkad &
Thrissur
2. Walayar 1953 1964 3844 Palakkad
3. Pothundy 1958 1971 5466 Palakkad
4. Gayathri 1961 1970 5466 Palakkad
5. Man"alam 1953 1962 3639 Palakkad
i. 6. Peechi 1947 1959 18623 , Thrissur
I 7. Vazhani 1951 1959 5182
8. Cheerakuzhi 1957 1973 1619
I 9. Chalakudy 1949 1966 19696
I 10. Ne\"\ar 1951 1973 11891
I I I . Ch itturpuzha 1963 1992 15700
12. Perivar Valley 1956 1992-93 32800
13. Pampa 1964 1993-94 21135
14. Kuttivadi 1962 1993·94 14570
Total 181363
Nole: SI. Nos. 1,6,9,10, 11,12,13 and 14 are major lITIgation proJects;
# CCA - Culturable Command Area.
Source: Various Reports <strong>of</strong> [ORB.
Thrissur
Thrissur
Thrissur
Trivandrum
Palakkad
Ernakulam
Alappuzha &
Pathanamthitta
Kozhikode
Of the 14 projects, seven, VIZ., Peechi (1947), Malampuzha (1949),
Chalakudy (1949), Neyyar (1951). Vazhani (1951), Mangalam (1953) and Walayar
(1953) had been started even before the formation <strong>of</strong> the state. The n:maining ones
were started during the Second and Third Five year plans. The total ayacut area
benelited out <strong>of</strong> the completed irrigation projects in the state is 181363 ha. The
137

gt:ographical concentration <strong>of</strong> the completed irrigation projects is cVldent from the
fact that Palakkad and Thrissur districts have 10 out <strong>of</strong> 14 (72 %j irrigatIOn proJccts
located in these districts.
Table S.2B: Ongoing major and medium irrigation projects in Kerala
Same o(lhe oroiecl Year o(slarlinz CCA# (ha) Dis/ncls benefiled
1. Kallada 1961 61630 Kollam, Alapuzha,
Pathanamth ina
~
-. Chimoni 1975 13000 Thrissur
J. Kan i irapuzha 1961 9710 Palakkad
I ·t Pazhassi 1962 11525 Kannur
5.\1uvanupuzha 1974 17370
i
6. Vamanapuram 1981 8057
7. Idamalayar 1981 14060
8. Karappara 1987 11740
9.Chaliyar 1981 73240
10. Kakkadavu 1979 13940
I I . Anappadv 1975 4500
12. Karapuzha 1976 4650
13. Meenachil 1980 9489
14. Banasurasagar 1979 2800
15. Chamravanom 1985 9659
Total 265370
.\v/e: SI. Nos. 1 to) - and 7 to 10 are major Irrigation projects
# CCA - Culturable Command Area.
Source: Various Reports <strong>of</strong> IDRB.
Idukki. Konayam.
Emakulam
Trivandrum
Emakulam
Thrissur
Malappuram & Kozhikode
Kasaragod
Palakkad
Wvnad
Klltlayam
Wynad
Malappuram
The skewed distribution <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects needs to be explained in terms
<strong>of</strong> the specific objective for which the schemes were designed. Almost all the
irrigation projects in Kerala are technically designed for irrigating exclusively paddy
with the ultimate objective <strong>of</strong> stabilising paddy production during the first and
second cropping seasons (Virippll! Autumn and A/I/ndakan! Winter) and if possible
to raise a third crop (PI/nella! Summer). Based 011 this logic. it may be noted that
Palakkad district. which has a maximum number <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. constitutes
aboul32 per cent <strong>of</strong> the paddy growing an.:a and 34 pa cent <strong>of</strong> the padd) production
138

In the state. While Thrissur district covers II per cent each <strong>of</strong> the area and
production <strong>of</strong> paddy. Ernakulam covers about 12 pcr cent <strong>of</strong> area and 10 per cent <strong>of</strong>
production <strong>of</strong> paddy. The share <strong>of</strong> Thiruvananthapuram district in area and
production is below 3 per cent (GOK. 1998).
While the three ongoing projects, viz., Kallada, Kanjirapuzha and Pazhassi
were started during the Third Five year plan. rest <strong>of</strong> the projects were started during
the 1970s and 19805. Unlike the case <strong>of</strong> completed irrigation projects, the ongoing
schemes show a better spread in terms <strong>of</strong> geographical coverage J .
It is evident that a strong infrastructure base for irrigation development was
created through a network <strong>of</strong> large-scale canal based irrigation systems in the state.
While the completed schemes ha\e created an irrigation potential <strong>of</strong> 181363 ha .. the
partially irrigation commissioned and on-going irrigation projects are expected to
generate a potential <strong>of</strong> 265370 ha. on completion. Thus the 101al irrigation potential
expected 10 be generated through the major/ medium irrigation projects in the state
would be a little under half a million ha.
1 This appears to be the most important aspect <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in the state. While
the completed schemes have been planned in accordance with the region-specific factors
determining water demand. alloc

Concerted efforts were also made for the development <strong>of</strong> minor irrigation sector~ as
well as groundwater sources under various Plans. As at the end <strong>of</strong> March 1980. there
were 500 I minor irrigation schemes in the state and the ayacut benefited by these
schemes was 121944 ha. (net) or 142116 ha. (gross) (GOK, 1990:8).
However. utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential created under vanous water
harvesting schemes and projects In the state is neither commensurate with the
quantum <strong>of</strong> investment made nor in terms <strong>of</strong> area expansion expected in successive
plan periods. It is reported that area brought under irrigation up to 1998-99 including
minor irrigation was 4.45 lakh ha. (net) and 7.25 lakh ha. (gross) (GOK, 1999:83).
The performance <strong>of</strong> major and medium irrigation projects measured in terms <strong>of</strong>
utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential created was 79 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> completed
schemes and only less than 22 per cent in respect <strong>of</strong> on-going ones. The overall rate
<strong>of</strong> utilisation is below 47 per cent (Viswanathan. 1999). Only about 10 per cent <strong>of</strong>
the tanks identified arc under usc now. Nearly 10 per cent <strong>of</strong> the wells used for
domestic use go dry during summer season. Though the groundwater potential <strong>of</strong> the
state is 7900 Mm]. only 25 per cent <strong>of</strong> the potential is being utilised. Thus. the
overall scenario <strong>of</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation sector, particularly major and medium
~ The minor irrigation schemes in the state are classified in terms <strong>of</strong>: a) construction and
renovation <strong>of</strong> irrigation tanks: b) construction <strong>of</strong> diversion works from natural streams; c)
salt water exclusion and drainage works; reclamation <strong>of</strong> backwaters (Kuyu/s). e)
improvements to and protection "orks in ,treams and channels serving irrigation and
drainage: and f) lift irrigation works. The minor irrigation works are divided into four
categories. viz .• Minor Irrigation - Class I works; Minor Irrigation - Class II works; Lift
140

irrigation projects is not up to the expected levels. On the other hand. the problems
<strong>of</strong> cost and time over-runs. capacity under-utilisation. etc .. have been on the
increase. raising serious doubts about the very relevance <strong>of</strong> investing in irrigation
projects when the state's agriculture has been at an impasse.
This calls for a detailed examination <strong>of</strong> various location-specific and other
socio-economic factors. influencing the performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects in the
state. A detailed discussion on the organisational aspects <strong>of</strong> major and medium
irrigation sector performance in the state is also worth exploring so as to establish
the missing linkages or the lack <strong>of</strong> one to one correspondence between irrigation
development and the post-project agricultural development scenario <strong>of</strong> the state.
5.1.1 Physical and financial performance <strong>of</strong> the irrigation sector
As mentioned earlier. only 79 per cent <strong>of</strong> the irrigation targets could be achieved in
th~
case <strong>of</strong> completed schemes. \\hile the cost escalation had been 611 per cent
(table 5.3). In the ease <strong>of</strong> eight schemes. the achievement was less than 70 per cent.
While the average time taken to complete the schemes was 19 years, five schemes.
viz .. Cheerakuzhi, Pamba, Periyar Valley, Chitturpuzha and Kuttiadi projects took
almost 30 vears for completion. The cumulative cost <strong>of</strong> infrastructure development
was Rs. 1.39 lakhs per ha. on an average. and it was more than Rs. 3 lakhs in two
projects.
---------------------------------
Irrig.ation works: and Intensive Paddy Development Yelah works (IPD Yelah) (GOK,
1990:2).
141

T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I
- - vSlca an mancla per ormance <strong>of</strong>completedjlrojects, 1995-96
Physical performance Fiscal performance
Compl
(Net area in hal
Cost!
(Rs. lakhs) etion
Name <strong>of</strong> the
Achieve
ha.
Orig. Rev. Cost
time
project Target (%) (Iakhs)
ment est. est. esc. (%) (years)
Chalakudy 26680 18530 69 188 188 0.2 0.11 9
Peechi 17555 15262 87 235 235 0.0 0.15 12
Malampuzha 29463 19802 67 388 580 50.0 0.29 17
Neyyar 16042 8300 52 248 461 86.0 0.55 22
Pothundy 8792 4685 53 234 234 0.1 0.50 13
Gavathri 7651 4880 64 220 220 0.0 0.45 14
Walayar 4536 3752 83 92 1'1 J_ 43.1 0.35 II
Vazhani 3565 2113 59 100 100 0.0 0.47 11
Mangalam 4816 3313 69 45 106 135.6 0.32 13
Cheerakuzhi 2268 9-' )- 42 91 91 0.0 0.96 16
Pampa 21135 20710 98 348 6340 1555.6 3.06 29
Perfyar Valley 32800 30567 93 383 6300 l7l1.5 2.06 37
Chitturpuzha 15700 16102 103 106 2080 1862.3 1.29 32
Kuttiadi 14570 14111 97 496 55000 1008.9 3.89 31
Grand total 205573 163079 79 3174 22567 611.0 1.39 19.08
Source: Government <strong>of</strong> Kerala. Economic ReVIew. variOus years.
The performance <strong>of</strong> on-going schemes has been far from satisfactory (table 5.4) as
the rate <strong>of</strong> achievement was only 22 per cent resulting in a cost escalation to the
extent <strong>of</strong> 16:;3 per ccnt. Irrigated area expansiun had taken place only in the casc <strong>of</strong>
four schemes. the lowest being in the Kallada scheme (49.35 %). In the rest <strong>of</strong> the
schemes. no achie\ement had taken place eyen after 20 years with costs rising above
50Cio per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> two schemes and above 2400 per cent in 5 cases. The
cumulativc cost <strong>of</strong> infrastructun: development is more than rupees one lakh in 9 <strong>of</strong>
the 15 schemes. It is important to note that this expenditure became unproductive in
the absence <strong>of</strong> any commensurate addition to irrigated area. The time-lag appears to
he enormous in the on-going schemes. It is almost Jlluhk to that <strong>of</strong> the compkkd
schemes. with an average lag <strong>of</strong> 23.6 years. Mention must be made <strong>of</strong> two schemt:s.
142

VIZ., Kallada and Kanjirapuzha that have already completed 38 years without any
substantial benefits worth mentioning.
Table 54 .. Ph VSlca . I and financial performance <strong>of</strong> on-goine: projects, 1998-99
Physical performance Fiscal performance
Name <strong>of</strong> the (Net area in ha.) (Rs. in lakhs)
project Target Achi. (%) Orig. Rev. Cost
Est. Est esc. (%)
Kallada 61630 30414 49 1328 69800 5156
Chimonv 13000 13000 100 633 3615 471
Kanj irapuzha 9710 I 1"70 75 365 10000 2640
Pazhassi 8130 .. 6348 78 442 13700 2999
Muvatupuzha 17370 --- --- 2086 45500 2081
Vamanapuram 8800 --- --- 1982 I 26000 1212
ldamalayar 14060 --- --- 1785 10700 499
Kuriarkutty 11740 --- --- 1036 14000 1251
Chaliyar 73240 -- --- 1061 64500 5979
Kakkadavu 13990 --- --- 1335 9885 640
Anappady 4500 --- --- 476 12000 2421
Karapuzha 4650 --- --- 760 22500 2860
Meenachil 9960 i --- --- 3500 12800 266
Banasurasagar 2800 I --- --- 800 I 3614 352
Chamravattom 6700 . --- --- 870 . 1327 53
Grand total 260280 i 57032 22 18459 319941 1633
..
• AntICipated as per re\ Ised estimates; •• Expenditure up to March 1999.
Source: GOK, Economic Review. various years.
Cum.
Cost!
Ha (Rs.
lakhs)
1.83"
0.44"
0.94"
1.17"
2.62'
2.95'
0.76'
1.19'
0.88'
0.71'
2.67'
4.83'
1.28'
1.29"
o 19"
2.60"
Time
lag
(years)
38
24
38
35
23
18
18
21
18
20
24
24
19
20
14
23.60
Thus. the abo\c analysis points to the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> gross under-utilisation
<strong>of</strong> potential to the extent <strong>of</strong> 35 to 45 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the completed
schemes. In the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing schemes_ the percentage utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation
potential has been below 22 per cent only and there was no creation <strong>of</strong> irrigation
potential in II out <strong>of</strong> 15 projects in spite <strong>of</strong> heavy investments in the last two
decades.
An analysis <strong>of</strong> the trends in the financial expenditure and physical
achievement in the on-going irrigation projects for the period 1970-71 to 1999-2000
is presented here and it hdps in understanding the mismatch between financial
143

expenditure and p~ysical
achievement and its implications in the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing
irrigation projects. The irrigation projects are compared in terms <strong>of</strong> their share in the
total investment each year and their contribution to the additional area brought under
irrigation. The results are shown in appendix 5.1 and 5.2 respectively.
It is interesting to note that till the year 1979-80, a major chunk <strong>of</strong>
investment earmarked among four ongoIng irrigation projects. namely. Kuttiadi
(ranging between 23 to 3~ %). fL'lkmed by Periyar Valley (18-27 %). Pamba (18-21
%) and Pazhassi project (11-18 "!oj. After 1980-81, Kallada irrigation project had
been receiving major portion <strong>of</strong> the investment. followed by Periyar Valley and
Muvattupuzha Valley projects (appendix 5.1). The financial allocation for Kallada
has gone up from 19g0-R 1 to 42 pc:r cent in 1998-99. followed by a steep rise to 70
per cent in 1999-2000. rhis has resulted in thin spread <strong>of</strong> financial resources among
the remaining projects.
The physical achievement in the irrigated area expansion has highly centered
on four projects. viz.. Periyar Valky. Pamba. Kallada and Kuttiadi (appendix 5.2).
In the five projects. \iz.. Muvattupuzha valley, Idamalayar, Karapuzha. Meenachil
River valley and Chamravattoill. there was no expansion <strong>of</strong> area in spite <strong>of</strong>
considerable investment over tilllc. It is important to note that the expenditure on
Muvattupulha valley and harapu/ha projects was on the increase over time from 5
per cent to 20 pcr (cnt and I.X:i pcr ":l1t to 12,45 per cent respectin:ly between
I 987 -88 and 1 99X -99.
144

One <strong>of</strong> the objectives <strong>of</strong> irrigation is to increase crop intensity apart from
bringing additional an;!a under irrigation. Accordingly. the changes in net and gross
area irrigated. as well as source-wise irrigated area and cropping ll1tensity' are
examined here. For instance. at the national level. as per the land use statistics. the
gross irrigated area rose from ~~.6 million ha. in 1950-51 to about 28 million ha. in
1960-61. 38.2 million ha. in 1970-71. 49.9 million ha in 1980-81. 63.20 million ha.
in 1990-91 and 73.28 million ha. in 1996-97. More specifically. the irrigation ratio.
defined as the ratio <strong>of</strong> gross irrigated area to net sown area. rose from 19 per cent in
1950-51 to about 41 per cent in 1987-88 (Dhawan, 1991: 637). The same data
available for Kerala shows that in absolute terms. the net sown area <strong>of</strong> the state has
increased by about 32 per cent from 1.73 million ha. in 1952 to 2.27 million ha. in
I q97 and the gro\\th in net irrig3ted 3rea in the st3te \\"35 only 9.87 per cent oyer
tim/'. The cropping intensity h3s increased from 118 per cent to 131 per cent. which
is abo\e the nalional ayerage. Howe\·er. the high cropping intensity as reported from
~ The impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation on intensity <strong>of</strong> cropping and other related parameters like input
use efficiency. farm output. etc. have been a major source <strong>of</strong> debate in India. For a
comprehensive review <strong>of</strong> the debate. sec. Vaidyanathan (1987). Dhawan (1991) and Ray
(1992).
• Dhawan (19&8. 1991) cautions abnut the infirmities in irrigation data as avai lable in the
state. The infirmity arises because <strong>of</strong> the downward revision in the <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics
pertaining to the irrigated area <strong>of</strong> the statc and "this appears to be a unique, not typical. case
in India. Commencing in 1975-76. the net irrigated area <strong>of</strong> the state nosedives by half (from
4.65 lakh ha. in 1974-75 to 2.28 lakh ha. in 1975-76). and thereafter never recovers even its
J.:HI <strong>of</strong> 3.36 lakh ha. allaincd bach in 1962-63" (Dhawan, 1988: 2658). As a result, the
"regression results for this state arc <strong>of</strong> little worth .... and it is no wonder that no relation
145

the state cannot be treated as a pure effect <strong>of</strong> irrigation on account <strong>of</strong> the all-time
low irrigation ratios as well as the specific land use pattern <strong>of</strong> the state,
characterised by predominance <strong>of</strong> plantation crops7 with high density planting.
Though the available statistics on net irrigated area and intensity <strong>of</strong> cropping
In Kerala do not permit in drawing any meaningful and realistic conclusions about
the irrigation Impact. they p[()\ide some useful insights about the low performance
<strong>of</strong> irrigation in the state. The <strong>of</strong>ficial irrigation statistics 8 pertaining to the state may
help in understanding this probkm in a proper perspective. Overall trends suggest
that while the net sown area in the state has increased by about 46 per cent during
the period 1952-1997. net irrigated area increased only by less than 10 per cent. The
proportion <strong>of</strong> net irrIgated area i,; almost stagnant at 15 per cent since the 1990s. The
source-wise Irrigated area indicates sharp contrast between area under canals and
other sources. especially wells. It is all the more important to note that while the
emerges bet\>oeen irrigation and intensity <strong>of</strong> cropping; the latter does show an upward rise"
(Dha"an.1991:651).
, The plantation crops are exempted from the land ceiling laws as part <strong>of</strong> the land reforms in
the state.
I There is immense scope for independent research on the quality and content <strong>of</strong> irrigation
statistics as available in the state. However, different sources generate data employing
different concepts thereby rendering the comparability between them rather difficult. While
there were earnest efforts by various agencies. viz., the Public Works Department
(Irrigation). the Department <strong>of</strong> Economics and Statistics (formerly known as Bureau <strong>of</strong>
Economic and Statistics) and the Department <strong>of</strong> Agriculture to build up a data base on
irrigation and related aspects <strong>of</strong> the state after its formation, the attempts in this direction
were ralher non-existent earlier. This being so, any attempt to improve the quality <strong>of</strong> the
data is hound to fail. For more discussion on this. see GOK, 1983. section III: Irrigation
(141-154), especially, chapter one by Joseph and chapter two by Sthanukrishna IYI!r.
146

proportion <strong>of</strong> area under canal irrigation marked sharp decline from 46 per cent in
1952 to below 30 per cent in 1997. the area irrigated by wells has increased by 108
per cent during 19R0-1 997. This essentially brings out the mismatch between capital
in\'estment in canal construction and the corresponding area expansion.
A further disaggregate level analysis <strong>of</strong> this data is in order here to enable a
much man: realistic view <strong>of</strong> the trends in cropped area and source-wise irrigated
area in the state. This is to take can: <strong>of</strong> the infirmity in data caused by downward
re\ision in net irrigated area after 1974-75 as discussed in Dhawan (1988, 1991).
Accordingly. growth rates are worked out for the entire period <strong>of</strong> 1952 to 1997. The
analysis is di\'ided into t\\O phases. ie .. 1951-74 and 1975-97 to reconcile the
do\\nward revision in the net irrigated area (Table 5.5).
Table 5.5: Growth rates in cropped area and indicators <strong>of</strong> irrigation development
in Kerala 19':;21997
• - - Growth rates #
I
Crllpp~d ar~;t' '~t Irri~"lcd area
Phase I
Phase II
(1952-1974) ( 1975-1997)
I. Net 50"11 area (NSA) 127·· 0.21"
. ., Gross crCl££.cd area (GC A) 1.98 ,. 0.25·
3. 1'>:ct Irricatcd area (1'>:IA) 1.8·' 2.-16' ,
I 4. Area sown more than once (ASMO) 4.70 " OJ7"
5. Gross irrl£.ated area (GIAl 2.12' , 1.0 I"
6. Total canal irril!ated arca (TC) 2.03 " -2.90'
7. Tank Irrtl!atcd area (TA) 2.48 ' -0.75 '
8. Well irrl£ated area (WI) -3.37 • 13.31·'
9. Irrigated area under other sources (OS) 0.82 ' 5.26**
10. Cropp_ill£ intensitv (el) 0.12·' 0.05'
II. Irri.s,ation ratio (IR) lNIAINSAJ'IOO 0.53" 2.25"
# Growth rates are cstllnatcd uSing the semi-log form. LlI Y a + /31
• Significant at I % level: •• Sigl1ilic:lI1t at 5 % kwl .
Suurce: Estimated from GOK. Statistics for Plal1l1l1lg (vanous years).
The trends suggest that the growth ill Ill'! irrigated area was more during the
second phase (2.46 %) compared to the first phase (1.8 %) and reverse was the trend
147

in gross irrigated area. While canal irrigated area grew by two per cent during the
first phase. the second phase experienced considerable decline <strong>of</strong> almost 3 per cent.
\\·e:II-irrigate:d area. which declined by 3.37 during the first phase. increased by more
than 13 per cent during the second phase. The trends in cropping intensity and
irrigation ratio show diametrically opposite trends. which suggest that the increase
in cropping intensity was not the effect <strong>of</strong> irrigation. This is also e\·ident from the
low correlation coefficient between the net irrigated area and cropping intensity
(0.04) and negative correlation between the gross irrigated area and the croppmg
intensity (-0.01) and cropping intensity and irrigation ratio (-0.37).
Thus. the pe:rformance <strong>of</strong> the irrigation sector in terms <strong>of</strong> gro\\i1h in net and
gross irrigate:d area and canal irrieated area in the state is not been commensurate
- - '
\\ Ith the k\eI <strong>of</strong> investment. In thl'; re:specl. the sub-optimal physical pe:rformance
<strong>of</strong> the imgatitln s.:ctor n.:cJs tn be Juxtartlsed against the pattern <strong>of</strong> agricultural
development 10 the state. characterIsed by the shift in cropping pattern in favour <strong>of</strong>
dry/ perennial cash crops. More importantly. the observed shift in cropping pattern
is antithcllcal to the conventional notion <strong>of</strong> irrigation induced agricultural
deve lopment.
5.2 Irrigation and Agricultural Development in Kuala
., he raradigm <strong>of</strong> agricultural de\elorment in Kerala has been a major source <strong>of</strong>
dckttc In the academic and roilc: CIrcles. especially since the mid 70s. Most <strong>of</strong> the:
studies were crop-specific and bru;ldly framed in the backdror <strong>of</strong> the agricultural
148

stagnation 9 experienced by the state since the mid 70s. The studies were trying to
explain the price and non-price factors responsible for the stagnant performance <strong>of</strong>
the agriculture sector in the state. Accordingly, a host <strong>of</strong> factors were identified
which primarily included: a) crop shift in favour <strong>of</strong> commercial crops on account <strong>of</strong>
lack <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>itability and high cost <strong>of</strong> production <strong>of</strong> food cropslO; b) perceptible
decline in the size <strong>of</strong> operational holdings: c) institutional constraints in the
• For a critical and very extensive discussion on the stagnation controversy, see the series
<strong>of</strong> papers published by the Centre for Development Studies, viz., Pushpangadan (1988);
Kannan and Pushpangadan (1988); Narayana (1990) and Kannan and Pushpangadan (1990).
While Kannnan and Pushpangadan (1988, 1990) explain the problem <strong>of</strong> secular stagnation
"ith particular reference to the seasonal and annual food crops alone, Narayana (1990)
perceive the problem in terms <strong>of</strong> the 'diversion that has taken place in the cropping pattern'
<strong>of</strong> the state in favour <strong>of</strong> perennial cash crops. However, the explanation <strong>of</strong>fered by
:\arJ\ana appears to be more convincing as it covers the non-food crops sector. which
accounts for almost 80 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total cropped area <strong>of</strong> the state. Thus, the problem <strong>of</strong>
stagnation has been regarded as a short-run phenomenon, caused by the replantation
induced cycle <strong>of</strong> 'productivity lag" entailed in the production process <strong>of</strong> commercial!
plantation crops. The life cycle <strong>of</strong> the commercial! plantation crops involves an immature
phase <strong>of</strong> 7-12 years, followed by a mature phase <strong>of</strong> 30-1 00 years depending on the crop. For
instance, under average management conditions, coconut palms start bearing between 7 to
12 years, followed by a productive period <strong>of</strong> about 80 years. However, yield starts declining
around 50 years <strong>of</strong> age. In the case <strong>of</strong> rubber, the immature phase is 5-9 years, followed by
a productive period <strong>of</strong> 25-30 years, depending on the planting material used. However, it is
important to note that the cash crops have marked differences in 'yield pr<strong>of</strong>ile' across crops,
"hich involves increasing. stable and diminishing returns to scale.
10 Varghese (1970) underscores that the redi,tfloutive public policies, which originated in
the state during the 19'h century had been ilhtrlllllcntal in the process <strong>of</strong> commercialisation.
Kicniewics (1989 as cited in Tharakan. I ')'17) shows that Kerala was known for its
cOlllnll:rcial cultivation. It's terrain ;lIld It'r,,O!raphv prevented cultivation <strong>of</strong> its staple grain,
paddy. on the hills and slopes, which \Vcre lIlili,cu for uther crops, which were largely cash
crop .. Scholars (Herring, 1991: lie I kr, 1'1')'1) 11;1\ C explained the process <strong>of</strong> crop shi ft as a
149

development <strong>of</strong> land and water resources: d) changed agrarian relations: e) shortage
<strong>of</strong> labour compounded with high wage rates. ctc. As a consequence <strong>of</strong> cumulative
causation <strong>of</strong> the variety <strong>of</strong> factors discussed. the impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation on crop
production and productivity was insignificant [George and Nair (1982): Pillai
(1982): Narayana and Nair (1983); Kannan and Pushpangadan (1988. 1989);
Santhakumar and Nair (1999»).
However. the studies examining the inter-relationship between the supply
and demand factors determining water distribution and its effect on land
development and water management practices at the farm level in the irrigation
commands are relatively scanty. It is obvious that the much debated controversy <strong>of</strong>
crop shift has been induced by relative pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> the dry/ perennial cash crops
compared to food crops. mainly paddy. which is the target crop for which almost all
the state' s irrigation projects are designed. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact. the irrigation projects
in the state havc originally been designed for irrigating paddy. particularly. the
second (winter) and third (summer) crops. The objective as mentioned earlier. was
to stabilise the first (ViripplI) and second UvllIndakan) crops and raise the third
(PI/neha) crop.
---------------------------------
rationalization <strong>of</strong> cropping patterns dictated hy an increasing responsiveness to market
forces.
150

The technical orientation towards paddy II in irrigation projects In Kerala
seems to have become unrealistic in the light <strong>of</strong> a major shift in cropping pattern,
whereby. area under paddy has declined substantially over time Cfable 5.6). Along
with paddy. there was also a remarkable decline in area under crops, such as tapioca
(cassal"(/) and pulses during 1960-61 to 1997-98. While the area under paddy and
tapioca has declined by almost Iw SO per cent. it is 66 per cent under pulses. The
area under rubber has increased by 243 per cent, followed by arecanut (202 %). The
gro\\1h in area under banana is 82 per cent followed by pepper (81 %) and coconut
(77 %). While the area under other crops such as ginger and tea is almost stagnating,
it is highly tluctuating in the case <strong>of</strong> cashew and c<strong>of</strong>fee.
T d' . K I 196061 199798
Area (in '000 ha.)
Compound growth rate
,
I 1960 1970- 1980- I 1990 1997- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990-
•
Crop; ,
-61 71 81 I -91 98 98 98 98 98
Padd\ 778.9 8749 801.7 559.4 387.1 -1.87 -2.87 -3.96 -4.50
Coconut 500.8 719.1 651.4 864.1 884.3 I.SS 0.74 1.71 0.29
. Tapioca 24:!.2 293.S 245.0 147.2 1214 -1.85 -3.10 -3.83 -2.39
I Banana. 444 48.7 49.3 61.2 80.6 1.62 1.81 2.78 3.52
Rubber# 135.8 198.4 253.8 407.8 465.3 3.38 3.09 3.42 1.66
Arecanut :!4.3 85.8 61.2 62.1 73.3 0.82 -0.56 1.0 I 2.11
Pepper 99.8 117.5 108.1 169.0 180.4 1.61 1.54 2.89 0.82
Cashew 5·U 102.7 141.3 118.1 94.7 1.51 -0.29 -2.20 -2.72
C<strong>of</strong>fee 16.8 31.5 57.5 84.0 83.0 4.41 3.51 2.05 -0.15
Tea 37.6 37.6 36.2 34.6 34.6 -0.22 -0.29 -0.24 0.02
Pubes 44.1 39.9 33.8 24.4 15.1 -2.86 -3.42 -4.40 -5.83
(jinl!er 12.0 12.2 12.7 14.1 12.3 0.08 0.05 -0.14 -1.59
Sole • include banana and plantall1.
Source. Gov!. <strong>of</strong> Kerala. Economic Review, relevant years (estimated); # Rubber Board. 1999.
Table 5.6: ("en s In crop-wise ana In era a, - to -
--
" Kallada Irrigation Project is the oilly departure frnm this tradition <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects in
the statc. The Kallada project, which was originally designed for irrigating paddy, was
redesigned to irrigate trcel garden crops, mainly. coconut ill view <strong>of</strong> the economic
compulsions to raise the BCR came lip from the ewe as well as the external aid agencies.
151

The annual compound growth rates indicate considerable decline in the case <strong>of</strong>
paddy, pulses and tapioca throughout the period <strong>of</strong> analysis, which lends support to
the argument that these crops have been largely replaced by commercial crops, viz ..
banana, coconut, arecanut and rubber. Subsequently, while the share <strong>of</strong> area under
food crops declined from 49 per cent in 1975 to 25 per cent in 1998, the share <strong>of</strong>
area under non-food/ commercial crops increased from 51 per cent to 75 per cent
during the same period 12
An examination <strong>of</strong> the changes in the share <strong>of</strong> individual crops in the total
cropped area is essential to shed light on the possible implications <strong>of</strong> such changes
on the future scenario <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in the state. More importantly, such
changes goes a long way in explaining the farm level investment decisions <strong>of</strong> the
farmers \\ith respect to land de\elopment (OFD) works for optimum utilisation <strong>of</strong>
irrigation potential.
The changes in the area under individual crops are expressed in terms <strong>of</strong>
percentage share <strong>of</strong> each crop in the total cropped area <strong>of</strong> the state and the results are
shown in table 5.7, The table sho\\s that 13 major crops occupy about 84 per cent <strong>of</strong>
the total cropred area <strong>of</strong> the state as per 1997-98 statistics, which was higher in the
range <strong>of</strong> 86-88 per cent in the earlier periods, Among the major crops, the share <strong>of</strong>
I! Thc magnitude <strong>of</strong> c'pansion <strong>of</strong> .lrea under non-food crops in thc ,tate is even more
stri~ing when viewed against the natll)nal scenario, Between 1980-81 and 1990-91. the area
undcr non-food crops in India incn:a,ed only by 8,4 per cent as against 20.8 per cent in the
state (CMIE, 1994),
152

paddy. which was 33 per cent in 1960-61, declined to 18 per cent in 1990-91 and
further. to 13 per cent in 1997-98.
Table 5.7:ChaDl es in relati\'e share <strong>of</strong>maior crops in Kerala.1960-1998
Percentage share in total cropped area
Crops 1960-61 1970-71 1980·81 1990-91 1997-98
I. PaddY 33.27 :'9.83 28.01 18.53 13.ii4
2. Coconut 21.39 24.52 22.76 28.62 29.79
3. Tapioca 10.35 10.01 8.56 4.88 4.09
... Banana 1.90 1.66 1.72 2.03 2,72
, S. Rubber I 5.80 6.77 8.87 13,51 15.67
6. Arecanut i 1.04 2.93 2.14 2.06 2.47
7. Pepper ! 4.26 4.01 3.78 5.60 6.08
8. Cashe" i 2.32 3,50 4.94 3.91 3.19
9. C<strong>of</strong>fee 0.72 1.08 2,01 2,78 2.80
10. Tea 1.61 1.28 1.26 1.15 1.17
I I. Pu Ises 1.88 1.36 1.18 0.81 0.51
12. Ginger 0.51 0.41 0.44 0.47 0.42
13. Cardamom l.23 1.62 1.90 2.05 1.45
Sub- total 86.27 88.97 87.58 86.38 83.37
.
SOl/ref' (,0\1. <strong>of</strong> Kerala. Economic ReView. relevant years (estimated); # Rubber Board. 1999 .
The share <strong>of</strong> coconut has increased from 21 per cent to almost 30 per cent.
fl)ll(med by rubba. which has increased from mere 6 per cent to 16 per cent over
tillle.1 hus. rubber has become the second important crop in the state's agriculture
after coconut. relegating paddy to the third position. The perceptible decline in the
share in the area <strong>of</strong> food crops. \1/ .• paddy. tapioca. pulses and ginger validates the
argument that these crops have largely been replaced by commercial crops, viz.,
C(lC(lnllt. arecanut. banana and rllhhn (to a lil11lteu extent).
153

5.2.1 Dynamics <strong>of</strong> paddy field conversion and implications on land development
and water use for agriculture
The foregoing analysis <strong>of</strong> cropping pattern changes necessarily calls for a brief
discussion on the dynamics <strong>of</strong> crop conversion process going on uninterrupted in the
state. The analysis becomes imperative in the specific context <strong>of</strong> Kerala's
agriculture In VlO:W <strong>of</strong> the cropping pattern changes as discussed above.
Conventionally. tho: crops such as tapioca. pulses and ginger are grown in paddy
fields eitho:r as into:rim crops (between the paddy growing seasons) or as full time
crops. depending on the availability <strong>of</strong> water and labour. Thus, paddy being the main
crop. the simultaneous decline in the area under these crops amounts to the
permanent conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy area for other uses.
\lm. the question ariso:s what are the different agricultural as well as nonagricultural
uses that replaco:d paddy in the state. The growing density <strong>of</strong> population
and process <strong>of</strong> urbanisation in the state have been largely responsible for the
conversion <strong>of</strong> padd~ ficlds\3 for building residential and other commercial
establishments and the reiJted infmstructure. including roads.
IJ The statistics un land usc pattcrn in the state indicate that the land put to non-agricultural
u\", has been incrcasing over tillle. I he non-agricultural land use as a proportion <strong>of</strong> total
geographical area has increased frolll 5.21 per cent in 1957-58 to 6.67 per cent in 1975-76;
tLl 7.18 per cent In 1')X)-H6 and tLl X 1'1 per cent in 1997-98 (GOK, 1977; 1988; 1998). The
npansion in non-agricultural usc <strong>of</strong> bnd may be at the expense <strong>of</strong> paddy fields to a limited
c\lcnt, as cLirrenlly IllLlch <strong>of</strong> the padd~ growing area haw been kept fallow by the farmers
duc 10 prohkllls ranging frolll nllll-pl(llilahilily 10 non-availability <strong>of</strong> water and lahour and
154

The conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy fields for agricultural and non-agricultural uses has
been widely debated in the state. A comprehensive study by Jeemol Unni (1983)
examines the cropping pattern changes and brings out evidences <strong>of</strong> replacement <strong>of</strong>
paddy by coconut in the districts <strong>of</strong> Kerala. On the technical possibilities <strong>of</strong>
converting paddy lands into coconut gardens. the paper explains two indigenous
means <strong>of</strong> dealing with this problem. In the fist instance. coconut saplings are planted
on the bunds <strong>of</strong> paddy fields. which also strengthens the bunds. Gradually. these
bunds are widened and another row <strong>of</strong> coconut saplings is planted and this goes on
till the whole field is converted into a coconut garden. By the second method, the
land is raised in mounds within paddy fields at regular intervals in between and
saplings are planted. As these plants grow. more such mounds are raised and the
\\ho\C plot is converted into a c"conut garden. Yet another process <strong>of</strong> conversion is
step-by-step. by which banana. tapioca (cassava) and ginger are planted on
horizontal or circular mounds raised in the paddy fields with coconut or arecanut
saplings planted in between. The cultivation <strong>of</strong> the annuall seasonal crops is
continued until the coconut or arecanut plants grow. This process appears to be more
scientific as the crop residue provides mulching effect and there is no need <strong>of</strong>
speci fie crop-husbandry measures for the main crops.
Kannan and Puhpangadan (1988) examined taluk-wise trends in paddy area
for the period 1975-76 to 1985-86 The 56 taluks have been classified in terms <strong>of</strong>
\'ater logging. The proportion <strong>of</strong> area kept as fallow and fallow other than current fallow
(p"t together) has increased from I 69 per cent In 1965-66 to 2.17 per cent in 1996-')7.
155

area and yield <strong>of</strong> paddy as taluks with: a) high area-high yield, b) high area-medium
yield: c) high area-low yield: d) low area-high yield: e) low area-medium yield: and
f) low area-low yield. The analysis shows that 55.3 per cent <strong>of</strong> yield has come from
the first two groups <strong>of</strong> taluks, which occupies 48.6 per cent <strong>of</strong> paddy growing area,
followed by low area - medium yield taluks (18.62 %) occupying 20.21 per cent <strong>of</strong>
area. it is found that the rate <strong>of</strong> conversion is thc highest _ in hioh e in low area-low
yield taluks (-3.5%). followed by high area - low yield taluks (-3 %), low area-high
yield taluks (-2.5%) and low area - medium yield ta1uks (-2.1 %)14. Kannan and
Pushpangadan (1990) find that most <strong>of</strong> the decline in paddy area has been
concentrated in regions that have not traditionally specialised in rice cultivation.
A. study by Indiradc\'i ('I (1/ (1991) examine the dynamics <strong>of</strong> paddy field
conwrslOn in Thrissur district (Central Kerala) and find that about 47 per cent <strong>of</strong>
paddy land is leased out for tile and brick manufacturing industries lS , followed by 13
" Similar study by Suresh (2000) examined the changes in paddy area across the districts
for the period 1975 to 1997 and finds that the decline <strong>of</strong> paddy was higher in the large area-
10\\ yield districts as well as large area- medium yield districts. Accordingly, the share <strong>of</strong>
area <strong>of</strong> these districts in the total paddy area <strong>of</strong> the state has declined from 27.15 per cent
during 1975-85 to 18.72 per cent in 199'i-97 in the fonner case and from 45.11 per cent to
13.34 per cent in the latter case (Surcsh. 2000: 43)
I~ Hinterlands <strong>of</strong> Thrissur district are famous for clay mining activities in paddy fields
primarily to cater to the demand for clay from numerous tile manufacturing units spread
around the region. Besides, the presence <strong>of</strong> about hundreds <strong>of</strong> private brick-kilns also
induce the farmers to lease out their paddy fields for mining <strong>of</strong> this industrial raw-makrial
and it works out to be highly pr<strong>of</strong>itable than paddy cultivation per .I"I!. Howcver. this
process makes the paddy fields deeper and deepcr resulting in water logging through out
and as a result. further cultivation <strong>of</strong> paddy i,l ,uch fields becomes difficult. II" al all
interested. individual farmers may have to incur huge expenses to reclaim the waterlogged
156

per cent for banana cultivation. II per cent for civil and construction purposes and 5
per cent left uncultivated. In effect. only 24 percent <strong>of</strong> the land is retained for paddy
cultivation.
The Kerala Statistical Institute (KSI) specifically examInes the issue <strong>of</strong>
conversion <strong>of</strong> lands originally registered as paddy field (Nilam) in the basic land tax
register during 1992-93. It puts forth the argument that crop substitution was
resorted to as a countering mechanism to the declining pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> paddy
cultivation. In 1992-93. only 58 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total area classified as 'paddy field'
in the land tax register was actually under paddy. and the rest was used for different
purposes. While 6 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area was converted for constructing buildings.
roads and other uses. 24 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area was used for growing commercial
crops. \ IZ.. (l)(Onut Jnu rubber. S.) per cent tor annuJI and seasonal crops. followed
by:; per cent being kept JS fallow (KSI. 1994 as cited in Kannan. 1999).
---------------------------------
padd) fields. This undesirable outcome ultimately resulted in fixing up <strong>of</strong> informal contract
norms such that the individual contractors who lease out the paddy fields for clay mining
would fill the paddy fields in turn with some compact material (mostly soil and pieces <strong>of</strong>
stones). Certainly. this has turned out to be a 'blessing in disguise' for the farmers, who
have been rescued out <strong>of</strong> legal hurdles involved in the conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy fields. It is
important to note that according to the Kerala Land Utilisation Order (GOK, 1967a), clay
mining from paddy fields can be done only if the field IS certified as unsuitable for
cultivation. But. in reality, this is <strong>of</strong>ten violated. Minnie Mathew Committee (1996)
constituted for suggesting amendments to the KcraLI I.and Utilisation Order (19673)
observed that though the KLU is in operation. timd ([{)p has declined by 5.1 lakh ha. <strong>of</strong>
which, paddy account for 3.04 Iakh ha. (60 %)
157

A micro level study by Narayanan (1994) indicates that there was 60 per cent
reduction in the area under paddy from 1107 ha in 1960 to 438 ha in 1980 and the
aerial photographs haw shown the area to have declined further to 330 ha in 1990.
While the studies by George and Mukherjee (1986); Kannan and
Pushpangadan (1990) and Narayana (1990) have shown the relative pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong>
cash crops as the reason for the conversion. Narayanan (1994) shows the reasons
such as the problem llf availability <strong>of</strong> water. labour. pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> competing crops.
high cost <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation and the ever decreasing size <strong>of</strong> operational holdings
as factors responsible for conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy lands.
The study b:-
the Popul:H Expert Committee 10 1998 on the conversIOn <strong>of</strong>
paddy lands estim:l1ed that 1 ~,
lakh ha. <strong>of</strong> paddy area (about 46 %) were converted
fnr I1lln-agnculturJI uses and ahllut 0.4 7 Iakh ha. were kept as fallow during 1975-
97. ()f the total area (oll\erted. I S.5 per cent was for tree crops. 7.5 per cent for
Jnnual crops and 11.4 per cent tor non-Jgricultural uses. About 11.6 per cent <strong>of</strong>
single cropped JreJ and ,:;5 p..:r cent <strong>of</strong> the double-cropped area were also
Cl)J]verted (Popular Expert Committee. 1995).
-- -
There are also evidences sll~l.!estinl.!
considerable reduction in the ayacut area
<strong>of</strong> irrigation proJects in the ,tate For instance. the evaluation study by CADA
((,A[)A. 1')')(,) n:ports clInsider;illiL' C(lnv..:rSllln <strong>of</strong> paddy fields in the ayacuts <strong>of</strong>
,.
clImplcted irrigation proJccts in thl' st;lte ftlr constructing buildings. courtyards. etc.
I he ayacllt convertcd Imallll:- pa,hh ;lrC;I) for non-agricultural uses constitute about
15 per cent In the «(lmplcted Img.a!I'"l pfllJcclS (table 5.S).
158

Table 5 . 8' . Paddy area c 0 nvert e d' IR . Irrigation . projects
Name <strong>of</strong> the project
Ayacut Area converted (ha. )
Area converted (%) I
(ha.)
,
1. Malampuma 21732 I 3672. 71 16.90
2. Walavar 3844 734.20 19.10
3. Pothundv 5466 546.60 10.00
4. Gavathri 5466 1000.28 18.30
I 5. Mangalam 3639 396.65 10.90
6. Peechi 18623 3352.14 18.00
7. Vazhani 5182 720.30 13.90
8. Cheerakuzhi 1619 194.28 12.00
9. Chalakud\ 19696 2954.40 15.00
10. Ne\\ar 11891 1308.01 11.00
11. Kuttiadi 14570 3496.8# 24.00
12. KaraDuzha* 4650 1150# 24.73
Total 116378 19526.37 16.78
• Ongoing proJect.
SOllrce' C ADA (1996): 69-73; # C AGI Reports. 1993. 1997.
The proportion <strong>of</strong> ayacut area converted for non-agricultural uses across the
command areas ranged between II per cent in the Neyyar project to 24.73 per cent
ill the Karapuzha scheme.
Anoth.:r study by C AD.\ based on a sample survey <strong>of</strong> 255 farmers in the
el~ht
completed irrigation proiects in the state reveals that 19 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers
have converted their paddy fIelds permanently. The proportion <strong>of</strong> area converted is
the highest in the Peechi irrigalJoll project as 56 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers are reported
to have converted their paddy fields and the area converted is 44 per cent. In the
ChalJkudy scheme. 4' per c.:nt <strong>of</strong> the farmers have converted and the paddy area
convert.:d is 39 per cent «('ADA. I ()97).
Santhakumar (1997) shows that rubher cultivation has occupied considerable
part <strong>of</strong> th.: COIllIllJ!1(j Jreas <strong>of</strong> \. JlllanapUrJIll and Kallada irrigation projects. While
~ 7 per cent <strong>of</strong> the dry land arl';} III the Vamanapuralll proj.:ct has been brought LInder
159

ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the proportion is 18 per cent. Preliminary results <strong>of</strong> a
study by Viswanathan (1997) based on a sample survey indicates that rubber has
occupied about 40 per cent <strong>of</strong> the paddy area and 53 per cent <strong>of</strong> the dry area in the
Kallada irrigation project. In the Kallada project. which was designed for irrigating
garden land crops. mainly coconut. the crop occupies only 28 per cent <strong>of</strong> the dry
area ...... bout 21 per cent and 14 per cent <strong>of</strong> the paddy area have been substituted with
coconut and tapioca respectively.
The question that whether availability <strong>of</strong> physical infrastructure and the
subsequent provision <strong>of</strong> water influences farmers decision on crop allocation needs
empirical testing specifically in the context <strong>of</strong> Kerala. However, it has been noticed
that the area under paddy during the second crop (.\/lindakan) has declined in seven
talu].;.' LllmmanJcJ by maJor irrigation ProlCelS Jlmost by 20 per cent during 1974-
75 to ]986-87 ITJble 59)
Table 5.9: Decline in padd~' area in taluk5 wvered under major irrigation projects, \966-
67 to 1986-87
I Taluk,
Area during second crop (hectares)
% change
1966-67 197.1-75 1986-87
( 1966-87)
l\e\\attmkara 5673 5945 I·UJ) 32151--15.9) -43.33
Mukundapuram 16444 15482 (-5 8) 12561 (-189) -23.61
Thrissur 18246 17699 (-3 0) 11248 (-36-1) -38.35
Thal3Jl£.a II v 16843 16342 (-30) 14146 (-13-1) -16.01
I Chinoor 18313 22364 I]] I) 17262 (-228) -5.74
Alathoor 15902 20526129 I) 16796 (-182) 5.62
Palakkad 15237 157211J:!) 14299 (-9.0) -6.16
.\(JlJra. Complied from GOK. 1998.74.
Nolt!. Parenthetic figures are percentage change between periods.
/\s tht: tahlt: Indicates. tht:re was considerahk decline in paddy area in all the
taluks during I CJ74-75 to 19X6-X7 and the highest decline repurted was in
160

Neyyattinkara taluk commanded by the Neyyar irrigation project (45.92%). In
Thrissur tal uk. the decline was 36.45 per cent and in Chittur tal uk. it was almost 23
per cent. These taluks also witnessed the overall decline in paddy area.
Thus. the foregoing discussion on the dynamics <strong>of</strong> crop shift and the
widespread conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy fields into dryl perenniall cash crops bring out the
fact that. by and large. the irrigation projects in the state could not yield the
expected results. The major reasons attributed for the conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy fields are:
a) lack <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>itability. b) non-availability <strong>of</strong> labour and high wage rates; c) nonavailability
and scarcity <strong>of</strong> watcr J6 ; d) water logging in the paddy fields; e) lack <strong>of</strong>
interest among the younger generations l7 ; and f) the declining operational size <strong>of</strong>
paddy fields l8
I. The problem ,1f acute \\ater shortage during the summer season is identified as an
Important reas,'n f'H COIl\ ersion <strong>of</strong> paddy fields. In the absence <strong>of</strong> irrigation facilities.
cultural operat'l'lh largel~ depend on the availability <strong>of</strong> rainfall and the failure <strong>of</strong> rainfall
causes crop losses.
"This issue needs explanation in terms <strong>of</strong> demand for and supply <strong>of</strong> labour for performing
agricultural operations. While the farmers withdrew from labour intensive food crop
production due to specific reasons <strong>of</strong> low pr<strong>of</strong>itability and high transaction costs involved in
farming activities and the labour management problems; the substantial improvement in the
social and economic statu'> <strong>of</strong> labour made them withdraw from the agricultural labour
market. Thus. the withdrawal <strong>of</strong> farmer as well as agricultural labour from farming
operations "as sheer coincidence. For a very interesting account <strong>of</strong> the development
dilemmas and the dynamics <strong>of</strong> agricultural labour market in Kerala, sec the most recent
studies by Thomas and Thomas (1999). Kalll1an (1999), and Nair, M.K.S (1999).
" In Ihe first instance. tim problem ,h'es nol permit large-scale mechanisation. Secondly. it
adversely affects the 11'1: <strong>of</strong> other inputs as well. A third issue is that the farming operations
would not attract lahourers as there j, no full tl111e work. Farmers also would not like to
<strong>of</strong>fer a full da~ \\age for a ,hort-tillle cngagcmcnt. '1 Ills ullimately resultcd in multiplication
161

The debate on conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy lands should also be viewed in terms <strong>of</strong>
peasant rationality. Herring (1991 a) interprets this as flight <strong>of</strong> capital (in the form <strong>of</strong>
redeployment <strong>of</strong> capital) and argues that farmers have opted out <strong>of</strong> labour intensive
paddy (in favour <strong>of</strong> less labour intensive tree crops) purely on account <strong>of</strong> rising
wage costs and the loss <strong>of</strong> managerial prerogative resulting from the demise <strong>of</strong>
traditional labour regime (Herring, 1991 a. as cited in Heller. 1999). In line with
Herring (1991a). Heller (1999) considers the shift to cash crop economy as a
rationalisation <strong>of</strong> cropping patterns dictated by an increasing responsiveness to
19
market forces .
Thus. the agricultural development scenario <strong>of</strong> the state since the late 70s
characterised by sharp decline in the area under food crops dominated by paddy and
the substantial expansion in area under commercial crops dominated by plantation
crops should form a major point <strong>of</strong> departure in the economic analysis on the impact
<strong>of</strong> any developmental intervention by the state. including development <strong>of</strong> irrigation
systems.
The emerging changes as discussed above. in the agricultural development in
the state. in general. would have signi ficant consequences on the performance <strong>of</strong> the
irrigation sector. On the one hand. the change from food to cash crops could be
translated in terms <strong>of</strong> lack 01 effective demand for water for irrigation. On the other,
<strong>of</strong> tasks. with each task involving a specitic time or piece wage rate [also sec Nair. M.K.S
( 1999)1·
162

it also obstructed the process <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in the state causing largescale
capacity under-utilisation in the case <strong>of</strong> completed irrigation projects and non-
. .
completion coupled with time and cost overruns in the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing schemes.
5.2.2 Impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation: a disaggregate analysis
In what follows, we examine the impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation on the performance <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong>
the important crops targeted to be grown in irrigation projects. As mentioned
already. paddy is the major crop targeted in all the irrigation projects, except the
Kallada scheme. Coconut, banana, arecanut and horticultural crops are the other
crops considered to yield better under irrigated conditions 2o . Most <strong>of</strong> the other
commercial crops are rain fed. Though life saving irrigation during summer months
is recommended to some <strong>of</strong> the plantation crops, it is not generally practised
primarily due to: a) the wider belief that thC'se crops could thrive under rainfed
conditions: b) non-availability <strong>of</strong> water sources in most <strong>of</strong> the plantation tracts: c)
development <strong>of</strong> irrigation requiring massIve investment in terms <strong>of</strong> land
development. installation <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems; and d) labour being scarce and
highly expensive.
As expected, the reported land utilisation pattern in the ayacuts <strong>of</strong> the completed
irrigation projects in the state is dominated by paddy, followed mostly by coconut
J? A~ eC()Il()mic lllaximiLcrs, Kerala's farmers have responded to shifting price signals by
reallocating their resources from paddy to more lucrative crops (Heller, 1999: 124).
163

(Table 5.10). The table indicates that paddy area accounts for about 60 to 70 per cent
<strong>of</strong> the ayacuts <strong>of</strong> completed irrigation projects in the state. Only in four projects it is
below 60 per cent. the lowest being 27.60 per cent and 21.40 per cent in respect <strong>of</strong>
the Chalakudy and Neyyar irrigation projects. Coconut forms the second important
crop occupying an area as large as 47 per cent in the Neyyar irrigation project to as
small as 6 per cent in Mangalam project. It is important to note that significant share
<strong>of</strong> paddy area is being converted into coconut. tapioca and banana in the Neyyar.
Chalakudy, Cheerkuzhi and Vazhani projects.
T a bl e 510 : L an d use pattern ID complete d' Irngalton . proJects
Name <strong>of</strong> the Percentaoe area under crops
project Paddy Coconut Arecanut Tapioca Banana Others· CCA (ha.)
Malampuzha 64.7 8.0 0.6 1.9 1.1 23.7 21732
Walavar 61.4 9.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 28.1 3844
Pothundv 69.0 9.9 1.5 2.9 2.7 14.0 5466
Gavathri 67.2 7.0 0.2 0.4 0.4 24.8 5466
Mangalam 72.6 5.7 0.9 1.7 1.5 17.6 3639
Peechi 62.1 15.9 I , 1.2 0.6 1.1 19.1 18623
Vazhani 59.6 18A ! 1.4 0.7 1.3 18.6 5182
,
,
Chcerakuzhi 50A 26.0 1.9 0.9 0.9 19.9 1619
Chalakudy 27.6 39.6 2.9 1.5 2.9 25.5 19696
Nevvar 21.4 46.9 0.6 13.2 3.1 14.8 11891
• Also Includes paddy land converted for non-agricultural uses.
Source' Computed from CADA (1996).
The reported land utilisation pattem 2 ] in the irrigation commands, however,
needs scrutiny to understand the ground realities. For example, the paddy area reports as
irrigated includes the gross area cultivated during the first, second and third crop
20 As per the Department <strong>of</strong> Economics and Statistics (GOK) reports, the important irrigated
crops in the state are paddy, banana, tubers, vegetables, coconut, arecanut, nutmeg/ clove,
other spices and condiments, betel vine and sugarcane.
21 This land utilisation statistics need not be realistic and should be subjected to scrutiny in
vi~w <strong>of</strong> the conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy fields as discussed in the foregoing section. Moreover. the
data have also not been updated since long as informed by the CADA <strong>of</strong>ficials.
164

seasons. But. in reality. only second and third crops are irrigated and the first crop
mostly rainfed. But it is erroneously taken as irrigated, thus giving a higher irrigation
ratio for paddy. This becomes more evident from the specific cropping pattern
envisaged under the Peechi and Malamupuzha schemes (table 5.11).
Table 511 . : E nVlsage d croppine pattern in the Peechi and Malam puzha irrigation projects
Malampuzha Irrigation
Peechi Irrigation Project#
Name <strong>of</strong> project
ProjectS
Area (ha.) (%) share Area (ha.j (%) share
New land to be irrigated 5668.02 30.63 15384.62 41.55
Converting single crop to
double crop 1336.G3 7.23 15384.62 41.55
Supplementing the needs <strong>of</strong>
double crop lands 3805.67 20.57 Nil Nil
Single crop land to be triple
cropped 7692.31 41.57 5447.36 14.71
Perennial crops Nil Nil 809.72 2.19
Total 18502.03 100.00 37026.32 100.00
Source.· # GOK. 1967; $ Malampuzha Project Report.
The table shows that gross area anticipated to be irrigated by the irrigation
projects is taken as actual irrigated area. While the entire irrigation potential is
meant for paddy in the Peechi project. about 2 per cent <strong>of</strong> the ayacut <strong>of</strong> the
l\1alampuzha project is expected to be brought under perennial crops. The ayacut
expected to be brought under irrigation during summer (third crop) is about 42 per
cent in the Peechi project. whereas. it is below 15 per cent in the Malampuzha
project.
The increase in area under coconut and banana as observed at the state level
(table 5.6) as well as the higher percentage <strong>of</strong> irrigated area under coconut as
reported from the completed irrigation projects (table 5.10) cannot be considered as
a pure irrigation effect, because. tht: existing institutional mechanisms at the project
level do not have provisions for irrigating such crops. The irrigation <strong>of</strong> these crops
165

eqUires substantial investment for redesigning <strong>of</strong> the watercourses 22 and
corresponding farm level investments by the farmers B
Given this technical
problem. whatever area <strong>of</strong>ficially reported to be irrigated by the irrigation projects in
the case <strong>of</strong> these crops needs to be corroborated with detailed investigation at the
field level.
The higher irrigation ratios <strong>of</strong> paddy (table 5.10) may also be proved to be
unrealistic by examining the season-wise area under paddy in the case <strong>of</strong> the
completed irrigation projects in the state. It is evident that in the three districts. viz .•
Thrissur. Palakkad and Trivandrum which command II <strong>of</strong> the 14 completed
schemes. the proportion <strong>of</strong> irrigated area under paddy during Puncha (summer) has
been only 5.86 per cent. compared to 36.89 per cent during Mundakan (winter) and
3~.62 per cent during Virippu (autumn). The proportion <strong>of</strong> HYV paddy cultivated in
the state during summer has also been less (21 %). compared to autumn (40 %) and
\\Inter (39 %). This decline could be partially explained in terms <strong>of</strong> water shortage
during summer.
The trends 10 the crop-wise irrigation ratios III the state indicate that the
lTTigation ratio <strong>of</strong> paddy expressed as percentage to gross cropped area has declined
11 The existing rice based irrigation sv,tems are constrained by rigid design <strong>of</strong> infrastructure
and innexible water delivery sySkl11S. thus disallowing crop diversification (For more
details. see Rosegrant, el ar 1995).
B Farm level investments are imperative due to the undulating topography and the farmers
may not invest, as their landholdings are too small to have the benefit <strong>of</strong> scale economies.
The excessively small size <strong>of</strong> Iwldlngs and the high density <strong>of</strong> population make the farmer
reluctant to pari with land for watercllU"CS and field channels (GOI. 197'2: 181). The timely
166

considerably from 9.67 per cent in 1980-81 to 6.81 per cent in 1997-98 (table 5.12).
The share <strong>of</strong> coconut though has increased from two pr cent in 1980-81 to 6 per cent
in 1994-95, began to decline thereafter and currently, coconut area under irrigation
is below 5 per cent <strong>of</strong> the gross cropped area. The irrigated area under banana and
coconut is below one per cent. The gross irrigated area has also been almost
stagnating around 15 per cent over the years. Both paddy and coconut occupy about
80 to 90 per cent <strong>of</strong> the gross irrigated area in the state as per the <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics.
However, it is important to note that when the share <strong>of</strong> paddy in the gross irrigated
area has declined from about 73 per cent in 1980-81 to 48 per cent in 1997-98, that
<strong>of</strong> coconut has increased from 15.75 per cent to 34.53 per cent during the same
period. The share <strong>of</strong> arecanut has also increased from 3.9 per cent to 6.41 per cent.
The area irrigated under banana has also been increasing gradually. The trends in the
share <strong>of</strong> the important crops in the gross irrigated area lends support to the argument
that irrigated paddy fields havc been gradually replaced with coconut, arecanut and
banana to some extent on account <strong>of</strong> the irrigation facilities available.
Table 5.12: Trends in crop-wise Irrigation ratIOS, 1981 to 1997
Gross irrigated area (GlA) as (%) <strong>of</strong> gross cropped area (GCA)
under:
GlA as %
Year
<strong>of</strong>GCA
Paddy Arecanut Coconut Banana
1980-81 9.67 (726S) 0.52 (390) 2.10 (15.75) 0.17 (1.31) 13.31
1984-85 10.89 (73.9./) 0.46 (312) 2.44 (16.57) 0.20 (1.35) 14.72
1987-88 8.84 (6531) 05-1 13.97) 3.16 (23.33) 0.29 (2.1.J) 13.54
1990-91 7.45 (5852) 0.67(525) 3.47 (27.27) 0.35 (2 75) 12.74
1991-92 7.52 (59.1.J) 0.69 (5./0) 3.41 (26.S3) 0.33 (2.62) 12.71
1994-95 8.99 (5396) 0.75 (.1./9) 5.69 (3,/.12) 0.34 (2.0./) 16.66
1995-96 7.64 (50.36) 0.83 (5 ./9) 5.36 (35.3./) 0.35 (2.31) 15.18
1996-97 7.62 (50. IS) 0.87 (5 71) 5.31 (3./.99) 0.39 (2.5S) 15.18
1997-98 6.81 (./8./7) 0.90 (6-11) -185 (3-153) 0.42 (3.00) 14.05
Note: Parenthellc figures are respective share <strong>of</strong> each crop In the gross Irrigated area
availability and reliability <strong>of</strong> the source <strong>of</strong> water are also instrumental (Narayana, et ai.,
1991 ).
167

Source: Govt. <strong>of</strong> Kerala, BES, relevant years.
This further indicates the fact that the farmers are more induced by
comparative pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> alternate crops than the assured supply <strong>of</strong> water per se.
The pr<strong>of</strong>itability ratios <strong>of</strong> alternate cropping systems make paddy cultivation nonviable.
For instance, the estimates based on productivity and prices <strong>of</strong> important
crops (GOK, 1997: 23) during 1997 show that the gross income realised from paddy
per ha. constituted only 13 per cent <strong>of</strong> the income from arecanut, 10 per cent <strong>of</strong>
income from banana, 22 per cent from tapioca, 44 per cent from coconut, 21 per cent
from rubber and 8 per cent from horticulture crops.
In this context. the trends in area and productivity <strong>of</strong> major crops in the
command areas <strong>of</strong> the completed irrigation projects in the state have also been
examined in order to bring out the excessive orientation towards paddy. The results
are shown in table 5.13.
It becomes evident that there is decline in area under paddy in almost all the
irrigation projects and the decline is more pronounced in the area under summer
paddy. However, in spite <strong>of</strong> the decline in area under paddy, the productivity has
been increasing. This yield increase in paddy cannot be attributed to any impact <strong>of</strong>
technology adoption or assured supply <strong>of</strong> water. Rather, has been purely due to
marginal land going out <strong>of</strong> cultivation (Kannan and Pushpangadan, 1990: 43).
Interestingly, paddy was not cultivated during summer in any <strong>of</strong> the five projects
168

shown at the bottom layer <strong>of</strong> the table, which points to the inadequate supply <strong>of</strong>
water during summer.
Table 5.13: Trends in area and productivity <strong>of</strong> important crops in the CAD projects
Annua led ompoun G rowt h R ates 1985-86 to 1994-95
Malampuzha Peechi Vazhani Chalakudy Neyyar
Crops Area Prdty Area Prdty. Area Prdty. Area Prdty Area Prdty
Paddy 1.14 -0.78 -0.44 1.57 -0043 1.74 -0.05 7.71 -0.31 lAO
(Autumn)
Paddy 0.57 3.19 -0.44 5.16 -0.78 2.49 -0.36 9.40 -0.35 4.22
(IVlnter)
Paddy -9.68 -1.65 0.00 7.93 -1.46 1.89 -4.69 4.80 -11.49 1.15
,
(Sum Iller)
,
Coconut 5.69 -0.81 4.17 -2.23 4.16 5.03 4.16 5.68 2.01 2.49
Arecanut 7.04 -2.20 1.05 -1.95 1.16 11.56 0.82 2.97 -7.95 4.28
Tapioca -1.43 5.52 -5.45 9.64 -5.34 5.67 -5.52 5.02 -6.18 6.39
Bana·na 6.61 -2.98 -0.18 0.68 0.32 -2.07 -0.27 6.27 -2.20 3.68
Crops Walayar Gavathri Pothundy Mangalam Cheerakuzhi
Area Prdty Area Prdty. Area Prdty. Area Prdty Area Prdty
Paddy -1.61 2.09 -1.21 -0.53 -1.19 4.71 -0.83 3.23 -0.95 0.92
(AII/lIl11n)
I
Paddy -2.07 8.78 -1.24 I 1.55 -0.43 5.37 -0.87 6.41 -0.61 6.34
(Wllltl'r.' !
Paddy
Not cultivated
(Sulllmer)
Coconut 5.67 1.22 5.67 3.87 5.70 -0.23 5.71 3.93 4.24 12.10
Arecanut 8.01 4.26 6.97 8.75 7.02 12.08 6.23 1.16 1.55 4.13
Tapioca -1.47 5.53 -1.41 1.61 -1.42 3.57 -1.52 4.56 -5.93 3.57
Banana 7.50 1.74 7.54 0.68 6.58 4.24 6.42 -0.49 -0.76 1.74
Source: EstImated from CADA (1996)
The productivity <strong>of</strong> crops such as coconut, arecanut and banana have shown
declining trend in some <strong>of</strong> the schemes, which implies that these crops are highly
sensitive to moisture stress.
This reflects upon the increasing water scarcity
experienced in the irrigation schemes during summer.
The mean yield <strong>of</strong> paddy during summer in five completed projects IS
compared with the yield during the other two seasons and the overall yield levels for
169

the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For the sake <strong>of</strong> analysis, the period is divided into
two sub periods, viz., i) 1985-86 to 1991-92 and ii) 1991-92 to 1997-98
(table
5.14 ).
The table <strong>of</strong>fers very valid insights about the performance <strong>of</strong> paddy in the
irrigation projects in the state. The yield levels during different seasons are almost
comparable and in many cases, rain fed yield appear to be over and above that <strong>of</strong> the
reported 'irrigated yields' during winter and summer. During the first period, the
summer yield has been lower than the autumn and winter yields in three projects,
viz., Malampuzha, Peechi and Neyyar and the highest yield difference observed was
in Neyyar project (479 kg.). The summer yield was below the winter yield in four
projects and highest difference was to the order <strong>of</strong> 325 kg. in the case <strong>of</strong> Peechi.
During the second period, the autumn and winter yields were higher by 433 kg and
910 kg and 818 kg and 538 kg respectively in the Malampuzha and Neyyar projects.
Overall period analysis also shows similar trend in respect <strong>of</strong> these two projects. The
coefficient <strong>of</strong> variation in yields has been higher in most cases due to the wide
variations in yield between seasons. The non-availability <strong>of</strong> canal water during
summer months has been highlighted as an important reason for the decline in yield
levels, especially, summer. However, it is important to note that the yield levels in
the irrigation projects were above 2 tonnes per ha. and certainly above the yield
levels observed at the state level. Though this could be partially explained as the
170

impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation 24 , a realistic explanation is that the marginal and less productive
paddy fields have been kept out <strong>of</strong> cultivation as already discussed.
Table 5.14: Season·wise mean yield <strong>of</strong> paddy in CAD projects, 1985-86 to 1997-98
Project! Season
/985·8610/99/-92 /992-9310/997-98 /985-86 to /997-98
Yield (Kg. per ha.) Yield (Kg. per ha.) Yield (Kg. per ha.)
Malampuzlza Pro~ct
Autumn 3580 3729 3655
Winter 3611 4205 3908
Summer 3487 3296 3391
Group average 3559 3743 3651
CY (%) 148 12.16 7.08
Peeclli Project
Autumn 2586 2950 2768
Winter 2708 3199 2953
Summer 2383 3302 2842
Group average 2559 3150 2855
CY (%) 5.24 5.75 3.27
Vazllani Project
Autumn 1921 2624 2272
Winter 2543 3088 2815
Summer 2325 2704 2515
Group avera~e 2263 2805 2534
CY (%) 11.39 8.85 10.74
Clllllakutiv Project
Autumn 2151 2733 2442
Winter 2334 3013 2673
Summer 2432 2783 2608
Group average 2306 2843 2574
CY (%) 5.06 5.24 4.63
Neyyur Project
Autumn 3065 3632 3348
Winter 2700 3351 3026
Summer 2586 2814 2700
Group average 2784 3265 3025
CY (%) 733 12.73 10.71
Source: Estimated from CADA ( 1996) and L ADA (2000).
H
However, in hi!;h rainfall areas where un irrigated (rainfcd) crop yield <strong>of</strong> paddy is
naturally high, the yield effect <strong>of</strong> irrigation is not a sure guide to the output augmenting role
<strong>of</strong> irrigation (Dhawan, 1988: 2659).
171

The overall scenario suggests that the irrigation projects in the state could not
be effective in terms <strong>of</strong> stabilising the yield <strong>of</strong> paddy during the first and second
cropping seasons and expanding the area under irrigation during summer. Dhawan
(1988) points to the insufficient attention given for the irrigation <strong>of</strong> paddy during
summer (rabi) season 25 . In the given scenario, cultivation <strong>of</strong> the otherwise limited
paddy in the state could be sustained only through the effective implementation <strong>of</strong>
consolidation <strong>of</strong> landholdings. group farm management and assured supply <strong>of</strong> water
during summer.
5.3 Organisational aspects <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in Kerala
Having discussed the absence <strong>of</strong> one to one correspondence between irrigation and
agricultural de\elopment in the state. it may be relevant to examine the implications
<strong>of</strong> this on the performance <strong>of</strong> water institutions in the state. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, the
observed crop shift in favour <strong>of</strong> rainfed cash crops goes a long way in explaining
many <strong>of</strong> the organisational problems confronted by the irrigation sector in the state.
At the aggregate leveL the organisational issues such as capacity under-utilisation,
time and cost over runs and the resultant delay in completion <strong>of</strong> irrigation schemes
need a critical understanding and explanation in this backdrop. This would also
enable us to bring out the contrast that "why do the irrigation projects in the state
2~ While the yield effect <strong>of</strong> irrigatioll is quite low. the output impact (in the sense <strong>of</strong>
addition to rice output) can be substantial if irrigation is oriented towards sustaining
summer cropping <strong>of</strong> paddy (Dhawan. I9SS: 2659).
172

have a long unproductive lag and why most <strong>of</strong> the first generation schemes still
remain to be partially or not commissioned?".
A critical review <strong>of</strong> the factors underlying the divergence between
development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems and agricultural development in the state is also
necessary to understand the influence <strong>of</strong> the colonial rent seeking behaviour <strong>of</strong> the
irrigation bureaucracy on the state policy on development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems. In
what follows. a detailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the organisational aspects <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development in the state is attempted. These organisational issues affecting the
performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in the state relate to the much debated problems <strong>of</strong>
capacity under-utilisation. cost and time over runs. under-pricing or non-pricing o(
irrigation water. etc. Each <strong>of</strong> the three issues is addressed in some detail in the
following.
5.3.1 Capacity under-utilisation in irrigation projects
The problem <strong>of</strong> under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> potential in the irrigation projects is a widely
debated issue. The explanations <strong>of</strong>fered by researchers for this undesirable outcome
have centered. by and large. around non-implementation <strong>of</strong> OFO works at the
system level by the <strong>of</strong>ficials and non-adoption <strong>of</strong> scientific land development and
water management practices by the farmers at the farm level. These explanations
appear to be logical as long as irrigation development in a given region results in
cropping pattern changes in favour <strong>of</strong> high valued and water intcnsive crops in the
irrigation command. Once the farmcrs realize the beneficial impact <strong>of</strong> an irrigation
173

project, they tend to undertake yield-augmenting package <strong>of</strong> practices. This may not
be the case if the changes in cropping pattern are conditioned by reasons other than
availability <strong>of</strong> irrigation facilities per se. The agricultural development experience in
Kerala, as discussed earlier, conforms to the latter explanation. It is important to
note that the pace and pattern <strong>of</strong> agricultural development in the irrigation
commands in the state is not in tune with the conventional theorisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation
induced agrarian development. This being so. the irrigation development projects in
the state have not been yielding the anticipated results. Though some <strong>of</strong> the
completed irrigation projects could achieve the irrigation targets, it was at a huge
cost and time-lag. The unproductive lag varied between 9 to 37 years in the case <strong>of</strong>
some <strong>of</strong> the complcted irrigation projects where the cost escalation was more than
1000 per cent in nominal terms as discussed earlier.
5.3.2 Cost escalation and time-lag in the completion <strong>of</strong> schemes
While the cost escalation in nominal terms has been about 611 per cent in the case
<strong>of</strong> completed projects. it was as high as 2730 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing
projects. The unit cost <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential was only Rs. 0.14 lakhs
in the case <strong>of</strong> completed projects. it was Rs. 0.19 lakhs in the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing
projects and Rs. 2.46 lakhs at the aggregate level as discussed elsewhere. This
shows the magnitude <strong>of</strong> cost escalation, unadjusted for inflation. The cost per ha. <strong>of</strong>
irrigation development was also higher in the case <strong>of</strong> minor irrigation projects in the
state. The cumulative achievement in the case <strong>of</strong> minor irrigation sector as <strong>of</strong> 1988-
89 was 1.26 lakh ha .. which increased to 1.65 lakh ha. by 1998-99 and the respective
174

cosl <strong>of</strong> development increased from Rs. 0.06 lakhs to 0.23 lakhs per ha. Though the
development cost <strong>of</strong> minor irrigation projects works out to be less than that <strong>of</strong> major
irrigation project, it cannot be reckoned as the true development cost as it does not
include the private farm level investments by individual farrners 26 .
Thus, cost escalation and spill-over in time accounts for the important dnig
on the performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects in the state. There have been many studies
examining the various aspects <strong>of</strong> cost escalation, time over-runs and related issues in
the irrigation projects highlighting the magnitude <strong>of</strong> the problem in Kerala among
the 'other states (GOL 1973; Pant, 1982; Swaminathan 1990; Singh, 1997) as well as
in Kerala's specific context (KSSP, 1988; Netto, 1990; Viswanathan 1997, 2000).
Swami nathan (1990) shows that Kerala had the highest cost escalation <strong>of</strong> 675 per
cent up to 1988. The reasons for cost escalation and time lag are many and varied 27
Netto (1990) finds that the rise in cost <strong>of</strong> labour and materials constituted the largest
item (45.78%), followed by inadequate financial provision (22.61 %), land cost
(17.25%), change in design (8.98%) and inadequate investigation (5.38%). Further,
26 Dhawan (1989) holds that major irrigation scores over minor irrigation on various counts.
For instance, surface irrigation works may score over well irrigation by a margin <strong>of</strong> 3:2.
Moreover, major works use the natural force <strong>of</strong> gravity in their operation, while minor
works require energy for water lifting. which involves substantial investment.
27 These factors include the rise in prices, inadequate investigation and provisions, change
in the scope and design, land acquisition, rehabilitation measures and poor performance <strong>of</strong>
equipments, etc (GOI, 1973). Besides, the tendency to start too many projects results in
proliferation <strong>of</strong> projects, thin spreading <strong>of</strong> resource, construction <strong>of</strong> water courses,
allocation for preservation <strong>of</strong> environment and ecology and adoption <strong>of</strong> more sophisticated
175

the establishment expenditure (strictly administrative) increased from 38.23 per cent
<strong>of</strong> the total expenditure in 1972-73 to 54.88 per cent in 1988-89. This indicates that
the investment for actual infrastructure development was marginal and therefore, it
is quite natural that it leads to under-performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects over time.
The question <strong>of</strong> cost escalation and lag in the completion <strong>of</strong> irrigation
projects need a proper understanding in the specific context <strong>of</strong> Kerala, in view <strong>of</strong> the
physical features. socio-economic factors as well as the political rationale
underlying the development strategies followed by the state since independence. The
important physical features having bearing on cost escalation and time lag-in
completion <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects are: (i) the undulating terrain which constitutes the
command area <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the ongoing irrigation projects: and (ii) high rainfall
intensity causing damages to the irrigation structures.
In the following sub-sections. some <strong>of</strong> the important region-specific facwrs
leading w cost and time over-runs in irrigation projects are examined in some detail,
mainly to highlight the undesirable tendencies that have crept into the realm <strong>of</strong>
irrigation development involving major chunk <strong>of</strong> financial resources <strong>of</strong> the state
without any corresponding effect on performance efficiency.
5.3.2.1 Socio-economic factors
The socio-economic factors leading to cost escalation and time over-runs in the
specific context <strong>of</strong> Kerala arc: (a) the substantial decline in area under paddy in the
and expensive critcria for the projects catering to thc requlrcmcnts <strong>of</strong> external aid agencies.
176

irrigation commands: (b) perceptible change in the cropping pattern 10 favour <strong>of</strong>
rainfed and perennial cash crops; (c) rise in costs <strong>of</strong> land. labour and material
involved in the construction <strong>of</strong> canal systems: (d) disproportionate rise in the
establishment (revenue) expenditure in irrigation schemes; (e) change in design!
alignment <strong>of</strong> canal systems; and (f) land acquisition for aligning canals and the
earthwork involved.
The political rationale behind the development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in the
post-independence era has been to initiate multi-purpose river valley projects, which
invariably resulted in thin spreading <strong>of</strong> scarce financial resources, opening up the
floodgates <strong>of</strong> corruption. resulting in cost and time over-runs in irrigation projects in
the state. Other reasons include unscrupulous payments to the contractors. huge
amount involved in arbitration awards. etc.
Decline in paddy area
It is important to note that the issue <strong>of</strong> cost escalation and time lag has not been
explained in terms <strong>of</strong> the shift in cropping pattern in favour <strong>of</strong> dry crops, which in
effect. does not generate any demand for water for irrigation. Thus. the physical
demand for water is not translated into effective demand. This caused considerable
delays in the completion <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. compounded by cost escalation <strong>of</strong>
alarming proportions. lJsing this analogy, it may be strongly argued that most <strong>of</strong> the
irrigation projects in tht: state. especially, the ongoing schemes are confronting such
---------------------------------
For a detailed review Oil cost csc~d"ti()11 and time-lag, see Singh (1997: 118-130).
177

a CriSIS. As the works involved In the irrigation projects are irreversible. the
unproductive lag gets extended further without any benefits accruing to the
beneficiaries downstream. The decline <strong>of</strong> paddy area has also similar effect on
escalation <strong>of</strong> costs.
A serious outcome <strong>of</strong> the decline in area under paddy as highlighted in the
audit review reports <strong>of</strong> the Comptroller and Audit General <strong>of</strong> India (CAGI) is the
decline in the anticipated benefits from irrigation projects leading to erosion in the
envisaged benefit cost ratios. This problem has been reported in respect <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong>
the ongoing schemes as shown below:
(i) In the Kuttiadi irrigation project, the BeR has been reworked at 0.67 at 1992
agricultural prices. Though the project was taken up in 1962. substantial
investment was made only by 1973. According to the project report. the cost
per ha. <strong>of</strong> potential to be created was Rs. 3408, but the actual cost based on
the investment made till March 1993 was Rs. 1.06 lakhs per ha. This is much
higher than the national average <strong>of</strong> Rs. 27000 during the Seventh Plan period.
The expenditure was almost 4 times more than the original estimates (CAGl,
1993). No steps were taken to diversify cropping pattern on the lines
suggested by the Planning Commission in March 1983.
(ii)
In the Muvattupuzha Valley Irrigation Project (MVIP), it was originally
emisagcd to raise three crops <strong>of</strong> paddy (as per the project report, 1975) in the
entire ayacut <strong>of</strong> 17400 ha. with a view to raise an additional food production
<strong>of</strong> 1.47 tonnes <strong>of</strong> paddy. But, due to the decline <strong>of</strong> the ayacut area under
178

paddy by 51 per ccnt to 8500 ha .. the anticipated additional production was
only O.~8
lakh tannes (decline by 81 %). Subsequently, the BCR, which was
9.1 as per the original estimates (1975), at 10 per cent rate <strong>of</strong> interest had
gone down to ~.47 as per the 1992 estimates. The estimated cost <strong>of</strong> providing
irrigation facilities increased almost eightfold from Rs. 3996 to Rs. 300 I 4 per
ha. (CAG\. 199·n
However. a reassessment <strong>of</strong> the ayacut <strong>of</strong> the project has revealed that the
actual net ayacut was 17737 ha. against 17400 as mentioned in the project. Though
the cntire project was designed for paddy (as per the original report), only 48 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the area was under paddy during the first and second crops and less than two
per cent during summer. \\'hik dry/ perennial crops constituted "'4 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
avacut. 16 per cent \\ as L1nde'l" annual and other perennial crops. Banana and
\'egetables an: grown in 49 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area meant for summer paddy (Plincha).
(i)
A resurvey <strong>of</strong> the KanJirapuzha irrigation project shows a 13 per cent decline
in the area under paddy from 9713 ha. (0 8467 ha. Further. an area <strong>of</strong> 722 ha.
(8.6 %) has bl:cn found to be not irrigable, thus making the reduction in
ayacut by 21 pcr cent to 7745 hOI. Based on this reduction in the ayacut, the
HeR has bl:Cll re-estllllall:d as 1.28 against 1.48. This BeR is bdow the HCR
<strong>of</strong> 1.5: L fixed by the ('\\,:(' (C ACiL 19(6).
179

(ii)
In the Karapuzha project. the originally estimated ayacut <strong>of</strong> 4650 ha. (net) for
paddy cultivation had dcciined 2H to 3500 ha. in the revised projt:ct report. the
decline being almost 25 per cent. The BeR also had come down from
originally fixed 2.5 to 1. which was also below the ewe stipulated norm <strong>of</strong>
1.5. The original cost estimate <strong>of</strong> the project was Rs. 7.60 crores. which has
been revised later on to Rs. 225 crores. the cost escalation being 2861 per
cent (C\GI. 1997).
(iii)
In the Chimony irrigation project. the department claims that 13000 ha. <strong>of</strong>
Kole lands are being irrigated during monsoon after dewatering. But. the
actual achievement is only 1586 ha. (12 %j and that too for the third crop.
The t:stimated nCR for the project was 2.70. which. in reality. declined to
O.:'i making IS non-\labk (C-\Gl. 1999).
The above discussion brings out considerable er0SlOn 111
the anticipated
benefits from irrigation dut: to the dt:cline in paddy area. coupled with lower prices
for paddy. This has made many <strong>of</strong> the projects as economically non-viable based on
the BCR <strong>of</strong> 1.5. fixed by th.: ewe. As a major portion <strong>of</strong> the ayacut <strong>of</strong> irrigation
projects has been converted into commercial/ cash crops. reworking <strong>of</strong> the benefits
and costs <strong>of</strong> the irrigation scheme: Illay give a higher HCR. Since tht: projects arc not
~. The original project report (1978) cln is~ged only production <strong>of</strong> paddY in ·1650 ha (net). But in
the revised project rcport. out <strong>of</strong> IIIC nd ayacut area <strong>of</strong> 5221 ha .. paddY cilitivati()n was limited
It) 3500 ha and the balance J 721 ha. '"'' set apart for cultivation llf banana (1621 hal ~nd ginger
,llld vegetables ( 100 ha.).
180

technicall~
designed to provide irrigation for commercial crops, the recalculation <strong>of</strong>
Be ratios n13Y he unreal istic.
Rise in factor costs
The rise in factor costs, viz .. costs <strong>of</strong> land, labour and materials is identified as the
major source l)f cost escalation in irrigation systems in Kerala. The costs <strong>of</strong> land
acquisitil'n .md \\ age lahour arc much higher than the material costs.
Land has become an important income generating asset rather than merely an
input in the agricultural production process in Kerala, because land owners always
look out for alternative uses other than agriculture to get higher income. For
instance. the demand for land for construction <strong>of</strong> dwellings has been growing fast.
Sl), the 0pp,'rtunit\ Cllst <strong>of</strong> land is \en high. Besides the demand for house, other
Jct\\i!le, ,~.:h ;.I, CLlnstrllctlon \11 roads. clllu\:ltion <strong>of</strong> plantation crops. like rubber
etc .. add t\' the lanJ lise dynamiCs in the state. For instance. in Muvattupuzha Valky
IrrJ~atilln Prniec\. the lll"h tr~lI1saction cost <strong>of</strong> land intlated the cost <strong>of</strong> land
acquisition~9
for canal construction. The land prices increased form Rs, 0.50 lakh
per ha. as rrO\ided in the original estimate (1975) to Rs. 3 lakhs as per the revised
estimates \)f 1'19:2
An .111 a 1\ SIS or the trl'llJs in fiSC 111 lanour costs and material COStS is
ath:mpted oascJ on the schedule <strong>of</strong> r:J!es prescribed ny the Public Works Department
("WI)) I hese LJtes arc rele\ alit as thl' irrigation works are undertaken based on
thes.: rall:, I he r~ltes ~tre l\lllll'arnl in Ilominal t.:rms for the last five decades (tabk
, .• I he land aCl.jllISitttlll at Itlghel Lltcs has oecome Illevitable and the land prices arc
sllostantiall, high due to Ihc lact IIL.I the alternate land usc is to grow rubber, which has been
181

5.15). The table indicates that the labour costs 30 have risen uniformly across the
various groups. the highest rise bcing in the case <strong>of</strong> wages <strong>of</strong> female mazdoor (4834
%). followed by man mazdoor (3540 %) over the years. The wage rates <strong>of</strong> other
categories <strong>of</strong> labourers have risen almost uniform. In nominal terms. the wages have
increased almost 2 to 3 times across categories between periods. On the other,
among the material costs. the maximum escalation has been in the prices <strong>of</strong> sand
(11199 % 1. bricks (7900 %) and cement (22-t5 %) during the entire period. though
the rise in prJ\:es <strong>of</strong> cement and bricks has been less than that <strong>of</strong> other items during
1990-1999
Table 515' -. Rise in labour and material costs in construction • 1959 -60 to 1999
Rise in costs (%)
I Cost items
1959-60 1970 1980 1990 1999 1959-99 1990-99
Labour cost (Rs.)
I Man mazdoor 2.5 4.5 13 27 91 3540 237
Woman mazdoor 1.5 3.75 10 22 74 4834 237
\Iason 4 7.5 19 40 134 3250 235
Carpenter 4 6.5 19 40 134 3250 :U5 !
Blacksmith 3.75 6.5 18 40 134 3473 235
Material cost (Rs.)
MS Roads (qulIltal) 74.74 130 300 975 1600 2041 64
Cement (wnnes) 127.94 220 600 1300 3000 2245 131
Rubble (Cu.ml 7.42 6.5 17 50 160 2056 220
Bricks (OOOnos) 40 55 170.2 1200 3200 7900 167
Sand (Cum) 1.77 3.75 13.5 40 200 11199 ! 400
Metal (314120 mm) 19.43 21 60 130 400 1959 208
Source: GOK. Public Works Department, Schedule <strong>of</strong> rates, relevant years.
The rIse in costs <strong>of</strong> labour and materials as discussed above is only a pointer
to understand the magnitude <strong>of</strong> cost rise and various components leading to cost
fetching vel! rClllllllcrative prices when compared III other crops.
'" Major part ()f the rise in labour costs could be attributed to the cost <strong>of</strong> labour for
collecting sand from river and conveying to river banks. unloading from boat and loading in
the carrier again downloading at the site. head load conveyance, etc. Similar are the
processes involved in the case with other materials also.
182

escalatio.n in the process o.f irrigation develo.pment The \arious components In cost
escalation in the case 0.1' f!\t: irrigatio.n projects han: been compared as sh,'" n in
table 5.16.
Table 5.16: Majo~ factors causing cost escalation ("!o)
SQurces <strong>of</strong> cosl escalatioll
!
,
Periyar Chittur
Pa::hassi Kalljlru·
Kuttiadi
"ulley -pu=ilO project Pu=hll
Rise in cost <strong>of</strong> labour & material 48.1 38.7 47.0 43.0 52.1
Inadequate financial provision 44.1 ~0.7 20.6 8.1 22.4
Inadequate investigation 1.7 4.0 5.1 11.9 4.2
Chanue in design 4.7 1.6 I 13.7 21.2 3.8
Cost <strong>of</strong> land 0.1 20.2 13.5 15.8 7.S
Others 1.3 14.8 0.1 0 10.0
Total ]00 100 100 100 100
Source: Compiled from Netto (1990).
It is evident that the costs o.f labo.ur and materials have been the maJo.r
so.urces <strong>of</strong> cost escalation in these five projects. ranging between 38 per cent in
Chitturpuzha project \(1 52 per cent in Kanjir~lpuLha irrigation pWJt:ct \\'hik
inadequate financial pro.vision has been the second major factor leading til cost
escalatio.n in projects. viz .. Periyar Valb (44 %). KanjirapuLha (22 %j.
Chitturpuzha (20.7 %) and Kuttiadi (20.6 %). tht: cost o.f land acquisition has been
significant in rcspt:ct <strong>of</strong> Chitturpuzha (20.2 %J. l'aLhassi (15.8 %) and Kuttiadi (I ~.5
%). Other factors contributing to cost escalation have been change in design and
inadequate investigatio.n <strong>of</strong> the schemes.
Upward revision in estimates
As an outco.me <strong>of</strong> the rise in costs <strong>of</strong> land acquisition. labour and material costs. it is
ob~ious
that frequent revisions in the estimates <strong>of</strong> irrigation projccts had takt:n
183

place. There were three revisions J ( in estimates in almost all the projects since the
projects were initiated and these revisions were made at different time points (table
5.17).
Table 5.17: Revision 0 f Estimates <strong>of</strong> irri!!ation proiects (Rs. Lakhs)
I Project Original Revisioll ill estimates % escal. Approl'ed by
eSlimate / II III (Orig. tu III) Plan. ('omm.
Periyar valley 348.00 1795.00 3971.00 6305 1711.78 3971 (II)
Chinurpuzha 105.63 624.14 2063.29 2080 1869.14 624.14 (I)
Kallada 1328.00 16357.00 45780 69800 515602 16357 (I)
Pamba I 384.00 2015.97 4297.00 6340 155104 4297 (II)
,
Pazhassi 442.40 1481.85 4200 7735.94 1648.63 4200 (II)
Kuttiadi
I
496.04 1520.00 4485.00 5500 1008.78 4485 (II)
Kan i irapuzha 365.00 1052.20 4307.73 1000 173.97 1052.20 (I)
Karapuzha 760.00 4042.00 22500 0 0 760·
Chimony 632.11 2951.21 3615.29 0 0 3615.29 (II)
Muvanupuzha 208600 4808.15 8925.02 45500 2081.21 4808.15 (I)
Vamanapuram 1982.00 3640.00 26000 0 0 3640 (I)
. .
Note: • The Planning Commission has approved only the Original estimate .
Source: Compiled from Performance Budget <strong>of</strong> the Irrigation Department, 1991 and 2000.
:'1.5 alread~
discussed. cost escalation has been the highest in the Kallada
irrigation project. ie .. 5156 per cent and the lowest in respect <strong>of</strong> Kanjirapuzha (174
%). An important point that emerges out <strong>of</strong> the table is that the revisions have been
made without the approval from the Planning Commission. The Planning
Commission has approved only the first re\'isions in the estimates <strong>of</strong> the projects
such as Kallada. Chitturpuzha, Kanjirapuzha. Muvattupuzha valley and
Vamanapuram. Whereas. the projects. viz .. I'eriyar Valley. Pamba. Pazhassi,
Kuttiadi and Chimony have received appro\ ,j for second revision. In fact. the
31 A project estllnate. when changed after getting approval from the Planning
Commission at least once. is called a revised estimate.
184

Planning Commission has approved none <strong>of</strong> the revisions made in the estimates <strong>of</strong>
the Karapuzha project, beyond the original estimate.
In the case <strong>of</strong> Kuttiadi irrigation project, the increase in cost <strong>of</strong> Rs. 1023.56
between first re\'ised estimate over the original estimate has been due to: (i) revision
<strong>of</strong> schedule <strong>of</strong> rates (as discussed in table 5.16) in 1972 and 1974; (ii) increase in
cost <strong>of</strong> land improvements. and (iii) provision for the construction <strong>of</strong> an additional
spillway. A further increase in cstimates was effected to an extent <strong>of</strong> 2964.75 lakhs
between the first and second revised estimates and this was attributed to: (i) rise in
the cost <strong>of</strong> materials and land (49.85 %); (ii) change in design (11.33 %); and (iii)
change in soil classification
(4.25 %), inadequate provision in the previous
cstimates (17 00) and other reaSll!iS (17.57 %) (CAGL 1993).
In the \luvatlupuzha Valky irrigation project a revision 10 estimates has
heen made in 1981 to Rs. 480R crores and this was on account <strong>of</strong> cost increases
related to land (20.59 %): labour (14.10%); materials (5.43%) and establishment
(2.59 %). Further, another revi sion effected in 1992 to Rs. 104.26 crores (at 1990
price level) was due to escalation <strong>of</strong> price and labour charges (42.07%); inadequate
provision in the original t:still1att: (2.26 %): unanticipated additional rt:quiremcnt
(2.2R %): increase in establishment charges (3.91 %); and due to rise in prices (3.34
%) (CAGL 19(14).
Thus, it hecomes ,,:vldent that ther..: were frequent reVISIOns III estimates <strong>of</strong>
irrigation projects. which w..:re ncccssitated by the substantial rise III wages, land
values as well as material costs.
185

Revenue vis Capital expenditure
The expenditure on irrigation. like other sectors. comprIses <strong>of</strong> plan and non-plan
expenditure. Plan expenditure constitutes almost 93 per cent <strong>of</strong> the expenditure and
the rest being non-plan expenditure. The Plan expenditure is further grouped into
two, viz., capital and revenue expenditure J2 . While revenue expenditure comprises
<strong>of</strong> salaries. wages. travelling expenses. <strong>of</strong>fice expenses. rent, rates and taxes,
publication and others. capital expenditure comprises mainly <strong>of</strong> works (99.8 per
cent) and others like tools and plants. making up for the remaining 0.2 per cent.
According to the norms fixed by ewe in September 1990. the revenue
expenditure on irrigation projects was not to exceed 15 per cent <strong>of</strong> the works
expenditure including expenditure on investigation J ]
Given this stipulation, it will
be interesting to examine the trends In revenue and capital expenditure in the
ongoing irrigation projects in Kerala. It may be presumed that in the initial years <strong>of</strong>
an irrigation project. the revenue expenditure is likely to be much higher than the
ewe stipulation. This argument is examined by using the project-wise data in the
case <strong>of</strong> ongoing irrigation systems (Table 5.18). The data shows that the revenue
expenditure was more than the stipulated norm <strong>of</strong> 15 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> eight
32 The nomenclature used in the irrigation depanment documents is establishment and nonestablishment
expenditure. The revenue expenditure is other wise classified as
establishment expenditure and capital expenditure signifies non-establishment expenditure.
rhe share <strong>of</strong> establishment expenditure for a project including leave and pensionary
charges. in the case <strong>of</strong> works let out on contract. is <strong>of</strong> the order <strong>of</strong> 10 per cent on an average
- X to 10 per cent for scattered works like canals. For works to be executed departmentally.
the provisions could be higher and could go uplO 15 per cenl (CWC, 1983:34).
186

irrigation schemes during both the years under reference. In the case <strong>of</strong> three
irrigation projects. viz .. Vamanapuram. Meenachil and Chamravattom. the revenue
expenditure was alarmingly high in both the years. The percentage <strong>of</strong> revenue
expenditure was the highest in Meenachil project (78 % and 71 % respectively).
followed by Vamanapuram (71 % and 64 %) and Chamravattom (57 % and 60 %).
Excepting some irrigation projects. the revenue expenditure was higher in all others
during 1997-9R than the earlier period. 1990-91. Highest increase was observed in
Kallada from 18 to 24 per cent and Chitturpuzha from 17 to 25 per cent. The share
<strong>of</strong> revenue expenditure was above the CWC norms in many <strong>of</strong> the irrigation
projects. which might have obviously reduced the funds meant for actual
construction works (capital expenditure), leading to cost and time over runs.
Table 5.18: Revenue and capital expenditure on irri~ alion projects, 1990-91 and 1997-98
Financiallllvestmcnt 1990-91 FinlIncial im'esllllelll 199--98
I Projt'o Rn·. Capilal TOlal (Rs. I ReI'. expo Capital Tolal
i eX[J, ('Yo) expo (~(j) laklls) (%) expo (%) IRs. lakhs)
Kallada 17.69 8::! .31 ::!8Q99.78 24.10 75.90 49996.08
Pamba 13.51 86.-19 5817.51 15.01 8-1.99 I 6638.98
Kanllrapuzha 16.62 83.38 5386.78 19.95 80.05 7483.34
Kuttiadi 17.44 82.56 5434.92 18.99 8 1.01 5954.21
Pazhassi 12.4 I 87.59 7149.8-1 14.06 85.94 12106.07
Perivar Valley 12.05 87.95 6792.01 12.66 87.3-1 10305.25
Muvattupuzha 14.53 85.-17 4350.46 13.66 86.34 21907.36
Ch itturpuzha 17.32 82.68 1918.14 25.49 74.51 2781.5 I
Idamalayar 7.43 92.57 2'62.51 9.25 90.75 7542.11
Karapuzha 13.43 86.57 2084.01 6.65 93.35 14877.28
Vamanapuram 70.65 29.15 340.7 63.84 36.16 1019.37
Meenachil Vallev 77.99 22.01 127.26 70.66 29.34 391.52
Chamra vattom 57.57 42.-13 195.47 60.41 39.59 487.92
Attapadv 34.28 65.72 730.06 9.12 90.88 918.62
..
Source.' CompIled from GOK. MInIstry <strong>of</strong> Finance. Performance Budget <strong>of</strong> the Irngatlon
Dcpanmcnt.1990-91 and 2000-0 I
i
187

Let us now examIne the intensity <strong>of</strong> Increase In capital and revenue
expenditure on Irrigation projects In Kerala. It is noteworthy that the percentage
increase in the revenue expenditure has been much more than the capital expenditure
in almost all the projects. except. Kakkadavu project (Table 5.19). Among the
projects. the escalation in revenue expenditure was the highest in Kallada project at
5666 per cent in relation to 3148 per cent in capital expenditure. In the case <strong>of</strong>
Pamba irrigation project. the escalation in revenue expenditure has been 4171 per
cent when compared to 1432 per cent escalation in capital expenditure. Only in the
case <strong>of</strong> Kakkadavu irrigation project. that the capital expenditure was three times
more than the revenue expenditure.
Table 5.19: Esca I atton .
In revenue an d capIta . I expcn d' Iture, project-wise
Revenue expenditure
Capital expenditure
I
Project
(Rs. Lakhs)
(Rs. Lakhs)
Original I Latest Escalation Original Latest Escalati
estimate i estimate (%) estimate estimate on (%)
Perivar valley
.' -j.-') I
440.52 1798.79 324.8 5864.18 1705.47
Chinurpuzha 9.49 250.54 2540.04 96.14 1812.75 1785.53
Kallada 1048 6042.96 5666.18 1223.2 39737.04 3148.61
Pamba 19.78 84495 4171.74 364.22 5582.89 1432.83
Pazhassi 27.43 509.82 1758.62 -114.97 7226.12 1641.36
Kuniadi 53.34 64S.79 1116.33 442.7 3835.99 766.50
Kan i irapuzha 33.85 41103 1114.27 331.25 3896.7 1076.36
Karapuzha 24.91 293.43 1077.96 364.09 3748.58 929.58
Chimony 46.13 323.75 601.82 586.58 329154 46114
Muvattupuzha 292.89 57738 97.13 4514.24 8347.64 84.92
Attappady 21.8 53338 2346.70 454.2 5305.62 1068.12
.
ldamalavar 108.85 600.44 45162 i119.79 6139.83 332.45
Chaliyar 8116 2931 16 351158 980 34868.84 3458.04
Banasurasagar 71.65 147.6 106.00 1065.35 1817.13 70.57
Kakkadavu 45.43 4" 745 862.9 I 371.54 9587.76 24X05~
Kariarkutty 90.96 36'>.92 306.68 2594.1 5736.26 121.13
. .' .
Source: CompIled from GOK. MlllIStry <strong>of</strong> l·m3nce. Performance Dudgetllf the Irrigation
Department. 1990-91 and 200Q·0 I
188

The foregoing analysis shows that a major chunk <strong>of</strong> expenditure in irrigation
sector was on revenue account. Therefore, the real construction works suffered. This
had led to time and cost over-runs and the consequent reyision in the estimates in the
project cycle. The revenue expenditure in some <strong>of</strong> the ongoing projects, viz ..
Vamanapuram, Meenachil Valley, Chamravanom and Attappady schemes was the
highest at 70 per cent in Meenachil project. followed by 63 per cent in
Vamanapuram and 60 per cent in Chamravattom during 1997-98. The financial
investment in irrigation projects and the share <strong>of</strong> important components as well as
the revenue and capital expenditure are furnished in detail in appendix tables
(Appendix 5.3 to 5.6).
Among the other major components, the expenditure on main canals, branch
canals. distrihutarles Jnd land Jcqulsition has been the highest in most <strong>of</strong> the
Irrigation projects. In the Kallada irrigation project. the major component <strong>of</strong>
expenditure during 1997-9S had been distributaries, occupying 29 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
financial investment. followed by direction and administration (24 %) and main
canals (18 %). It is important to note that except in the case <strong>of</strong> Kuttiadi project and
Idamalayar projects. in all other projects, the investment on field boothies had been
below 6 per cent in most cases. ,howing the inappropriate attention given for water
utilisation at the fi,:!d level. In projects, such as Pazhassi. Periyar valley and
Muvattupuzha, the financial investment for land acquisition had heen above 10 per
cent and in projects, viz.. Kallada. Pamba, Kanjirapuzha. Idamalayar and
Vamanapuram. it had h

Cost escalation due to arbitration awards, departmental lapses and unintended
payments to contractors
The arbitration awards and unscrupulous payments made to the contractors
appear to be a major source <strong>of</strong> cost escalation in the irrigation projects in Kerala.
The CAGI reports bring out clearly the rent seeking behaviour <strong>of</strong> the irrigation
bureaucracy. A review for the period 1985-86 to 1998-99 brings out the very
functioning <strong>of</strong> the irrigation sector in Kerala. loaded with problems <strong>of</strong> rent-seeking
and nepotism. The reports bring out various sources <strong>of</strong> cost-escalation in irrigation
projects in Kerala. They are: (i) extra expenditure due to delay in communicating
acceptance <strong>of</strong> tenders; (ii) extra expenditure due to change <strong>of</strong> specification!
defective estimation; (iii) non-recovery <strong>of</strong> advances. cost <strong>of</strong> materials from
contractors: (iv) extra expenditure due to departmental delays: (\) defective
formation <strong>of</strong> canal systems; (vi) change in scope <strong>of</strong> the scheme in the course <strong>of</strong>
execution: and (vii) irregular additional payment for earthwork excavation.
Evidently, the unintended expenditure involved in all the above cases have been
substantial adding to cost escalation in irrigation projects.
There are several evidences to show that the arbitration awards given to the
contractors have caused enormous burden on the financial allocations <strong>of</strong> the
irrigation department. For instance. in the Kallada irrigation project. from October
1984 to March 1993. 258 cases were referred for arbitration as per the specifications
approved by the World Bank. Out <strong>of</strong> the 172 awards passed as <strong>of</strong> March 1993. a net
190

amount <strong>of</strong> Rs.2022.75 lakhs was awarded to the contractors In 171 cases (Table
5.20).
T a bl e 5. 20 : M aJor . reasons stated in the arbitration awards in Kallada Project
Reasons shown in the awards
Claims
Expcndit
Amount
Share
passed
ure per Shart! in t!xp
involved
(%)
(No.)
case (Rs. (%)
(Rs. Lakhs)
Lakhs)
Defective investigation 150 87.21 1055.44 7.04 52.18
Delav in handing over the site 77 44.77 304.83 3.96 15.07
Delay in issue <strong>of</strong> dept. materials 55 31.98 I 255.1 4.64 12.61
Failure to provide dumping yards 49 28.49 161.85 3.30 8.00
Non-availability <strong>of</strong> power 24 13.95 153.42 6.39 7.58
Delay in finalisation <strong>of</strong> design 14 8.1-l 44.59 3.19 2.20
Miscellaneous counts 97 56.40 47.52 0.49 2.35
Total 172 2022.75 11.76 100
Source: Complied from CAGI. 1994.
Among the various reasons stated in the arbitration awards, 87 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
cases were pertaining to defective investigation involving 52 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total
amount <strong>of</strong> th.:: arbitration amount awarJ.::J. Delay in handing ov.::r the site wa,
indicated as th.:: second maJur r.::ason in 45 per cent <strong>of</strong> the claims awarded and the
amount involved was 15 per cent. About 32 per cent <strong>of</strong> the claims were pertaining to
delay in the issue <strong>of</strong> departmental materials and the amount claimed was almost 13
per cent. Other important claims awarded in the arbitration were failure to provide
dumping yards, shortage <strong>of</strong> powcr and delay in finalisation <strong>of</strong> the design.
This
shows lack <strong>of</strong> administrative and operational planning, which had obviously resulted
in the emerg.::nc.:: <strong>of</strong> ineflicient and less productive irrigation systems in Kerala.
191

Another source <strong>of</strong> pilferage relates to defective preparation <strong>of</strong> estimates and
other departmental lapses J4 • which had resulted in additional payment <strong>of</strong> Rs. 70.45
lakhs to the contractor in the Kallada irrigation project. The major reasons
highlighted were mistake in arriving at the rate for earthwork excavation (21.5 %),
excess thickness <strong>of</strong> canal lining (20.5 %). irregular sanction <strong>of</strong> higher rate <strong>of</strong>
excavation (15.89 %) and extra expenditure on protective blasting (42.11 %). Audit
expenses also forms a major component <strong>of</strong> project costs. [n Chamravattom. it has
been Rs. 4.35 lakhs as per original estimates (July 1965). This has increased to a
revised estimate <strong>of</strong>Rs. 13.23 lakhs (Oct. 1975) and to Rs. 37.71 lakhs in Nov. 1983,
escalation being 767 (this forms part <strong>of</strong> indirect charges) (CAGI, 1997).
Similarly. in the Pazhassi project. the CAGI report (1992) indicates that the
time ll\ er-run clln,eljuent lln the: \Ubstanlial change~ Introduced in the scope <strong>of</strong> the
proJe~t
has resulted In an increase in the project cost from Rs. 442.4 lakhs as
\)T1glnall~
estimated In 1960 to Rs. 7735.95 lakhs in February 1988. Defective
alignment <strong>of</strong> the main canal in certain reaches resulted in unintended additional
expcnditun: <strong>of</strong> Rs. 15.~7
lakhs on their strengthening. However, action for the
recovery <strong>of</strong> Rs. 7.75 lakhs due from a defaulting contractor had not been initiated till
September 1991 though the reln'ant contract was terminated in September 1979
H
The integrated planned programme <strong>of</strong> cutting. dumping and simultaneolls filling (<strong>of</strong>
pipelines) cll\lsagcd under the agrccmcnt could not he adhered to on account <strong>of</strong> failure to
supply pipcs In tlnlc.1 his proccdural lapsc resultcd in an arhitration award "r Rs. 15.84
Ia~hs to thc conlrac\or In 1985 including an intcrcst <strong>of</strong> Rs. 2.08 lakhs. The total c"pcnditurc
192

itself. in spite <strong>of</strong> the government directive to take appropriate action within a year <strong>of</strong>
termination <strong>of</strong> the contract (CAGL 1992: 4.1.8.4).
Project induced externalities and rise in costs
The problems <strong>of</strong> externalities have also been on the nse necessitating
considerable allocation <strong>of</strong> additional financial
resources for mitigating the
en\'ironmental problems caused by irrigation projects. Though a realistic estimate <strong>of</strong>
the environmental problems is yet to be made. available information demonstrate the
adverse effects on land in terms <strong>of</strong> waterlogging and salinity. These problems not
only make the land unproducti ve. but also entail huge cost <strong>of</strong> reclamation.
According to the CAGI report 1993, in the Kuttiadi command area, about 64
per cent <strong>of</strong> the original aya(lIt <strong>of</strong> 14568.70 ha. was adversely affected by
\\aterlogglng, salinity and al\...alllllty (lable 5.21). It was found that about 41 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the command area could ha\'e been reclaimed and brought under cultivation
with timely measures <strong>of</strong> reclamation. But. no attention was paid to it. The
waterlogged area unfit for irrigation accounts for 19.46 per cent. followed by 2.6 per
cent area left unirrigated du.: to lack <strong>of</strong> canal links, and 1.16 per cent by uneconomic
holdings, It is important to note that the irrigable area permanently converted for
dwellings, roads, etc. has been 'Ignllicantl) high at 36 per cent. Thus, only 43 per
cent 01 the area could be rc\crt

process would be very high. This also highlights the apparent neglect <strong>of</strong> OFD works
in irrigation commands in the state.
Table 5. 2 I: E sttmales . 0 r problem identified areas in Kuttiadi project
Problems identified Area (ha.) (%) share
! Land waterlogged and unfit for irrigation 1802 19.46
Reclaimable areas. but not reclaimed 3759 40.59
Area not covered due to missing links <strong>of</strong> canals 240 2.59
Area abandoned as uneconomic 107 1.16
Ayacut area converted for residential purposes.
road. etc.
335.t 36.21
Total 9262 63.58"
• Indicates the percentag.e . <strong>of</strong> area to total ayacut
..
area expected to be benefited .
Source. CAGI (1993).
The above issue <strong>of</strong> considerable amount <strong>of</strong> land degradation as reported in
the Kuttiadi irrigation project points to the necessity <strong>of</strong> a realistic estimate <strong>of</strong> the
problem affected areas in irrigation commands in Kerala in order to reflect on the
prot-dem <strong>of</strong> capacity under-utilisation in irrIgation projects. The reported paddy area
in Irrigation projects is to be rea,sessed to bring out the actual irrigable area.
There are also evidences <strong>of</strong> shrinking capacity <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the reservoirs due
to sedimentation. For instance. the original capacity <strong>of</strong> the Malampuzha reservoir
was 228.40 million cU.m. according to the project report. A study conducted by the
Kerala Engineering Research Institute (KERl, 1978) shows that the capacity had
reduced to 220.15 million cU.m as a result <strong>of</strong> sedimentation. Another study by KERI
( 19K3), reveals that the average annual sedimentation rate in Peechi reservoir was
0.91 per cent and this appears to be higher than that <strong>of</strong> the sedimentation rate <strong>of</strong> 0.25
pt:r ct:nt found for Malarnpuzh:.L To minimise the rate <strong>of</strong> sedimentation, the study
team ~uggested
several rnt:asures, like a) protecting the catchment area from
encroachment Clnd defort:station; h) adopting scientific modes <strong>of</strong> direction; c)
194

avoiding over-grazing in the catchment area. etc. Measures in this direction have not
been Initiated (CAGI. 1986-87). which may be attributed to lack <strong>of</strong> financial
resources for undertaking the protective measures.
The problem <strong>of</strong> leakage in the dams was another important issue. An expert
committee was constituted by the Government <strong>of</strong> Kerala in November 1983 to guide
<strong>of</strong>ficials at site in executi"g necessary rectificatorv works on kaks in the
Kanjirapuzha dam. The committee had founrl :1,3t the leaks in all the blocks were
due to reasons like seep'!ge (Win foundation, leak~ tlU(":iSh face drains and masonry
JafI!. Tile committee's recommendations for correcting the jJwble"!"" ~."ve
not been
carried out as <strong>of</strong> December 1995 and thf> I>;.lks continue which may affect the dam
safety. Even if rainfall is more in the catchment
area. the run<strong>of</strong>f could not be
harvested hv raiSin!! storaL!e level because <strong>of</strong> non-rectification <strong>of</strong> the leaks (CAGI.
, ,
1995)
The problem <strong>of</strong> rehabilitation has ~1~.,'
he en an unfinished agenda, for want <strong>of</strong>
financial resources to rehabilitate the project-affected peopie (PAP). It is reported
that in Karapuzha project. construction <strong>of</strong> houses for rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> 218 tribal
(adimsi; families evicted in 1978 from the reservoir area had not started even after
19 years <strong>of</strong> starting the project (CAGI. 1997: 4.1.15).
Time lag in the completion <strong>of</strong> projects
The status <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in Kerala in terms <strong>of</strong> the magnitude <strong>of</strong> the problem
<strong>of</strong> time-lag in the completion has been discussed 111 detail in the first section <strong>of</strong> this
chapter. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, a majority <strong>of</strong> the ongoing irrigation schemes arc under
195

construction for more than 20 years spending a lion's share <strong>of</strong> the financial
resources <strong>of</strong> the state. It is reported that the ten irrigation projects taken up between
1961 and 1982 at an estimated cost <strong>of</strong> Rs.183.85 crores had not been completed
cven by March 1998. The total expenditure already incurred on these incomplete
works amounted to Rs. 1235.25 crores. The estimates <strong>of</strong> these projects have since
been revised to Rs. 1969.48 crores (CAGl. 1998).
Various reasons are attributed for the delay in the completion <strong>of</strong> irrigation
works. They are: (i) delays In communicating acceptance <strong>of</strong> tenders; (ii) change <strong>of</strong>
specification! defective estimation; (iii) departmental lapses; (iv) intermittent strikes
by labour unions at the work site and (v) inadequate budget provisions. It has been
reported that in Muvattupuzha valley irrigation project. the budget provisions have
heen far belo\\ the actual e\:penditure during the period 198~-85 to 1992-93 (Table
5.21). The actual e\:penditure was 73 per cent more than the budgetary prOVISIOns
during the entire period under consideration.
Table 5.21: Budget provision and actual expenditure in Muvaltupuzha Valley irrigation
pr0.Lec . t
Year
Oulla\ as per • F d 'd d Actual
. - , un s provi e
Funds provided as
Project Report (Rs. lakhs) expenditure (Rs.
(%) <strong>of</strong> expo
(Rs. lakhsl
lakhs)
1984-85 806.00 r 200 348.33 57.42
1985-86 454.00 40 199.78 20.02
1986-87 400.18 i 200 274.68 72.81
1987-88 '-15.58 i 210 24006 87.48
1988-89 370.93 350 362.59 96.53
1989-90 468.02 300 616.83 48.64
1990-91 -100.00 400 i 536.27 74.59
1991-92 800.00 800 840.05 95.23
Cumulative ~9.j4.71 2500 3418.59 73.13
Source. Complied trolJ1 C AGI. 1994
196

While the inadequate budgetary provision to irrigation projects has delayed
the creation <strong>of</strong> full potential. formalities and procedures in\'olved in getting
clearance from the Central Water Commission have also contributed to the delay in
completion. In fact. most <strong>of</strong> the irrigation schemes have been initiated much before
getting formal approval from the CWC (table 5.22). While the approval for projects
such as Kuttiadi. Vamanapuram. Pamba and Pazhassi had come within two to three
years time. the projects. viz .. Kallada. Chitturpuzha. Karapuzha and Muvatupuzha
lOok 5-8 years 10 get the approval from CWe. In the case <strong>of</strong> Chimoni irrigation
project, the time taken was almost 15 years. Except three projects, all others are
under various stages <strong>of</strong> construction/ completion without any achievement worth
mentioning.
,
Table 5.22: IrrJUallOn projects gol aJl~rova If rom ewc a f ler wor k s I ar I e d
Project
Year <strong>of</strong>
Year <strong>of</strong>
Time taken for ACluallag as <strong>of</strong>
approval
Starr approm/ (years) 200 J (years)
I:£CWC
Kallada 1961 1966 5 40
Pamba 1961 1964 3 32*
Pazhassi 1961 1964 3 40
Kuttiadi 1962 1964 2 31"
Chinll!Puzha 1963 1968 5 30"
Karapuzha 1972 1978 6 28
Chimonv 1975 1990 15 25
MuvattLJ.Jluzha 1975 1983 8 25
Vamanapuram 1979 1982 3 21
Source CompIled from Netto (1990).
The delay caused in the approval <strong>of</strong> the schemes by the CWC appears to be a
political economy issue. in the sense that these irrigation projects were initiated
under political cxigencies. For exam pic. while all the completed irrigation projects
197

are mainly concentrated in Thrissur and Palakkad districts, (see Table 5.2A) the
ongoing projects are spread across regions (Table 5.28).
Water pricing and Irrigation Receipts
An important organizational impediment In the functioning <strong>of</strong> irrigation
systems in India is the non-pricing or under-pricing <strong>of</strong> irrigation water. The Ninth
Plan document reiterates that most <strong>of</strong> the states have very low irrigation water rates
at substantively varying levels and have not revised these for the last 2-3 decades
(GO!, 2000: 2.293). In Kerala, the irrigation receipts collected constituted only 10 to
15 per cent <strong>of</strong> the expenditure incurred on the projects as per the estimates <strong>of</strong> the
Ninth Finance Commission.
But. the estimates <strong>of</strong> the \linth Finance Commission appear to be over -
estimates as the irrigation receipts are hardly 2 per cent <strong>of</strong> the expenditure on the
Irrigation sector as revealed from table 5.23.
Table: 52 . 3: State expen d' Iture an d revenue r rom pu br Ie sec t or . Irr.!Ka . f IOn
Year
Receipts (Rs. crores)
Expendit
Receipts (%
Total dey. from
<strong>of</strong> exp.) from
ure
Expend iturc
(Rs.
Minor
Major/ med. Major/ med.
(Rs. crores)
Minor
irrigatio
crores)
Irrigation
Irrigation irrigation
n
1991-92 90.81 280.n 1.66 1.21 1.83 1.33
1992-93 95.58 268.19 1.44 0.51 1.51 0.53
I 1993-94 131.46 352.58 236 0.48 1.80 0.37
1994-95 137.39 431.80 1.79 0.56 1.30 0.41
1995-96 170.34 540.02 2.66 0.46 1.56 0.27
1996-97 204.05 648.67 2.01 0.63 0.99 0.31
1997-98 187.79 604.57 2.82 0.67 1.50 0.36
(,OK (2000). Ninth Five Year Plan.
In the case <strong>of</strong> minor irrigation sector. the irrigation receipts have been below
0.5 per cent in most cases, whereas. the irrigation receipts in the case <strong>of</strong> major
198

irrigation projects have been staggering around 1.5 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total expenditure
on irrigation sector. It is important to note that as long as the irrigation service in
terms <strong>of</strong> timely. dependable and adequate supply <strong>of</strong> water is not ensured, it may be
difficult to motivate the farmers to pay for the inefficiency <strong>of</strong> the public water
. . . 35
InstitutIOns .
The analysis <strong>of</strong> the irrigation performance and agricultural development in
Kerala brings out important issues that merit attention. Lack <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional
approach. administrative planning. faulty technical design and so on have led to
several twists and turns in the expected benefits from irrigation. Apart from rent
seeking attitude and political economy <strong>of</strong> the management <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems. the
\'ery process <strong>of</strong> irrigation dewlopment in the state has been obstructed by the
paradigm shift in cropping palt

ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot •••:.pt'.. d'.u~ on If'ria.llon II>. l.okh.)
Yf'or /;011""" Pombo K""p"o, K",,;ady Po:ho$1' P""'d' (·',m",· A/II\'ottIlPI' Id"nlal· Kara- Meeno·dld (·ham,· To/al
l',elltJ ~·olfn /111:110 :110 \'Qllty '1\'0' 1'11:"0 R \"UUfl' cl\(Jflom (fU I.nUu)
1970.71 000 liM " XO 2941 1193 27 ~" 5 52 000 () 00 (J 05 000 000 222071
. ._--
1071·72 000 1847 771 3027 1307 lH\ 557 000 OUO
- .
027 000 (j (10 268590
1972·73 noo IHI HI 1901 13M l3 I X 653 o (Xl 000 (} ~2 O()() o O(j JOI41K
197).74 000 19 "3 il>4 31 33 1235 20 HX 6.78 000 000 ow u 00 000 3539 72
1~74-J5 000 1897 'I (15 3270 1258 10] I h 95 000 () 00 o ~S 000 (JOO ~ 18973
1975· 7. () uo 21 II '102 JO IN 13 18 1< ] I 668 028 () 00 (j·n () 00 o ()O 521072
104 o (Xl on 000 000 693916
147b-77 000 21 % < Xi 2810 14 )5 I K 4~
" 37
1977-78 000 2094 9N n44 1519 Ih\ 5 K6 I 43 o (K) 0106 000 000 9HO 03
1978· 79 00(1 2030 10 H3 ~5 ~O 1636 I I( 4~ 5n 206 ouo 107 O()() O()() 11632 95
1979·80 000 1957 1143 2) U6 1785 17M1 556 305 000 165 002 000 I ~278 52
1980·81 21 Uy
14 ""
960 17 27 1389 I)RO 401 374 fJ 14 I 78 002 000 2134226
t'i81·82 2-'~ 1-105

~.Ol
002
002
002
002
002
002
o OJ
0)]
o OJ
o OJ
004
004
104
04
'00
1990-91
Q(
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
KUfiladl project
239
309
288
792
1055
952
54349:2.
1990-91
000
000
253
om
966
3921
1785
102S
3 17
1732
191814
C}J/IIIJrplcha
000
000
000
000
000
ooc
000
000
000
000
o I()
o I()
1997-98
2.18
283
372
723
965
~3 33
1014
968
11 76
5954 21
1997-98
000
000
248
000
829
3542
1865
732
234
2549
278151
182469
197387
198
2028
20548
222082
230627
235589
239901
242636
24678(
249:
241
1206
1984-85
1985-8'
1089-9(}
I '>9()-01
1991-02
1992-93
1'1')3-04
1995-%
1997-98
1998-99
1_-Of.1
061
511
5 35
740
775
950
1116
H 2l
10 76
18 ~5
10 -7
10
2067
2162
18%
J796
2313
2271
2102
2036
1955
2022
4099
849
7R4
781
7bJ
754
7 J9
121
(,07
7 (}O
674
662
(, 54
677
1579
10
1656
1626
1563
1505
1473
1447
1411
1453
1435
1485
000
3
3
J(
19
29
298
290
28'
273
268
265
0'
49
J7 12
J(, 44
JJ fl)
32h7
13
Source GOI\... M IntS\1!- o( f- Inance. PerfOrmanLL' 'tudgct <strong>of</strong> the irngatlon Department. 19')0·91 and 10()()-O 1
ApPtndi,: !Ii.J: Hn.nC'ialln"~slmcnt In Irril.!Mtion [lfojrch- ,hue <strong>of</strong> 1m or1an'romponC'nl.
/'m"f,a I'roll'a
() fXI
3
32
3
34'
34.
36;
~oo
000
100
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
0.00
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
)00
000
000
000
000
A"njlraplI:ha proJeo
/990· fn /997-98 /990·9/ 1997-98
I InvestigatIOn () 55 033 016
2 LandaCQUlsltlon 1186 821 718
3 Bulldln2S [) 8y; 087 071
4 CommunicatIOns 056 041 020
5 Head \\'orl..s J bb 5 07 1 27
~6-,~~1-",",,,-,n-,-,a~n",a~I'~ _____ -l ___ ~2,-j:..cj:'C(',+ ___
o 14
759
075
091
177
.!1-,,8-,,8~2 + ___ ~J'!:.R~f,-, +-... _ _____ '_7_"_4 _
7 Uram:h cmal~ X 'ih h 87 20 y~ ~() 51
8DISlrIbulancs ~I)U 2918 15_77 1565
9 Field boothles 89) 655 066 064
10 Dlrecll0n&admm 1713 2369 1330 1410
TOIaI (Rs lakh'l 280'1') 78 4999608 5817 51 6('38 98
Apll~ndil: ~.J Financiallnnslment in IriIPRtion proj('("ls- sharf <strong>of</strong> Important componenls (Conld~
('oil/pone,,' J
l'a=hUHI pruJect
1990-91 1997-98
o 2J o 16
1605
890 726
I 91 168
078 056
1841 1606
Jot) I
II

ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnlln IrrlKlltlon proje£fs· shllrr <strong>of</strong> 1m ortant ('omponrnls ( 'onld,,)
("omponl!lIfs !dama!ayar project l\(Jraprcha \,(If(e,~' ~ 'amanapuram
19911-91 1991-98 1990-91 / VY7·98 1991l-91 1991-98
I Investlgauon () 63 028 O~I 014 1086 lb7
2 Land aCQuISitIOn 520 729 J4 45 538 799 952
3 llulld111gS 2 :!S IJ4 444 I 5~ 393 1408
~ Communication" 000 000 J ~(J 047 000 021
5 HCJd \\or~s ~ .. hJ 1856 1691 51 1>2 5'l() 6.92
6 Main canals o ()O 6288 2~ 82 3202 068 196
7 Branch (an;lls 000 000 000 2.60 0.00 000
8 Dlslnbutarll!s 000 0.00 000 000 000 000
9 Field booulles 2983 000 000 000 000 000
10 Dlrect10n & admm 743 925 953 568 7065 6) 62
Total (Rs lalhs) ,562 51 7542 II 208401 14817 28 34070 101937
ApJl('ndi,: !i.J: HnJlndolln"'('~lIn('nt In JrriJ:AUon projecl'· 'hare or 1m ortnnt componfnh (Contd .. )
( '1II11/'Olt'"B ".Iet'nael,,/ J'al/~v ( 'IUllllrlll'lIffon! Aftoppady
/VV(J.IJI 19P7·98 1990·91 /fJfJ7.fJ8 /r;rJO.9/ 1997·98
I In ... estlgath.m b

Apptndil.: ~.6: Capital txptndlCuft Ind cost tsnlalion in Irri2111tion proitcts In I 78 I Q 95 XO 05 H8134
-----r--
KuttlaJ\ 1744 R2.56 5-lJ4

Chapter 6
Economics <strong>of</strong> On-Farm Development: An Analysis
Given the need for and importance <strong>of</strong> OFD for the efficient and productive use <strong>of</strong>
water in the command areas. it is necessary to examine the dynamics in terms <strong>of</strong>
cost. technology. motivation <strong>of</strong> the farmers and finally, productivity <strong>of</strong> crops.
The intensity and scale <strong>of</strong> its adoption depends upon, among others. the cost
effectiveness and the incremental output arising out <strong>of</strong> it. An attempt. therefore.
has been made in this chapter to examine the <strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong> OFD in terms <strong>of</strong> costs
and returns for various crops grown in the farm plots with OFD and without it.
The chapter is divided into two sections. In section one, the status <strong>of</strong> OFD in all
the completed irrigation projects in Kerala has been presented based on
secondary data followed by the presentation <strong>of</strong> field level survev results in
section two.
In Kerala. like elsewhere in the country, the performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation
projects in terms <strong>of</strong> equitable and timely supply <strong>of</strong> water has been far from
satisfactory. As a result. the farm level investments necessary for effective and
efficient utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation have been minimal or even non-existent. Lack <strong>of</strong>
adequate response from the farmers towards the adoption <strong>of</strong> land development
and water management practices seems to be due to a variety <strong>of</strong> problems and
constraints like less remunerative cropping systems. in general. non-availability
<strong>of</strong> timely and adequate water. shortage <strong>of</strong> labour and the consequent high eosts <strong>of</strong>
cultivation. to mention a few. These probkms over a period <strong>of</strong> time appears to
have perpetuated discontent among the farmers, in general. and farming is.

therefore. taken as a way <strong>of</strong> life not as a source <strong>of</strong> income nor as a means to an
end. but as an end in itself.
An attempt has. therefore. been made in what follows to examme and
analyse the costs and returns <strong>of</strong> investment in OFD works. in general. at the
project level and at the farm level by the farmers, in particular. In the first
instance. the economic effects <strong>of</strong> OFD have been examined in respect <strong>of</strong> the ten
completed irrigation projects in terms <strong>of</strong> net returns per ha. <strong>of</strong> cropped area as
well as incremental benefits accrued to the farmers. While the analysis <strong>of</strong> the
effects <strong>of</strong> OFD on agricultural development <strong>of</strong> the completed irrigation projects
is based on the data drawn from evaluation studies <strong>of</strong> CADA published in 1996.
the analysis with respect to the two projects selected for the study is entirely
based on the farm level sun'ey data collected from the households. The
limit~J!ions
<strong>of</strong> the evaluation studies <strong>of</strong> CADA in terms <strong>of</strong> its scope and coverage
are. however. kept in view while interpreting the trends in production and
productivity <strong>of</strong> crops grown in command areas. In case <strong>of</strong> Pee chi, one <strong>of</strong> the
projects selected for the stud~.
the results <strong>of</strong> the evaluation study are extensively
used to supplement the empirical findings based on field level data. As regards
the Kallada Irrigation Project. the Minor Conveyance System I (MCS) is
considered as one <strong>of</strong> the important OFD works at the farm level for promoting
better utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation water. It is particularly so because <strong>of</strong> the
undulating topography <strong>of</strong> the command area. The MCS in the Kallada project.
therefore. seems to have been adopted as a cost-effective strategy to suit the
I A detailed description <strong>of</strong> the ":atllTes and technical aspects <strong>of</strong> the Minor Conveyance
System IS provided in Chapter 4.
203

conditions <strong>of</strong> the topography <strong>of</strong> the project. The relative performance <strong>of</strong> various
crops in the Kallada command area under MCS is compared with those under the
open canal system (OCS) to find out the impact. if any. <strong>of</strong> OFD on crop
productivity and water use efficiency.
An attempt has also been made to examine the impact <strong>of</strong> land use pattern.
which seem to have been changing in the irrigation commands in general and
Peechi and Kallada projects. in particular. on the scale and intensity <strong>of</strong> taking up
OFD works by the farmers. Lack <strong>of</strong> faith in timely and adequate supply <strong>of</strong> water
to grow water-intensive crops and relatively more remunerative prices for some
<strong>of</strong> the commercial crops, like rubber and other plantation crops tends to
demotivate farmers to take up cost intensive OFD works necessary for the
cultivation <strong>of</strong> irrigated crops. This analysis may help understanding the dynamics
<strong>of</strong> orD at the farm level.
I. The status <strong>of</strong> OFD in CAD projects in Kerala: An aggregate analysis
In Kerala. the Command Area Development (CAD) programme was
implemented with effect from March 1978. as per the GO (MS) No. 2491791 AD
dt. 13.6.1979. InitiallY, 10 completed irrigation projects in the state, viz.,
Malampuzha. Walayar. Mangalam. Gayathri and Pothundy in the Palakkad
district. I'eechi, Vazhani, Cheerakuzhi and Chalakudy in the Thrissur district and
Neyyar in the Thiruvananthapuram district with a Culturable Command Area
(CCA) <strong>of</strong> 97200 ha. were brought under the programme in 1985. Further. four
more schemes, viz., Kuttiyadi in Kozhikode district, Chitturpuzha in Palakkad
204

district, Periyar Valley in the Emakulam district and Pamba in Pathanamthitta
district having a CCA <strong>of</strong> 84205 ha. were also brought under CADA in 1992-93.
Later. with the passing <strong>of</strong> the' Kerala Command Area Development Act' (1986)
(37 <strong>of</strong> 1986). the programme had been extended to the entire state. The CADA
rules have been framed and published Vide No. 8909/ CADA-1/93/ Irrign. dt.
17.6.1995 in the Kerala Gazette (Extraordinary) No. 599. dt 20.6.1995 (CADA.
1996: 5)
The Command Area Development Agency (CADA), as mentioned earlier.
is responsible for taking up soil and topographical surveys, construction <strong>of</strong> field
channels and drains with related structures. introduction <strong>of</strong> 'Warabandi' system,
organisation <strong>of</strong> Beneficiary Farmers' Associations (BFAs). adaptive trials. largescale
demonstrations (LSD) <strong>of</strong> agricultural practices. etc. Primarily. it is intended
to coordinate the activities <strong>of</strong> Engineering. Agriculture. Co-operation, Soil
conservation and Evaluation departments involved in OFD and other related
CAD programmes. The organisational set up and the linkages and activities <strong>of</strong>
the different wings/ departments <strong>of</strong> CADA are shown in chart I.
205

Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart showing CAD Programmes with respect to implementation
<strong>of</strong> scientific OFD in irrigation projects in Kerala
, If 1 If , If , ~ 1 r
ENGINEERING SOIL AGRICUL TURE CO- EVALUATION
WING CONSERVATION WING OPERATION WING
WING WING
, If
, II' 1 If , II' 1 If
Construction <strong>of</strong> field I Soil survey and soil Adaptive trials, large- Organisation Undertaking
farml drainage conservation scale demonstration, <strong>of</strong> BFAsl studies on the
channels; farm roads; activities, viz., land training programmes, Karshaka impact <strong>of</strong>
introduction <strong>of</strong> levelling and land construction <strong>of</strong> wells, Samitis in the various CAD
'Warabandhi', etc. shaping provision <strong>of</strong> pump sets ayacut schemes
I
• •
Implementation <strong>of</strong> scientific OFD works Implementation <strong>of</strong> scientific water management
I- measures
.. Optimum utilisation <strong>of</strong> water and high water use
...
~
efficiency
....
206

The project-wise details <strong>of</strong> the location and ayacut area <strong>of</strong> the irrigation schemes
brought under the CADA have been furnished in table 6.1.
T a bl e 6 . 1 : D e t'l al so f' Irngatlon p roiects under CADA in Kerala
Name <strong>of</strong> the project
Culturable
Districts
Percentage share in
Command Area
benefited
CCA
(in ha.)
I. Malampuzha
Palakkad &
Thrissur
21732' 11.98
2. Walayar Palakkad 3844 2.12
3. Pothundy Palakkad 5466 3.01
4. Gayathri Palakkad 5466 3.01
5. Mangalam Palakkad 3639 2.01
6. Peechi Thrissur 18623" 10.27
7. Vazhani Thrissur 5182 2.86
8. Cheerakuzhi Thrissur 1619 0.89
9. Chalakudy Thrissur 19696 10.86
10. Neyyar Trivandrum 11891 6.56
I I. Chitturpuzha Palakkad 15700 8.66
12. Periyar Valley Ernakulam 32800 18.09
13. Pamba
.
Alappuzha &
Pathanamthitta
21135 11.65
14 KUlliyadi Kozhikode 14570 8.03
; Total 181363
• Including Cheramangalam Scheme; •• Includmg Kole lands.
SOllrce.· CADA 1996: 4.
A cursory glance at the data presented in table 6.1 shows the regional
disparities in irrigation development in Kerala as is the case with many other
,;tates in the country For instance. Palakkad district tops in the list in terms <strong>of</strong>
number <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. It has five projects exclusively for the benefit <strong>of</strong>
the district. commanding about 19 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total CCA <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects
in Kerala and one project ,11aring benefits with the adjacent Thrissur district.
Thrissur district benefits out <strong>of</strong> four projects exclusively commanding 25 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the total CCA and one sharing with Palakkad. Of the remaining districts,
while Trivandrum, Ernakulam and Kozhikode have one project each, Alappuzha
and Pathanamthitta share the bendit <strong>of</strong> a single scheme alone. Thus, Thrissur
207

and Palakkad together occupy 10 <strong>of</strong> the 14 projects, occupying about 56 per cent
<strong>of</strong> the total CCA benefited under the CAD programmes in the state. Ernakulam
has a share <strong>of</strong> 18 per cent <strong>of</strong> the CC A under the CAD programmes (figure 6.1 ).
In what follows. we examine the performance <strong>of</strong> CADA with respect to
OFD implementation in the CAD schemes in Kerala. The data for this analvsis
are drawn from the evaluation report published by the CADA in 1996 and the
sample survey report published in 1997. As mentioned earlier. though we are
conscious <strong>of</strong> the limitations <strong>of</strong> the data. these reports2 are the only source <strong>of</strong>
information on the physical as well as financial aspects <strong>of</strong> CAD performance.
This is. however. adequate enough to throw light on the policy and practice <strong>of</strong>
CAD programme and its impact on OFD and the consequent efficiency In
irrigation water usc.
Fig. 6.1. District-wise CCA under CAD Projects in
Kerala
8% 19%
18% %
7% 12%
I!I Palakkad
.Thrissur
DPLKD & TSR
o Trivandrum
• Ernakulam
I!IALPYI PTA
• Kozhikode
Note: PLKD & TSR = Palakkad and Thrissur.
ALPYI PTA = Alapuzha and Pathanamthitta.
2 The published data on the performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects in the state are so poorly
maintained that It I' very difficult to be accessed by individual researchers. Project
authorities seem to be very cautious in sharing the information as they are highly
skeptical about the performance <strong>of</strong> the schemes in general. Moreover, there are no
benchmark studies or periodical evaluation reports on individual projects to be relied on.
208

6.1.1 Physical and financial performance <strong>of</strong> CADA and the status <strong>of</strong> OFD
implementation in irrigation projects:
As already discussed, the CAD programmes are implemented through the
effective participation <strong>of</strong> the five agencies under the overarching policy
guidelines and the coordination <strong>of</strong> CADA. The functional and operational
responsibilities and boundaries <strong>of</strong> all the line departments involved in OFD and
other related programmes are. however. clearly delineated. For instance, the
primary responsibilities <strong>of</strong> the agriculture department are to: a) introduce
adaptive trials; b) conduct training programmes; c) introduce large scale
demonstration plots; and d) distribute subsidy to small and marginal farmers. The
Soil Conservation wing undertakes land levelling and shaping activities and the
Co-operation wing initiates the formation <strong>of</strong> water users' associations (WUAs) or
beneficiary farmers' associations (BFAs). The important activities <strong>of</strong> the
Engir.eering wing are: a) construction <strong>of</strong> field channels (lined outlet to 5-8 ha.
block as well as unlined outlet within 5-8 ha.); b) construction <strong>of</strong> field drains;
and c) implementation <strong>of</strong> 'Warabandi'. The Evaluation wing initiates benchmark
and evaluation surveys as \liell as crop cutting experiments.
Given this backdrop. we now present In detail the pattern, scale and
intensity <strong>of</strong> expenditure on OFD related aspects and the physical progress
(achievement) in various projects considered for this study (Table 6.2).
209

Table 6.2. Physical and financial targets and achievements <strong>of</strong> CAD Schemes,
1991-1997
CAD Activities
Financial performance Physical performance (%)
(Rs. in crores) (Area in 000 ha.) share
Ach.
Target Ach.
Ach.
Target Ach.
(%) (%)
Field channels# 55.44 51.68 93 99.87 88.89 89 36
Field channels· 2.54 0.47 18 72.97 14.22 19 6
Warabandi 13.21 10.6 80 133.87 76.45 57 31
Field drains 2.39 0.85 35 78.50 6.84 9 3
i Adaptive trials 0.58 0.09 15 20.09 15.73 78 6
I LSD@' 5.74 3.17 55 67.74 43.54 6..t 17
Others 38.94 27.17 70 Nil Nil Nil Nil
Total 118.84 94.03 79 473.03 245.68 52 100
- -
Note: # up to )-8 ha. block; • within )-8 ha. block; @ Large-scale Demonstration.
Source: CADA (1998).
In
area
(%)
share
In expo
54.96
0.50
11.27
0.90
0.10
3.37
28.90
100.00
It is noteworthy that nom: <strong>of</strong> the CAD schemes could achieve physical
and financial tar~ct~
hen thL' Illust important ikms <strong>of</strong> OFD. \·iz .. field channels
Jnd drains have IHlt heen completed as per the programme envisaged.
Furthermore. the achievement in the construction <strong>of</strong> field channels in smaller
plots (below 5 ha.) has been very disappointing both in financial and physical
terms. The shortfall has heen attrlhuted by CADA to smaller size <strong>of</strong> holdings. as
small farmers are reluctant to part with land free <strong>of</strong> cost for construction <strong>of</strong> field
channels and drains Furthermore. delay in finalisation <strong>of</strong> tenders. formation <strong>of</strong>
BFAs and non-availability <strong>of</strong> construction materials. like cement. paucity <strong>of</strong>
staff. etc. (CAGI. 199R: 223) have also contributed to the low progress. Same is
the case with field drains. which are very crucial to reduce adverse effects on
soil. Such a lag in the achievement <strong>of</strong> these two crucial aspects is due to the fact
that these were to be constructed hy the ramlers availing loan frlll11 C ADA. The
210

loan component <strong>of</strong> the scheme, being only Rs. 200 per ha. was very unattractive
(CAGL 1998:225). For instance, the achievement in the construction <strong>of</strong> field
channels in smaller plots <strong>of</strong> 5 ha. and below had been only 19 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
targeted area while financial achievement is 18 per cent. In case <strong>of</strong> field drains.
in spite <strong>of</strong> the target itself being low. the achievement had been only 9 per cent.
It only shows that the authorities continue to discriminate the small farmers in
development activities. The crucial role <strong>of</strong> field drains does not seem to have
attracted their attention. Fairly good performance in the implementation <strong>of</strong>
Warabandi programme is a silver-lining indeed.
Among the various CAD programmes, as mentioned above, major thrust
has been given for engineering activities, such as construction <strong>of</strong> field channels,
implementation <strong>of</strong> 'Warabandi' and construction <strong>of</strong> field drains. which together
account for almost 68 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total expenditure incurred. In terms <strong>of</strong>
physical achievement, in almost 42 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total area field channels have
been constructed. followed by area brought under 'Warabandi' However, the
execution <strong>of</strong> works on . Warabandi' and field channels and drains have not been
synchronised in some projects (C AGI, 1998). The achievement in respect <strong>of</strong> soil
conservation activities, including land levelling and shaping has been only 1120
ha. (43 %) against a target <strong>of</strong> 2590 ha. during the period 1991-92 to 1996-97. The
shortfall has been attributed to the delay II identifying areas for land levelling
and shaping, because <strong>of</strong> inadequate staff in the soil conservation wing.
The development status and scenario <strong>of</strong> OFD works across the projects in
the state is more or less the same. The engineering related OFD works seem to
have been given priority in the allocation <strong>of</strong> funds. For example. 94 per cent <strong>of</strong>
211

the total allocation has been for those activities (Appendix 6.1). In physical
terms. construction <strong>of</strong> field channels has been more than 65 per cent in all the
cases. However. the soil conservation related activities like land levellino and
c
shaping have not received much attention either in terms <strong>of</strong> financial allocation
or physical achievement. It is, therefore, important that the OFD works are given
due importance at least in future with adequate allocation <strong>of</strong> funds and also
motiv'ating farmers to adopt scientific OFD.
Thc CAD programmes like farmers' training. formation <strong>of</strong> water users'
associations and provlslOn <strong>of</strong> subsidy to small and marginal farmers are
extremely useful in motivating farmers and building their capacity to adopt new
farm technology emerging in irrigation projects. The details <strong>of</strong> such programmes
and their implementation are presented in table 6.3. It is seen from the table that
farmers' training. an imponant strategy for capacity building among farmers has
been gaining imponance over time. For instance. the number <strong>of</strong> farmers trained
had increased to 390 in 1997-98 from 303 in 1993-94, an increase <strong>of</strong> 29 per cent.
Though this appears to be quite encouraging and welcome trend, the number <strong>of</strong>
Beneficiary Farmers Associations (BFAs) had drastically declined from 479 to
only 87 during the above period. In the light <strong>of</strong> emerging reforms in the water
sector. the need for Water Users' Associations (WU As) has been gaining ground
all over tih world. It can be seen from the table that farmers' training. an
important strategy for capacity building among farmers has been gaining
importance over time.
212

Table 6.3. Physical achievement <strong>of</strong> CAD Programmes related to capacity
building <strong>of</strong>farmers, 1992-93 to 1997-98
Year
Training to
farmers (No)
Subsidy to small &
marginal farmers (no.)
1992-93 ---- --.- 259
I 1993-9-1 303 n-1 479
199-1-95 291 452 299
1995-96 309 313 145
1996-97 384 159 106
1997-98 390 361 87
Total' 3272 2455 3770
.\ ole •• Up to March 1998.
Source Economic Rc:yic:\\. 1998a.
BF As Registered
--
For instance. the number <strong>of</strong> farmers trained increased to 390 in 1997-98
from 303 in 1993-94. an increase <strong>of</strong> 29 per cent. Though this appears to be quite
encouraging and welcome trend. the number <strong>of</strong> Beneficiary Farmers Associations
(BFAs) has drasticaIl~
declined from 479 to only 87 during the above period. In
the light <strong>of</strong> emerging refllrrll' III the water sector. the need for Water Users'
Associations (WL' As I has been gaining ground all over the world. Therefore.
there is need to concentrate on this aspect in Kerala and find out the specific
reasons. if any. for the dowr.ward trend in forming farmers' associations. Subsidy
to small and marginal farmers also has been declining over time. This is not a
healthy trend. particularly with respect to OFD. which calls for more investment.
which small and marginal farmers cannot afford by themselves.
Farmers' training programmes. as mentioned abo\e. seem to be quite
popular as revealed by the targCl achievements. the details <strong>of</strong> which are presented
in table 6.4. It is noteworthy that in spite <strong>of</strong> much lower achievement <strong>of</strong> financial
targets. the physical achievement has been very impressive. For instance. in
1991-92 with only 41 per cent achicvement in financial expcnditure. there was 98
213

per cent achievement in physical terms.
It not only shows the organisational
ability and commitment to train more and more farmers but also the cost
effectin:ness with which the programmes were administered. This is a very
encouraging trend that merits attention.
Table 6.4. Farmers' Training Programmes by CADA: Financial and
pllyslca h . I per f ormance, 1990 -9
I to 1996-97
Year
Financial (Rs. Lakhs)
Phvsical (No. <strong>of</strong> programmes)
Target Achievement Ach. (%) TarQet Achie\ement Ach. (%)
1991-92 5.1 2.1 41 289 283 98
1992-93 4.76 3.12 I 66 488 440 90
1993-94 1 I 3.09 28 920 303 33
1994-95 10.5 4.65 44 440 291 66
1995-96 10.15 3.6 35 357 309 86
1996-97 3.3 1.89 57 459 384 84
Total 44.81 18.45 41 2953 2010 68
Source. CAGI (1998)
Let us no\\ examine the relative performance efficiency <strong>of</strong> the varIOUS
C AD programmes across the irrigation projects. The details are presented in table
6.5. The data presentt::d in tht:: table 6.5 shows the scale and intensity <strong>of</strong> CAD
programmes implemt::nted in the projects selected for the study. The intensity in
this context is defined as tht:: ratio <strong>of</strong> cultural command area (CCA) to the
number <strong>of</strong> each programme. Tht:: ratio <strong>of</strong> training programmes to CCA varies
from I: 12.8 in Cheerakuzhi project to 1 :59.1 in Walayar project. Based on this
ratio. the projects wt::rt:: ranked and the figurt::s in part::ntheses in table 6.5 shows
the relative position. Based on tht:: ratio <strong>of</strong> CCA to training programmes in each
irrigation project. the efficiency in terms <strong>of</strong> con:rage seems to be high in
relatively smaller projects in terms <strong>of</strong> CCA. This was perhaps done with a view
to improve the efficiency <strong>of</strong> projects with less (CA. where local dynamics and
complications involving land use and water distribution and management may be
214

elatively less. This trend is exemplary in the sense that it may prove to be a role
model to the farmers in bigger size projects to motivate them to learn more and
more through training programmes. In some <strong>of</strong> the bigger projects like
Malampuzha. farmers do not show much interest in training programmes, as they
feel that mere partieipation in training and the subsequent adoption <strong>of</strong> modern
farm technology is sheer waste <strong>of</strong> time and resources in the absence <strong>of</strong> adequate
and timel: supply <strong>of</strong> water.
Table 6.S Implementation <strong>of</strong> CAD Programmes and financial commitments,
prolee t -WIse, 198586 - to 1994 -95
Ratio
Crop
Exp.
Train.
Exp.
Exp. per
<strong>of</strong>TP WUAs
cuning Total
Project Prog.
per
(Rs.
ha. <strong>of</strong>
to (No.)
expen Exp.(Rs
• (TP)
WUA
lakhs)
CCA
CCA"
(Rs.)
ment . Lakhs)
(Rs.)
I
(No.)
I 59.60 444
Malampuzha 7. I 5
421
5.14 I I 157 775
( 10) [ 48.9]
"., 9
(30.37)
J_. I
,
:
38.60 ~65
Peech
1.67
I ~8~ 1.66 : 357 I 573
9.0 i
L
( 8) [40.0]
,
I
(7 09)
i 59.10 72
: Wala\ar
007 I, 0.07
65 97 458
(9) [53.30] . I
2.0
i (0.30)
Ga\athri
29.40 130
!
2.06 I
2.06
186
1584 536
,
(6) 142.0]
(8.75)
" J7.7 I
Pothundy 244
22.40 127
2.2
2.2 1732 389
(4) [43.0]
(9.35)
40.2
Mangalam
I
145
25.10
1.85
64 [56.8] 1.85 2890 299
(5)
(7.86)
50.8
Vazhani , 22.10 139
i
0.58
234
0.58 417 505
(3l 137.30] (2.46)
I 1.2
Chcerakuzlll 126
12.80
0.46
32 [50.6] 0.46 1437 291
( I )
( I. 95)
28.1
Chalakudy 565
34.90 504
5.85
5.85 1160 11 13
(7) 139.0]
(2485)
29.7
Neyyar 731
16.20 317
1.65
1.65 520 819
(21 [37.51
(701 )
13.90
Total 3199 30.40
2294
23.54
:2 1.52 938 5758
LE3]
( I (0)
24.2
" For CC A figures. see Table 6. I.
NOlI! (i) Figures in square brackets indicate the outlet ,cr\ed by one WUA ill each project;
(ii) Figures in decimals arc share <strong>of</strong> individual projects In total expenditure; (iii) Figures In
single digits within brackets are respective ranks.
Source.' CADA (1996)
215

Besides. it has been reported that in Malampuzha project. the seepage
losses in the field channels range between 10 to 30 per cent (Varadan et al. 1998)
causing distributive inequality across the command area which deters farmers'
participation. There are several other local dynamics. which are obstacles to the
conduct <strong>of</strong> training programmes. The reports <strong>of</strong> the Comptroller and Auditor
General <strong>of</strong> India (CAGI) brings out some <strong>of</strong> these issues more vividly (CAGL
1998)
The unit for forming WUAs is the hydraulic boundary. ie., outlet in a
command area. Normally. the CCA <strong>of</strong> an outlet is about 40 ha. This norm seems
to have been followed in almost all the projects under reference. An outlet is
more yiablc to ensure operational efficiency by establishing more personal
linkages and contacts betwe~n
the implementing <strong>of</strong>ficers <strong>of</strong> the irrigation
department and the farmers. The strategies meant for capacity building <strong>of</strong> the
farmers in the command areas are found to be quite effective in terms <strong>of</strong>
co\'erage and cost effectiven~ss.
For instance. the expenditure incurred to form
WUAs ranges from as low as Rs. 97 in Walayar project to a high <strong>of</strong> Rs. 2890 in
Mangalam project. When compared to subsidy-driven reforms implemented
elsewhere in the "ountry. this cxpenditure is very reasonable. For example. in
Karnataka. the initial assistance to form WtJAs is about Rs. 500 per ha. The crop
cutting cxperimcnts arc periodically conducted to evaluate the impact <strong>of</strong> CAD
216

programmes on crop productivity which may help identifving the constraints if
- - ,
any. and introduce corrective measures to improve water use efficiency.
The expenditure on CAD programmes is not very encouragmg. For
instance, on an average Rs. 24 per ha. is spent on the programme in the projects
under reference. Mangalam project with an expenditure <strong>of</strong> Rs. 50 per acre <strong>of</strong>
CC:\ tops the list followed by Pothundy and Gayathri with Rs. 40 and Rs. 37 per
acre. respectiwly. In Malampuzha. the biggest projects under consideration, the
expenditure per ha. comes to only Rs. 32. In all others. it is quite negligible,
being as low as Rs. 2 per ha. in Walayar project. Keeping the importance <strong>of</strong>OFD
in Irrigation projects. there is greater need to allocate more funds to CAD
pr,)>;ramme,; mc;.mt for capacit: huilding and technical and physical improvement
<strong>of</strong> the Irrigation s: stems.
In thi, contcxt. the case <strong>of</strong> small and marginal farmers merits special
attention. Of course, there is a special programme to assist them through
subsidies. Let us examme how effective and useful these subsidies are to the
·.mall and marginal farmers, the details <strong>of</strong> which are presented in table 6.6. It is
disturbing to note that the shan: <strong>of</strong> small and marginal farmers has been as low as
12 per cent. in all projects put together. Disturhlllg because, while the subsidy is
meant for small and marginal LIrllll:rs. their share is only 12 per cent, which
implies that the hig alld influential farmer, corner tht: benefits intended for the
small and margll1al farmers.
217

I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.68
Table 6.6: Disbursement <strong>of</strong> Subsidy to Small and Marginal Farmers
under CAD Programme 1990-91 to 1996-97
Project
Total Amount
Farmers
Share <strong>of</strong> marginal
disbursed
Avg. Amount
benefited
recei\ed (Rs.)
and small farmers
(Rs. Lakhs) (%)
: Walal ar 29 0.40 1379.31 22.92
Gavathri 93 0.69 746.24 9.85
Pothundv 121 1.14 938.02 13.09
Mangalam 74 0.73 985.14 15.96
Peechi 191 3.11 1630.37 6.16
Vazhani 113 1.42 1255.75 19.28
! CheeraJ..uzhi 36 I 0.13 369.44 3.06
! ChalaJ..ud\ 163 5.73 351 ~.II 12.09
I Nenar HI 7.24 21n05 15.89
Total 1548 27.98 1807.56 12.10
Source. C\GI (1998)
This point has been cle;lfly brought out by the CAGI report. The status is
more or less the same in all the projects. What is more surprising is. in a
progressin: state like Kerala. the equity in distribution <strong>of</strong> benefits to the
J,:s':Tling JnJ n.:cJ\ I, Ih)t .:n,ured. \-lay be the exploitation <strong>of</strong> poor farmers is
neutral to the Incl and scal.: "I" the so called progressiveness.
6.1.2 Impact <strong>of</strong>OFD on output <strong>of</strong> important crops
Keeping th.: discussion so far on the nature. scale and status <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes
imp1em.:ntL·d in ,,:k(t.:J Irrigation proj,:cb in KeTala as a backdrop. an attempt
has been made in what follo\\s. to examine the impact <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes on
the output lin terms <strong>of</strong> \ alue In Rupees) <strong>of</strong> irrigated farming. An evaluation study
hy C \DA (l'J%) estlmateJ til.: incremental output in irrigated farming arising
out <strong>of</strong> the implementation <strong>of</strong> various CAD programmes. The output levels <strong>of</strong>
different crops hdore the Impkmcntation <strong>of</strong> CAl) programmes were taken as
hmch marJ.. output Ill.: dIl!t:rcnce in the output after the implementation <strong>of</strong> CAD
prugramm.:s is attributed as Its impact. The data presented in table 6.7 have been
218

taken from the evaluation report (CADA, 1996). According to the report, there
has been a se\'en-fold increase in output (at current prices) after the
implementation <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes. whieh enable better and efficient use <strong>of</strong>
water on the farm. However. these results need to be interpreted with caution.
because. the difference is attributed exclusively to CAD programme
implementation, which. in reality may not be correct. The impact <strong>of</strong> other yieldenhancing
inputs such as fertilisers. pesticides. etc .. used by the farmers is not
brought out. Therefore. the CAD programmes may be treated as enabling factors
for using yield-augmenting supplementary inputs by the farmers. This will,
however. be examined while analysing the farm level data obtained from the
farm households selected for the study. Given the limitations mentioned above,
an attempt has bl!l!n made to \\ork out the benefit cost ratios (BCR) in various
projects. Ihis helps t" lInJeht~IIlJ the relati\'e efficiency <strong>of</strong> the projects. The BC
ratio has been the highest in Pothund~
project at about 15. followed by
Ch3lakud~ with 13.3: Gayathfl ahout 10 Jnd NeYYJr with 8.9 (Table 6.7).
Table 6.7: Project-wise benefit cost analysis for the period 1985-86 to
199~ -9

~~-
~-
--~
In all others. the BC ratio is not encouraging enough. The performance <strong>of</strong>
Vazhani is disappointing with negative returns. This differential performance is a
function <strong>of</strong>. among other factors. cropping pattern. A project with relatively more
commercial and high value crops perform obviously better than the one where
traditional and inferior varieties <strong>of</strong> crops are grown. If we look at the
contribution <strong>of</strong> various crops to total earnings in a command area. it gives some
interestmg insights. For instance. a water intensiv'e crop like paddy accounts for a
major contribution in MaIampuLha. Gayathri. Pothundy and Mangalam projects.
its share being 61 per cent. 80 per cent. 57 per cent and 50 per cent respectively
(Table 6.8). The contribution <strong>of</strong> coconut is the highest in six projects where its
share ·.. aries from 47 per cent in Walayar project to 89 per cent in the Chalakudy
project. It is also important to 11llte that the share <strong>of</strong> paddy in the net earnings has
been negallve In the ca,c ur Chabkud) and only 8 per cent In the case <strong>of</strong> Neyyar
irrigation pro,,:ct.l he share <strong>of</strong> crops. such as arecanut. tapioca and banana is not
v

It is interesting to note that in spite <strong>of</strong> the importance given for paddy in
all the irrigation projecls. its share in the nel additional earnings is only
secondary. II is found Ihat this is due to lack <strong>of</strong> adequate supply <strong>of</strong> water.
Thinking that water would be available. farmers allocate more area for paddy
cultivation. But the shortage <strong>of</strong> water obviously leading to lower yields <strong>of</strong> paddy
and therefore. its contribution to total output in a command area is not
commensurate with the area allocated. Similar is the case with some other crops,
like banana. arecanul and lapioca, which require timely and adequate supply <strong>of</strong>
water. For instance. negative returns from banana cultivation is essentially due to
shortage <strong>of</strong> water and also due to water logging and salinity in low lying areas. It
is in this context that the OFD becomes important. For. it enables smooth flow <strong>of</strong>
\\aler across a plot llf LmJ \\ith no wastage and also avoids waterlogging and
other ad,,:rst:

possible in these lands during Kharif and Rabi seasons. The lands are suitable for
cultivation during summer season only. The crop suitable for these soils is paddy
and no other crop could be

Table 6.9: Productivity differences in paddy in the Peechi ayacut vis-ii-vis
the district
Year Kharif (Virippu) .1 Rabi (Mundakan) Summer (Puncha)
Ayacut Dis!. I Diff ! A \·acut Dis!.
I 0
Diff Ayacut Dist Diff
(Kg.! (Kg.! . (%J ! (Kg.! (Kg.! (%) (Kg.! (Ko,:::-,1' (%)
acre) acre) I acre) acre) acre) acre)
1985-86 976 790 23.5 994 1029 -3.4 740 1::6 -39.6
1986-87 1209 935 29.2 1000 928 7.8 830 1204 -3 I. I
1987-88 1107 866 27.8 1164 927 25.6 798 1198 -33.4
1988-89 808 809 -0.2 I 153 968 1901 940 1214 -22.6
1989-90 1096 931 17.7 1187 1050 13.1 997 1173 -15.0
1990-91 981 988 -0.7 1162 1083 7.3 1227 1228 -0.1
1991-92 1152 9'~ y- 23.7 1015 1086 -6.5 1217 )"'",j
y-- -8.0
1992-93 1102 1048 - ~
).- 955 1040 -8.1 1132 1346 -15.9
1993-94 1002 972 3.1 787 1060 -25.7 1028 1236 -16.9
1994-95 1001 918 9.1 1563 1213 28.9 1470 1291 13.9
Mean 1043 919 13.8 1098 1038 5.8 1038 1244 -16.8
SI. Dev. 113.8 79.1 11.8 205.4 84.9 17 227.1 56.8 16.1
CV ("/0) 10.9 8.6 85.4 18.7 8.2 292.0 21.9 4.6 -95.6
Source.· EstImated from CADA (1996).
This raises some importalll issues. Merely supplying water may not by
itself promote highcr proJuctl\ It> unkss the supply is timely and adequate. But
the timeliness and adequacy seem to be a casualty in the project as revealed by
'" ~
- ----
~

Hence. it may be argued that since the OFD has not taken place in the scale and
intensity warranted in the command area. the designed discharge <strong>of</strong> water seems
10 be not adequate to meet fully the crop-water requirements.
Furthermore. the coefficient <strong>of</strong> variation (CV) in productivitv is hioher in
- co
the command area than at the district level. For instance, the CV in the
productivity <strong>of</strong> Kharif paddy is 10.9 per cent as against 8.6 per cent in the
district. Same is the case with Rabi and summer paddy. The variation in
productivity in the ayacut is higher at 22 per cent compared to Kharif (10.9 %)
and Rabi (18.7 %) seasons. Since adequate supply <strong>of</strong> water is not ensured,
farmers in the head reaches and other influential farmers tend to acquire more
and sufficient water, depriving the tail enders <strong>of</strong> their due share. Therefore. the
productivity differentials are bound to be more in irrigation commands. Whereas
ralnfed cultivation is nllt subjected to such \ariations in supply <strong>of</strong> water. The
productivity differentials. if any, in the rainfed farming are essentially due to,
among others, entrepreneurial ability <strong>of</strong> the farmers to apply inputs and other
crop-husbandry practices.
The performance level <strong>of</strong> other crops, especially commercial crops, like
coconut. arecanut, etc., are somewhat different from that <strong>of</strong> paddy, the details <strong>of</strong>
which are presented in table 6.10. As seen from the table. the productivity <strong>of</strong>
coconut and tapioca in the command area has been much higher than the district
average. Barring a few years, the performance <strong>of</strong> arecanut in the command area
has been less satisfactory. For the yields have been lower than the district
average. What surprises more is, hanana yields in all the years under reference
have been invariahly lower than the district average. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, banana
224

is a water intensive crop. Those who cultivate the crop need to have their own
source <strong>of</strong> irrigation. Farmers 'with their own source <strong>of</strong> irrigation will be able to
meet the water requirements <strong>of</strong> the crop more effectively both in terms <strong>of</strong>
adequacy and timeliness. whereas. the farmers in the command area depend upon
water supply from the project which. normally. is not adequate and timely. This
could be one <strong>of</strong> the main reasons for the relatively lower yields <strong>of</strong> banana in the
command area. However. the variation in productivity levels is lesser than that <strong>of</strong>
other crops as revealed by the coefficient <strong>of</strong> variation <strong>of</strong> 11 per cent against 30,
28 and 13 per cent respectively in arecanut. tapioca and coconut.
Table 6.10: Productivity differences in selected crops in the Peechi ayacut
- -
vis it vis the district
Coconut Areeanut Tapioca Banana
Year (nos.!aere) (000 nos.! acre) (Kg.!aere) (K.&/ acre)
A vaeu! Dist. I A vaeut Dist. Avacut Dist. Ayaeu! Dis!.
, 1985-86
! ~-l7:;
77:
-t789
4887
3921
I 72
6761
3968
(58) i (-7) (41) (-19)
1986-87 3270
206-t
80
6619
4321
74
9352
3522
(58) (-7) (41 ) (-18)
1987-88 3460
2183 83
6778
4893
77
9595
3968
( 58)
(-7) ( 42) (-19)
1988-89 4453
2810
84
5822
4853
78
8259
3968
( 58) (-7) (42) (-18)
! 2765 78
6510
5130
1989-90 4019
65
7976
4170
(-t5)
(-17) (23) (-19)
1990-91 3262
2328 89
7704
5964
112
6073
4858
(40)
(26 ) (-21 ) (-19)
1991-92 3070
2607 110
6729
6113
139
9717
4615
( 18)
(26) (44 ) (-24 )
1992-93 3531
2998 99 7057
5224
125
10202
4534
( 18)
(26)
(45) (-13 )
1993-94 3070
2731 90 6251
5868
92
9109
5101
( 12)
(2)
( 46) (-D)
1994-95 3201
2834 95 6251
5868
61 15481
4217
( 13) (-36 )
( 148) (-28 )
Mean 3526 2580 89 92 9253 6451 4292 5312
St. Dev. 461.9 307.0 26.8 10.5 2560.1 773.9 479.3 603.3
CV (%) 13.1 11.9 29.9 11.4 27.7 12.0 11.2 I I .4
..
Note: Parenthetic lIgures - arc percentage YIeld
. .
lhfler~nc

It is mainly due to scarcity <strong>of</strong> water during summer season. Furthermore,
majority <strong>of</strong> the plots in the command area are not properly developed
After presenting an overview <strong>of</strong> the status <strong>of</strong> production and productivity
<strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the important crops and also incremental output purportedly arising
out <strong>of</strong> implementation <strong>of</strong> OFD related CAD programmes, an attempt has been
made in what follows to examine the costs and returns from the cultivation <strong>of</strong>
paddy. a dominant crop in irrigation commands in Kerala. The details are
presented in table 6.11. The data presented in the table are based on the crop
cutting expenments conducted by CADA among 255 cultivators randomly
selected from eight CAD projects during winter and summer 1993-94 and
autumn 1994-95 (C ADA. 1997). The costs include all paid out costs as contained
by 'Cost A 5 • as used in the farm management studies. The output in value terms
IS estimated uSing the farm harvest prices in the respective seasons.
Table 6.11: Cost Bene fi It AnalYSIS 0 fP a dd' I!rmte h CAD I projects m 'K era a
Project
I Yield Cost Income Net Income
(Kg/acre.) (Rs'/ acre) (RsJ acre) (Rs'/ acre)
BCR
Malampuzha 1311 3096 5584 2489 0.80
Walavar i 1365 3256 5998 2741 0.84
Gayathri 1713 3600 7016 3416 0.95
Pothundv 1949 3698 8383 4686 1.27
Pecchi 876 3043 4177 1135 0.37
Vazhani 979 3173 4806 1633 0.51
Chalakudv 1166 3540 6170 2630 0.74
Neyvar 1501 5125 7421 2296 0.45
Mean 1357 3566 6194 2628 0.74
Std. Dey. 360.88 675.68 1382.46 1083.47 0.29
CV(%) 26.59 18.95 22.32 41.23 39.65
Source Estimated from CADA (1997).
5 Cost A Includes expenditur

The relative efficiency in paddy cultivation in terms <strong>of</strong> yield and net
returns per acre is high in Pothundy project. The yield per acre is about 1.95
tonnes per acre. Similarly. net rcturns pcr acre <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation in the project
under reference is Rs. 4686. which is two to three times more than the other
projects. The highest Be ratio is also reported from the Pothundy project at about
15 (Table 6.7). It is also found that the availability <strong>of</strong> water in the project is
relamely more reliable and also adequate. Furthermore, farmers seem to have
undertaken OFD works on rice field more systematically than in other projects.
ThiS IS an impressionistic \'Iew <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong>ficials and other enlightened people in
the region. No factual data are available to support this conjecture. However, one
could infer that it could be true. because <strong>of</strong> the higher productivity <strong>of</strong> paddy. The
productivity <strong>of</strong> crops is mainly dependent. among other factors, on timely and
adequate supply <strong>of</strong> \\Jter. The cmpirical c\'ldences prove that the productivity <strong>of</strong>
crops is higher in the plots \\ here OFD is done scientifically and also water use
efficiency is high in developed plots (Reddy. 1998).
The data presented in tahle 6.11 shows that paddy cultivation does not
appear to he that remunerative. For instance. the benefit cost (Be) ratio is less
than one in all the projects. except Pothundy project, where it is 1.27. This lack
<strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>itahility is highlighted as one <strong>of</strong> the major reasons for the crop shift in
Kerala 6 . In this context. it is necessary to examine the problems and constraints
for nee cultivation in different agro-climatic regions. The cost <strong>of</strong> cultivation <strong>of</strong>
paddy seems to he more or less uniform across the projects, except in Neyyar
6 A detailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the dynamics <strong>of</strong> crop shift and large-scale conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy
area In Kcrala IS provided in Chapter 5.
227

project. where it is very high at Rs. 5125 per acre. For instance, the coefficient <strong>of</strong>
variation (CV) for cost <strong>of</strong> cultivation is only 19, as against 26.6 per cent, 22.3 per
cent and ~ I pc:r cent for yield gross income and net income respectively. The
higher C\' in net income retlects the intensity and scale <strong>of</strong> input use by the
farmers across the projects. The application <strong>of</strong> inputs depends upon farmers'
ability to mobilise on time and in the desired quantity. It is in this context that
training to farmers plays crucial educating them on various aspects <strong>of</strong> farming .
. -\ brief discussion <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> OFD on crop output in Peechi project,
whIch is seb:ted for indepth study, is attempted in the following. The details are
presented in table 6.12.
Table 6.12: Impact <strong>of</strong> OFD on crop output in Peechi. benefit cost analysis
for \985-86 to \99~-95
Year
Total expo on ,
i
Total earnings on Net return on
Benefit cost
CAD schemes add l. crop output
expenditure
ratio
(Rs Lakhs) (Rs. Lakhs) (%)
1985·86 8.44 163 19.31 1931.28
1986·87 18.91 244 12.90 1290.32
1987·88 4.36 300 68.81 6880.73
1988-89 63.85 222 3.48 347.69
1989·90 222.25 212 0.95 95.39
1990·91 190.77 138 0.72 72.34
1991·92 164.46 162 0.99 98.50
1992·93 199.65 65 0.33 32.56
1993·94 169.23 ·123 ·0.73 ·72.68
1994·95 135.87 386 2.84 284.10
Total 1177. 79 1769 1.50 150.20
Source: CADA. 1996
The table shows that the implementation <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes in Peechi
. hi' t' \"h"r'> a tllUlti·fold increase in
project pick

country. That is precisely why. as mentioned already. the CADAs have come into
existence at the state level to co-ordinate various programmes to increase water
use efficiency and crop productivity. But. its performance in Kerala. like
elsewhere in the country. appears to be not upto the expected levels. particularly.
with respect to implementation <strong>of</strong> OFD programmes. The reasons and constraints
for its effective implementation are. however, examined in detail in 'the chapter
that follows.
6.1.3 The poor performance <strong>of</strong> CAD A in Kerala:
The institutional paradigm evolved under CADA has not been effective enough
to reduce the gap between irrigation potential created and utilised through the
scientific adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD works in the irrigation commands. A wide range <strong>of</strong>
kchnlcal and opCfational pwhkms and constraints have contributed to the
unsallsfactor~ irn~atlOn mana~ell1

proper coordination between variOUS line departments has been yet another
problem.
It is reiterated that ··the scope <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes has turned out to be
considerably narrower than originally envisaged. The progress in terms <strong>of</strong> land
improvements and development <strong>of</strong> drainage facilities have been meager and so
has the effort and research involving and propagating cropping patterns and
agricultural practices for optimum use <strong>of</strong> water under the conditions prevailing in
each irrigation command" (GOL Eighth Plan. 1992: 60-61).
In spite <strong>of</strong> the laudable objectives with which CADA was launched, III
practice, the scope <strong>of</strong> the programme proved out to be much narrower than
envisaged. focusing largely on the construction <strong>of</strong> field channels. introduction <strong>of</strong>
.. Warabandi" and land levelling (Vaidvanathan 1999). Achievements have also
- -
been somewhat modest. At the end <strong>of</strong> the Seventh Plan. an estimated 8 million
ha. was brought under "Warabandi". 2 million ha. were levelled and shaped and
field channels constructed in 11.3 million ha. There was no progress in
consolidation <strong>of</strong> land holdings. Achievements have been consistently below
targets. For instance. during the Seventh Plan. the achievements in respect <strong>of</strong> the
strategic programmes like construction <strong>of</strong> field channels was below 48 per cent,
followed by Warabandi (54 %) and only 23 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> land levelling
(GO!, 1992).
As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact. not many studies have probed into the reasons for
such poor performance. especially at the macro level. A few studies at the micro
level have not addressed these issues in their totality and hardly any linkages
230

were identified and corrective measures suggested. The studies available mostly
address to the organisational aspects and constraints in the implementation <strong>of</strong>
certain categories <strong>of</strong> physical improvements in the system (Vaidyanathan. 1999:
94).
The discussion so far on the performance <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes in Kerala
in terms <strong>of</strong> cost, productivity <strong>of</strong> crops and so on shows the limited scope with
which they were designed and operated. For instance, most <strong>of</strong> the activities were
confined to the engineering activities with emphasis on construction <strong>of</strong> field
channels upto 5-8 ha. block alone. The field channels have never been extended
to farmers' fields to enable effective utilization <strong>of</strong> water in the fields. The
farmers did not take initiative to construct field boothies on their own for
irrigating crops in their homesteads. Moreover. land leveling and shaping have
not been gi\cn adcquate attention in the CAD programmes in the state. The
subsidy disbursement programmes have been skewed in favour <strong>of</strong> medium and
large farmers and small and marginal farmers have been totally neglected in the
process. The OFD works undertaken under the CAD have, therefore, not been
effective in reducing the conveyance loss <strong>of</strong> water, improving distributional
efficiency with equity in almost all the projects.
A brief account <strong>of</strong> thc findings and observations on the implementation <strong>of</strong>
CAD programmes in irrigation projects in Kerala as highlighted by the reports <strong>of</strong>
the Comptroller and Auditor General <strong>of</strong> India (CAGI) for the pcriod 1991-92 to
1997-98 (CAGL 19

deficiencies that help drawing lessons to incorporate preventive measures in the
completed irrigation projects and curative measures in the on-going ones.
The shortcomings in achieving targets as brought out by the report may
not be surprising, because, the development planning programmes in India have
invariably been far behind the expected targets. For instance, the achievement <strong>of</strong>
Warabandi programme in the irrigation projects <strong>of</strong> Kerala, as brought out by the
(AGI Report (1998), was only 57 per cent. The achievement in the construction
<strong>of</strong> filed drains, a very crucial aspect <strong>of</strong> OFD to prevent adverse effects on soi I,
was just 9 per cent. It is a reflection on the commitment <strong>of</strong> the government and
particularly CADA to take up OFD works in the command areas.
Furthermore, the report has highlighted the misleading statistics given by
the (ADA on implementation <strong>of</strong> OFD programmes. For example, it was reported
by the (ADA that in the entire ayacut <strong>of</strong> 76958 ha. under eight projects, fieid
channels construction was completed. But, on verification, it was found that an
area <strong>of</strong> 28361 ha. (37 %) was left out without constructing field channels. But the
amount spent on it far exceeded the targets and norms fixed by the government.
It shows the manipulative strategies <strong>of</strong> the bureaucracy to justify the amount
spent on OFD. This is just one example to demonstrate as to how the rentseeking
attitude <strong>of</strong> the impkmenting <strong>of</strong>ficers has been contributing to the
emergence <strong>of</strong> less efficient and cost-ineffective irrigation systems.
The influence <strong>of</strong> political and local dynamics on the prioritisation and
implementation <strong>of</strong> programmes has also been brought out. According to the
government guidelines and orders, only completed projects should be brought
232

under CAD programmes. But three partially commissioned projects. viz .. Pamba.
Periyar Valley and Kuttiadi were included under the programme since 1992-93
and an amount <strong>of</strong> about Rs. 26 crores was spent (CAGI. 1998: 220). Obviously.
the targeted works in other projects could get adequate funds and therefore. their
implementation got delayed adding further to the alleged inefficiency in
irrigation management in canal command areas. The ad-hoc and unscientific way
<strong>of</strong> implementing the OFO works. without preparing systematic project reports
and operational plans have led to increase in transaction costs involved in the
programmes. Furthermore. it has also led to lesser productivity than what was
expected. For instance, the mean yield <strong>of</strong> summer irrigated paddy from
demonstration plots in four projects. viz., Walayar. Malampuzha. Peechi and
Vazhani. was lesser than those from the normal plots. Such results tend to
Jemotivate farmers from undertaking scientific OFO and application <strong>of</strong> optimum
doses <strong>of</strong> yield-enhancing inputs like fertilisers and pesticides. It will have a
negative impact on modern farm technology adoption by the farmers.
As mentioned earlier. subsidy was given to small and marginal farmers
and also for Water Users' Associations (WUAs) to meet the managerial and other
operational costs in the formative years. But. it is unfortunate that only 34 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the associations formed as <strong>of</strong> 1997 had received management subsidy
(CAGl, 1998:220). Further, the amount allocated by the government <strong>of</strong> India to
be released to the farmers to meet OFO expenditure needs was not even
disbursed to the farmers. The state government. therefore. had to bear the debt
servlcll1g charges. Same was the case with subsidy to be given to small and
marginal farmers for digging wells and installing pumpsets to encourage
233

conjunctive use <strong>of</strong> canal and groundwater. Only 22 per cent <strong>of</strong> the money
earmarked for the purpose was disbursed (Ibid: 220). If this programme had
properly been implemented. farmers would have resorted to conjunctive use <strong>of</strong>
water. which would have helped reducing adverse effects like waterlogging and
salinity. For. wells in canal command areas work as vertical drains to arrest rise
in water table.
The construction <strong>of</strong> field channels. an important aspect <strong>of</strong> OFD. has been
far behind the expected levels in smaller blocks <strong>of</strong> 5 ha. and less. Farmers from
the smaller blocks are given loans for constructing field channels. The loan
amount is only nominal (ie., Rs. 200 per ha.). which is inadequate. Since farmers
are unable to mobilise the additional funds required for the purpose, they do not
construct field channels. lt has. therefore. adversely affected \\ater distribution.
use and management. particularly in smaller plots. This calls for a realistic
estimation <strong>of</strong> expenditure taking the location-specific conditions like topography.
slope and type <strong>of</strong> soils, for carrying out OFD works.
The limited scale in which OFD works were carried out in the command
areas was not productive enough as the delivery system was not improved.
Canals and hydraulic structures were badly damaged and the scarce water went
waste into drains. For instance. in Palakkad division (covering six projects, viz.,
Malampuzha, Mangalam, Pothundy, Walayar, Gayathri and Cheerkuzhi) out <strong>of</strong>
the 47356 ha. potential created. only about 52 per cellt <strong>of</strong> the area (24697 ha.)
was irrigated. with the result that an amount <strong>of</strong> Rs. 13.6 crorcs spent on OFD
works became unproductive and sunk capital (CAUl. 1

The most neglected aspect <strong>of</strong> OFD is the drainage. Depending upon the
type <strong>of</strong> soil and other topographic conditions. the nature. type and extent <strong>of</strong>
drainage works will be decided. This calls for systematic and scientific suney to
estimate the drainage works. But. it is unfortunate that in all the 14 projects
completed. as <strong>of</strong> March 1998. it was not carried out. With the result. only 8 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the targeted area. identified for drainage, was completed by 1997 (Ibid:
227). The loan component <strong>of</strong> Rs. 500 per ha. to construct drainage channels was
very meager and did not match with actual requirement <strong>of</strong> Rs. 2500 to 3000 as
reported by the farmers. For instance, the expenditure per ha. at the national level
was fixed at Rs. 2500. which was subsequently increased to Rs. 4000 and
currently to Rs. 6000. Based on the Kerala experiences, this norm does not hold
good for three important reasons.
1) Firstly. the topography <strong>of</strong> the irrigation commands is highly undulating and
therefore. the cost <strong>of</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> water distribution networks is much
higher than the national average.
2) Secondly, the main/ branch canals are constructed on higher contours
resulting in larger distance between the canals and paddy fields. The
construction costs <strong>of</strong> a field channel from any sluice/ spout up to the paddy
fields are. therefore. very high due to the huge quantum <strong>of</strong> earthwork
involved. besides the length <strong>of</strong> the channel. Because <strong>of</strong> the ceiling on
maximum rate per ha .. in man)' places. length <strong>of</strong> the field channel was
curtailed to maintain the t:xpt:nditure within the permissible limits. As a
result, the field channds could not be taken to the entire fields and the ayacut
under the spout art: kft without sufficient OFD works.
235

3) Again. due to the high density <strong>of</strong> population causmg high density <strong>of</strong>
dwellings and fragmented holdings. field channels cannot be constructed
straight from the spout to the fields. Many turns are necessary which ~dd to
unit cost <strong>of</strong> construction.
Lack <strong>of</strong> adequate resources with the farmers has added to the slow
progress <strong>of</strong> drainage works. It is also true <strong>of</strong> other activities like land levellino
""
bunding and shaping. Only 43 per cent <strong>of</strong> the targeted area was levelled by 1997
(CAGI. 1998:228). The project authorities reported that was essentially due to
lack <strong>of</strong> adequate staff to carry out the work at the field level.
The above observations based on the aspects <strong>of</strong> physical and financial
status <strong>of</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> the irrigation projects reveal that the CAD programmes
in the command areas <strong>of</strong> Kerala. in general. are not properly designed,
implemented and uperated. A wide range <strong>of</strong> issues. viz., inadequate financial
resources. improper targeting <strong>of</strong> the beneficiaries. political and local dynamics
influencing prioritisation <strong>of</strong> the programmes. lack <strong>of</strong> scientific survey to estimate
the scale and intensity <strong>of</strong> OFD works to be carried out in different projects, badly
managed delivery systems, etc., have been identified as important factors
contributing towards the less efficient and low scale OFD operations in the
command areas.
Given the problems and constraints as discussed above. an effort was
made by the state government to improve the operational efficiency <strong>of</strong> the
irrigation projects. A brief review <strong>of</strong> the new programme intending to revamp the
old generation projects in the state is in order. The thrust <strong>of</strong> the programme is to
236

eorient the irrigation projects In the state to ensure efficient use and
management <strong>of</strong> water.
6. 1.4 The Revamping and Consolidation Programme
A massiw programme for revamping <strong>of</strong> the first generation projects was taken
up under the "Revamping and Consolidation Programme" (RCP) in the state. The
programme was intended for the optimal utilisation <strong>of</strong> the irrigation potential.
This also involved rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> the delivery system to suit the shift in
cropping pattern occurred in the ayacuts over the years (GOK. 1999:84). The
rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> the system includes repairs in head works and regulators.
providing measuring devices. lining the canals. repair/ renovations <strong>of</strong> control
structure and other related works in conveyance systems. It is anticipated that
this programme would help in preventing leakage! seepage and other losses. The
implementation was scheduled in a phased manner sequencing the intef\cntions
from head works, main canal. branches and distributaries. Though the
programme was launched in 1997-98, the implementation started only during
1998-99. Nine out <strong>of</strong> the ten old generation projects 7 were taken up with an
estimated cost <strong>of</strong> Rs. 55.36 crores. The project-wise details <strong>of</strong> the works
anticipated under the Revamping and Consolidation Programme are shown in
tables 6.13.
237

Table 6.13: Details <strong>of</strong> the Revamping and Consolidation Programme for old
generation irrigation projects in Kerala
Project
Malampuzha
Pothundy
Mangalam
Walayar
Gayathri
Neyyar
Vazhani
Cheerakuzhi
Peechi
Total
Estimated cost (Rs. Lakhs) for ;
Est.
Exp. Target
Head
Cost
I Main I Branch Distribu I during 1999-
I
I
,
,
works canal I canal - taries : 1998-99 2000
1658
279.2 1110.22 268.49
0
24.35
(30) (16.8) (67.0) (162)
455
(6.5)
813 53.5 150.6 593.75 15.15 78.87
(14) (6.6) (18.5) (73.()l ( 1. 9) (20.9)
255
430 7 22.64 204 197 53.17
(8) ( 16) (5.3) (47.4) (45.8) (\ 4.1)
155
370 27 155 126.81 60.64 20.47
(7) (7.3 ) (41.9) (34.3 ) (16.4) (5.4)
200
700 42 284.45 331.07 42.48 31.35
(13) (6.0) (40.6) (47.3 ) (6.1 ) (8.3 )
220
380 35 118.7 158.1 68.2 86.6
(7) (9.2) (31.2) ( 41.6) (17.9) (23.0)
170
145 8 45.5 75.5 16 17.59
(3) (5.5 ) (31.4) (52.1) ( 11.0) (4.7)
100
230 25 166 39 3.65
0
(4) (10.9)[ (72.2) (17.0)
, ( 1.0)
11 5
810 50.5 ! 412 201.1 146.4 i 60.78
( 14) ; (6.2) ! (50.9) (24.8) ( 18. I ) (16.1 )
285
5536 i 248 I 1634.09 2839.55 814.36 : 376.83
(100.0) I (4.5) I (295) (51.3) (14.7) I (100.0)
Note: (I) Parenthellc figures III cols. 2 & 7 are shares <strong>of</strong> each projects III
estimated cost and expenditure during 1998-99, respectively: (ii) Parenthetic
figures in rest <strong>of</strong> the columns are share <strong>of</strong> major components in each case.
Source: Compiled from GOK (1999): 85.
It can be seen that the thrust <strong>of</strong> rehabilitation programme. as generally
expected, is on the repair and restructuring <strong>of</strong> the main and branch canals. which
are important to take water to the tertiary level. In seven projects. including the
Peechi project, a major share ranging between 31 to 72 per cent was allocated for
revamping the main canal systems. While the allocation for main canal works
was highest in Cheerakuzhi project with n per cent. for the branch canals, it ""as
I
I
,
1955 I
I
7 The projects brought under the Revamping and Consolidation Programme
(RCP) are Malampuzha. I'othundy, Mangalam. Walavar. Gayathri, Neyyar.
Vazhani, Cheerakuzhl and Peechi.
238

the lowest with only 17 per cent. Among the projects, Malampuzha had received
the lions share <strong>of</strong> the financial allocation, ie., 30 per cent, followed by Pothundv
(14.69 %) and Peechi (14.63 %) projects.
Among the nine projects, the share <strong>of</strong> Peechi irrigation project m the
estimated cost <strong>of</strong> revamping and consolidation works out to be 14 per cent. The
important works visualised as part <strong>of</strong> the programme are ShOV.ll in table 6.14.
Table 6.14: Works taken up in the Peechi project as part orthe Revamping
and Consolidation Programme (1998-99 to 2000-01).
Nature <strong>of</strong> work
Distance
Outlay
No. <strong>of</strong> works
undertaken covered (Krns.) (Rs. Lakhs)
Strengthening the canals 34 (318) 11.65 (17.2) 149.55 (310)
Canal lining to prevent
seepage 63 (589) 13.05 (52.8) 225.95 (.168)
Other works 10 (93) ---...-- 107.5 (22.2)
,
I Total I 107 (lOUD) 24.7 (lOaD) • 483 (i OU 0) I
SOff:: ParenthetIc ligures - are respectIve percentages.
S{)urce. GOK (1997c): Report <strong>of</strong> the Revamping and Consolidation Programme.
Peechi Irrigation Project.
As is evident, canal lining was the mam activity under the programme
taken up by the CADA in the Peechi project. For instance, 47 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total
outlay I\as for canal lining. Ne\t important item was strengthening <strong>of</strong> canal
bunds ~ll1d
structures. This is a welcome tn:nd by which farmers get motivated to
take up OFD works. when the supply <strong>of</strong> water becomes more reliable after the
rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> tile system.
However, since the prugramme was taken up only recently, its impact on
water usc efticiency and productil'ity <strong>of</strong> crops is yet to be evaluated. It appears to
be a good beginning to improv

doubts about the senousness <strong>of</strong> the efforts to reorient the Irrigation schemes.
particularly. in the context <strong>of</strong> changing cropping pattern. It appears that the
irrigation bureaucracy tries to explore new ways by which rent seeking and
nepotism could be perpetuated.
Keeping the status <strong>of</strong> OFO in the irrigation projects <strong>of</strong> Kerala in general
as discussed above as backdrop. we will now present the results <strong>of</strong> the survey
conducted in the two projects. namely. Peechi and Kallada irrigation projects.
The OFO works carried out in the two irrigation projects as mentioned earlier are
distinctly different in terms <strong>of</strong> technology. type and scope. The adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO
in the Peechi irrigation command is influenced to a greater extent by the intensitv
<strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge caused by seepage from the canals. Whereas. in the
Kallada project. the Minor Conveyance System I MCS) meant for reducing
conveyance losses <strong>of</strong> water in an undulating topography. have different
implications on OFO. A detailed discussion on the impact <strong>of</strong> OFO in respect <strong>of</strong>
both the irrigation systems is attempted in the following section.
II. The impact <strong>of</strong> OFD: Peechi and Kallada Irrigation projects
6.2.1 Peechi Irrigation Project
As already stated. due to a wide range <strong>of</strong> oper3tion31 constraints. the adoption <strong>of</strong>
OFO works at the farm level has been very limited in scale and intensity. The
farmers. by and large. have understood OFO as merely levelling the land by
filling the gullies and other depressions on the field and providing earthen
channels before the release <strong>of</strong> water. The secular decline in the size <strong>of</strong>
operational holdings and uncertainty in getting timely and adequate supply <strong>of</strong>
240

water has made farmers to avoid cost intensive mechanical operations required
for scientitic OFD. They resort to take up such works, which require minimum
human labour. some times do only with family labour. The canal system <strong>of</strong> the
Pcechi project is technically designed for irrigating wet crops. mainly paddy.
Therefore. if a farmer wants to diversify the cropping pattern. it needs number <strong>of</strong>
OFD works before hand. to cultivate dry or other plantation crops. Since the
uncertainty in the availability <strong>of</strong> water is always looming around. farmers tend to
withdraw from undertaking OFD works necessary to cultivate the crops other
than paddy. This is a vicious circle with which farmers in the project are
encircled. In Peechi project. canal water during summer is exclusively meant for
kole lands and no provision for irrigating crops other than paddy is made as per
the design <strong>of</strong> the scheme. As a result. there is no cultivation <strong>of</strong> the third crop
(summer) in the upper reach.::, <strong>of</strong> the Peechi scheme. Wherever possible. farmers
tr~
to irrigate crops using the seepage water if available from the major
distributaries or the minors.
6.2.1.1 Canal induced groundwater recharge and its effect on adoption <strong>of</strong>
On-Farm Development
An important positi\·c cxtcrnalil; <strong>of</strong> canal Irrigation in gen.::ral is its contribution
to groundwater rccklr~c.
Thi, is an unintended indircct bcn.::tit ,lI1d the scholars
havc tricd to conceptualise it in terms <strong>of</strong> 'incidental benctits' (Dhawan. 1998)
caused by canal irrigation. Depending upon the intensity <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge
and its reliability farmers tend to invest in dugwells for irrigation purposes. This
adds to the private capital formation in canal command areas. More importantly.
farmers also invest in OFD to maximise benefits from the well irrigation. This
241

practice IS more conspIcuous In the Peechi project. Since the project IS In
operation for the last four decades. the whole water distribution system is in a
dilapidated condition. This has resulted in water scarcity for tail-enders. because.
water in the head reaches through breaches and seepage from the canals and
create waterlogging and salinity problems. The maintenance grant allocated for
the project is not even sufficient to remove the silt deposit in the canals and
branches. let alone repairs to the irrigation structures. Silt problem is more acute
in the branch canals abutting the hills (GOK. 1997c:8). Poor delivery system has
reduced the potential area irrigated by more than 30 per cent. The revamping and
consolidation programme taken up in the command area has addressed this
problem and steps have been already taken by enhancing funds for lining <strong>of</strong> the
canals and for their repair and maintenance as revealed by the data presented in
the foregoing section.
A marked improvement in the groundwater levels in Peechi command
area seems to have motivated a large number <strong>of</strong> farmers to go for conjunctive use
<strong>of</strong> canal and groundw:ller.
rhe details <strong>of</strong> "round\\Jter levels and wells
o
constructed in the cnmm~nd ;lrl'~
3re presented in t3hlc 1i.1 ':. It is inL're>ting to
note th:ll the gl,)Undw3ter Inl'l h:ls increased suhstantially due to the canal
seepage. The increase is. however. not uniform. For instance. in the head n:aches.
the increase has been 4.95 meters. compared to 4.41 meters in the middle reaches
and 3.6 meters in the tail reaches. These variations are because <strong>of</strong> heavy seepage
in the head reaches. This has natural Iv reduced the flow <strong>of</strong> water to the tail-end
areas. Because <strong>of</strong> less water. seepage from the canals tends to be less intensi ve
and therefore, less percolation and low recharge to the groundwater table in the
242

middle and tail reaches. The sample farmers are personally aware <strong>of</strong> these
changes in the groundwater !t:\el. As high as 87 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers in the
head reaches. 64 pcr cent in the middle and 59 per cent in thc tail end have
reported that they are aware <strong>of</strong> the increase in groundwater level. In order to take
advantage <strong>of</strong> this positive externality caused by canals. they have even started
resorting to extraction <strong>of</strong> groundwater through installation <strong>of</strong> pumpsets 8 .
Table 6.15: Canal induced groundwater recharging in Peechi project
'
Details regarding !!round water sources Head Middle Tail Total
!
I Farmers having groundwater sources SO 45 20 115
Farmers reporting groundwater recharge (%) 87 64 59 68
Water depth before opening <strong>of</strong> canal (meters) 12.52 13.75 14.25 13.45
Water depth after opening <strong>of</strong> canal (meters) 7.57 9.34 10.65 8.92 '
Extent <strong>of</strong> recharge (Meters) 4.95 4.41 3.60 4.53
Farmers having pump sets 38 (76) 24 (53) 8 (40) 70 (61 )
A\crage capacitv <strong>of</strong> pumps (HP) 2.05 1.68 1.25 1.66
Cost <strong>of</strong> "ell construction' (in Rs) 10650 9548 8756 9275 ,
, Cost <strong>of</strong> pumpsct installation' (Ill Rs.) 5895 4830 3595 4775
.
Note: hgures In parenthesIs are percentages .
, Cost <strong>of</strong> we 11 construction and pumpset installation are converted into current
prices based on the depth <strong>of</strong> the well and capacity <strong>of</strong> the pumpset and installation
charges.
While 76 per cent <strong>of</strong> the head reach farmers have pumpsets. it is 53 per
cent in the middle reaches and 40 per cent in the tail-reaches. This practice by the
farmers has not only helped to increase the productivity <strong>of</strong> crops. hut also
avoided adverse effects on sod arising out <strong>of</strong> the rise in groundwater table. The
average capacity <strong>of</strong> the pump set has obviously been high in the head reaches at
H 'I he constructllH' 01 \\elis tl> the farmers is not induced by canal seepage lIlduced
groundwater recharge, SUKe the farm holdings are also homesteads where the farmers
dwell. wells had heen wnstructed at the time <strong>of</strong> settlement itself. The installation <strong>of</strong>
pumpset with capacity above 0.5 liP may be considered as induced by groundwater
recharge. This IS hccallsc. farmers tend to install lower capacity pumpsets to draw water
fur domestic the',
243

2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in the middle and 1.25 HP in the tail-end. where
water in the wells is not as ahundant as it is at the head reaches. The estimates
about the extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge is based on the information furnished
by the farmers by observing the water levels in their wells before and after the
release <strong>of</strong> water in the canal. The cost <strong>of</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> well as well as the cost
<strong>of</strong> pumpset installation have been arrived at based on the historic prices and they
haw heen converted into current prices based on the depth <strong>of</strong> the well. labour
charges. capacity <strong>of</strong> the pumpsd. cost <strong>of</strong> installation. etc.
Interestingly. a very high degree <strong>of</strong> association has been noticed between
the extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge and capacity <strong>of</strong> the pumpsets and the farm
level investment in OFD in the Peechi irrigation projcct as revealed by the
coefficient <strong>of</strong> correlation hCl\\een the extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge and
capacity <strong>of</strong> the pump set lflswlkd (0.248). between groundwater recharge and
OFD expenditure (0.329) and bdween capacity <strong>of</strong> the pump set and the OFD
expenditure (0.691) (table 6.16)
Table 6.16: Relationship between various parameters with respect to OFD
in the Peechi project (inter-correlation matrix)
Variables (n OFDEXP PUMPCAP GWEXT DRY I FLAB
~ I 15) SHARE
OCSTAT
OFDEXP 1.000 0.691** 0.329· • 0.529 -0.208 0 -0.055
PUMPCAP 0.6910. 1000 0.248·· 0.104 -0.111 -0.038
GWEXT 0.329 •• 0.248 1.000 0.005 -0.071 -0.580"
DRYSHARE 0.529 0104 0.005 1.000 0.181· 0.002
FLAB -0.208· -0.1 II -0.071 0.181· 1000 0.044
OCSTAT -0.055 -0038 -0.580" 0.002 0.044 1.000
'-
• SignIficant at 5 per cent level. .. SlgnIfican,
.
at I per cent level.
Notes: OFDEXP- Expenditure on OFD: PUMPCAP - Capacity <strong>of</strong> the pump set;
GWEXT - Extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge; DRYSHARE - Share <strong>of</strong> area
under dry crops to be irrigated; FLAB - Availability <strong>of</strong> family labour;
OCST AT -Occupational status <strong>of</strong> the farmer.
244

The share <strong>of</strong> dry crops also has been found to be influencing OFD
expenditure <strong>of</strong> the farmers. signifying that higher the share <strong>of</strong> area under dry
crops that could be brought under groundwater irrigation. higher will be the
expenditure on OFD. The parameters. like availability <strong>of</strong> family labour and
occupational status <strong>of</strong> farmers have not influenced the expenditure on OFD.
Having discussed the relationship between extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater
recharge. pumpset capacity and expenditure on OFD. let us now examine the
expenditure pattern <strong>of</strong> the sample farmers. The average expenditure on land
development varies across the three locations. In the head reaches, the average
expenditure <strong>of</strong> Rs. 2514 per acre is relatively high when compared to Rs. 2273 in
the middle reach and Rs. 1265 in the tail-end. A positive relationship has been
observed oetween tht? t?xtt:nt <strong>of</strong> dry art?a a\·ailable to cultivate irrigated dry crops
and the installation l)f pump s.:ts as \\.:11 as the expenditure on OFD across the
thre.: locations (taok (16) That m.:ans. farmers who have got additional land
that could be brought under imgated cultivation or the area notified for irrigation
and not getting canal water ha\l; resorted to groundwater irrigation through
InstallatIOn <strong>of</strong> pumpsets. Suoseljuently. they have invested more on land
development as they arc assured <strong>of</strong> timely availaoility <strong>of</strong> water made possible by
the groundwater recharging.
It should oe noted that the cost <strong>of</strong> land development depends upon several
fadors. like typt: <strong>of</strong> soil. slope. Silt: ut the hulding. mechanical power rt:quired
and so on. For instance. small Iwld.:rs may usc only manual IaOOlH for kvelling
the land mostly with family i;lhouf. I h.: landholding size and t?xp.:nditure on
OFD are positively rdated. im;spcctiv.: <strong>of</strong> the location <strong>of</strong> the plot. The relatively
245

large holders have spent two to three times more than small and marginal ones
(Table 6.17).
Table 6.17: Relationship between irrigable holding size and oro
expenditure, Peechi Project
Size class Head Reach Middle Reach Tail Reach
(Acres) Avg. size OFO exp. Avg. size OFO expo Avg. size OFO expo
Below 0.5 0.24 (30) 1663 0.40 (29) 1666 0.4 (26) 617
0.5 to I 0.8 (40) 1992 0.73(45) 2148 0.71 (42) 824
1 to 2 1.23 (12) 2343 1.30(14) 2966 1.41 (17) 2354
2 to 4 2.96 (12) 4079 3.13 (9) 4138 3.62 (11) 942
Above 4 4.67 (6) 7636 4.23 (3) 6548 6.26(4) 1218
Overall 1.54 2514 0.91 2273 0.82 1265
,
Nole: FIgures III parentheses are the percentage <strong>of</strong> farmers belongmg to each
class.
The expenditure on OFD and the ownership <strong>of</strong> well, as mentioned earlier,
are positively related as shown in table 6.17. However. in the tail reaches. the
relationship between holding size: and OFD expenditure does not correspond each
other due to the high percentage <strong>of</strong> rubbcr area. The farmers do not consider it
necessary to irrigate rubber. incurring expenditure on land devclopment. The
pump set capacity in terms <strong>of</strong> HP obviously depends upon the size <strong>of</strong> the holding
to be irrigated and the extent <strong>of</strong> water availability in the well. Therefore. the
relatively large farmers installed higher capacity pumpsets and invested more on
OFD (table 6.18).
Table 6.18: Relationship between groundwater recharge, pump set capacity
and oro expenditure, Peechi project
Capacity <strong>of</strong> pump Number <strong>of</strong> Average Extent <strong>of</strong>GW OFD
sets (HP) farmers capacitv (HP) recharge exp(Rs.)
Below 1.5 40 1.28 3.43 2092
1. 5 to :2 26 2.00 4.25 2540
Above 2 9 3.68 4.73 4513
Total 75 1.93 4.14 2678
246

The expenditure on OFD has been very high in cases where the extent <strong>of</strong>
groundwater replenishment has been more as well as the higher levels <strong>of</strong> pump
set capacity. Howcyer. the small and marginal farmers need special attention in
this respect. as many <strong>of</strong> them cannot afford to have an independent pumpset <strong>of</strong>
high capacity and even if some can afford. it would not be economically viable
- .
Therefore. there is a need for developing an institutional mechanism to promote
water markets in the command area.
6.2.1.2 Impact <strong>of</strong> OFD on income from different crops in the Peechi project
Following a detailed discussion on the positive benefits <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge
caused by the seepage in the Peechi canal system and its impact on farm level
adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD and related issues. an attempt has been made. in what follows.
to examine the crop-wise costs and returns on investment. However. before
examining the cost and returns <strong>of</strong> different crops across the canal reaches. a brief
note on the cost concept used in the analysis is in order.
The cost concept used in the study is "Cost A' as used in the studies on
Farm Management Surveys9. especially by Kahlon and Singh (\980). This is
because <strong>of</strong> the problems involved in apportioning the cost <strong>of</strong> land or the interest
on land. as a fixed asset in the farming cost calculations in respect <strong>of</strong> Kerala.
9 The Farm Management Studies (FMS) have used three important cost concepts. viz.,
Cost A. Cost B and Cost C. in arriving at a re~listic estimate <strong>of</strong> thl! cost <strong>of</strong> production <strong>of</strong>
individual crops. Accordingly, 'Cost A' includes expenditure on labour, draught power,
farm machinery, seeds. fertiliser and manure, plant protection chemicals, irrigation and
miscellaneous expenditure, including cost <strong>of</strong> transportation and marketing. 'Cost R'
comprise 'Cost A' plus interest on fixed capital, including land and 'Cost C' includes
'Cost B' plus imput~d value <strong>of</strong> family labour.
247

Farming is considered mostly as a secondary activity In Kerala due to vanous
operational constraints ranging from non-viable farm holdings to heavv
dependence on hired labour I 0 coupled with high wage costs as well as
unremunerative market prices. The opportunity cost <strong>of</strong> land is determined by the
land use options for different crops. In view <strong>of</strong> the emerging crop diversification
in the irrigation commands on a large scale, assuming some notional value ll
reflecting the opportunity cost <strong>of</strong> land, has its own limitations in Kerala' s
context. In general. farmers have a perception that cultivation <strong>of</strong> any crop
becomes non-viable. if the rental or market value <strong>of</strong> land is reckoned in the cost
calculations.
III The study by Nair (1999) brings out the use <strong>of</strong> family labour is only 10.3 per cent a!ld
that <strong>of</strong> hired labour is significantly high at 89.7 per cent. Only 23 percentage <strong>of</strong> the
farmers reported farming as a primary activity. While 32 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers have
reported business and industry as the major activity, 17.6 per cent being salaried group.
11 George (1988) observes that using certain notional value <strong>of</strong> land would lead to
misrepresentation in Kerala as the opportunity cost <strong>of</strong> land is very high in view <strong>of</strong>
increasing speculative as well as other uses <strong>of</strong> land. including real estate or housing
purposes. Land is <strong>of</strong>ten valued as an asset and safe investment rather than as a
productive resource in agriculture. Moreover, the cost <strong>of</strong> production after considering all
the cost concepts would turn out tn be far from remunerative levels. the returns being far
below the costs.
Based on the cost <strong>of</strong> cultivation data furnished by the Bureau <strong>of</strong> Economics and
Statistics (BES), George (1988) found that the net returns per ha. (expressed as value <strong>of</strong>
output) were positive with Cost A and negative with Cost B and Cost C for all the crops,
with only exception <strong>of</strong> ginger. that too for one year. A comparison <strong>of</strong> the unit cost <strong>of</strong>
production with the farm level prices for the period 1980-81 to 1984-85 indicate that
farm level prices were far below the unit cost <strong>of</strong> production using Cost B for paddy,
coconut, pepper and tapioca for all the periods.
248

Thus, given these estimation problems, we confine ourselves to the use <strong>of</strong> 'Cost
A'. which includes all the paid out costs in production. mainly wages paid lO
labour from planting to harvesting as well as cost <strong>of</strong> material inputs. like cost <strong>of</strong>
fertiliser. plant protection chemicals. seeds. etc. The costs and returns <strong>of</strong> the
farming operations undertaken by the farmers in the Peechi irrigation project are
compared across the different reaches as shown in table 6.19.
Table 6.19: Costs and returns from different crops in the Peechi
oroiect: Reach-wise (Rs. per acre)
Labour Material
Crops
Total cost
Gross Net Pr<strong>of</strong>it
cost cost Income returns (%)
Head Reach
Paddy 2719.2 1604.6 4323.8 7235.5 2911.7 67.3
Banana 5461.0 4880.3 10341.3 35419.0 25077.7 242.5
Coconut 6325.0 1793.8 8118.8 20135.0 12016.2 148.0
Arecanut 5149.1 1314.3 6463.4 8199.7 1736.4 26.8
Tapioca 3250.0 2225.0 5475.0 8758.6 3283.6 60.0
! Pepper 750.0, 145.0 895.0 4629.5 3734.5 417.3
Plantain 375.0 140.0 515.0 1758.5 1243.5 241.5
Middle Reach
I Paddy 1398.3 825.2 2223.5 5428.6 3205.1 144.2
i Banana 4541.2 2717.8 7259.0 22509.0 15250.0 21 0.1
Coconut 4550.0 612.5 5162.5 10290.0 5127.5 99.3
Arecanut 2412.0 625.6 3037.6 6987.6 3949.9 130.1
Tapioca 2750.0 1850 4600.0 6188.8 1588.7 34.5
I Pepper 675.0 125.0 800.0 1453.1 653.1 81.6
, Plantain 250.0 120.0 370.0 1262.5 892.5 241.2
Tail Reach
Paddy 1258.75 812.5 2071.25 3875.0 1803.8 87.1
Banana 2458.52 1647.25 4105.77 6458.25 2352.5 57.3
Coconut 1875.45 1254.65 3130.1 5435.25 2305.2 73.6
Arecanut 1647.75 13 1 5.5 2973.25 4357.56 1384.3 46.6
Tapioca 1325.25 675.0 2000.25 2258.5 258.3 12.9
Pepper 345.0 140.0 485.0 1245.0 760.0 156.7
Plantain 225.0 140.0 365.0 1350.0 985.0 269.9
249

The pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> crops depends upon, among other things, timely and
adequate supply <strong>of</strong> water. The data presented in table 6.19 shows the income
from various crops across the three reaches <strong>of</strong> the Peechi command area. For
instance. the returns on investment in the crops grown in head and middle
reaches are high when compared to those in the tail-end. A relatively more
assured supply <strong>of</strong> water in the head and middle reaches tends to motivate farmers
to apply more doses <strong>of</strong> yield-enhancing inputs. It could be seen from the above
table that the cost <strong>of</strong> material inputs per acre <strong>of</strong> banana is as high as Rs. 4880 in
the head reaches as against Rs. 2717 and Rs. 1647, in the middle and tail reaches
respectively. The pr<strong>of</strong>itability is quite high when compared to other crops.
Undependable supply <strong>of</strong> water for the tail enders deprives them to reap the
benefits <strong>of</strong> a crop whose pr<strong>of</strong>itahility is more. The maximisation <strong>of</strong> productivity
potential <strong>of</strong> a crop and the consequent increase in income depends upon a great
deal on adequate supply <strong>of</strong> water. This is also linked, as mentioned earlier, to the
OFO works that a farmer takes in his fields.
Among the crops. banana is highly pr<strong>of</strong>itable in the head and middle
reaches, the percentage <strong>of</strong> net returns being 242 per cent in the head and 210 per
cent in the middle reaches. However, the net returns per acre from paddy is
higher than that from banana and coconut in the tail reaches. which could be
explained in terms <strong>of</strong> the lack <strong>of</strong> availability <strong>of</strong> sufficient water for these crops.
The impact <strong>of</strong> OF!) on the yield <strong>of</strong> different crops gruwn in the Peechi
irrigation project has been examined by comparing the plots where OFO was
adopted and where it was not adopted and the details are presented in table 6.20.
It is noteworthy that the net additional earnings from crops grown in the plots
250

with OFD have been more than those without OFO works. Among the crops.
tapioca and banana are more pr<strong>of</strong>itable. For instance. the additional output from
the developed plots is 231 per cent more. In the case <strong>of</strong> banana. the productivity
in developed plots is higher by 1377 kg. per acre than the undeveloped plots. The
yield di fferentials are quite perceptible in case <strong>of</strong> all other crops though not as
high as in the case <strong>of</strong> tapioca and banana.
Table 6.20: Yield and income differences in plots with and without
OFO in the Peechi project
I Plots \\ ith OFO Plots without OFO Incremental Additional
Crops
Value ! Value
Yield
yield (Kg.! No.) Yield
earnings
(Rs.) (Rs.) per acre (%)
Coconut 3339 14190 1833 7791 1506 82
Banana 2125 19656 748 6923 1377 184
Vegetable 504, 4234 278 2338 226 81
Arecanut 189 ' 8517 113 5101 76 67
Rubber· 909 26819 620 18302 289 47
: Pepper
,
68 8273 55 6668 13 24
i Ginger!
141 530 71 266 70 99
, turmeriC
Tapioca 1003 4763 303 1439 700 231
Note: • Rubber IS grown only 10 the tall reaches <strong>of</strong> the RB maIO canal.
Yield <strong>of</strong> coconut and is measures in tenns <strong>of</strong> number <strong>of</strong> nuts per acre and for
all (lth\:r crops. it is kgs p\:r aer\:o Rubber is essentially a rainfed crop. Even so.
the developed plots. which arc converted into rubber fields. tend to have more
moisture retention capacity and therefore. its productivity is high when compared
to undeveloped plots, The improved soil moisture status enables more number <strong>of</strong>
tapping days during summer!!. resulting in higher output. The yield improvement
I! In view <strong>of</strong> the acule SCIre Ily "I water during summer. rubber growers tend to keep
their rubber trees unlapped lor ahout two months and providing irrigation to rubber
plants during this period help, avoiding the lapping rest. thereby providing more
number <strong>of</strong> tapping days.
251

noticed in the case <strong>of</strong> rubber could be considered as an outcome <strong>of</strong> increase in
the number <strong>of</strong> tapping days.
Though crop diversification is taking place in the command area on a
larger scale from paddy to other high value crops, the non-availability <strong>of</strong> watcr
acts as a major constraint in attaining higher levels <strong>of</strong> productivity under
irrigated conditions. It is also certain that if the farmers are assured <strong>of</strong> timely
supply <strong>of</strong> water. they would invcst more on improving the quality <strong>of</strong> the land
through adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD. It is important to note that, whatever little investment
the farmers make for irrigating the plots is contingent upon the incidental benefit
<strong>of</strong> groundwater replenishment caused by canal seepage. As the water release for
crops other than paddy is outside the design and scope <strong>of</strong> the project, farmers are
not able to get the maximum benefits out <strong>of</strong> crop diversification. If the irrigation
system are technicallv modilied so as to enable crop diversification, it would
. .
further induce the farmers to invest in OFD for efficient utilisation <strong>of</strong> water in
the field. This will also motivate them to resort to conjunctive use <strong>of</strong> canal and
groundwater.
The reasons and the constraints In the adoption <strong>of</strong> better land
development and water management measures both at the system as well as farm
levels will be examined in greater detail in the following chapter. In what
follows, a detailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD in the Kallada
irrigation project has heen attempted.
252

6.2.1.3 Crop diversification and returns to scale in the Peechi project
An analysis <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation on crop-diversification as well as the
pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> alternate crops grown under we)) irrigation In the Peechi
command is presented below. This is to bring out the importance <strong>of</strong> cropdiversification
in canal commands to achieve higher returns to scale under
assured supply <strong>of</strong> canal irrigation. The analysis is carried out using the Cobb-
Douglas Production function approach in the log-linear framework. The
functional form is expressed as:
The above function is transformed in the log-linear form and is expressed as:
Where:
Y = Income from crops:
XI = OFD Expenditure:
X 2 = Labour Cost;
Xl = Material Cost;
X 4 = Power Charges;
X 5 = Irrigation Charges.
The inputs arc expressed in rupee terms. PI. P2. PJ. P4 and Ps are the
regression coefficients showing the input elasticities <strong>of</strong> individual resources. The
sum <strong>of</strong> the beta coefficients indicates the returns to scale. The returns to scale are
increasing. constant or decn:a,ing depending upon the sum <strong>of</strong> regression when
coefficients is greater than. equal to. or less than unity.
253

The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Function has some well-known properties that
justify its wide application in economic literature (Henderson and Quandt. 1971).
It is a homogeneous function that provides a scale factor enabling one to measure
the returns to scale and to interpret the elasticity coefficients with relative ease.
But. at the same time, the CD function makes several restrictive assumptions. It
is assumed that the elasticity coefficients are constant, implying constant shares
for the inputs. The elasticity <strong>of</strong> substitution among factors is also assumed to be
unity in the CD function. The estimates <strong>of</strong> the input elasticities have been
worked out using the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) method and have been
presented in table 6.21.
Table 6,21: Crop-wise input elasticities and returns to scale in Peechi
proJec . t
-
I
1I1pill Elaslicilies
Variables
Coconut Coconut
Coconut Banana I Arecanut Paddy & &
banana arccanut
, Intercept -52.198 -17.65 14.89 28.93 -5395 8.89
(-0.0801 (-1682) (0.648) ( 1748) (-1.662) (0.929)
XI 0.709 0.031 -0.015 0.464 0.132 0.056
(OFD Exp.) (6.35) (\853) (-0.305) (1.886) (2.604) (0.962)
X2 0.286 0.030 1.009 0.207 -0.061 0.423
(Lab. Cost) (5.422) (1.202) (2492) (1.445) (-0.654) (8.138)
X3 0.010 0.079 0.004 0.277 0.569 0.354
(Mat. Cost) (0.283) (3.118) (0.43:U ( 1.876) ( 4.269) (4.686)
X4
0.076 0.486 0.012 -0.251 0.141 0.211
(Power
( 1.544) (0849) (0.855) (-0.251) (0.984) (2.928)
Charges)
X5 0.005 0418 -0.011 0.252 -0.047
-----
(Irr. Charges) (0.089) (0.729) (-0.736) (2.832) (-1.432)
Returns to
scale
1.086 1.044 0.999 0.697 1.033 0.997
R square 0.286 0.568
.
0.642 0.382 0.678 0.581
~
Sample size
( no.)
95 95 95 51 95 95
D- W statistic 1.834 2.08 2.03 1.80 2.28 1.84
Note: Figures •
In parentheses are the respective t raltos.
254

The analysis shows that the returns to scale in respect <strong>of</strong> coconut and
banana cultivation is above one and it indicates increasing returns to scale. The
lowest returns to scale has be.::n observed in the case <strong>of</strong> paddy (0.697). which
indicates decreasing returns to scale per unit <strong>of</strong> investment. In the case <strong>of</strong>
coconut. the returns to scale is almost one. indicating constant returns. The crop
combination. ie .. coconut and banana give better returns to scale (1.033) in
com pari son to coconut and arecanut (0.997).
Given the higher returns arising from crop diversification in the
groundwater irrigated conditions. it is important to note that under assured canal
supplies. the scale <strong>of</strong> returns will be more than that reported, ensured through
better land development and water management practices being adopted by the
farmers Th.:: analysis also brings out a genuine need for crop-diYersification
based on mixed cropping syskl11. wherein. the uncertainties involved in farming
could be overcome to a considerable extent.
6.2.2 Impact <strong>of</strong> OFD in the Kallada Irrigation Project
The Kallada Irrigation Project (KIP) is one <strong>of</strong> the two projects selected for the
study. It is one <strong>of</strong> the oldest irrigation projects in the state, which was started in
1961. Due to various factors r~lllging from financial to technical design problems.
the project stilI remains to be partially commissioned. The project was mainly
designed for irrigating paddy. Subsequently. it was brought under the World
255

· 13
Bank assistance programme and therefore. there was substantial revision in the
scope <strong>of</strong> the project in favour <strong>of</strong> garden crops. mainly coconut and other tret.'
crops. including rubber to ensure financial viability <strong>of</strong> the project As a rt.'sult.
the project is considered as the only project in the country specifically intended
for growing tree crops and the project is. otherwise. known as the Kallada
Irrigation and Tree Crops Development Project (KI & TCDP).
Currently, less than 40 per cent <strong>of</strong> the ayacut is under wet crops. mainh
paddy. Based on the field survey, it is noticed that only 17 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area is
being cultivated under paddy. The remaining area notified under paddy is either
left fallow due to lack <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> paddy or remains waterlogged due to the
seepage caused by badly maintained canal systems. However, there are no
realistic estimates to indicate the extent <strong>of</strong> paddy land left uncultivated due to
various reasons. Paddy fields are also left uncultivated as the canopy <strong>of</strong> rubber
plantations covers a major share <strong>of</strong> the paddy area. About 58 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area
is under dry crops and 25 per cent area is put to non-agricultural uses, VIZ.,
permanent conversion for dwellings. roads and the like.
As observed already, the project has been selected for an indepth study in
view <strong>of</strong> its special significance in terms <strong>of</strong> crop diversification, quite distinct
from the croppmg pattern designed originally, ie., paddy. The analysis <strong>of</strong> the
impact <strong>of</strong> Kallada irrigation project is, limited in scope and content 111
view <strong>of</strong>
the dismal performance <strong>of</strong> the irrigation sYstem and its incomplete status.
U The external aid to the extent <strong>of</strong> US $ 80.3 million has been made available through
the International Development Agency (IDA) as a loan and credit for the schemc. Thc
full amount <strong>of</strong> the credit has been reimbursed as part l,f the Phase I <strong>of</strong> the project.
256

However, the case <strong>of</strong> Kallada is more relevant to study as the problems and
constraints in realising as a scheme, which has not yielded the expected results
even after four decades <strong>of</strong> its inception. Accordingly, more than explaining the
<strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong> the project in terms <strong>of</strong> cost and benefits, it is the dynamics
involved in the process <strong>of</strong> implementation <strong>of</strong> the project that would be very
relevant to throw more light on policy perspectives.
With this backdrop, an attempt has been made in this section, to examine
the impact <strong>of</strong> the Kallada scheme on the area expansion and irrigated crop
production in the command area. As already pointed out, the water distribution
system in the project is unique in terms <strong>of</strong> its design suitable for cultivation <strong>of</strong>
tree crops grown in the homesteads. Though the project is designed for paddy
cultivation. almost 60 per cent <strong>of</strong> the command area is under dry crops, which
require irrigation during summer. Since the topography <strong>of</strong> the project area is
undulating. the conventional open canal system was not suitable to bring the
entire ayacut under irrigation. Hence, the underground pipe line system, called
the Minor Con\'eyance System (MCS) was proposed for the Kallada project. The
MCS is laid out through the farmers plots and the cost <strong>of</strong> installation <strong>of</strong> the
system was proposed to be partially recovered from the beneficiary farmers
based on certain rates. Accordingly, (i) farmers holding in excess <strong>of</strong> 4 ha. are
expected to bear 50 per cent <strong>of</strong> the cost; (ii) farmers holding area between 2 to 4
ha. are to gi\c .to per cent <strong>of</strong> the cost <strong>of</strong> installation; (iii) those having land
257

etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange for 37.5 per cent <strong>of</strong> the cost <strong>of</strong> MCS installation
and (iv) those below I ha. are to give 35.5 per cent <strong>of</strong> the costl 4 .
Since farmers' contribution was minimal, MCS division <strong>of</strong> the KIP took
up the work expeditiously and completed it much ahead <strong>of</strong> the completion <strong>of</strong> the
entire canal network necessary to release water through the MCS.
The
construction <strong>of</strong> canal network was delayed for more than a decade. This
mismatch between the construction <strong>of</strong> canal network and the on-farm water
distribution system has made the investment in MCS infructuous or unproductive
sunk capital. Furthermore, the material used to lay the pipes and associated
structures have been completely spoiled and become useless. This has resulted in
several changes in land use pattern in the command area. For instance, some <strong>of</strong>
the area localised for paddy has been forcefully converted into rubber
plantations 15 The entry <strong>of</strong> rubber plantations particularly in the area commanded
by the right bank canaL has, therefore, changed the entire scenario <strong>of</strong> water
distribution system in the Kallada command area. Rubber is mostly considered as
a rainfed crop. The farmers did not feel the need for OFD works to promote
efficient water management, because <strong>of</strong> the existence <strong>of</strong> MCS. Consequently, no
private investment took place. Some <strong>of</strong> the necessary accessories like rubber
hoses for taking water from the hydrants were also given to the farmers free <strong>of</strong>
I~ Surprisingly, there was no justification as regards fixing such norm for recovering the
cost <strong>of</strong> installation from the farmcr\. Moreover, based on the operational holdings
structure in the command area, majority <strong>of</strong> the farmers would have been placed in the
lower strata <strong>of</strong> cost recovery.
IS In most cases, the switch over from paddy to rubber has been caused by the canopy <strong>of</strong>
rubber plantations enveloping thc low-lying paddy areas and thus, it forms a case <strong>of</strong>
forced conversion.
258

cost. This is an illustrative example as to how the irrigation policies and
programmes take twists and turns in the absence <strong>of</strong> time-bound co-ordinated
executive and operation plans.
It is important to note that while examining the impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation in the
Kallada project, this dynamics need proper understanding and interpretation,
because. the ground realities play an important role in explaining why the social
benefits <strong>of</strong> irrigation in Kerala have been far from expected levels and desired
directions. An attempt has been however. made in what follows to examine the
success <strong>of</strong> the MCS in the Kallada project, even if it is in a limited scale, based
on the field data available.
6.2.2.1 Minor Conveyance System (MCS): Operational status and impact
It appears that the enthusiasm to implement MCS in the project was apparently
very high. For instance. the command area surveyed to bring under the MCS was
much higher than the targeted area.
But. when it was translated into
implementation and operationalisation <strong>of</strong> the programme at the field level. the
story was altogether disappointing as revealed from the data presented in table
6.22. It is clear that only in 73 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area targeted for MCS
infrastructure was completed What is worse is its utilisation. The potential
utilised under MCS was ahout one third. Less than one third <strong>of</strong> the area was
handed over to the Water Users' Associations (WUAs). Based on the information
provided hy the project <strong>of</strong>ficials. it was also understood that no further work with
regard to MCS implementation was taken up during the last few years due to
financial constraints.
259

Table 6.22: Status <strong>of</strong> implementation <strong>of</strong> MCS in the Kallada Project
Status <strong>of</strong> work Target (Ha) Achievement (Ha.)
as <strong>of</strong> March 1990 Achievement (%)
Survey work 50000 54706 109.41
Scheme sanctioned 45000 39858 88.57
, Work completed 45000 32810 72.91
Potential utilised 45000 16428 36.51
Handed over to WUAs 45000 13768 30.60
SOllrce. Kallada IrngatlOn Project. Project related documents.
The fact that the entire system is intended for garden crops indicates the
technical constraints to operate the MCS. Furthermore. high value crops grown in
the paddy fields as interim crops cannot be irrigated through the MCS as the
networks are located in the garden lands. These intricacies are made clear when
we look at the source-wise irrigated area in Kallada village (Table 6.23).
Table 6.23: Source-wise area irrigated in a Kallada village
Crop
, Under MCS Under OCS
Area (Ha.) Share (%) Area (Ha.) Share (%)
Paddy na na 1.5 15.00
Coconut 11.5 34.85 na na
Banana 7 21.21 3 30.00
Pepper 2 6.06 na na
Rubber 12.5 37.88 na na
Betelvine na na 2 20.00
Pulses na na 3 30.00
Vegetable na na 0.5 5.00
Total 33 100 10 100
Note: na - Not posstble as per the technical features <strong>of</strong> the scheme.
Of the total area brought under the MCS. rubber accounts for almost 38
per cent followed by coconut (35 %) and banana (21 %).
It is noteworthy that only 35 per cent <strong>of</strong> the sample farmers have reported
that they have been actually benefited by the MCS works. A Majority <strong>of</strong> the
farmers reported that though the distribution system was laid out thorough their
holdings. they could not use the system as there was no water available. The
260

proportion <strong>of</strong> fanners benefited under MCS is the highest in the head reaches (43
%), followed by 38 per cent in the middle reaches and 32 per cent in the tail cnd.
Thc coverage <strong>of</strong> the area under the MCS is also very less across the three
locations, the highest share being in the head reaches at 30 per cent, followed by
28 per cent in the middle reaches and 14 per cent in the tail reaches (Table 6.24).
Table 6.24: Farmers benefited by MCS in the Kallada project- Locationwise
Location
Benefited under the MCS
Farmers (%) Area (acres) Area (%)
Avg. size <strong>of</strong> holding
(acres)
Head 43.08 49.94 30.26 1.62
Middle 3804 48.70 28.32 2.35
Tail 32.45 17.72 14.23 0.68
Total 34.65 116.36 25.21 1.43
As reported already. ill P~~chi,
one <strong>of</strong> the two projects selected for the
study. the groundwatcr !e\cl has increased after the introduction <strong>of</strong> canal
irrigation.
Similar is the case with Kallada also. However. the intensity and
spread <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge in the Kallada project is less, because, a major
part <strong>of</strong> the canal system is under the MCS wherein. percolation loss is obviously
low. Even so. a sizeable proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers has reported <strong>of</strong> having benefited
by groundwater recharge as rcvcaled by the data presented in table 6.25.
Table 6.25: Percentage <strong>of</strong> farmers having water sources for irrigation,
including groundwater-Location-wise
Details
I
lIead Reach Middle Reach Tail Reach Overall
Groundwater sources 74.36 70.77 68.42 71.50
Canal recharging 34.45 26.83 21.80 27.34
Hydrants fixed 43.59 43.08 36.84 41.50
Pump sets installed E05 27.69 24.56 28.50
Total sample size 7& 65 57 200
261

Though almost all the farmers reporting groundwater recharge have
installed pumpsets to make use <strong>of</strong> groundwater sources for irrigation, the extent
<strong>of</strong> groundwater recharging has not been very much due to various reasons.
Firstly. a major segment <strong>of</strong> the Kallada canal system is fully lined and thus, the
seepage and percolation loss is less in comparison to the unlined/ earthen canal
system. as reported in the case <strong>of</strong> Peechi project. Secondly, in many places, the
canal system is constructed through excavating the earth deeper than the surface
level. As a result. there is not much scope for groundwater recharge. However, in
the upper reaches <strong>of</strong> the canal system. farmers reported that they are unable to do
any cultivation in the paddy fields due to water logging caused by the canal
seepage. Almost 37 to 44 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers have reported <strong>of</strong> having the
MCS networks. mainly hydrants installed in their holdings.
The cropping pattern adopted in the Kallada command area has its impact
on water use and management. As could be seen from the data presented in table
6.26, rubber is the major crop accounting for 32 per cent <strong>of</strong> the area cultivated.
Rubber does not require irrigation and hence. farmers growing rubber do not
show much interest in water management. The irrigated crops, such as vegetable,
arecanut, banana and plantain and tapioca together account for 35 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
cropped area. while the share <strong>of</strong> paddy is only 11 per cent. Given the typical
agricultural scenario in Kerala. coconut-based mixed farming systems are widely
prevalent. The co-existence <strong>of</strong> irrigated and rain fed farming in the culturable
command area <strong>of</strong> a project has its ramification on the maintenance <strong>of</strong> the water
distribution network, besides OFD works. For instance, the MCS should pass
through large tracts <strong>of</strong> rubber plantations. Since the rubber growers do not
262

depend on the MCS (even if it is functioning properly), they tend to spoil the
system or some times do not allow the system to be laid out through their tiny
plots. In such cases. the pipeline system needs to be laid out in a roundabout
way. which would add to the cost enormously.
Table 6.26: Cropping pattern in the Kallada study area
Crops Area (acres) Share(%)
Paddy 50.72 10.99
Coconut & coconut mixed 98.49 21.34
Cashew 9.88 2.14
Rubber 148.34 32.14
Arecanul 8.22 1.78
Tapioca 46.43 10.06
Vegetable (pulses, etc) 64.66 14.0 I
Banana & plantain 34.80 7.54
Total area 461.55 100.00
As mentioned earlier. investment in OFD by the fanners depends upon
adequate and assured supply <strong>of</strong> water. It is obvious that availability <strong>of</strong> water in
the head reaches will be relatively more abundant. Therefore. farmers in the head
reaches tend to take up OFD works on a larger scale. However. the cost <strong>of</strong> land
levelling depends upon several factors, such as type <strong>of</strong> soil. topography, skilled
labour availability and so on. On an average. farmers have spent about Rs. 1200
per acre on OFD. This expenditure seems to be neutral to the location <strong>of</strong> the plot.
Because. as observed from the data presented in table 6.27. there is marginal
variation in the expenditure on OFD across the locations. For instance, it is Rs.
1184 per acre in the head reach plots, followed by Rs. 1198 in the middle and Rs.
11 S6 in the tail reaches. Across the different size classes <strong>of</strong> holdings, the average
expenditure incurred hy the farmers in the 2 to 4 acre size class is high especially
in the tail reaches at Rs. 4260 as against Rs. 3879 in the head reaches and Rs.
263

3854 in the middle reaches. The proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers in that size class is ,
however. not high in all the three locations. Thus. the positive relationship
between size class and OFO expenditure as observed in the Peechi project is not
seen in respect <strong>of</strong> Kallada project.
Table 6.27: Investment in OFD and size <strong>of</strong> dry holding - Location-wise
Head Reach Middle Reach Tail Reach
Size class
(Acres) Avg. OFO Exp.
OFO Exp.
Avg. size
OFO Exp.
Avg. size
sIze (Rs.! acre) (Rs.! acre) (Rs'/ acre)
Below 0.5 0.35 505 (46) 0.32 455 (42) 0.34 482 (51)
0.5 to I 0.89 1320 (38) 0.75 1040(31) 0.74 1046 (28)
I to 2 1.18 1615 (8) 1.47 2085 (19) 1.36 1895 (14)
2 to 4 2.75 3879(8) 2.69 3854 (5) 3.07 4260 (5)
Above 4 0 0 7.16 3345 (3) 8.00 2176 (2)
Overall 0.82 1184 0.95 1198 0.86 1156
Note: FIgures m parentheses are percentage <strong>of</strong> farmers belongmg to each class.
This may be explained in terms <strong>of</strong> the topographical conditions in which
these two projects are located. For instance. the topography in the Kallada
command area is uneven and highly undulating which requires substantial
investment for cutting the mounds. some times very deeply to level the plots and
bring it to a uniform slope. Moreover. the dominance <strong>of</strong> rubber in the cropping
pattern acts as a disincentive in undertaking land development works.
After discussing the current status <strong>of</strong> functioning <strong>of</strong> the MCS, it IS
important to examine the impa

appears to be quite encouraging. For instance, the incremental output under MCS
ranges from 61 per cent in coconut to 249 per cent in arecanut, 164 per cent in
pepper, 161 per cent in vegetables and 117 per cent in banana. Thus, the income
earned from crops, such as vegetables, banana, tapioca and pepper grown under
the MCS have been very significant compared to coconut and rubber.
Table 6.28: Yield and Income differences across the MCS and OCS adopted
plots I m 'Klldp·
a a a rOlect
Under MCS Under OCS Incremental
Additional
Crops
yield (Kg.!
Yield Value Yield Value earnings (%)
I
No) per ha.
I Coconut 2776 9716 1720 6019 1056 61
Banana 1436 12928 661 5947 776 117
Vegetable 364 2551 140 978 225 161
Arecanut 100 4016 29 1150 72 249
Rubber 708 20877 392 11561 316 81
Pepper 50 6024 19 2283 31 164
i Cashew 136 2441 107 1931 28 26
-,-""1,,)
Tapioca 642 .»).) - 283 1554 I 360 127
Note: YIeld <strong>of</strong> coconut IS measured In terms <strong>of</strong> nuts per acre and for all other
crops, it is kgs per acre.
The performance <strong>of</strong> crops under MCS by the location <strong>of</strong> the plot is also
examined and the results are compared with the plots under OCS as shown in
table 6.29. Since paddy is not grown under MCS, it is not included in the
analysis. Among the major crops cultivated by the sample farmers, banana is
found to be more pr<strong>of</strong>itable in the Kallada project. It is more so in the head
reaches. Relatively more reliable supply <strong>of</strong> water in the head reaches enables the
farmers to realise bctter returns from banana, which is a water-intensivc crop.
Though banana is grown in middle and tail reaches, the incremental income
arising out <strong>of</strong> irrigation through MCS is almost 34 per cent in both the cases.
265

The net income from vegetables and tapioca grown under the MCS in the middle
and tail reaches has been less than that from the open canal irrigated farms. This
IS essentially due to the inadequacy <strong>of</strong> \\ater dUring summer in these reaches. as
reported by the farmers. The performance <strong>of</strong> all other crops under MCS in terms
<strong>of</strong> productivity is much higher than those grown under the OCS. The difference
is perceptible in the head reach plots.
Table 6.29: ~et income from different crops under MCS and OCS­
Location-wise
i Location Paddy Coconut Banana I Vegetables
I
Head Reach (In rupees per acre)
Tapioca Rubber
, MCS 0 2175 6310 I 5999 5764 9663
OCS 3633 1735 2666 I 3487 3826 6594
Diff. (%j I 0 25 137 I 72 5 I 47
Middle Reach (In rupees per acre)
MCS 0 2129 4168 4696 3089 5865
OCS 2665 1

the variety <strong>of</strong> the planting matenal used, the crop extraction system followed and
the like. However, it is said that irrigating rubber during summer months would
improve the soil moisture status and thus. latex flow may not get affected. Again,
It is widely reported from the rubber growing tracts that during summer months,
the groundwater sources available in the rubber plantations are getting depleted.
Based on these, it may be pointed out that in water abundant regions, irrigating
the rubber plants may be followed \\ithout compromising the water availability
status in the given region.
The discussion so far hnngs out a number <strong>of</strong> issues associated with OFD
in the command areas. They Include region-specific agro-climatic conditions,
topography, groundwater recharge and so on. Given the limitations to adopt
OFD, the returns from the plots where it is adopted are significantly higher than
those without OFD. But. amon~ ()ther factors, the availability <strong>of</strong> water seems io
be one <strong>of</strong> the major limitin~
secondary ill\estments. includm~
factors constraining adoption <strong>of</strong> farm level
()F!) It is rather disappointing to note that in
spite <strong>of</strong> the critical importance ()I ()ID to increase water use efficiency and the
consequent increase in crop output. its implementation at the farm level is far
from cxrected levels. An attemrt has heen made, therefore, in the following
chapter to examine the dynamIC' and constraints as perceived by the farmers, in
carrying (lut OF!) works in the command areas under reference. It is also
expected to throw light on the Illlr0rtant factors determining the farm level
adortion <strong>of</strong> OFD as well as the regloll-srecitic rrobiems and constraints in the
rursuit <strong>of</strong> land development ;llld \\ :Itn Illanagement measures in the hroader
conll:.xt <strong>of</strong> Jgricultural development scenario in Kerala.
267

Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical And Financial Performance <strong>of</strong> CAD
Programmes in Kerala, 1985-86 to 1994-95
Activities! Wing Physical Financial Cost per I Physical T Share <strong>of</strong>
achievement Expense ha.(Rs.) achievement each item
(Hectares) (Rs. I (% share) in finances
Lakhs) (%)
I. Malampuzha Project
I. Agri. Wing 11118 53.99 485.57 15.50 408
2. Soil Conservation 0 000 0001 000 0.00
3. Engineering 50443 1269.40 2516.50·. 70.34 95.92
4. Evaluation 10152 0.00 0.00 14.16 0.00
Sub total 71713 1323.38 1845.39 100.00 100.00
2. Peechi Project
1. Agri. Wing 7053 50.53 716.48 16.29 4.6 I
2. Soil Conservation 335 10.49 3132.54 0.77 0.96
3. Engineering 35313 1035.17 2931.42 81.55 94.43
4. Evaluation 602 0.00 0.00 1.39 0.00
Sub total 43303 1096.20 2531.46 100.00 100.00
3. Walavar Pro'ect
I. Agri. Wing 798 1.75 2 I 8.67 24.89 1.55
2. Soil Conservation 0 000 0.00 0.00 i 0.00
3. Engineerin~ 2089 i 110.96 5311.73 65.16 98.4,±-
4. Evaluation 319 . ,
0.01 2.51 ,
9.95 0.01
Sub total 3206 I 12.72 3515.75 100.00 100.00
4. Gavathri Pro' ect
I. Agri. Wing 2472 7.05 285.07 19.35 2.78
2. Soil Conservation 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3. Engineering 9507 246.49 2592.68 74.4 I 97.22
4. Evaluation 798 0.00 0.38 6.25 0.00
Sub total 12777 253.54 1984.32 100.00 10000
5. Pothundy Pro'ect
I. Agri. Wing 2298 8.67 377.46 15.27 3.40
2. Soil Conservation 23 0.63 2721.74 0.15 0.25
3. Engineerin~ 10267 245.92 2395.29 68.21 96.36
4. Evaluation 2465i 0.00 0.00 16.38 0.00
Sub total 15053 255.22 1695.50 10000 100.00
268

Appendix 6.1 : Project-Wise Physical And Financial Performance <strong>of</strong> CAD
Programmes in Kerala, 1985-86 to 1994-95 (Contd ... )
Activities! Wing
Phy,ical Financial
Share <strong>of</strong>
Physical
achicveme Expenses
each
Cost per achieveme
nt (Rs
item in
ha.(Rs.) nt (%
(Hectares) finances
La~hs) share)
(%)
6. Mangalam Project
,
I. Agri. Wing
1610 4.57 , 283.66 18.35 3.55
i ~. Soil Consen at ion 0 0.00 000 0.00 000
3. Engineering 6745 I -
~4.12 1840.15
.
76.86 96.45
4. Evaluation 421 0.00 0.00 !
, 4.80 0.00
~-
I Sub total 8776 I ~8.69 1466.33 100.00 100.00
! 7. Vazhani Project
I. Agri. Wing 1087 7.36 677.09 8.93 2.34
2. Soil Conservation 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3. Engineering 10397 307.58 2958.33 85.39 97.66
4. Evaluation 692 0.00 0.29 5.68 0.00
Sub total 1~176 314.94 ~586.56 100.00 100.00
8. Cheera~uzhi Project
'I. Agri Wing
...
713 4J5 610.38 16.21 3.17
, Soil Conscnation 0: 0.00 0.00 I 0.00 0.00
I 3 En!!ineerin!! I 3001 132.98 4431.19 68.24 96.83
: 4. Evaluation 684 0.00 0.00 15.55 0.00
: Sub total 4398 137.33 3122.60 100.00 100.00
i
9. Chala!-.udv Project
I. Agri. Wing 7151 47.36 662.33 13.10 3.73
2. Soil Conservation 165 5.41 3277.58 ! 0.30 0.43
3. Engineering 44958 1218.14 ~709.51 8~.35 , 95.85
4. Evaluation ~323 0.02 0.86 4.~5 ; 000
Sub total 54597 1270.93 2327.84 10000 100.00
10. Neyvar Project
I. Agri. Wing 61 II 45.58 745.85 16.57 5.21
2. Soil Conservation 50 0.67 1346.00 0.14 0.08
3. Engineering ~8935 8~9.09 2865.34 78.4 7 94.71
4. Evaluation 1778 0.02 1.07 4.82 0.00
Sub total 36874 875.36 2373.92 100.00 100.00
.
269

Chapter 7
On-Farm Development: Determinants. Constraints and Problems
The status <strong>of</strong> adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO in irrigation projects in general and in the two
projects selected for the study. in particular. has been presented in the preceding
chapter. As revealed by the secondary data available and also by the field survey
data. the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO has been found to be far from expected levels. In spite
<strong>of</strong> the demonstrated evidences to show that OFO facilitates increase in crop
productivity and the consequent higher income. farmers are still reluctant to take
up OFO works.
Against this backdrop. it IS imperative to examine the major
determinants. constraints and problems in the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO by the farmers .
..... ccordingly. this chapter discusseS the various factors determining the adoption
<strong>of</strong> land development and \\at~r
commands in the state. The chapt~r
management measures in the irrigation
is divided into three sections. Section one
has been devoted to an examination <strong>of</strong> farmers' perceptions as well as responses
regarding the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> orD and the various reasons for the non-adoption
<strong>of</strong> OFO in the study regions. Scction two deals with the region and farm-specific
factors determining the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO in the two irrigation projects. In section
three. the important problems and operational level constraints for the efficient
and effective utilisation <strong>of</strong> land and water resources have been discussed.
7.1. Farmers' perceptions <strong>of</strong> OFD: A multiple response analysis
It is important to examine the farmers' perceptions about the concert.
effectiveness as well as the prohkms confrontcd in undertaking OF!) in the
irrigation commands. This information helps us in understanding the level <strong>of</strong>

awareness among the farmers regarding the need for and importance (11' effectl\e
utilisation <strong>of</strong> canal water. As discussed In chapter 6. OFD is understood In the
Peechi irrigation command as an integral part <strong>of</strong> Command Area Development
Programme (CAOP), whereas, in the Kallada. the \lInor Conveyance System
(MCS) is considered as an effective measure <strong>of</strong> water connyance. given the
specific characteristics <strong>of</strong> the project. As the water distribution svstcms art:
different in both the irrigation projects i . the farmers· perceptions annut the
location-specific problems as understood by them and the strategies adopted for
OFO are also worth examining.
7.1.1 Peechi irrigation project
As a first step in a logical sequence <strong>of</strong> analysing the OFO related issues. an
attempt has been made to examine the understanding and knowledge <strong>of</strong> the
farmers about OFD. Specific questions were asked to elicit information <strong>of</strong> the
farmers regarding the usefulness <strong>of</strong> OFD in both the irrigation projects The
results have been presented in table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Understandine <strong>of</strong>OFD amont! farmers, Peecbi project (% <strong>of</strong> farmers)
oro means Middle Tail
Head Reach Reach Reach Total
I. Land survev before levelling 3 4 3
2. Removing shrubs and bushes 20 18 9 17
3. Levelling the field 12 19 6 9
4. Providing uniform slope to
land 19 10 12 18
5. i'rovidin)! drainage facilities 17 21 26 25
6. Items 2 to 5 29 28 44 28
Total fanners (No.) 50 45 20 lIS
Nole: HR: Head Reach; MR: Middle Reach; TR: Tail Reach.
,
)
[
I While water distribution in the I'ccchi project is dfected through the convcntional
open canal system (OCS). in the Kallada projcct. it is done through underground
pipeline system called the Minor Cnnwyance System. For a detailed deSCription

It can be seen from the survey data presented in the table 7.1 that the
farmers understand OFD in different ways. For some. OrD implies just
removing shrubs and bushes in the fields (17 %). More than one fourth <strong>of</strong> the
farmers understood it as an integrated process. which includes removing shrubs
and bushes. levelling the field. providing uniform slope to the plot and providing
drainage channels. What is noteworthy is that 25 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers are
a\\are <strong>of</strong> the need for on-farm drainage. This is \'ery important to avoid adverse
effects on soil. Furthermore. 26 per cent <strong>of</strong> the tail-end farmers feel the need for
providing drainage. Perhaps. they succumb to the problem <strong>of</strong> seepage caused by
the unlined canals. Therefore. they realise that on-farm drainage is a priority in
the process <strong>of</strong> land levelling and shaping. What is surprising is Ihal 97 per cent
<strong>of</strong> the farmers do not realise the importance <strong>of</strong> land survey before undertaking
lewlllng operations. to know the exact slope it requires and other related aspects
concerned with spacing and thickness <strong>of</strong> the bunds. The apparent neglect <strong>of</strong> land
survey before levelling can be explained in terms <strong>of</strong> the small size <strong>of</strong> the
operational holdings. which disinduce the farmers to undertake any additional
investment for land development. Thus. it may be noted that the OFD works
done by the farmers even in the limited manner are not scientific and may not
sustai n for long.
Another question was posed to the farmers to know what kind <strong>of</strong> benefits
th..:\ thought that OF]) would enahle them to realise The responses <strong>of</strong> the
farm..:rs have hecn prcs..:nted In tahle 7.2. The major benefits expected or realised
hy th..: farmers arc (i) OF]) facilitates uniform spread and application <strong>of</strong> water to
272

the plants: (i i) it avoids wastage <strong>of</strong> water in the conveyance and thereb~
minimise, the prohlem <strong>of</strong> waterlogging; and (iii) it enables efficiency in water
use in the fields. More than one fourth <strong>of</strong> the sample farmers feel that all the
benefits mentioned ahove can be realised by undertaking OFD works.
Table. 7.2: Ad.-antages <strong>of</strong> On Farm Development: Farmers' responses in Peechi
Proiect (% <strong>of</strong> farmers)
OFD is useful as it Middl
I , Head e Tail
i
Reach Reach I Reach Total
I. Enables uniform a~~lication <strong>of</strong>"ater 16 13 I 10 14
2 A\oids \\astage and ponding <strong>of</strong>"ater in the
10 15 20 12 i
,
iarm
3. A\oids \\ater logging 16 7 15 13
I 4. Controls soil erosion 8 1 I 5 9
I 5. Enables sc ientific water management 6 9 IS 8
. 6. Enables efficiency in water use 18 13 10 17
7. All <strong>of</strong> the above 26 32 25 27,
Total famlers (No.) 50 45 20 115
.\()/~ HR HeUli Reach. .I/R .\/idd/~ Reach: TR: Tail Rt'ach
WhIle 18 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers in the head reaches consider that OFD
enables to ensure efficiency 111
\\ater use. it is 15 per cent in the middle reaches
and 20 per cent in the tail end. The tail enders seem to be more conscious about
the efficiency in water use for obvious reasons <strong>of</strong> scarcity. The percentage <strong>of</strong>
farmers finding OF!) beneficial 111 more than one way is the highest at 32 in the
middle reaches, followed by 26 in the head and 25 in the tail reaches.
7.1.2 Kallada irrigation project
As alread) mentIOned. thc pf(lportion <strong>of</strong> farmers reported to havc been benefited
b, the MCS is the highest in the head reaches <strong>of</strong> Kallada project (43%).
followed by 38 per cent In Ihe middle reaches and 32 per cent in the tail end
(Chapter 6. table 6.26). While the MCS is meant for efficient conveyance <strong>of</strong>
water with no or little wastage in an otherwise undulating terrain. an attempt has
273

een made to examme as to how many farmers understood its advantages.
Improper or lack <strong>of</strong> understanding about the system may result in less attention
paid by the farmers to safeguard and maintain the distribution networks. The
details <strong>of</strong> farmers responses h;l\e been presented in table 7.3.
Table 7.3: A d vantaees <strong>of</strong> MCS: Farmers' responses in Kallada (% <strong>of</strong> farmers)
MCS helps in terms <strong>of</strong> Head Middle Tail
Reach Reach Reach Total
Avoiding \\ater loss through seepage in
field channels 20 18 15 18
Saving land for cultivation 22
1 -
-) 21 21
Avoiding construction <strong>of</strong> expensive field
: channels/ boothies 24 28 27 25
I Water is provided to each plant and ensure
optimum use 15 13 18 17
All <strong>of</strong> the above 19 16 19 19
Total farmers (No.) 78 65 57 200
,vole.' HR. Head Reach. MR. ,\.fIddle Reach: TR: Tat! Reach.
It is interesting to note that one-fifth <strong>of</strong> the sample farmers are aware <strong>of</strong>
all the possible advantages. as lIsted in the table. while the remaining kno\\ them
only partially. For instance. 18 per cent know that MCS is useful to reduce only
conveyance losses <strong>of</strong> water. followed by 22 per cent for whom the advantage <strong>of</strong>
MCS is land saving. which would have gone for construction <strong>of</strong> open canals.
Interestingly. 25 per cent uf the farmers think that MCS is more economical than
the open canal construction. Interesting, because, farmers are able to perceive
the econumics <strong>of</strong> the system In their own way, which renects their concern to
avoid wasteful expenditure <strong>of</strong> the public funds. An understanding <strong>of</strong> the land
saving dimension <strong>of</strong> the MCS is equally important where a majority <strong>of</strong> the
holdings arc small and marginal. lhe proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers reporting this benefit
is more in the rniddk n:aches (25 %). compared to 22 per cent in the head
reaches and 21 per cent in the tail end. Thus. the MCS, in a way. is land-saving
274

and water-augmenting technology, as there will be no conveyance losses <strong>of</strong>
water.
Given the awareness levels <strong>of</strong> the farmers about the need for and
importance <strong>of</strong> OFD and its impact on crop productivity, water use efficiency and
environmental sustainability, it is important to examine the problems and
constraints, if any, that retard the farm level implementation <strong>of</strong> OFD. The
problems as reported by the farmers have been presented in table 7.4.
T a hi e 74 .. R easons or t e non-a d option <strong>of</strong> OFD in Kallada(% <strong>of</strong> farmers)
Reasons ind icated Head Middle Tail Total
Reach Reach Reach
Lack <strong>of</strong> finance 9 3 7 6
Existing MCS do not require OFD 27 38 28 31
Networks! canals not available 15 24 22 23
Presence <strong>of</strong> rubber area 26 28 24 22
All <strong>of</strong> the above 23 7 19 16
Total fanners (No.) 78 65 57 200
NOle. HR: Head Reach; MR: Middle Reach; TR: Tall Reach.
Majority <strong>of</strong> the farmers in Kallada project feel that the MCS network
provided for on-farm water distribution does not warrant any investment in land
development. For, the tree crops are irrigated through flexible hose pipes. All
those coming under MCS, therefore, do not see any reason to invest on OFD.
Sixteen per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers have indicated the reasons such as lack <strong>of</strong>
finance, lack <strong>of</strong> connecting field channels and existence <strong>of</strong> rubber plantations as
the reasons for not adopting OFD works, in spite <strong>of</strong> having MCS. Twenty - three
per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers do not go for OFD due to lack <strong>of</strong> field channels
connecting their plots to the distributory or minor. This appears to be strange,
because, unless field channels are provided to the plots, it would be difficult for
275

a farmer to use water from the distributory canal. Since the farmers have no easy
access to water, it is obvious that they would tend to neglect OFD.
Another important factor contrihuting to the non-adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD is the
crop shift from paddy to rubber. Since rubber is a rainfed crop, farmers do not
feel the need for OFD. However, as observed earlier, the productivity <strong>of</strong> rubber
is relatively high in developed plots than in undeveloped plots, though it is a
rainfed crop2 There is not much variation in the reasons cited by the farmers for
non-adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD across the locations, except in the middle reaches, where
the proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers indicating all the four reasons is relatively less at 7 per
cent, compared to 23 per cent in the head reaches and 16 per cent in the tail end.
Lack <strong>of</strong> finance seems to be no constraint at all as revealed by a very marginal
propurtion <strong>of</strong> farmers reporting it, ranging between three per cent in the middle
reaches and 9 per cent in the head reaches. It may be noted that the income from
rubber cultivation always has a positive impact on the liquidity position <strong>of</strong> the
farmers.
[n Kallada project, the MCS design by the agency (the state Irrigation
Department) is in itself an innovative OFD suitable to the steeply undulating
topography. Since the cost is borne entirely by the department), farmers do not
2 As rubber is grown in undulating topography or high elevation areas, the intensity <strong>of</strong>
soil erosion caused by heavy rainfall would be very high, which would deplete the soil
nutrient status. Given this problem, it is always beneficial to undertake land
development to avoid these problems. But, due to the labour costs involved, farmers
are reluctant to do so.
) Though the cost <strong>of</strong> MCS works was proposed to be partially recovered f.elm the
beneficiary farmers, no part <strong>of</strong> the cost has been recovered from the farmers. The
276

feel the pinch <strong>of</strong> it. But the only and most important constraint as reported by the
farmers is non-integration <strong>of</strong> MCS with the main water distribution network.
The Irrigation Department laid the MCS much earlier and the canal network
necessary to feed water to it was enormously delayed. With the result, most <strong>of</strong>
the equipment had gone out <strong>of</strong> use, making the investment, infructuous. This has
led to crop shift, mainly to rubber, which, according to the farmers does not
warrant any development intervention in the land. Therefore, the institutional
failure in terms <strong>of</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> integrated approach in laying MCS and the canal
distribution network has been mainly responsible for the less efficient system
performance. Therefore, in spite <strong>of</strong> the MCS being in place ever since the mid
1980s, only 36 per cent <strong>of</strong> the potential under it was utilised. Moreover, less than
one third <strong>of</strong> th~
system completed has been handed over to Water Users'
Associations (WUAs) so far. The remaining system is damaged and the materials
are stolen, as it remained no man's propert/.
criteria fixed for cost recovery was based on the proportionate area held by the
farmers, viz., (a) Farmers holding in excess <strong>of</strong> 4 ha. are expected to pay 50 per cent <strong>of</strong>
the cost; (b) farmers holding land between 2 to 4 ha., contributing 40 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
cost; (c) between I - 2 ha. 37.5 per cent <strong>of</strong> the cost; and (d) less than I ha.- 35.5 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the cost.
4 Majority <strong>of</strong> the farmers feel that the extinction <strong>of</strong> the MCS networks has been an
organised attempt bydhe contractors themselves. This is because, the wheel valves
attached to hydrants initially was made <strong>of</strong> gun metal, which could be stolen from one
region and installed elsewhere and claim for funds for that also, resulting in additional
gains out <strong>of</strong> the same work. Besides, theft <strong>of</strong> the wheel valves has become a widely
reported phenomenon as the gun metal could fetch some money, if sold as scrap iron.
This problem arose because <strong>of</strong> their installation in the inaccessible portions <strong>of</strong> the
holdings and farmers were not entrusted with the responsibility <strong>of</strong> protecting them. On
real isation that a significant portion <strong>of</strong> the MCS networks have disappeared, the
project authorities started replacing the broken! stolen wheel valves by wheel valves
277

The farmers were asked to reflect upon their opinion about the MCS in
Kallada project and the reasons for its poor or non-performance. The details
have been presented in table 7.5.
T a hI e 75 . . R easons f or t h e poor pcr f ormancc <strong>of</strong> MCS in Kallada Proiect
Reasons indicated Head Middle Tail Total
Reach Reach Reach
Broken water distribution networks 30 26 30 29
Hydrants fixed at lower layer <strong>of</strong> the plot but
crops grown in upper layers ~

hardly attended to. This is partly due to farmers' indifference to bring it to the
notice <strong>of</strong> the department since they are not using the system.
Thus, various problems ranging from technical to management have
contributed to the less efficient functioning <strong>of</strong> the MeS, though a limited
potential <strong>of</strong> the system is actually utilised. The contrast that the technical
sophistication at the system level leading to practical difficulties in taking water
from the MCS to the plots brings out the technical constraints posed by the
terrain and topography <strong>of</strong> the Kallada irrigation command. Not fixing the
hydrants at appropriate levels and places clearly demonstrates the ignorance <strong>of</strong>
the engineers about the ground realities. Interestingly, local farmers were not
taken into confidence while laying the system. This brings out the outright
neglect <strong>of</strong> farmers' participation in the design <strong>of</strong> water distribution network.
Though hoses were provided to farmers for taking water from the hydrant to the
upper layers, lack <strong>of</strong> pressure made water flow difficult and inadequate.
Interpersonal relations and local dynamics also play an important role in
operationalising the system more efficiently6.
A brief discussion <strong>of</strong> the current status <strong>of</strong> functioning <strong>of</strong> the MCS, as
revealed by the farmers is in order, to highlight the extent <strong>of</strong> restructuring and
6 The MCS is installed in the homesteads <strong>of</strong> farmers and the surrounding plots in a
radius <strong>of</strong> 90 meters and the farmers could take water from one hydrant using the rubber
hose. But the farmers in whose plots the MCS have been installed <strong>of</strong>ten consider it as
their property and do not allow nearby farmers to take water. However, this problem is
not widely reported due to the general fai lure <strong>of</strong> the MCS as also due to the absence <strong>of</strong>
development <strong>of</strong> a ,\ ater intensive cropping system in the command area. As a result,
this also does not lead to any water related conflicts.
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evamping needed to reorient the MCS for effective supply <strong>of</strong> water to the fields.
The farmers' responses have been presented in table 7.6.
. . n a a a
Table 7 6· Present status <strong>of</strong> hvdrants/ wheel valves i K II d
Reasons ind icated
Head Middle Tail
Reach Reach Reach
Total
Functioning smooth Iv 9 7 12 12
Hydrants/ wheel valves are broken or
stolen
34 39 46 41
Hydrants! wheel valves need repair. 23 25 17 23
Design alignment Droblem 14 II 9 8
Need comDlete reDlacement 20 18 16 16
Total fanners(No.) 78 65 57 200
NOle.· HR: Head Reach; MR: Middle Reach; TR: Tad Reach.
As seen from the table, only 12 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers report that the
hydrants are functioning smoothly when water is released through the MCS.
However, the proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers reporting smooth functioning <strong>of</strong> the hydrants
is lowest in the head reaches at 9 per cent 7 . A majority <strong>of</strong> the farmers complain
that the hydrants and wheel valves are either broken or stolen. The proportion <strong>of</strong>
farmers reporting this is 46 per cent in the tail reach, followed by 39 per cent in
the middle and 34 per cent in the head reaches. While 17 to 25 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
farmers consider that water could be made available to them with certain minor
repairs, 16 to 20 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers opine that the hydrants and wheel valves
need complete replacement. About 9 to 14 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers complain that
the MCS has design problems as well.
An important point em~rging out <strong>of</strong> the above discussion is that the MCS
is not effectively functioning even in the head reaches <strong>of</strong> the canal system, where
water is relatively more abundant. Given this state <strong>of</strong> affairs, farmers are
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skeptical about the usefulness <strong>of</strong> the MeS, which is further accentuated by the
non-compliance to proper and regular 0 &M works to rehabilitate the structures
and distribution system. At present, the status <strong>of</strong> water distribution under MCS
in the Kallada project. according to the farmers, is almost in a dilapidated state.
The repair or revamping <strong>of</strong> the system. if taken up now, costs as much as the
investment made on the whole irrigation system originally.
The overall performance <strong>of</strong> the Peechi and Kallada irrigation projects in
terms <strong>of</strong> timely release <strong>of</strong> water, its adequacy, the response <strong>of</strong> the department to
farmers' needs and requests have been examined. Farmers' views on some <strong>of</strong>
these issues have been presented in table 7.7.
Table 7.7: Farmers' reSDonses towards irrie:ation system performance (% <strong>of</strong> farmers)
Peechi Irrigation Kallada Irrigation
F arrners satisfied with Project Project
HR MR TR HR MR TR
Time <strong>of</strong> opening and closing <strong>of</strong> canal 48 46 52 31 29 23
Water flow in the canal 17 23 34 1 I 15 12
Maintenance <strong>of</strong> canal and field channels 24 19 27 18 13 17
Attendinll. complaints 19 14 25 7 8 19
Functioninll. <strong>of</strong>CADN MCS 26 22 35 17 21 15
Total farmers (No-:) 50 45 20 78 65 57
Note: HR: Head Reach; MR: Middle Reach; TR: Tall Reach.
Almost 50 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers surveyed in the Peechi project are
satisfied with the opening and closing <strong>of</strong> the canals for irrigation purposes,
which is highly desirable. For, the productivity <strong>of</strong> "crops depends upon, other
things, timely cultural operations, which, in turn, depends on the canal water
7 An e)(amination <strong>of</strong> the status <strong>of</strong> functioning <strong>of</strong> MCS in the two head reach
distributories, viz., Punnala and Chekom <strong>of</strong> the right bank canal indicate that about 60
to 74 per cent <strong>of</strong> lhe hydrants attached to MCS require immediate replacement.
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supplies. What is more interesting is that 52 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers from tail
reaches in the Peechi are satisfied with the canal operation schedule, which is
non-conventional, because <strong>of</strong> the much reported tail end distribution problems.
But. the Peechi project seems to be an exceptionS in this regard. But, the Kallada
project is different as a majority <strong>of</strong> the farmers are not satisfied 9 about the canal
operation schedule, as revealed by the survey data.
The foregoing discussion brings out, in general, the perceptions <strong>of</strong>
farmers about the OFD related activities in the two study projects. In this regard,
it is important to note that there are various operational constraints between the
project envisaged outcomes and the actual realisation at the farm level. While
this gives a broader spectrum <strong>of</strong> the issues and problems, it is necessary to look
at the farm specific and region-specific factors determining farm level secondary
investments in undertaking OFD in the irrigation projects.
8 This may appear to be a sharp contrast with the other canal systems as the tail reaches
are widely known for the problems <strong>of</strong> water shortage. The water release in the Peechi
canal ·,ystem is mainly intended for kole lands that are located in the tail reaches <strong>of</strong> the
project and water is released during summer months to cater to the requirements <strong>of</strong>
paddy cultivation (For a brief description <strong>of</strong> kole lands, see Chapter ~).
, This dissatisfaction emerges out <strong>of</strong> the differences in cropping pattern as well as
input use, especially use <strong>of</strong> different seeds being followed by the farmers within and
across the three reaches. The dissimilar practices are also due to delays in farming
practices caused by shortage <strong>of</strong> labour. As a result, when some farmers will be doing
harvesting, some will be doing sowing, planting and so on. This leads to conflicts <strong>of</strong>
interests among the farmers with respect to water release. For, when water is released
in the canal on the request <strong>of</strong> farmers who are doing the tilling and sowing operations,
that adversely affects the farmers who are doing harvesting and even causes crop loss.
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II. Determinants <strong>of</strong> OFD: An Economic Analysis
7.2 Factors determining OFD: A region-specific analysis
This section attempts a detailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the various farm specific and regionspecific
factors determining the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD in the two irrigation projects
covered under reference. The major factors intluencing farmers' decision to
undertake OFD have been examined and analysed in a multiple regression
analytical framework. The explanatory variables used in the analysis are
different and are speci fic to the study regions. The analytical models as well as
the explanatory variables used have been described in detail as follows:
While most <strong>of</strong> the studies on OFD have considered the technical aspects
<strong>of</strong> OFD and economic benefits <strong>of</strong> its adoption, as perceived and expected by the
farmers as well as the irrigation department (say CADA), not many studies have
explained the various factors influencing farmers' decision to adopt OFD at the
farm level.
The analysis <strong>of</strong> farmers' behaviour in the adoption <strong>of</strong> vanous yieldaugmenting
technologies has been generally perceived m an
'adoption
behavioural model'. This model entails a dichotomous (binary) framework <strong>of</strong>
adopting or not adopting a given technological intervention. In other words,
~uch
models enables one to understand and explain the innovation decision
process <strong>of</strong> the farmers and is extensively applied in the literature to explain the
adoption <strong>of</strong> agricultural technologies (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971; Dasgupta,
1989; Rogers, 1995). Rogers (1995) defines the innovation decision process as
the process through which an individual or decision making unit passes: (i) from
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the knowledge <strong>of</strong> innovation (ii) to forming an altitude towards an innovation,
(iii) to dccide whether to adopt or reject, (iv) to implement the new idea, and (v)
the confirmation <strong>of</strong> this decision. Thc final outcome as regards the decision <strong>of</strong>
adoption or other wise <strong>of</strong> the technological intervention is conditioned by
concrete or discrete set <strong>of</strong> variables. The concrete set <strong>of</strong> variables provides some
definite measure or evidence (both quantitative and qualitative) for the adoption
or otherwise <strong>of</strong> the technology. On the other hand, discrete variables indicate
whether or not a specific technology or farming practice is adopted in a binary
choice model framework where the choice between two alternatives depends on
the specific nature <strong>of</strong> the problem analysed.
There are two distinct approaches to explain the 'adoption behaviour' <strong>of</strong>
farmers. The first approach is to identify the various factors influencing the
adoption <strong>of</strong> a specific technology among the farmers by using a linear multiple
regression model (LMR). Second approach is to logistically explain the adoption
or otherwise <strong>of</strong> a technology based on the probability models, viz., logit and
probit models 10.
7.2.1: Specification <strong>of</strong> the model and variables
Given the nature <strong>of</strong> the problem and availability <strong>of</strong> farm level data, we try to
explain the farm level adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD in the two irrigation projects in Rerala
in terms <strong>of</strong> the linear regression model based on ordinary least squares (OLS).
Although the estimates based on OLS are likely to have problems <strong>of</strong>
autocorrelation and hetroscedasticity, these are taken care <strong>of</strong> by omitting such
10 A detailed analysis <strong>of</strong> this, see Green and Ng'ong'ola (1993) and Saleth, 1991.
284

variables from the model. The variables used in the model are specific to the
characteristics <strong>of</strong> the irrigation commands and farm holdings covered under the
study. The important variables selected for analysis include holding size. age <strong>of</strong>
the farmer, occupational status, status <strong>of</strong> availability <strong>of</strong> family labour and the
potential area that could be brought under irrigation with certain level <strong>of</strong>
investment on OFD. The models used for analysis with respect to each project
differ in terms <strong>of</strong> explanatory variables, keeping expenditure on OFD as the
dependent variable in each case. The functional form used in the analysis is:
n
Z = a + L/3,X 1 + 5,
,=1
Where,
Z = Expenditure on OFD
Xi = i th explanatory variables
Pi = i th regression coefficients
a = Constant
El = Error terms
The above functional form as well as the explanatory variables may be expressed
with respect to the Peechi and Kallada irrigation projects as shown below.
Determinants <strong>of</strong> OFD: the Peechi Irrigation Project
The analytical model examining the determinants <strong>of</strong> OFO in the case <strong>of</strong> Peechi
project may be expressed as:
Where:
Xl =
X 2 =
X) =
ON =
DXs=
E .
GWEXT (Extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge in meters)
PUMPCAP (Capacity <strong>of</strong> pumpset in HP)
DRYSHARE (Percentage <strong>of</strong> dry area to be irrigated)
OCSTATUS (Occ.status = I if agriculture; 0 otherwise)
FAMLAB (Family labour = I if available; 0 otherwise)
= Error term.
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All <strong>of</strong> the five explanatory variables considered in the analvsis are
-
expected to have positive association with respect to expenditure on OFD. For
instance, higher the extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater replenishment as caused by seepage
in the Peechi canal, higher will be the farm level investment on OFD. Similarly,
higher the extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge, higher will be the capacity <strong>of</strong> the
pumpset and greater will be the OFD expenditure.
Having elaborated on the important variables explaining the adoption <strong>of</strong>
OFD in the Peechi irrigation project, let us examine the influence <strong>of</strong> these
variables on the farmers' attitude towards adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD in the fields prior to
release <strong>of</strong> water. The results <strong>of</strong> the multiple regression analysis with respect to
farm level adoption <strong>of</strong>OFD have been explained as shown in table 7.9.
T a bl e 79 .. D etermmaots 0 fOFD' m I' cee h'P I ro . eet: R ee,resslOo resu ts
Explanatory variables Coefficients Std. Error T values
Constant 523.217 724.895 0.722··
GWEXT(X,) 0.226 62.217 2.677·
PUMPCAP (Xl) 0.626 82.706 9.005·
ORYSHARE (Xl) 0.224 6.699 1.293·
OCST A TUS (OX.) 0.106 197.048 1.120·
F AMLAB (OX,) -0.125 75.498 -1.846·
Multiple R = 0.73 Adj. Rl = 0.51 F value - 24.24 OW stat. 1.447
Note: • Significant at I % level; •• Significant at 5 per cent level.
From the analysis, it is evident that OFD expenditure III the Peechi
projects has been well explained by all the variables selected, except F AMLAB,
which has a negative coefficient. Thus" the farm level expenditure on OFD in the
Peechi project is determined by the extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater replenishment caused
by the seepage in canals, capacity <strong>of</strong> the pumpset available for irrigating the plot
and the proportion <strong>of</strong> dry area that could be brought under irrigation. The
occupational status <strong>of</strong> the farmers has also been found to be important, which
ill'plies that if farming is the main source <strong>of</strong> income <strong>of</strong> the respondent (farmer),
286

he invariably undertakes OFD, even if it is in :1
limited scale. The functional
form with the set <strong>of</strong> v:1riables appears to be :1 good fit as evident from the R
square values as well other parameters estimated.
Determinants <strong>of</strong> OFD: the Kallada Irrigation Project
The analytical model used for explaining the varIOUS factors determining
adoptioll <strong>of</strong>OFD in the Kallada project is:
Z = a + PIXI + Pl"( + p]X] + fJ4 X 4 + P5X5 +fJPX6 + p,DX, + fJsDXs + &
\\'here:
XI = HOLDSIZE (Holding size in acres)
X2 = P ADCON ( % <strong>of</strong> paddy area converted into other wet
Crops to total area)
XJ = RUBS HARE (% area under rubber to total area)
~ = G WEXT (Extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge in meters)
Xs = AGE (Age <strong>of</strong> the farmer in years)
DXo = OCST ATUS (Occ.status = I if agriculture; 0 otherwise)
DX7 = MCS (Availability for MCS network for irrigation, I ifMCS
effective, 0 otherwise)
DXg = PUMP (Availability <strong>of</strong> pump set, I if available, 0 otherwise)
E = Error term.
An analysis <strong>of</strong> the inter-relationship between the variables used in the
analysis is described in Appendix 7.1. The results <strong>of</strong> the regression results based
on the above functional form are summarised have been shown in table 7.10.
Table 7.10: Determinants <strong>of</strong> OFD in Kallada project: Reeression results
Explanatory variables Coefficients Std. Error T values
Constant 274.077 707.960 0.564··
HOLDSIZE (X I) 0.367 5.452 5.915"
PADCONV(X2) 0.172 2.196 1.112·
RUBSHARE JX31 -0.112 1.493 -2.661"
GWEXT(X41 0.279 5.038 2.095·
AGE (X5) -0.185 11.746 -1.140·
OCST A TUS (DX6) 0.206 270.531 1.260"
MCS (DX7) 0.041 87.506 0.714"
PUMPSET{DX8) 0.220 518.063 1.752·
R square = 0.734 Adj. R2 - 0.719 . F value - 50.15 D-W stat. 1.755
Note: • Significant at I % level; •• Significant at 5 per cent level.
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It is evident from the table that the variables used in the analysis explain
almost 73 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farm level adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD among the farmers.
Among the important factors identified. the area under rubber has been found to
be negatively influencing OFD. In other words, the negative regression
coefficient in respect <strong>of</strong> the variable, RUBSHARE implies that the farmers
haying hi:;her proportion <strong>of</strong> area under rubber do not undertake OFD works, as
they consider rubber as a rainfed crop. Age <strong>of</strong> the farmer is also inversely related
to expenditure on OFD, implying that the farmers become less interested in
doing farming activities as they become old. The average age <strong>of</strong> the sample
farmers in the Kallada command is 53 years. The variables such as extent <strong>of</strong>
groundwater recharge, the availability <strong>of</strong> pumpset, the presence <strong>of</strong> effective
MCS network, the share <strong>of</strong> paddy area converted into wet crops as well as the
full time farming status <strong>of</strong> the farmer have been found to be positively
influencing the farm level adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD in the Kallada irrigation command
as revealed from the positive regression coefficients, which are significant.
Thus, from the regression analysis <strong>of</strong> the factors influencing farm level
adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD in both the Peechi and Kallada irrigation projects bring out
very interesting dynamics <strong>of</strong> farmers' behaviour in diverse agro-climatic
environments with differences in cropping pattern having implications on OFD
and water use.
The above analysis <strong>of</strong> the factors affecting the farm level adoption <strong>of</strong>
OrD in the specific context <strong>of</strong> the Peechi and Kallada irrigation projects is
important in terms <strong>of</strong> highlighting some <strong>of</strong> the region-specific factors acting as
288

constraints In the effective utilisation and management <strong>of</strong> land and water
resources in irrigation projects in Kerala. These location-specific constraints and
problems need a critical understanding in a broader perspective, so as to arrive at
certain policy prescriptions for the future development <strong>of</strong> irrigation sector in
Kerala. An attempt has been made in the following section to discuss some <strong>of</strong>
the important problems and operational constraints in respect <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development in Kerala. These problems and constraints cover a broad spectrum
<strong>of</strong> socio-economic, technical as well as institutional aspects governing irrigation
and agricultural development in the state. Importantly, the following section is
expected to provide a realistic explanation for the apparent failure <strong>of</strong> irrigation
systems in Kerala as an outcome <strong>of</strong> the simultaneous interaction between various
socio-economic and institutional impediments (as discussed in Chapter 3) for
efficient utilisation <strong>of</strong> water resources for agricultural development <strong>of</strong> the state.
The analysis contained in this section largely draws from the relevant studies
available and supplements the findings with adequate information gathered from
the two study regions.
III. Constraints in water resources development
7.3 Constraints in the development and utilisation <strong>of</strong> water resources for
irrigation in Kerala
~
The various problems and operational constraints in the process <strong>of</strong> effective
utilisation <strong>of</strong> land and water resources in Kerala may be broadly classified in
terms <strong>of</strong> institutional, socio-economic, technological as well as water
management related factors. These factors have been examined as an interface
between irrigation and agricultural de\ dopment in the state with political
289

implications on the dynamics <strong>of</strong> land use and water management practices In
irrigation commands. For analytical simplicity, these problems and constraints
have been conceived as originating from institutional socio-economic technical
, "
financial and agro-management aspects affecting land development and water
management measures in Kerala. Among these, the technical as well as financial
constraints may be specifically identified as supply-side problems with respect to
the provision <strong>of</strong> irrigation water by the government. On the other, the farmers
mostly relate the socio-economic and agro-management constraints to effective
utilisation <strong>of</strong> water. The institutional constraints in irrigation development and
water management have both supply side as well as demand side implications.
Some <strong>of</strong> these aspects have been discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.
7.3.1 Institutional factors
The major institutional constraints purportedly affecting adversely the utilisation
<strong>of</strong> irrigation water in the canal commands are: (i) the declining size <strong>of</strong>
operational holdings leading to the failure <strong>of</strong> institutional intervention for
promoting paddy cultivation; (ii) labour related problems; (iii) un-remunerative
prices for paddy coupled with rising wage rates; and (v) the large-scale
conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy lands in irrigation "ommands, having greater implications
on water use, pattern and the consequent efficiency <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in the
state.
One <strong>of</strong> the crucial factors influencing institutional issues in farming in
general and irrigated farming, in particular, in Kerala is the constraints imposed
by the size <strong>of</strong> holdillgs. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, marginal and smallholdings
290

dominate the agriculture sector in the state. Of the state's 5.4 million operational
holdings, 92 per cent were less than one ha. in size in 1991 (GOK, 1993).
This process <strong>of</strong> marginalisation is also noticed on a large scale In the
irrigation commands as well (chapter 5, table 5.8). The size-class wise and cropwise
average operational holdings in the Kallada command area shows that even
the average holding size <strong>of</strong> a plantation crop like rubber appears to be marginal
or even sub marginal according to the national classification <strong>of</strong> operational
holdings as revealed from table 7.11.
Table 7,11: Size-class wise and crop-wise average operational holdings in the Kallada
command area
Size class
(acres)
Paddy Coconut Rubber Tapioca All crops
Below 0.5 0.25 0.30 0.32 0.20 0.28
0.5 to I 0.65 0.58 0.69 0.52 0.67
I to 2 1.16 1.25 1.50 1.27 1.22
Above 2 2.00 2.83 3.54 0.00 3.28
All classes 0.62 0.82 0.91 0.28 0.82
Among the crops, the highest average operational holding size is noticed
in the case <strong>of</strong> rubber at 0.91 acres, followed by coconut (0.82 acres), paddy (0.62
acres) and tapioca (0.28 acres). Interestingly, in the case <strong>of</strong> all the crops, the
average size is far below the upper limit <strong>of</strong> each size class, which reflects the
intensity <strong>of</strong> the problem <strong>of</strong> marginal operational holdings. Moreover, the crops
like coconut and tapioca are grown in homesteads ll as mixed crops and does not
reflect the actual size <strong>of</strong> the holding. The only crop grown, as a monocrop is
rubber. This is because, the physiological parameters <strong>of</strong> rubber make it as a
II An overwhelming majority <strong>of</strong> the farm holdings in Kerala are homestead based
garden lands and a typical holding has a combination <strong>of</strong> different garden land crops,
dominated by coconut.
291

competitive monocropl2 as no other crops or cropping systems could be
effectively grown under its canopy. The average size <strong>of</strong> an operational holding in
Peechi command area is also disappointingly lower as shown in table 7.11.
Table 7.12: Size-class -wise and type -wise average operational holdings in the Peecbi
command area
Size class Dry area Wet area All crops
(acres)
Below 0.5 0.38 0.24 0.36
0.5 to I 0.78 0.80 0.67
I to 2 1.44 1.23 1.34
Above 2 2.70 2.50 2.45
All classes 1.28 1.12 1.20
ThIS eventuality <strong>of</strong> perceptible decline In the average holding sIze In the
irrigation commands bring to the fore, important implications for the use <strong>of</strong>
water as well as other yield augmenting inputs, including farm mechanisation.
Immediate impact is that it would tum out to be scale neutral where the
economies <strong>of</strong> scale cannot be achieved in farming operations. This has further
been accentuated by declining pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation caused by
12 It is also important to note that the incentive linked institutional intervention by the
Rubber Board has been successful in implementing a planting policy in Kerala. This
policy was primarily to promote intensive rubber cultivation in the traditional rubber
growing regions <strong>of</strong> Kerala and extension <strong>of</strong> the same to the non-traditional regions.
The policy was linked with cash and input subsidies and was very specific in terms <strong>of</strong>
the number <strong>of</strong> interplants that could be grown along with rubber. This essentially
resulted in a monocrop cultivation <strong>of</strong> rubber. Attracted by the incentives as well as the
remunerative prices <strong>of</strong> rubber, there was large-scale adop~on <strong>of</strong> rubber over time
among the small farmers. This process was also stimulated by the introduction <strong>of</strong> a
newly developed clone by the Rubber Research Institute <strong>of</strong> India, viz., RRII 105, which
proves to be the highest yielder <strong>of</strong> rubber in the world in comparison to other varieties
<strong>of</strong> Malaysian and Indonesian origin. The planting policy has been modified from time
to time to cater the structural changes in rubber cultivation characterised by emergence
<strong>of</strong> small and marginal holdings. This process <strong>of</strong> proliferation <strong>of</strong> operational holdings
into marginal and suh-marginal units has become a widespread phenomenon in the
state.
292

unremunerative prices <strong>of</strong> paddy and high cost <strong>of</strong> cultivation <strong>of</strong> paddy coupled
with shortage <strong>of</strong> labour in peak season, in spite <strong>of</strong> high wage rates. As a result,
there has been remarkable decline in area under paddy. This is also due to
farmers' interest in pursuing paddy cultivation even with institutional incentives
for augmenting paddy production. Subsequently, the institutional intervention in
<strong>of</strong> terms encouraging and rromoting group farming and other programmes for
augmenting paddy production in the state have become ineffective.
The failure <strong>of</strong> Group Farming in Kerala
It is important to note that the government <strong>of</strong> Kerala has been giving importance
to rice cultivation ever since Independence. Apart from massive public
investment programme for irrigation development, particularly to increase paddy
production for increasing paddy production, the successive governments have
appointed eight committees lJ to study the problems <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation in the
state.
The Group Farming (GF) was an important institutional intervention by
the government in Kerala to ensure paddy cultivation as a viable farming activity
and to arrest or reduce the process <strong>of</strong> conversion by way <strong>of</strong> arresting the process
IJ The important committees are: (i) Kuttanadu Enquiry Commission (1971); (ii)
A.K.K. Nambiar Commission (1978); (iii) Janardanan Nair Commission on the
problems <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation in Kerala (1981); (iv) Dr. R. Gopalakrishnan
Commission Committee (1983); (v) Technical Report <strong>of</strong> the State Planning Board
(1986); (vi) S. Gopalan Committee (1986); (vii) Minnie Mathew Committee (1996)
and (viii) Dr. Shhyamasundaran Nair Committee (1997). For a detailed review <strong>of</strong> these
committees and their recommendations, see, Suresh 2000: 44-46.
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<strong>of</strong> conversion through consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdingsl4. Group Farming is defined as
"a system <strong>of</strong> cultivation, wherein, individual farmer retains his ownership right
as well as management decision himself while as many operations as possible
are taken upon on a community basis for the maximum benefit for himself and
the group". The programme, which was launched in early 1989, visualised the
activities such as: (a) repairl deepening <strong>of</strong> irrigation wells and tanks; (b) OFD <strong>of</strong>
group farms like bunding, irrigation cum-drainage channels, etc.; (c) water
control structures like check dams, drop pits, diversion boxes, etc; (d) identify
soil problems and remedying them by supply <strong>of</strong> soil ameliorants, green manure,
etc., (e) plots to demonstrate the possibilities <strong>of</strong> achieving five tons per ha.; (0
developing community nursery; (g) ommunity action for plant protection; and
(h) any other measun:s to overcome local constraints, including extension and
training programmes.
The Group Farming lS was only a temporary success. During 1989-90,
1.73 lakh ha. area were brought under the scheme which increased to 4.2 lakh
ha. in 1990-9\. The farm groups, called' Patasekhara 16 samitis' were also formed
14 According to the Report <strong>of</strong> the Consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdings prepared by T.N.
layachandran in 1965, most <strong>of</strong> the constraints in the process <strong>of</strong> consolidation <strong>of</strong>
holdings are partly institutional and partly organisational. The report found the
L
con sol idation <strong>of</strong> garden lands in the state as an impracticable proposition.
IS A pioneering study on Group Farming by Jose (1991) identifies various reasons for
the failure <strong>of</strong> group farming in Kerala. They are: increasing cost <strong>of</strong> cultivation and
declining pr<strong>of</strong>itability, distributional problems in farm inputs, problems in labour
management, increasing non-agricultural demand for land, and the farmers' preference
for leaving paddy field fallow due to declining pr<strong>of</strong>itability.
16 A Patasekharams is a group <strong>of</strong> small paddy holdings brought together for effecting
mechan isation and improved cultural operations.
294

involving farmers as active members. There were 3063 such groups covering
1.63 lakh farmers. which went up to 5043 covering 3.67 farmers during the
above period. Though there was increase in the production <strong>of</strong> rice by 1.3 lakh
tonnes (GOK. 1991:28) during 1989-90. a fall in production (0.75 lakh tonne)
was observed during the second period. accompanied by a fall in area (23938) as
well as productivity (14 kg.lha.). Thus. the programme could neither arrest the
process <strong>of</strong> area conversion nor ensure increase in returns to rice growers. This
was in spite <strong>of</strong> the increase in number <strong>of</strong> Group Farm committees to 6100,
consisting <strong>of</strong> 4.86 lakh farmers and 4.49 lakh ha. area in 1991-92 (Suresh,
2000:68).
In the Eighth Plan (1992-97) also, efforts were made in this line. An
amount <strong>of</strong> Rs. 139 crores was earmarked for rice development during the plan.
The Government <strong>of</strong> India provided a support <strong>of</strong> Rs. 16.84 crores under the Prime
Minister's Programme for Infrastructure improvements through group farms. In
1996-97, the government extended assistances like free electricity for irrigation
and production purposes, subsidy <strong>of</strong> Rs. 350 per ha. for production activities and
<strong>of</strong>fered Rs. 100 per quintal for paddy processing by co-operatives. In spite <strong>of</strong> all
these incentives, the government has finally concluded that 'rice farming in
Kerala which has been ailing for quite some time ap!2l!ars to be moving towards
a point <strong>of</strong> no return' (GOK, 1998:37).
Group Farming was reintroduced later on in the state under a new name,
called the 'Group Approach for Locally Adjusted Sustainable Agriculture'
(GALASA) in 1998 in some parts <strong>of</strong> the Palakkad district. However, the
295

involving farmers as active members. There were 3063 such groups coveTIng
1.63 lakh farmers, which went up to 5043 covering 3.67 farmers during the:
above period. Though there was increase in the production <strong>of</strong> rice by I.:; la"h
tonnes (GOK, 1991 :28) during 1989-90, a fall in production (0.75 lakh tonne)
was observed during the second period, accompanied by a fall in area (23938) as
well as productivity (14 kg.lha.). Thus, the programme could neither arrest the
process <strong>of</strong> area conversion nor ensure increase in returns to rice growers. This
was in spite <strong>of</strong> the increase in number <strong>of</strong> Group Farm committees to 6100,
consisting <strong>of</strong> 4.86 lakh farmers and 4.49 lakh ha. area in 1991-92 (Suresh,
2000:68).
In the Eighth Plan (1992-97) also, efforts were made in this line. An
amount <strong>of</strong> Rs. 139 crores was earmarked for rice development during the plan.
The Government <strong>of</strong> India provided a support <strong>of</strong> Rs. 16.84 crores under the Prime
Minister's Programme for Infrastructure improvements through group farms. In
1996-97, the government extended assistances like free electricity for irrigation
and production purposes, subsidy <strong>of</strong> Rs. 350 per ha. for production activities and
<strong>of</strong>fered Rs. 100 per quintal for paddy processing by co-operatives. In spite <strong>of</strong> all
tliese incentives, the government has finally concluded that 'rice farming in
Kerala which has been ailing for quite some time appears to be moving towards
a point <strong>of</strong> no return' (GOK, 1998:37).
Group Farming was reintroduced later on in the state under a new name,
called the 'Group Approach for Locally Adjusted Sustainable Agriculture'
(GALASA) in 1998 in some parts <strong>of</strong> the Palakkad district. However, the
295

programme could not make any dent. An important problem responsible for the
slow progress <strong>of</strong> the programmes was that the group farming was one <strong>of</strong> the
many activities <strong>of</strong> the department <strong>of</strong> agriculture, and agricultural labour were
never taken seriously in the programme 17.
More importantly, as other crops
were more remunerative than paddy, farmers did not bother about the incentives
and campaigning <strong>of</strong> group farming. The study on group management with
respect to paddy cultivation by Suresh (2000) identified some <strong>of</strong> the important
problems <strong>of</strong> group farming in the state. The study covering 1330 paddy growing
farmers in Kerala found that labour related issues are the prominent ones as
revealed by 24 per cent 0 f the farmers. While 18 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers reported
organisational problems, 27 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers had indicated high cost <strong>of</strong>
cultivation, including inputs as the major problem. Lack <strong>of</strong> government support
as well as lack <strong>of</strong> irrigation facilities were also prominent reasons. Furthermore,
consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdings as one <strong>of</strong> the primary objectives <strong>of</strong> group farming as
well as CAD intervention had remained as a distant dream due to lack <strong>of</strong> coordination
among the farmers. In practice, the idea <strong>of</strong> group farming was
confined merely to mechanical ploughing and there were no group efforts with
respect to the important cultural operations, like sowing, transplanting, weeding,
harvesting and the like.
17 Veron (200 I) observes that though these programmes were participatory in nature,
the local people were not invited to reveal their problems or determine the area <strong>of</strong>
action; instead the programmes reflected the perceptions <strong>of</strong> policy makers, social
activists and scientists.
296

The viability <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation was been challenged by certain PrICe:
depressing policy interventions as an integral part <strong>of</strong> providi ng social \\ e I fan:
measures m the state. These policy interventions were aimed at keeping fond
gram prIces low through (a) ensurIng availability <strong>of</strong> subsIdised rice from the
central pool; (b) inflow <strong>of</strong> rice from neighbouring states; and (c) effective
implementation <strong>of</strong> Public Distribution System in the state. These policy
interventions acted as a disincentive among farmers to continue with the
otherwise cost-ineffective paddy cultivation in the state. It is important to note
that paddy cultivation was less remunerative even under the group farming
programme as revealed from the lower rate <strong>of</strong> returns from two villages in the
Kallada irrigation project (Table 7.13). As is evident from the table, the benefit
cost ratio <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation under group farming was not very high in hoth the
villages when compared to pre-group farming level. While there was almost 16
per cent increase in yield and income in the case <strong>of</strong> Koodal village, it was only
n per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> Kalanjoor village because <strong>of</strong> group farming, which is
not at all commendable. Though the group farming was expected to bring down
the cost <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation through ensuring economies <strong>of</strong> scale, it was not
achieved in respect <strong>of</strong> Koodal (rather, there was an increase in cost) and there
was marginal improvement in the case <strong>of</strong> Kalanjoor village. An important re~son
why the cost <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation could not be reduced under the group farming
was the enormous labour intensity involved in paddy production to processing.
The wage rates increased substantially owing to the multiplication <strong>of</strong> tasks
.:aused by fragmentation <strong>of</strong> operational holdings in the state. In the past, many
297

tasks such as cutting the harvesting, carrying the load to threshing yard,
winnowing and drying the hay, were part <strong>of</strong> harvesting, for which a single wage
rate existed.
Table 7.13: Performance <strong>of</strong> paddy under group farming in two villages <strong>of</strong> Kallada
irrigation project, 1991
Koodal Vi lIa~ e
Kalanioor Village
Sources <strong>of</strong> Cost! Before After Before After
Income (per ha.)
Diff.
Diff.
Group Group
Group Group
(%)
(%)
farming farming
farming farming
Cost <strong>of</strong> cultivation
Land preparation 2420 2550 5.4 1500.0 1150.0 -23.3
Seedsl planting 3020 3180 5.3 1216.7 1100.0 -9.6
Fertilizerl
manuring
1330 1480 11.3 2416.6 2200.0 -8.9
Weed control 680 705 3.7 833.3 683.3 -18.0
Plant protection 525 560 6.8 41.7 33.3 -20.0
Harvesting 1000 1205 21.0 1200.0 1261.7 5.1
Others 530 567 7.0 575.0 638.0 10.7
Total cost 9505 10247 7.8 7783.3 7066.3 -9.2
Income from paddy
Paddy(h) 2425 2810 15.9 2716.7 3016.7 11.0
Value (Rs.) 8487.6 9853 16.1 8150.0 9050.0 11.0
Straw (kg) 640 800 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Value (Rs.) 1100 1255 14.1 2433.3 2700.0 10.7
Total income 9587.6 11108 15.7 10583.3 11750 11.0
Net income 82.6 861 942.4 2800.0 4683.7 67.3
BCR 1.0 I 1.08 7.5 1.36 1.66 22.3
Source: Complied from BasIc Data Register <strong>of</strong> respechve Knshl Bhavans.
Many <strong>of</strong> these tasks were segregated from harvesting and each task
carried a separate time or piece rate. Same was the case with post-harvesting
operations. Making the hay into bundles, carrying the bundles and paddy to the
customers or the homes <strong>of</strong> the cultivators, etc., which were part <strong>of</strong> a single task,
became independent tasks (Nair, M K S (1999:227-8). The wage increase in the
case <strong>of</strong> paddy field workers was also caused by high levels <strong>of</strong> wage relativity
between various sectors due to the interaction between various institutional
298

factors l8 . As a result. the agricultural wages in Kerala have been almost moving
in tandem with the wages in the construction sector, as shown in table 7.14. [t
may also be noted that the agricultural wage indices outpaced the construction
wage indices since the mid 80s.
Table 7.14: Trends in wage rates in Kerala, 1960-97 (Index <strong>of</strong> wages, 1952 =100)
Year Carpenter Mason Paddy (male) Paddy (female)
1960 117 126 122 140
1970 304 294 320 370
1976 558 567 526 663
1980 654 645 589 739
1985 1598 1618 1727 1697
1990 2209 2212 2869 2372
1995 4275 4240 5111 5749
1997 5714 5720 9586 7792
As already discussed, the price <strong>of</strong> paddy has never been attractive so as to
motivate farmers to stick on to paddy cultivation even at higher levels <strong>of</strong> wages
and cost <strong>of</strong> inputs. The increase in wages at current prices has been very high in
relation to prices <strong>of</strong> paddy during the last one and half decade and this adversely
affected the net barter terms <strong>of</strong> trade as the wages equivalent quantity <strong>of</strong> paddy
substantially increased from 6.25 kg. in 1983 to 17.93 kg. in 1998 (Table 7.15).
As evident from the table, there was only three fold increase in the price <strong>of</strong>
paddy during the last 15 years, compared to about 8-9 fold increase in the wages
<strong>of</strong> the male agricultural labourer and 7 times increase in the wages <strong>of</strong> female
18 Numerous studies have tied wage gains in Kerala to institutional factors, namely,
state intervention and un ion isation (Bardhan, 1970; Kannan, 1988 , Pushpangadan,
1992; Krishnan, 1991; Baby, 1996) The fact that no serious reversals <strong>of</strong> real wage
levels have occurred since the mid-70s, despite a continuous decline in the price <strong>of</strong>
rice, suggests that institutional factors have insulated wages from downward pressures.
299

labourers. In the case <strong>of</strong> female labourer, there was three times increase from
4.34 kg. to 11.39 kg. during the period under consideration.
This brings out very interesting dynamics <strong>of</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> costineffective
paddy cultivation in the state. An analysis <strong>of</strong> the trends in output
prices and factor prices (male and female agricultural wages) using the semilogarithmic
function has indicated that the wage increase has been higher than
that <strong>of</strong> rise in output prices. When the price <strong>of</strong> paddy increased by about 8 per
cent, the male wage rates increased by 11.83 per cent and female wages by
almost 13 per cent. Thus, the rise in factor prices has increased by almost two
times than the product prices in the case <strong>of</strong> paddy.
Table 7.15: Trends in agricultural wages and price <strong>of</strong> paddy in Kerala, 1983-1998
Year
Kg. <strong>of</strong> paddy required for
Price <strong>of</strong> Agri. Wages (Rs.)
en.ll.a.ll.ing
paddy
Female
Female
(Rs.l kg.) Male labour
Male labour
labour
labour
1983 2.54 15.86 11.02 6.25 4.34
1984 2.31 23.60 11.89 10.23 5.15
1985 2.25 26.08 15.10 11.58 6.71
1986 2.42 28.36 16.39 11.71 6.77
1987 2.48 30.36 17.68 12.23 7.12
1988 2.77 31.95 18.59 11.52 6.70
1989 3.03 33.31 19.63 11.00 6.48
1990 3.00 35.77 2l.l1 11.94 7.05
1991 3.75 41.38 26.12 11.04 6.97
1992 4.21 48.40 32.31 11.50 7.68
1993 4.15 54.26 35.49 13.09 8.56
1994 4.95 6353 41.92 12.84 8.47
1995 5.47 77.17 51.17 14.11
...
9.35
1996 6.07 92.18 60.52 15.19 9.97
1997 5.83 103.72 69.35 17.79 11.90
1998 6.27 112.45 71.40 17.93 11.39
v f10US
Source: Estimates are based on wages and pflces data complied from GOK ( a
issues).
300

The rise in price <strong>of</strong> paddy has also been less than that <strong>of</strong> other important
crops grown in the state and this, in turn, has adversely affected the purchasing
power <strong>of</strong> paddy over time as indicated in table 7.16.
Table 7.16: Purchasing power <strong>of</strong> paddy in real terms, 1956-97
Year Coconut (nos) Tapioca (kg.) Banana (nos.) Arecanu! (nos.)
1956 2.31 4.53 6.16 18.05
1960 1.92 4.41 6.04 15.28
1970 1.59 4.38 5.41 24.13
1980 1.10 4.04 3.93 20.01
1990 0.99 1.99 3.97 10.55
1997 1.32 1.96 3.94 13.25
Source: Suresh, 2000
The table shows that the purchasing power <strong>of</strong> paddy has drastically
declined in respect <strong>of</strong> all the crops. While one kg. <strong>of</strong> paddy could get four kg. <strong>of</strong>
tapioca in exchange during 1956, it is possible to get only less than two kg. <strong>of</strong>
tapioca in 1997. Similarly, when the purchasing power <strong>of</strong> paddy in relation to
coconut declined from 2.31 to 1.32, that in relation to banana, it declined from
6.16 to 3.94 and so on.
Paddy land conversion in the Peechi and Kallada projects
The cumulative effect was that there was large-scale conversIOn <strong>of</strong> paddy
fields l9 into various other land uses, including commercial crops, resulting In
tremendous decline in area under paddy over time. The overall trends in change
in paddy area in Kerala including the area under high yielding variety <strong>of</strong> paddy
have been represented in figure 7.1.
19- For a very comprehensive analysis <strong>of</strong> the dynamics involved in the process <strong>of</strong> paddy
land conversion in Kcrala, see, Chapter 5.
301

-------. ------------
Figure 7.1: Trends in Paddy Area in Kerala
l
120
~
0
0
100
- II
00
80
0 •
00
0- I
60 1
'-' 40 1
~
I
-0 20 ~
t:
- o --,--,-., I I I I I I I I
, -+-Total
, ,
i~_ paddy I
HYVpacrcry'
~~L __
~';I'\) '1/,\1 •. /Cl 'TJ':I~ \';b'1; b.';b'l ,\,'TJ'TJ ):fa,\ '(,?Ib. I.i
\ a, '0 \ a, '\ \a,'\ \ a, '\ \a,'TJ \ a,
't)
\a,'TJ \ a, Cj \ a, a, \ a, a,
Year
The figure shows that while the total area under paddy has been on the
decline ever since 1969-70, the area under HYV has been increasing till 1972-
73, followed by a steep fall during 1973-75. This was followed by a further
increase in area under HYV, accompanied by tremendous decline with wider
fluctuations till 1987-88. Interestingly, the HYV area has been increasing since
then, which may be explained in terms <strong>of</strong> the removal <strong>of</strong> the marginal and submarginal
paddy fields from cultivation. This is also evident from the increase in
t\Ie proportion <strong>of</strong> area under current and other fallows in the state, which
increased from 1.83 per cent in 1985-86 to 2.16 per cent in 1996-97.
The intensity <strong>of</strong> paddy land conversion into other crops has been
significant in both the Peechi and Kallada command areas. For instance, in the
Peechi project, the paddy area has been converted for growing crops like banana,
coconut, arecanut and tapioca. The proportion <strong>of</strong> area converted ranged between
9 per cent in the Killannur village to 91 per cent in the Madakathara village. It
302

may be observed that the canal seepage caused groundwater replenishment and
induced people to grow high value crops, like banana and take advantage <strong>of</strong> the
price situation.
In the Kallada project, the conversIOn IS
mostly in favour <strong>of</strong> dryl
perennial cash crops, mainly rubber and is mostly induced by the canopy
coverage <strong>of</strong> rubber plantations over the low-lying paddy areas. The proportion <strong>of</strong>
paddy land converted was reported to be in the range <strong>of</strong> 24 per cent in Sooranad
North village to 38 per cent in Mynagappally village in the Kallada irrigation
project (Table 7.17). A more detailed view <strong>of</strong> the extent <strong>of</strong> conversion in the
study villages is shown in appendix 7.2. The proportion <strong>of</strong> paddy area converted
is above 35 per cent in all the villages, the highest being in Punnala village at 87
p'er cent. Interestingly, Punnala village comes under the head reach <strong>of</strong> the RBMC
<strong>of</strong> Kallada and where the proportion <strong>of</strong> rubber area is also the highest.
Table 7,17: Paddy land conversion in villages in Kallada irrigation command
Name <strong>of</strong> village
Total paddy area
(Ha.)
Paddy land
converted (Ha.)
Paddy converted (%)
Enadimangalam 150 50 33.33
Mynagappilly 247 93 37.65
Soornad South 288 75.38 26.17
Sooranad North 401.48 96.16 23.95
Total 1086.48 314.54 28.95
Source: Compiled from Vikasana Rekha <strong>of</strong> the respective Panchayats.
However, it is important to note that, <strong>of</strong> late, the dynamics <strong>of</strong> paddy land
conversion has assumed certain political dimensions as well and has resulted in
303

contlict 20 between the farmers as well as agricultural labourers. The most recent
crop-spoiling agitation 21 in the Kuttanad region may be considered as a pointer
to this conflict. Together, Kuttanad and Palakkad account for 58,0000
agricultural labourers, more than one quarter <strong>of</strong> the state's total (GOI, Census,
1991 ).
As mentioned earlier, the problem <strong>of</strong> paddy land conversion is going on
unchecked even in the command areas <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. The Report <strong>of</strong> the
Task Force 22 set up for the Ninth Plan for field crops bring out the contrast that
the need for arresting the decline in the area under rice cultivation was fully
realised only by the end <strong>of</strong> the Seventh Five Year Plan and by that time a larger
proportion <strong>of</strong> the area had already gone out <strong>of</strong> the crop (GOK, 1997a: 10). The
20 The conflict between labourers and farmers was most pronounced in the South
Malabar district <strong>of</strong> Palakkad, where the land reforms had the greatest impact and where
the green revolution and the completion <strong>of</strong> large public irrigation projects in the 1960s
accelerated the commercialisation <strong>of</strong> rice farming and increased demand for casual
labour (Heller, 1999).
21 The crop spoiling agitation was initiated on 5th July 1997 in the Kuttanad region in
Alapuzha district. Farmers in the area alleged that plantsl crop worth Rs. 50 lakhs were
spoiled in the agitation, which were cultivated in the converted paddy lands. Agitators
argued that their labour opportunities were spoiled by the farmers by converting paddy
fields into labour saving crops. In September 1997, the government appointed a
committee headed by Dr. Shayamasundaran Nair, to look in to the problems <strong>of</strong> paddy
farming and suggest mea~ures to streamline the same.
22 The Task Force Report was highly concerned about the declining trends in paddy
area in spite <strong>of</strong> the commendable promotional efforts by the government. The total
amount invested by the state during the Eighth Plan including the special assistance
provided from the Prime Minister's Special Programme in lieu <strong>of</strong> the withdrawal <strong>of</strong>
fertiliser subsidies works out to nearly 150 crores. Despite considerable investment and
special attention given to the crop, the fact remains that the area under the crop
continues to decline (GOK, 1997).
304

process <strong>of</strong> paddy land conversion would have greater implications on water use
and overall efficiency <strong>of</strong> water institutions in the state because <strong>of</strong> the persistence
<strong>of</strong> technological prejudice <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in the state towards paddy.
7.3.2 Socio-economic constraints
The important socio-economic factors adversely affecting farming operations in
general and irrigation water use for agriculture in particular are: (i) lack <strong>of</strong>
interest in labour intensive farming operations; (ii) relegation <strong>of</strong> the status <strong>of</strong>
fa.rming into a secondary activity; and (iii) sociological factors.
The constraints posed by large-scale marginalisation <strong>of</strong> operational
holdings coupled with non-availability <strong>of</strong> labour even at higher wage rates and
declining prices <strong>of</strong> food crops, especially paddy, precluded the farmers from
undertaking highly labour intensive farming operations. Sociological reasons are
also indicated as adversely affecting paddy cultivation. These problems include
high proportion <strong>of</strong> elderly among the farming group as well as labourers. Eapen
(1999) demonstrates that the spread <strong>of</strong> education and its modernising influence
has played an important role in shaping people's attitude to work 23 (Eapen,
1999:57). These observations are supported by the empirical evidences from the
study region, the details <strong>of</strong> which are discussed in chapter 4 (Table 4.10).
It is true that the socio-economic factors also have influenced the farming
operations in Kerala to a greater extent. The higher rates <strong>of</strong> return in the case <strong>of</strong>
305

ainfed crops was a major economIc incentive to the farmers to go in for
cultivation <strong>of</strong> high valued commercial crops. The trends in prices <strong>of</strong> some
important crops grown in irrigation projects in Kerala are shown in table 7.18.
The table indicates that there was substantial increase in average farm prices <strong>of</strong>
tapioca, banana and ginger when compared to paddy and coconut. However, the
fluctuation in prices has been less in the case <strong>of</strong> arecanut, coconut and paddy as
revealed by the lower coefficient <strong>of</strong> variation in these crops. The fluctuations in
prices have been relatively less in the case <strong>of</strong> tapioca and banana in relation to
cashew and pepper.
Table 7.18: Trend5 in price5 <strong>of</strong> important crops in Kerala, 1991-92 to 1997-98
Year Paddy Tapioca Pepper Ginger
Coco-
Areca
Cashew
nut
-nut
Banana
1991-92 374.8 157.7 2950.1 2177.6 393.2 2037.7 31.5 80.7
1992-93 420.8 187.2 2619.6 2490.5 420.1 2000.7 33.0 93.9
1993-94 414.5 197.6 3898.0 2858.1 325.5 2134.3 33.6 108.6
1994-95 494.8 217.3 6687.4 5250.3 307.8 235.4 36.7 125.7
1995-96 547.0 253.0 7320.0 5871.0 331.0 2700.0 43.0 130.0
1996-97 607.0 300.0 8780.0 4214.0 480.0 2730.0 43.0 161.0
1997-98 583.0 297.0 17440.0 4462.0 443.0 2848.0 44.0 148.0
% change 55.6 88.4 491.2 104.9 12.6 39.7 39.8 83.2
CY (%) 18.4 23.9 72.2 36.5 17.1 42.7 14.2 23.7
Note: Pnces <strong>of</strong> paddy, tapIOca, pepper, gmger and cashew are expressed mRs.
Per quintal and that <strong>of</strong> coconut, arecanut and banana are expressed as Rs. Per
100 nos.
Source. Compiled from GOK (1999).
The comparative pr<strong>of</strong>itabili~y
<strong>of</strong> various crops based on the estimates <strong>of</strong>
the Department <strong>of</strong> Economics and Statistics for the year 1996-97 has been
shown in table 7.19.
2J For a very elaborate and convincing discussion on the issues related to the changing
agrarian relations as well as the dynamics <strong>of</strong> the functioning <strong>of</strong> the rural labour market
in Kerala, see, Thomas and Thomas (1999); Nair, ( 1999) and Kannan (1998, 1999).
306

Table 7.19: Productivity and gross income per acre <strong>of</strong> paddy and other crops in
Kerala, 1996-97
Crops
Productivity per Gross income Income from paddy as % <strong>of</strong>
acre" (Rs./acre) income from other crops
Paddy 819 4972 - --
Arccanut 86000 36980 13.44
Banana 5646 45451 10.94
Tapioca 7378 22133 22.46
Coconut 2319 11 J31 44.66
Rubber 463 22679 21.92
Pepper 126 . 11091 44.83
Cashew 316 8632 57.60
Vegetable 5960 58284 8.53
..
Note: • Productlvlty <strong>of</strong> crops IS expressed as kg. per acre except coconut and
arecanut, which are in numbers per acre.
Source: Estimated from OOK (1997).
From the table, it may be observed that the gross income from paddy per
acre is far below the gross income from other crops. For instance, the income
from paddy constitutes only 8 per cent <strong>of</strong> the gross income from vegetables, 11
per cent <strong>of</strong> the income from banana, 13 per cent <strong>of</strong> arecanut and 22 per cent <strong>of</strong>
income from tapioca and rubber and 45 per cent <strong>of</strong> the income from coconut.
Even when the net income from paddy is compared with that from other crops,
the alternate pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> other crops cannot be disproved. This brings out the
importance <strong>of</strong> crop diversification in favour <strong>of</strong> vegetables and banana so as to
optimise the returns per unit <strong>of</strong> area. But, higher order <strong>of</strong> crop diversification in
irrigation commands is hard to come by in view <strong>of</strong> the technical constraints in
~
the development, distribution and management <strong>of</strong> water in the irrigation systems
in Kerala. This necessitates a brief discussion on the important technical
constraints in irrigation projects in Kerala.
307

7.3.3 Technical constraints
The major technical constraints for irrigation development In Kcrala may be
classified as:
I) Design <strong>of</strong> the projects exclusively for paddy cultivation;
2) The water distribution networks in the command areas do not permit to
introduce demand based supply <strong>of</strong> water;
3) Irrigation infrastructure and water distribution networks are in dilapidated
condition and therefore, need immediate rehabilitation to· allow designed
discharge <strong>of</strong> water in the canals; and
4) Improper design and alignment <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the canals and field channels
adversely affecting water distribution.
A major consequence <strong>of</strong> the projects being designed exclusively for
paddy cultivation is that crop diversification is not legally permitted to take
advantage <strong>of</strong> the abundant water available in the canals left unutilised in the
absence <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation. Though the farmers have undertaken crop
diversification in some <strong>of</strong> the irrigation commands, there are several practical
problems arising out <strong>of</strong> inflexible design <strong>of</strong> water distribution network enabling
crop diversification. Since the terrain in many <strong>of</strong> the irrigation commands in
Kerala is undulating, effective utilisation <strong>of</strong> canal water necessitates significant
investment on OFD both from the irrigation department upstream side <strong>of</strong> the
canal system as well as the farmers downstream.
308

The technical constraints In the development distribution and
management <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems warrant proper understanding <strong>of</strong> the land use
dynamics at the local level. Given the topographical characteristics, the state
would need irrigation projects with an unique design <strong>of</strong> water distribution,
network and planning to promote systems depending upon the topography as in
the Kallada irrigation project. Though Kallada irrigation scheme appears to be a
technically sound system suitable to the specific terrain it commands, the scheme
could not be successfully implemented for the reasons mentioned already. This
raises an important question as to how the irrigation systems in Kerala could be
reoriented? What should be the development priorities in the changing scenario?
These are the important questions that policy makers should bear in mind while
planning for rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> the completed projects and expediting completion
<strong>of</strong> the ongoing ones.
Some <strong>of</strong> the experiences In the contemporary development scenario
regarding crop diversification need to be reflected upon to draw lessons for
future planning. For example, there are growing apprehensions that cultivation
<strong>of</strong> coconut under assured canal irrigation may not bring the desired results.
Because, the productivity <strong>of</strong> coconut had been almost stagnant since 1992-93
(Table 7.20).
On the other hand, the productivity <strong>of</strong> banana, tapioca and arecanut has
increased substantially. Therefore, to allow the present trend <strong>of</strong> converting paddy
fields into coconut groves is wise enough in the long run. Among the crops, the
productivity <strong>of</strong> coconut has been almost stagnant since 1992-93, compared to
309

substantial rise in productivity <strong>of</strong> banana, tapioca and arecanut. Surprisingly, the
productivity <strong>of</strong> paddy has never crossed beyond 2023 kg. per ha.
Ta ble 7.20: Trends in productivity <strong>of</strong> important crops in Kerala, 1988-89 to 1997-98
Paddy Coconut Arecanut Tapioca
Year
Banana (Kg.!
(Kg.! hal (nos. hal (000 nuts/ hal (Kg.! hal ha. )
1988-89 1753 5159 183.29 18676 7380
1989-90 1956 5236 189.37 19070 7408
1990-91 1942 4864 160.05 19134 7483
1991-92 1959 5377 206.76 18822 7629
1992-93 2018 5843 213.41 19470 7653
1993-94 2193 5890 217.56 19&66 7951
1994-95 1937 5856 243.1 20511 7914
1995-96 2023 5638 245.76 22008 8137
1996-97 2022 5846 225.79 22353 9510
1997-98 1975 5890 265.43 22586 9838
Mean 1978 5560 215 20249 8090
SD 108.65 373.73 31.89 1525.65 873.41
CV(%l 5.49 6.72 14.83 7.53 10.80
Source: OOK, Economic Review (various issues).
A brief discussion on the stagnancy <strong>of</strong> coconut yields in the state, in spite
<strong>of</strong> substantial rise in area under it, may be relevant here. As highlighted in
Chapter 5, coconut has been emerging as an important crop accounting for about
28 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total cropped area. The following are the important reasons
widely reported for the relatively low and stagnant yield <strong>of</strong> coconut.
1) The existing stock <strong>of</strong> coconut palms in the state are very old and therefore,
seem to have lost their productivity potential. The productivity levels are
very low when &ompared to other states. While the average annual
productivity per palm per annum is in the range <strong>of</strong> 60-75 nuts in states like
Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh, it is only 20-35 nuts in Kerala, which is
obviously very low.
310

2) Lack <strong>of</strong> irrigation during summer. In the state not more than 10 per cent <strong>of</strong>
the crop receives irrigation during summer (GOK, 1997: 12). According to
the farmers, irrigation in frequent intervals is essential to increase the
productivity levels during summer. On the other hand, during monsoon,
excessive watering affects adversely the coconut productivity. This is a
dichotomous situation where farmers need proper education and training as
regards water management, to tackle the problems <strong>of</strong> excessive watering
during summer and scarcity during summer. Use <strong>of</strong> organic manures for
coconut farming has also come down, thereby adversely affecting the
moisture retention and productive capacity <strong>of</strong> coconut holdings.
3) The problem <strong>of</strong> root-wilt is another major problem affecting the productivity
<strong>of</strong> coconut. As per the survey by the state government with the help <strong>of</strong> the
CPCRI and Coconut Development Board conducted during 1984-85, out <strong>of</strong>
7.06 lakh ha. available under the crop during the period <strong>of</strong> survey, 3 lakh ha.
were reported to be in the grip <strong>of</strong> the devastating root wilt (about 43 %) and
leaf-rot diseases resulting in a total loss <strong>of</strong> 968 million nuts. A more recent
estimate made by the Department <strong>of</strong> Agriculture based on a field survey
jointly by the CPCRI, Coconut Board and the Dept. shows that about 80 lakh
palms are in advanced stages <strong>of</strong> disease requiring immediate replacement 24 .
24 As per the CPCRI study (1984-85), the proportion <strong>of</strong> root wilt affected palms has
been one <strong>of</strong> the highest in Kollam at 35.46 per cent. In Alleppey, it was 81.67 per cent,
Kottayam, 82.95 per cent and Ernakulam 44.97 per cent. In Mynagappilly Panchayat
(Kallada command area) in Kollam district, it has been reported that almost 67 per cent
<strong>of</strong> the coconut palms are affected by leaf rot disease, followed by palms affected by
bud rot (31 %) and root wilt (22 %).
311

In the absence <strong>of</strong> any systematic programme for replanting, the holdings with
disease-prone unproductive palms will increase followed by a further declinc
in coconut output in the state.
In a survey conducted in a village in the Kallada command area, it has
been found that <strong>of</strong> the 2.4 lakh coconut palms, about 56 per cent <strong>of</strong> the palms are
affected by leaf rot, followed by bud rot (26 per cent) and root wilt (18 per cent).
4) Even though nearly 50 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers apply fertilisers the percentage
<strong>of</strong> farmers following the recommended level <strong>of</strong> fertiliser use was less than 10
per cent.
5) Average size <strong>of</strong> coconut holdings is as small as 0.25 ha. Out <strong>of</strong> the 2.5
million coconut holdings about 90 per cent <strong>of</strong> the holdings covering 60 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the area under the crop are in marginal holdings not capable <strong>of</strong>
supporting an average farm family. Given this, how a farmer could invest for
land development and supply <strong>of</strong> irrigation?
6) The absence <strong>of</strong> technological diffusion is also pointed out as an important
constraint in enhancing productivity <strong>of</strong> coconut. For instance, Narayana et al
(1989) point out that the problem <strong>of</strong> lower levels <strong>of</strong> productivity needs to be
explained as the absence <strong>of</strong> technological diffusion confounded by lack <strong>of</strong>
"
irrigation, lower size <strong>of</strong> holdings, etc. Information on input use intensity is
also interesting in the case <strong>of</strong> coconut. The plots receiving manure have
declined from 65.4 per cent in 1962-63 to 43 per cent in 1978. Expenses on
312

manure or fertilisers are also do not show any positive trend. The major cost
component would be labour cost for plucking the palms. IrrigCltion has not
been effective in augmenting the yield and the only effect was that irrigation
lengthened the age at which yield decline set in or prolonging the peak
bearing period.
Thus, the absence <strong>of</strong> timely, adequate and dependable irrigation 25
facilities has been identified as one <strong>of</strong> the major constraints for the adoption <strong>of</strong>
technologies developed by the research stations in the state. In the absence <strong>of</strong>
timely and adequate irrigation facilities, the agriculture sector in the state is
constrained by lower levels <strong>of</strong> intensity <strong>of</strong> input use as widely reported
elsewhere (Narayana, 1989; Geethakutty, 1993) as also brought out by the lack
<strong>of</strong> correspondence between input use and net irrigated area in the state (Figure
7.3).
25 The lack <strong>of</strong> irrigation for coconut can partly be explained by the pol icy followed by
the government regarding investment in irrigation. The bulk <strong>of</strong> the government
expenditure on irrigation, which came to about 16 per cent <strong>of</strong> the plan expenditure on
an average during the plan periods, has been on medium and major projects and most
<strong>of</strong> these projects were designed for irrigating low lying paddy lands (Narayana and
Nair, \983).
313

Rg.re 7-2Tre d:; in irpl Lre crd gruth d ra
irTig:tEd crea in f:)
,
C)
C>:)
0-
......
I
-,---,-- T
"" "') "l- V) '0
" C>:) C>, C) -. "" "') ..,.
C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:)
, ,
C>:)
, ,
C>:)
,
C>:)
, , 0- C>, 0- C>, 0- C>,
, , , , , , '"
......
,
"') "I-
'" '0 " C>:) 0- C) ......
C>:) C>:)
"" "') "I-
C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:) C>:) C>, 0- 0- 0- 0-
C>, C>, C>, 0- C>, C>, 0- 0- C>, C>, 0- 0- C>,
""
~
...... ...... -. -. -. -'JIb--' -. -. -. -. -. -.
[he figure shows that the growth in net irrigated area in the state has
been almost stagnant and the growth in the use <strong>of</strong> mJ;or inputs like fertiliser and
plant protection (PP) chemicals has been far from satisfactory. Interestingly, the
use <strong>of</strong> hybrid seed varieties has been fluctuating since the mid 80s till 1990-91,
followed by a rise thereafter. Though there was an increase in the use <strong>of</strong> seed,
the corresponding increase in the complementary inputs, viz., fertliser and PP
chemicals was not there_
Given the dynamics, problems and constraints as discussed above, it may
be concluded that reorienting the scope <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects in favour <strong>of</strong> crop
diversification, especially, coconut, needs further investment at the system level
to redesign the irrigation structures for facilitating irrigation <strong>of</strong> these crops, that
are grown in homesteads, much above the low lying paddy fields. This also calls
for huge investment at the farm level in terms <strong>of</strong> OFD to irrigate coconut
314

according to the conventional basin irrigation method. As the existing coconut
palms are <strong>of</strong> the traditional variety, an important step is needed to initiate a
massive replanting programme for coconut with HYY planting, coupled with
R&D support. Crops like banana, arecanut, vegetable, tapioca, may also be
brought under irrigation with the redesign intended for coconut.
7,3.4 Financial constraints
The major financial constraints in the irrigation projects in Kerala have already
been discussed in detail in Chapter 4. These constraints mostly relate to
inefficient financial management by the Irrigation Department in the state, which
have resulted in gross under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential in irrigation
projects, time and cost overruns, thin spread <strong>of</strong> financial resources over an array
<strong>of</strong> irrigation schemes, etc.
The state government has already initiated several programmes to
improve water use efficiency in the old generation projects through the nt:w
programme <strong>of</strong> revamping and consolidation. A serious problem in which Kallada
irrigation project, selected for the study is that the project has not been
commissioned fully even after 40 years. The Minor Conveyance System (MCS)
meant for efficient water distribution in the command area is almost defunct and
its replacement cost today would be more than the original cost <strong>of</strong> the irrigation
project. Given these operational constraints, the efficiency <strong>of</strong> the irrigation
system remains questionable. An amount <strong>of</strong> Rs. 907 lakhs is envisaged for
completing the essential works in the Kallada project to convey water to the
fields during the period 1999-2000.
315

7.3.5 Constraints in water distribution and management
The issues in water distribution and management in irrigation commands in
Kerala are yet to receive adequate attention in the irrigation management
literature. A possible explanation for this could be the lack <strong>of</strong> farmer's interest in
irrigated farming per se. Furthermore, there are not many reports or complaints
on inequitable distribution <strong>of</strong> water and water- related conflicts across the canal
commands in the state. However, based on the findings <strong>of</strong> the present study,
some <strong>of</strong> the water management related constraints could be identified as: (i)
inadequate supply <strong>of</strong> water across the canal reaches; (ii) non-pricing <strong>of</strong> water
and the subsequent wasteful utilisation; (iii) lack <strong>of</strong> efficient co-ordination <strong>of</strong>
water management activities; and (iv) non-functioining <strong>of</strong> water users'
associations.
The question 'why farmers do not participate in irrigation management at
the desired level' needs a better understanding in Kerala's context. This issue
has greater relevance in the present day context when the new concept <strong>of</strong>
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) is highlighted as an integral aspect <strong>of</strong>
institutional reforms in irrigation sector in India.
The PIM has been implemented in Kerala as part <strong>of</strong> the Command Area
...
Development Programme. A three-tier farmers' associations at the outiet, canal
and project levels have been contemplated under the PIM programme. There is a
provision under section 17 <strong>of</strong> the Kerala Command Area Development Act, 1986
(Act 37 <strong>of</strong> 1986) for the formulation <strong>of</strong> Beneficiary Farmers' Associations
(BFAs) for one or more pipe outlets. These have been registered under Societies
316

Registration Act, 1860 in the erstwhile Malabar area or under the Travancore­
Cochin (Literacy, Scientific and Charitable) Societies Registration Act, 1955
(Joshi 2000).
However, in spite <strong>of</strong> the thrust given for the implementation <strong>of</strong> PIM in
irrigation projects, the BF As were found to be ineffective in terms <strong>of</strong> distribution
and management <strong>of</strong> irrigation in Kerala. It has been reported that most <strong>of</strong> the
farmer associations formed in Kerala by the CADA were not functioning even in
its initial years (Jacob, 1990). Besides, seven WUAs formed as part <strong>of</strong> the
Operational Research Project (ORP) (1979-88) <strong>of</strong> the Centre for Water
Resources Development and Management (CWRDM) in the command area <strong>of</strong>
Kuttiadi irrigation project were active in the initial years. However, these
associations became non-functional after the withdrawal <strong>of</strong> the ORP staff from
the area. Ananthakrishnan (1981) observes that beyond letting water into the
canals, branches and distributaries, or enforcing a turn system, no other
management activity worth mentioning is being done in the canal system in
Kerala. As a result, the field channels have become no man's property.
Madhavachandran (1999) has found that in Malampuzha project, physical
location <strong>of</strong> the BFA did not have any impact on farmer participation. This was
because, the tail e\1d BFA did not face water scarcity.
The above studies point to the ineffectiveness <strong>of</strong> the implementation <strong>of</strong>
BFAs in Kerala's irrigation projects. Moreover, whatever organisations have
been formed, they remained to be associations <strong>of</strong> academic importance on paper.
For instance, in the Peechi irrigation project, as per the CAD report, there were
317

465 WUAs as at the end <strong>of</strong> 1994-95. Of these associations, only 43 per cent were
reported to be functional on records. Most <strong>of</strong> these associations have been
formed during the period between 1985 and 1989 and there was no renewal <strong>of</strong>
the registrations. In the right bank canal system, about 26 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
associations have been found to be functioning. In the Kallada project, it was
envisaged to form about 2,500 WUAs by March 1992. The responsibility <strong>of</strong>
forming these WUAs was vested with 31 Agricultural Officers and three
Assistant Directors <strong>of</strong> Agriculture. A review <strong>of</strong> the progress in fonning the
WUAs, revealed that only about 260 WUAs had been formed by February 1992.
An important aspect with respect to water distribution is that there are
wide differences in water requirements <strong>of</strong> different crops in irrigation
commands. The water distribution plan needs to be flexible so as to cater to the
water requirements <strong>of</strong> both dry as well as wet crops. For instance, the Kallada
irrigation project, which is dominated by dry crops, the water requirements are
different in different seasons.
Table 7.21: Monthly irrigation requirement in Kallada project (in MmJ)
Month/ season Dry land Wet land Total
% <strong>of</strong> maximum
demand
Janual}' 57.890 28.234 86.1240 72.32
February 60.980 33.150 94.130 79.05
March 72.740 46.340 119.080 100.00
Aj:>ri I 30.650 15.387 46.037 38.66
M~ 17.900 1.444 19.344 16.24
June 3.00 26.670 29.670 24.92
JulY ---- 12.560 12.560 10.55
August 3.460 25.732 29.192 24.51
September 2.380 35.247 37.627 31.60
October 1.940 21.844 23.784 19.97
November 9.886 34.267 44.153 37.08
December 40.350 62.248 102.59R 86.16
318

The pattern <strong>of</strong> actual monthly requirement 26 <strong>of</strong> irrigation water in the
Kallada command area based on the Joint Report <strong>of</strong> the Project Planning and
Monitoring (PPM) cell and the Departments <strong>of</strong> Agriculture and Co-operation has
been given in Table 7.21.
It shows that the water requirement varies across crops and seasons. For
instance, the max~mum water demand for dry crops is in the month <strong>of</strong> March,
whereas, that for wet crops, it is in the month <strong>of</strong> December. In other words, it
implies that the opening <strong>of</strong> the canal for irrigating dry crops during the months
<strong>of</strong> January to March, may cause crop damage in the wet land, because <strong>of</strong> the
water logging problems caused by the canal seepage. It is important to note that
during the six months period from January till June (start <strong>of</strong> monsoon) the water
requirement is the highest for the dry crops compared to rest <strong>of</strong> the months when
irrigation requirement is very high for wet crops, mainly paddy.
However, no canal operational plans are prepared in advance to supply
and regulate water according to the requirements in different seasons. Moreover,
as the existing MCS infrastructure is almost defunct, release <strong>of</strong> water for dry
crops is out <strong>of</strong> question.
26 The crop water requirements have been computed fortnightly for the projected
cropping pattern. For computing the field irrigation requirement <strong>of</strong> paddy percolation
rate <strong>of</strong> 6.5 mm / day, 7 mm / day and 10 mm / day have been taken for loam soil for
Kharif, Rabi and summer seasons respectively. The overall efficiency <strong>of</strong> 75 per cent
has been taken for arriving at the irrigation requirements at the canal head assuming 84
per cent conveyance efficiency (the entire distribution system being lined) and field
efficiency <strong>of</strong> 90 per cent. Since the system is lined and improved system <strong>of</strong> on-farm
conveyance <strong>of</strong> water distribution (through MCS) is effected and because <strong>of</strong> the
319

The water requirement <strong>of</strong> the crops grown in Peechi project also indicates
the wide differences between months <strong>of</strong> the year as shown in table 7.22.
Table 7.22: Annual water requirements in Peechi project
Total
Month requirement Wet crops (%) Dry crops (%)
! (Cu.m)
January 64.34 36.18 63.82
February 354.08 87.66 12.34
March 440.96 88.37 11.63
April 337.71 84.17 15.83
May 62.57 0.00 100.00
September 8.27 100.00 0.00
October 181.68 96.31 3.69
November 193.38 96.65 3.35
December 177.22 96.03 3.97
Total 1820.21 85.04 14.96
The table. shows that the demand for water is high for dry crops only
during the months <strong>of</strong> January and May. During the rest <strong>of</strong> the year, the water
demand from wet crops is in the range <strong>of</strong> 84 to 96 per cent.
Like elsewhere in the country, there is no incentive to use water
economically and no punishment for excessive and wasteful use. For, water
pricing is based only on area and crop basis. Farmers show hardly any interest in
efficient and economic use <strong>of</strong> water. The problems related to water distribution
and use are compounded by non-adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD at the field level due to the
wide range <strong>of</strong> constraints and problems reported in the foregoing.
In many <strong>of</strong> the irrigation projects coming under CADA, the field channels
are not constructed, or left incomplete. The cost estimates <strong>of</strong> OFD works, as
undulating topography, 75 per cent efficiency is expected to be realised after a few
year <strong>of</strong> operation <strong>of</strong> the system in a scientific manner.
320

eported by CADA <strong>of</strong>ficials, have to be necessarily conformed to the norms and
guidelines stipulated by the Government <strong>of</strong> India. But due to the special
conditions prevailing in Kerala, such as undulating topography. high cost <strong>of</strong>
construction on account <strong>of</strong> high cost <strong>of</strong> transportation <strong>of</strong> materials, high lahour
charges, high density <strong>of</strong> population, etc., it is not possible to cover the targeted
area with the given investment allocation. As a result, some ayacut <strong>of</strong> the
project will be left without OFD works, even after spending the full amount
allotted to a project as per norms for coverage <strong>of</strong> the entire ayacut <strong>of</strong> that project.
The discussion so far reveals that the awareness levels <strong>of</strong> farmers about
the need for and importance <strong>of</strong> OFD are fairly high. However, its progress at the
farm level is not up to the expected levels. The complexities and dynamics
related to the design <strong>of</strong> the projects, cropping pattern envisaged and realised,
construction <strong>of</strong> water distribution networks, crop diversification and the
consequent changes in water balance and so on are wide and varied. The
important institutional, socio-economic, technical and management related
constraints noticed in the development, distribution and management <strong>of</strong> land and
water resources in Kerala call for a judicious plan <strong>of</strong> action for the irrigation
sector. It is more so because <strong>of</strong> the changing scenario <strong>of</strong> agricultural
development in the state. The effectiveness <strong>of</strong> irrigation planning, however,
depends upon understanding <strong>of</strong> the ground realities associated with crop based
land use dynamics in irrigation projects and its implications in efficient
utilisation <strong>of</strong> water resources. A non-conventional approach to irrigation sector
development may prove to be a feasible proposition, taking into account the
agro-c1imatic as well as ecological variables, wherein irrigation projects are
situated.
321

OFDEXP 1,000 -0.241" 0.878" 0.089 0.656· • -0,042 -0,091 0,109 -0.040 -0.167"
LOCATION -0,241 1.000 ·().IS3" 0,025 -0.116 -0,157' 0.124 0,132' -0,019 0.047
PADCONVERT 0,878" -0.153- 1.000 0.164 • 0.596' - 0.003 ·0,046 o 158 -0,028 -0,151-
GWEXT 0.089 0.025 0.164' 1.000 0.071 0.068 ·0,053 0.331'· 0,051 -0,028
HOLDS1ZE 0,656-· -0.116 0.596" 0.071 1.000 0.466" -0,132' 0,100 ·0.010 -0.099
RUI3SHARE -0,042 -0.157' 0,003 0,068 0.466·· 1,000 -0,139· 0119 -0.()21 0.109
MCS -0.091 0,124 -0.046 -0.053 -0.132· -0,139- \.000 0,027 0,066 0.073
PUMSET 0.109 0,132- 0.158' 0.331" 0.100 0.119 0,027 1,000 0.098 0.017
OCSTATUS -0.040 -0.019 -0,028 0,051 -0.010 -0.021 0,066 0,098 1,000 0,018
AGE -0.167- 0.047 -0.151· -0.028 -0,099 0.109 0.073 0,017 0.018 1000
• Correlation IS significant at 5 per cent level.; " Correlation IS Significant at 1 per cent leve1.
Appi'nd ix: 7.1: Relationship between various parameters (inter-correlation matrix) - Kallada
. Irrigation Project . , .
Variable.l OFDEXP LOCATl PADCON GWEXT HOLD SIZE RUB- MCS PUMSET OCSTATUS AGE
(n = 200)
ON
SHARE
322

Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion in study villages in Kallada project (%)
Village
Enadimangalarn
Ezhamkularn
Kodurnon
Kulasekharapuram
Koodal
Kunnathoor
Mvnagappallv
Nooranad
Pallickal
Palamd
Pandalam Theckckara
Peringanadu
Pirvanthoor
Punnala
Sooranad North
Sooranad South
Tharnarakularn
Thazha\'a
Theck umbra
Vallikunnarn
Total
Nole: # Percentage <strong>of</strong> wet area.
Source. Sample Survey
Wet area (%)
40.38
13.33
26.67
18.75
45.54
25.11
15.63
16.45
24.19
32.81
20.99
19.73
30.90
28.31
27.29
14.73
6.53
29.76
25.95
12.94
22.65
Drv area (%) .----
Paddy land converted (%)#
59.62 45.92
86.67 66.67
73.33 55.00
81.25 50.51
54.46 36.96
74.89 54.16
84.37 35.38
83.55 35.71
.
.--.-
75.81 77.78
67.19 50.10
79.01 48.78
80.27 39.22
69.10 45.80
71.69 86.84
72.71 42.40
85.27 46.27
93.47 68.81
-
70.24 55.00
74.05 51.43
87.06 46.61
77.35 49.87
323

Chaplc'r S
Summary and conclusions
three distinct. but continuuu~
phases. llal

d,l!llS in the post-independence pcriod. the prodU(llOn uf lood graIns had
increased from 51 million lonne~ in 1950-51 to 20X milllOll tonnes in 2000.
Almost 60 per cent <strong>of</strong> the t(ltal food gr,lins production comes irrigated t;mning.
The benefits from irrigation an:. however. saId to be l1\lt up to the
expected levels and in the desired direction. For example. the p[(lductivity <strong>of</strong>
crops has been well below the desirahle levels. the irrigation potential created
has not been utilised fully. environmcl1tal problems. like waterlogging. salinitv
and alkalinity have been increasing. income inequalities arising out <strong>of</strong>
inequitable distribution water have been on the increase. hesides a numher <strong>of</strong>
water related litigations and problems in rural areas. Because <strong>of</strong> the increasing
externalities <strong>of</strong> irrigation. particularlv. from major and medium irrIgatIon. the
\'ery de\e1opmental thrust on irrigati\ln In the successive plan pCrI\)ds is heing
subjected to questionable validity.
A
wide range <strong>of</strong> social. economIc. techmcal. organisational and
managerial factors have been identified as responsible for the alleged
inefficiency <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems. Improper or lack <strong>of</strong> On-Farm Development.
among others. was found to he a major factor affecting adversel: the efficil'l1t
and productive use <strong>of</strong> "ater al the farm level. Though DFD was one <strong>of</strong> the malor
objectives <strong>of</strong> CADA. it has not been implemented successfully. This study.
therefore, aims at examining the status. progress and problems <strong>of</strong> OFD in the
irrigation projects <strong>of</strong> Kerala and its impact on costs and return, <strong>of</strong> irrigated
farming.
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The empirical studies on th.: econ(1mics .,f !)fD have by and large
followed a conventional analytical approach underlined by the nco-classical
perspective, confining mostly to the analysis <strong>of</strong> the -:osts and returns <strong>of</strong> OFD
implementation and the resultant water use efficien.:} at the system level. While
explaining the conventional cost <strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong> OFO. the researchers tend to
ignore various non-economic factors as well as the technical. institutional.
financial and other constraints in the process <strong>of</strong> adoption <strong>of</strong> OfO. More
importantly, there are growing evidences suggesting that the institutional Issues
alone could better explain the sub-optimal performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems,
These institutional issues and \'arious other operatIOnal constraints interact
simultaneously both at the system level as \\ell as at the farm level. Moreover.
the contradictions in the mterests <strong>of</strong> the stakeholders aiso need to he addressed.
The farmers who an: the maJor stakeholders <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. are diverse in
terms <strong>of</strong> resource endowments and attitudes, It may, therefore be. not easy to
ensure rational
behaviour among them to use water economically and
productively for a given cropping system. Rationality being farmer/ farm as well
as region specitic. mere provision <strong>of</strong> irrigation infrastructure may not by itself
induce farmers to observe ralionality while moving from the existing plane <strong>of</strong>
resource allocation (which he considers optimal) to a higher plane <strong>of</strong> resource
allocation, under the gIven resource endowment.
institutional constraints.
. .
SOCIO-economlc
and
The application <strong>of</strong> the above logic c)J' ratlOnalit\ to irrigation induced
agricultural development. may kad to the emergence <strong>of</strong> two possible scenarios.
One is that the farmer continues to operate in a sub-optimal condition <strong>of</strong> resource
326

all(lcatioll ill the absence <strong>of</strong>

perennial cash crops is an outward expn:ssion <strong>of</strong> the peas am rationalit: •. !1 ma~
be argued that this decision process induced the farmer to move on l

irrigation commands. Th;; stud) was framcd in such a way as to cover the entire
irrigation sector in Kerala. commanded hy major irrigation projects. Since there
are no studies which have comprehensively covered all the issues related to
irrigation and agriculture de\t:lopment in the state. a modest attempt has he en
made to examine its complex nature in this study.
The basic objectives <strong>of</strong> the study were to: (i) analyse the trends in
investment in irrigation infrastructure devclopment in Kerala and its impact on
agricultural development: (ii) to critically examine the institutional and
organisational strategies in the irrigation commands to accomplish scientific Onfarm
Development and water management practices: (iii) to assess the impact <strong>of</strong>
OFO on yield and income <strong>of</strong> farmers in the irrigation commands: \iv) to examine
the factors determining adoption or non-adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO in irrigation project,:
and (v) to bring out the instItutional and operational level constraints in the
development. distribution and management <strong>of</strong> water resources for irrigation.
The limited availability <strong>of</strong> reliable secondary sources <strong>of</strong> information
pertaining to the irrigation projects at the state level. was the main constraint for
analysing the problems at the macro level. For the micro level indepth study. two
irrigation projects. viz .. Kallada and Peechi. situated in the Kollam and Thrissur
districts respectively have been selected.
A sample <strong>of</strong> 200 farmers from the Kallada irrigation project and I 15
farmers from the Peechi Irrigation project have been selected for the study hased
on random jampling. The two irrigation projects represer..l diverse socioeconomic
as well as agro-climatic setting. including topography. Also. they are
329

different in terms <strong>of</strong> the status <strong>of</strong> the wurk as well a, the designed cropptng
pattern. While Peechi project is a completed scheme. Kallada is an on-gotng
project with an unproductive lag <strong>of</strong> more than three decades. The projects are
also different in terms <strong>of</strong> technical design. For instance. while the Peechi
irrigation project is a conventional paddy oriented irrigation system. the Kallada
project is the only project in the country technically designed for irrigating tree
crops and the project is other wise known as the Kallada Irrigation and Tree Crop
Development Project (Kl &
TCDP). Water distribution systems are also
different. While in Peeehi. it is through open canal system (OCS). in Kallada. it
is a combination <strong>of</strong> underground pipeline system [called the Minor Conveyance
System (MCS)) and open canal system.
The reference year <strong>of</strong> the study was 1997-9li agriculture year and the data
collection has been done during December 1998 to April 1999. The information
gathered was pertaining to previous crop seasons. viz .. autumn. winter and
summer crops <strong>of</strong> paddy. The qualitative information on socio-economic and
institutional constraints have been gathered through informal meetings with
farmers and enlightened persons and local leaders.
The study is organised into eight chapters. An overview <strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong>
irrigation development in India and KeraIa are attempted in chapter one,
followed by a comprehensive review <strong>of</strong> studies on various aspects <strong>of</strong> irrigation
development in India. especially the studies pertaining to <strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong> OFD in
Chapter two. Chapter three contains the research design. Chapter four provides a
brief outline <strong>of</strong> the study area and sample holdings. Chapter Ii ve attempts a
comprehensive analysis <strong>of</strong> irrigation and agricultural development in Kerala. The
330

comparative COSI .:conomlcs <strong>of</strong> OFD is attempted in chapt.:r SIX. The major
determinants and constraints in the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD at the farm level are
discussed in detail in chapter seven. followed by conclusion in chapter eight.
An analysis <strong>of</strong> the status. problems and
prospects or irrigation
development in the state brings out several contrasting insights. Irrigation has
been one <strong>of</strong> the major priority areas <strong>of</strong> development in the post-independence
period. Irrigation in the state was mostly confined to construction <strong>of</strong> large dams
across the rivers mainly for the cultivation <strong>of</strong> paddy, the staple food crop <strong>of</strong> the
state. unlike other southern states where majority <strong>of</strong> the projects are designed
only for protective irrigation where semi-dry crops have to be cultivated.
Accordingly. more than 60 per cent <strong>of</strong> the plan outlays hav.: been earmarked for
construction <strong>of</strong> large-scale canal based irrigation systems during most <strong>of</strong> the plan
periods. The cumulative investment for irrigation development till the end <strong>of</strong>
1998-99 was Rs. 25 I 0 crores, out <strong>of</strong> which Rs. 1736 crores (about 70%) for
major and medium irrigation projects.
There are 29 major and medium irrigation projects. besides numerous
minor irrigation works, including ground water and lift irrigation schemes. Of the
29 majorl medium irrigation schemes. 14 are completed and 15 schemes are
under various stages <strong>of</strong> construction or completion. While the completed.
schemes have created an irrigation potential <strong>of</strong> 181363 ha., the partially
commissioned and on-going irrigation projects are expected to generate a
potential <strong>of</strong> ~65370
ha. on completion Thus the total irrigation potential
expected to be generated through the majorl medium irrigation projects in the
state would be a little under half a million ha.
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Regional imbalances in irrigation development are very conspicuous. For
example. 10 out <strong>of</strong> 14 (72 %) completed irrigation projects are located in
Palakkad and Thrissur districts. The skewed distribution <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects
needs to be explained in tenns <strong>of</strong> the specitic objective for which the irrigation
schemes have been designed in the state. Since the objective <strong>of</strong> major and
medium projects is to provide irrigation for paddy. thc projects might have been
concentrated where agro-c1imatie conditions are more conducive for paddy
cultivation.
In spite <strong>of</strong> the considerable investment in the development <strong>of</strong> major!
medium irrigation systems. the potential created and utilised is neither
commensurate with the scale <strong>of</strong> investment made nor In terms <strong>of</strong> area expansion
as targeted under various plans. The area brought under irrigation upto 1998-99
including minor irrigation has been 4.45 lakh ha. (net) and 7.25 lakh ha. (gross).
The overall scenario <strong>of</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation sector, particularly major and
medium irrigation projects in the state indicate grave mismatch between
expectation and actual realisation.
The performance <strong>of</strong> major and medium irrigation sector measured 111
terms <strong>of</strong> utilisation <strong>of</strong> potential created has been 79 per cent in the case ot
completed schemes and only less than 22 per cent in respect <strong>of</strong> on-going
irrigation schemes, with an overall rate <strong>of</strong> utilisation <strong>of</strong> less than 47 per cent. On
the other. the problems such as cost and time O\'er runs. caused by enormous
delays in completion. have been assuming alarming proportions. While the cost
escalation in nominal terms has been 611 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> completed
irrigation schemes. it was 1633 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing schemes. The
332

time lag involved in completion uf the schemes was 19 years on an average in the
case <strong>of</strong> completed schemes. However. the magnitude <strong>of</strong> unproductive lag appears
to be enormous in the on-going schemes and is almost double that <strong>of</strong> the
completed schemes, with an an:rage lag <strong>of</strong> 23.6 years. Mention may be made <strong>of</strong>
the Kallada and Kanjirapuzha schemes that have already completed 38 years
without any substantial benefit to speak <strong>of</strong>. The cost per hectare <strong>of</strong> irrigation
potential created under completed schemes was Rs. 1.39 lakhs on an average.
Whereas, in the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing schemes, it was more than rupees one lakh in 9
<strong>of</strong> the 15 schemes. It is important to note that this expenditure has remained as
sunk capital in the absence <strong>of</strong> any commensurate addition to migated area.
The physical and financial performance <strong>of</strong> the completed and ongoing
irrigation projects points to the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> gross under-utilisation <strong>of</strong>
potential to the extent <strong>of</strong> 35 to 45 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the completed
projects and almost 78 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> ongoing schemes. Surprisingly, in
I lout <strong>of</strong> 15 projects, no potential was created yet, in spite <strong>of</strong> massive flow <strong>of</strong>
investment over the last two decades and more.
An analysis <strong>of</strong> the trends In the financial expenditure and physical
achievement in respect <strong>of</strong> the on-going irrigation projects for the period \970-71
to \999-2000 shows that during 1979-80, major chunk <strong>of</strong> the total investment
earmarked for ongoing irrigation projects has gone only for four projects, viz.,
Kuttiadi (23 to 32 %), followed by Periyar Valley (18-27 %), Pamba (\8-21 %)
and Pazhassi pruject (11-18 %). From 1980-81 onwards. the trend has, however,
changed in favour <strong>of</strong> Kallada. Periyar Valley and Mmattupuzha valley projects.
The percentage share <strong>of</strong> Kallada in the total investment has increased from 21
333

per cent in 1980-81 to 42 per ~ent in 1998-99, followed by further jump to 70 per
cent in 1999-2000. This has resulteJ in thin spread <strong>of</strong> financial resources among
the remaining projects.
The trends in ph~ sical achie\"L'mcnt show that irrigated area expansion has
ta~cn
place only in four protccts. \ iz.. Periyar Valley, Pamha. Kallada and
Kuttiadi. Thcre was no potential ~rcated
in five irrigation projects. VIZ.,
\lu\atlUpul.ha valle\". Idamalayar. Karapuzha, Meenachil Rivcr valley and
('hamravattom. inspltc <strong>of</strong> considerahk tinancial invcstment over the years.
As re\ eat.:d h\ the land usc statistics in Kerala, the net sown area <strong>of</strong> the
state has incr.:ascd h\ ahout :;2 per cent frpm I n million ha. in 19:i~ to ~.27
miliulIl ha III 1997. \\hile the gnmth In nct Irrigated area in the st:.lte \\as only
9.R7 per cent p\ er tlllle I he cwppinc Intensity has increased from II R pcr ccnt
to I:; I per ccnt. \dllch IS dhovc the natipnal a\'cragc Howevcr. the high nopping
intensity In the state mJ\ not he a purc effect <strong>of</strong> irrigation. Because, most <strong>of</strong> the
projects represent Im\ Irrigation ratios as well as the specific land use pattern <strong>of</strong>
the state. characterised hy predominance <strong>of</strong> plantation crops with high density
planting.
Though the ,tatlstics on net Irrq,!a\(:d arL'~1 and inl

the state has increased by about 46 per cent during the period 1952-1 'N7. net
irrigated area increased only by less than 10 per cent. The proportion <strong>of</strong> net
irrigated area is almost stagnant at 15 per cent since the 1990s. In sharp contrast,
the source-wise irrigated area indicates wide variation between area under canals
and other sources, especially wells. While the proportion <strong>of</strong> area under canal
irrigation marked sharp decline from 46 per cent in 1952 to below 30 per cent in
1997, the area irrigated by wells has increased by 108 per cent during 1980-1997.
This essentially brings out the growing mismatch between capital investment for
canal construction activities and the corresponding area expansion in the state.
II is important 10 nOle Ihal the projects were exclusively designed for
culti\ation <strong>of</strong> padd). But in reality. crop diversification has laken place un a
larger scale and the area under paddy declined over lime. There was also a
remarkabk decline in area unda crops. such as tapioca (cassava) and pulses over
the period 1960-61 to 1997-98. While the area under paddy and tapioca have
..
declined by almost by 50 per cent, that under pulses declined by about 66 per
cent. On the other hand, the area under rubber has increased by 243 per cent,
followed by arecanul. 202 per cent. banana 82 per cent. pepper 81 per cent and
coconut (77 %). While the area under other crops such as ginger and tea were
almost stagnating. it was fluctuating in the case <strong>of</strong> cashew and c<strong>of</strong>fee. It is
noteworthy that area under food crops cashew and c<strong>of</strong>fee was highly fluctuating.
Subsequently, while the share <strong>of</strong> area under food crops declined from 49 per cent
in 1975 to 25 per cenl in 199R. and that <strong>of</strong> non-food/ commercial crops increased
from 51 per cent to 75 per cent during the same period.
335

, .
The conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy field, for agricultural and nun-agricultural uses
has been widely debated in the statc. An important finding is that paddy is
rcplaced by coconut in some <strong>of</strong> the dIstricts in the state. The conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy
lands into coconut gardens is a gradual process. wherein two indigenous means
are involved. The conversion and usc <strong>of</strong> paddy fields tor purposes other than
crop cultivation has greater implications in so far as the use <strong>of</strong> irri!!ation water is
concerned. One <strong>of</strong> the important reasons tor paddy land conversion is the decline
in per-capita availability <strong>of</strong> arable land even in irrigation projects. The ayacut
converted (mainly paddy area) tor non-agricultural uses constitute about 15 per
cent in the completed irrigation projects. The proportion <strong>of</strong> ayacut area converted
for non-agricultural uses across the command areas ranged between II per cent
In the Neyyar project to 24.73 per cent in the Karapuzha scheme. A sample
SUf\ey condu~ted in eight completed irrigation projects in the state has revealed
that 19 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers have converted their paddy fields permanently.
The proportion <strong>of</strong> area converted was the highest in the Peechi irrigation project
as 56 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers reported to have converted their paddy fields and
the area converted was 44 per cent. In the Chalakudy scheme. 43 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
farmers have converted and the paddy area converted was 39 per cent.
In the light <strong>of</strong> this emerging scenario, it has to be tested, may be on an
experimental basis; whether rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> the physical infrastructure for water
d~stribution
followed by assured supply <strong>of</strong> water will influence the farmers
dCClsion on crop divcrsification. therd" arresting the conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy areas.
It appears that even such experiments have very little impact on the process, in
view <strong>of</strong> the comparative pr<strong>of</strong>itability as well as the less labour intensity in the
336

cultivation <strong>of</strong> commercial crops. This is evidenced by the considerable decline <strong>of</strong>
almost 20 per cent in the area under second crop (Mundakan) <strong>of</strong> paddy in seven
taluks commanded by major irrigation projects during 1974-75 to 1986-87.
Among the taluks, the highest decline reported was in Neyyattinkara taluk
commanded by the Neyyar irrigation project (46%), followed by Peechi in
Thrissur (36 %), and Malampuzha project in Chittur (23 %). The major reasons
attributed for the conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy fields are: a) lack <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>itability, b) nonavailability
<strong>of</strong> labour and high wage rates; c) non-availability and scarcity <strong>of</strong>
water: d) water logging in the paddy fields; e) lack <strong>of</strong> interest among the younger
generations; and f) the declining operational size <strong>of</strong> paddy fields.
The land utilisation pattern as reported by the CADA in the ayacuts <strong>of</strong> the
completed irrigation projects need further examination to arrive at realistic
estimates <strong>of</strong> the current status. The CAD statistics has to be interpreted with
caution. It is reported that 70 per cent <strong>of</strong> the ayacut <strong>of</strong> the completed irrigation
projects are under paddy, followed by coconut (47 %). But the ground realities
are different. For example, the paddy area reported as irrigated included the gross
area cultivated during the first. second and third crop seasons thus glvmg an
impression that the decline is paddy area is not much. While irrigation is required
mostly for the second and third crops <strong>of</strong> paddy, the first crop is also erroneously
taken as canal irrigated. Thus, the gross area anticipated to be irrigated by the
irrigation projects is taken as actual irrigated area.
Further. it is reported that the area under coconut and banana has
increased in the completed, which may not be true in view <strong>of</strong> the constraints in
technical design <strong>of</strong> the projects, which do not allow irrigation <strong>of</strong> other crops. To
337

elahorate this argument further. it may be noted that the method <strong>of</strong> field to field
irrigation is the existing practice <strong>of</strong> irrigation followed in case <strong>of</strong> paddy and
water courses have not been connected to individual plots. Field to field
irrigation is not possihle for garcen land crops. such as coconut. since upper plots
will be completely inundated. The irrigation <strong>of</strong> these crops requires substantial
investment for redesigning <strong>of</strong> the watercourses and corresponding farm level
Investments by the farmers. However. the local field level dynamics need further
scrutiny.
The trends in the share <strong>of</strong> the important crops in the gross irrigated area.
h.owevef.
lends support to the argument that irrigated paddy fields have been
gradually con\ erted into wconut. arecanut and banana to some extent on account
Llf the irrigallDn facilities a\ailable. It is no doubt that the farmers are guided
more by comparative protitability <strong>of</strong> alternate crops than the assured supply <strong>of</strong>
water per Sf. The pr<strong>of</strong>itability ratios <strong>of</strong> those crops are much higher than paddy.
For instance. the estimates based on productivity and prices <strong>of</strong> important crops
during 1997 show that the gross income realised from paddy per ha. is equivalent
to only 13 per cent <strong>of</strong> the income from arecanut. 10 per cent <strong>of</strong> banana. 22 per
cent <strong>of</strong> tapioca. 44 per cent <strong>of</strong> coconut. 21 per cent <strong>of</strong> rubber and 8 per cent <strong>of</strong>
horticulture crops. In spite <strong>of</strong> the average productivity <strong>of</strong> paddy increasing in the
command areas, the relative pr<strong>of</strong>itability is less. But the reported increase in
average productivity may be explained in terms <strong>of</strong> marginal land going out <strong>of</strong>
cultivation and nl)t the productivity increase per sc. In the given scenario.
cultivation <strong>of</strong> the otherwise limited paddy in the state could be sustained only
338

through the effective implementatiClIl <strong>of</strong> consolidation <strong>of</strong> landholdings. group
farm management and assured supply <strong>of</strong> water during summer.
The problems <strong>of</strong> under-utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential as well as time
and cost Clver runs are some <strong>of</strong> the important Issues relating to irrigation
development in any regIOn. including Kerala. Some <strong>of</strong> the important reglOnspecific
factors adversely affecting the irrigation performance in Kerala may be
explained in terms <strong>of</strong> physical features. socio-economic factors as well as the
political interests. The physical features include the undulating terrain <strong>of</strong> the
irrigation commands. and high rainfall intensity causing damages to the irrigation
structures. These two factJrs have erippling effect on the cost <strong>of</strong> irrigation
dC\elopmcn! Thc socio-economic !actors leading to cost escalatiCln and time
over runs include: (a) substantial declIne in area under paddy in the irrigation
commands. (bl perceptible change ill crupping path:rn in favour <strong>of</strong> rainfed and
pnennial cash crups. (c) rise in costs <strong>of</strong> land. labour and material involved in the
construction <strong>of</strong> canal systems. (d) disproportionate rise in establishment
expenditure in irrigation schemes, (e) change in design! alignment <strong>of</strong> canal
systems. and (I) land acquisition for aligning canals and the earthwork involved.
The political rallonale behind the de\e1opment <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in the post­
II1dependence era was to ensure balanced regional development. The rent seeking
behaviour <strong>of</strong> irrigation bureaucracy, lack <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional approach in appropriate
and realistic planning has resulted in huge unproductive expenditure in favour <strong>of</strong>
claims <strong>of</strong> contractors and other agencies in\'olvcd. Unprokssionalism and lack <strong>of</strong>
accountability is reflected in the avoidable expenditure incurred on: (a) extra
expenditure due to delay in communicallng acceptance <strong>of</strong> tenders; (b) extra
339

expenditure due to change <strong>of</strong> specificationi defective estimation: (c I nonrecovery
<strong>of</strong> advances, cost <strong>of</strong> materials from contractors: (d) extra expenditure
due to departmental delays: (e) defective formation <strong>of</strong> canal systems: (vi) change
in scope <strong>of</strong> the scheme in the course <strong>of</strong> execution: and (f) irregular additional
payment for earthwork excavation.
The rise in factor costs, namely, land, labour and materials also
contributed to cost escalation <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. Since the opportunity Cllst llf
land is high in Kerala due to the high density <strong>of</strong> population as well as agricultural
and non-agricultural demand, land has become an important asset rather than
input in the agricultural production process. This resulted in high transaction cost
<strong>of</strong> land even in the command areas. The rise in labour costs as well as material
costs have been substantial in nominal terms. While wages increased almost 2 to
3 times across categories during the period between 1960 and 1999. the material
costs also have increased. Maximum rise in costs <strong>of</strong> materials has been noticed in
the prices <strong>of</strong> sand (11199 %), bricks (7900 %) and cement (2245 %) during the
entire period.
Another important source <strong>of</strong> cost escalation has been the abnormal rise in
revenue (establishment) expenditure. According to the norms fixed by ewe in
September 1990, the establishment expenditure in irrigation projects should not
to exceed 15 per cent <strong>of</strong> the capital expenditure including expenditure on
investigation. But. it was found that establishment expenditure has been more
than the stipulated norm <strong>of</strong> 15 per cent in the case <strong>of</strong> eight irrigation schemes. It
ranges from as high as 78 per cent in Meenachil project to 57 per cent in
Chamravattom. Among the projects, the escalation in revenue expenditure has
340

een the highest in Kallada project at 5666 per cent against escalation in capital
expenditure, ie., 3148 per cent. In the case <strong>of</strong> Pamba irrigation project. the
escalation in revenue expenditure has been 4171 per cent compared to 1432 per
cent escalation in capital expenditure. Only in the case <strong>of</strong> Kakkadavu irrigation
project that the capital expenditure exceeded revenue expenditure by more than
three times. Thus, the disproportionate increase in revenue expenditure might
have affected the actual development <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential.
The negative externalities in terms <strong>of</strong> adverse effects on soli like
waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity have been widely reported in some <strong>of</strong> the
irrigation projects. A realistic estimate <strong>of</strong> the environmental problems are yet to
be made. These problems not only make the land unfit for cultivation but also
entail huge cost <strong>of</strong> reclamation. For instance, in the Kuttiadi command area,
about 64 per cent <strong>of</strong> the original ayacut <strong>of</strong> 14568.70 ha. has been degraded and
became less productive. Timely measures to reclaim could have saved about 41
per cent <strong>of</strong> the command area which has been degraded. The waterlogged area
unfit for irrigation has been 19.46 per cent, followed by area left unirrigated due
to lack <strong>of</strong> field channels (2.6 %) and uneconomic holdings (1.16%).
Sedimentation problems have also been found in some <strong>of</strong> the reservoirs.
For instance, the original capacity <strong>of</strong> the Malampuzha reservoir was 228.40
million cU.m, according to the project report, which, lateron, has declined to
220.15 million cU.m as a result <strong>of</strong> sedimentation. In Peechi, average annual
sedimentation rate has been 0.91 per cent, higher than that <strong>of</strong> the sedimentation
rate <strong>of</strong> 0.25 per cent found in Malampuzha project.
341

The overall performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation and agriculture development in
Kerala took many twists and turns in successive plan periods. Reasons for it are
wide and varied, covering technical. managerial, social, political and
bureaucratic, besides agro-economic and environmental issues.
The implementation <strong>of</strong> OFD works under the Command Area
Development (CAD) programme in the completed irrigation projects has been
slow and unscientific, if viewed from the CAD perspectives. The CADA was
responsible for taking up soil and topographical surveys, construction <strong>of</strong> field
channels and drains with related structures, introduction <strong>of</strong> warabandi,
organisation <strong>of</strong> beneficiary farmers' associations (SF As), adaptive trials and
large scale demonstration (LSD) <strong>of</strong> agricutlural practices.
But in reality. implementation <strong>of</strong> OFD in the irrigation projects In the
state shows that none <strong>of</strong> the schemes could achieve physical and financial
targets. Even the most important items <strong>of</strong> OFD, viz., field channels and drains
have not been completed as envisaged. The achievement in the construction <strong>of</strong>
field channels in smaller plots (below 5 ha.) has been very disappointing both in
financial and physical terms. The shortfall was attributed by CADA to smallness
<strong>of</strong> holdings, as small farmers were reluctant to part with land free <strong>of</strong> cost for
construction <strong>of</strong> field channels and drains. It was mainly due to the unwillingness
<strong>of</strong> the farmers to construct field channels and drains as the expenses required
would be more than the nominal loan <strong>of</strong> Rs. 200 per ha. <strong>of</strong>fered by the C ADA for
land development.
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It was noticed that among the various CAD programmes, major thrust was
on the construction <strong>of</strong> field channels and drains and implementation <strong>of</strong>
WuruhunJi. which together accounted for almost 68 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total
expenditure on OFD. Soil conservation. including land levelling and shaping was
carried out in only 43 per cent <strong>of</strong> the targeted area. The slow pace was attributed
to the delay in identifying areas for land levelling and shaping, because <strong>of</strong>
inadequate staff in the soil conservation wing.
Farmers' training programmes. meant for capacity building among
farmers to take on to irrigated farming have been conducted cost effectively. The
ratio <strong>of</strong> training programmes to CCA varies from I: 12.8 in Cheerakuzhi project
to I :59.1 in Walayar project. The efficiency in terms <strong>of</strong> coverage <strong>of</strong> training
programmes seems to be high in relatively smaller projects in terms <strong>of</strong> CCA.
This was perhaps done with a view to improve the efficiency <strong>of</strong> projects with less
CCA. where local dynamics and complications involving land use and water
"
distribution and management may be relatively less. The number <strong>of</strong> Beneficiary
Farmers Associations (BFAs) has, however, drastically declined from 479 to
only 87. Subsidy to small and marginal farmers also has been declining over
time. which may be to the lack <strong>of</strong> interest among this group to undertake farming
operations with the subsidy, or, the failure <strong>of</strong> CADA in disbursing the same.
The impact <strong>of</strong> CAD programmes on the crop productivity and output (in
value terms) has been found to be quite encouraging. There has been a seven-fold
increase in output (at current prices) after the implementation <strong>of</strong> CAD
programmes, which enabled better and efficient use <strong>of</strong> water on the farm.
However, these results need to be interpreted with caution. Because, the
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difference is attributed exclusively to CAD programme implementation. which.
in reality may not be correct. The impact <strong>of</strong> other yield-enhancing inputs such as
fertilisers, pesticides, etc. used by the farmers is not brought out. Its impact
across the crops has not been uniform as revealed by the contribution made by
individual crops to the total earnings from farming.
The productivity <strong>of</strong> paddy in the Peechi command area has been found to
be higher than the average productivity in the district in the initial years.
However, difference has become marginal over time and in some years it as been
even less than the district average during Kharif and Rabi seasons. But the yield
<strong>of</strong> summer paddy is invariably lower in the command area than that <strong>of</strong> the
district. This is a paradoxical situation. Because. the yields <strong>of</strong> summer paddy are
generally expected to be higher than in other seasons. because <strong>of</strong> better sunshine
and other favourable climatic conditions. Moreover. in spite <strong>of</strong> the supply <strong>of</strong>
water from the irrigation project, the productivity <strong>of</strong> paddy is lesser than the
district average. This shows that mere provision <strong>of</strong> water may not by itself
promote higher productivity unless the supply is timely and adequate. The
coefficient <strong>of</strong> variation (CV) in productivity has been higher in the command
area than at the district level. For instance, the CV in the productivity <strong>of</strong> Kharif
paddy is 10.9 per cent as against 8.6 per cent in the district. Same is the case with
Rabi and summer paddy. The variation in productivity in the ayacut was higher
at 22 per cent compared to Kharif (10.9 %) and Rabi (18.7 %) seasons. The
designed discharge <strong>of</strong> water seems to be not adequate to meet fully the cropwater
requirements, where lands are not levelled and developed scientifically.
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The institutional paradigm evolved under CADA has not been effective
enough to reduce the gap between irrigation potential created and utilised
through the scientific adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD works in the irrigation commands. A
wide range <strong>of</strong> technical and operational problems and constraints have resulted in
unsatisfactory irrigation management, particularly, the delivery and equitable
distribution <strong>of</strong> water at the farm level. Some <strong>of</strong> the important reasons leading to
poor performance <strong>of</strong> CADA are: lack <strong>of</strong> resources, including timely availability
<strong>of</strong> credit and technical support required for OFD works, lack <strong>of</strong> people's
participation in the programme, etc. Since the availability <strong>of</strong> timely and adequate
supply was a casualty in almost all irrigation projects, farmers have been
reluctant to invest in OFD works, some <strong>of</strong> which are cost-intensive. Lack <strong>of</strong>
proper coordination between various line departments has been yet :motht::r
problem. The progress in terms <strong>of</strong> land improvements and development <strong>of</strong>
drainage facilities have been meagre and so has been the effort and research
involving and propagating cropping patterns and agricultural practices for
optimum use <strong>of</strong> water under the conditions prevailing in each irrigation
command. In spite <strong>of</strong> the laudable objectives with which CADA was launched, in
practice, the scope <strong>of</strong> the programme proved to be much narrower than
envisaged, focusing largely on the construction <strong>of</strong> field channels, introduction <strong>of</strong>
.. Warabandi" and land levelling. The subsidy programme meant for OFD has
been skewed more in favour <strong>of</strong> medium and large farmers and small and
marginal farmers have been totally neglected in the process. The OFD works
undertaken under the CAD have, therefore. not been effective in reducing the
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conveyance loss <strong>of</strong> water, improving distributional efficiency with equity In
almost all the projects.
The prioritisation and implementation <strong>of</strong> programmes have also been
influenced by political and local dynamics. According to the government
guidelines and orders, only completed projects should be brought under CAD
programmes. But three partially commissioned projects, viz., Pamba, Periyar
Valley and Kuttiadi were included under the programme since 1992-93 and an
amount <strong>of</strong> about Rs. 26 crores was spent. Obviously, the targeted works in other
projects cannot get adequate funds and therefore, their implementation gets
delayed adding further to the alleged inefficiency in irrigation management. The
ad-hoc and unscientific way <strong>of</strong> implementing the OFD works. without preparing
systematic project reports and operational plans have led to increase In
transaction costs involved in the programmes. Furthermore, it has also led to
lesser productivity than what was expected. For instance, the mean yield <strong>of</strong>
summer irrigated paddy from demonstration plots in four projects, viz., Walayar,
Malampuzha, Peechi and Vazhani, was lesser than those from the normal plots.
Such results tend to demotivate farmers from undertaking scientific OFD and
application <strong>of</strong> optimum doses <strong>of</strong> yield-enhancing inputs like fertilisers and
pesticides. It will have a negative impact on modern farm technology adoption by
the farmers.
Water Users' Associations (WUAs) are to be gIven subsidy to meet
managerial and other operational costs In the formative years. But, it IS
unfortunate that only 34 per cent <strong>of</strong> the associations formed as <strong>of</strong> 1997 had
received management subsidy. Further, the amount allocated by the government
346

<strong>of</strong> India to be released to the farmers to take up
OFD works was not even
disbursed to the farmers. The state government. therefore. had to bear the debt
servlcmg charges. Same was the case with subsidy to be given to small and
marginal farmers for dIgging wells and installing pumpsets to encourage
conjunctive use <strong>of</strong> canal and ground water. Only 22 per cent <strong>of</strong> the money
earmarked for the purpose was disbursed. If this programme was properly
implemented. farmers would have resorted to conjunctive use <strong>of</strong> water. which
would have helped reducing adverse effects like waterlogging and salinity. For.
wells in canal command areas work as vertical drains to arrest rise in water table.
The construction <strong>of</strong> field channels. an important aspect 0f OFD has been
far behind the expected levels in smaller blocks <strong>of</strong> 5 ha. and less. Farmers from
the smaller blocks have been given loans for constructing field channels. The
loan amount is only nominal (ie.. Rs. 200 per ha.), which is inadequate. Since
farmers were unable to mobilise the additional funds required for the purpose,
they did not construct field channels. It had, therefore. adversely affected water
distribution, use and management, particularly in smaller plots. This calls for a
realistic estimation <strong>of</strong> expenditure taking the location-specific conditions like
topography, slope and type <strong>of</strong> soils, for carrying out OFD works.
Most neglected aspect <strong>of</strong> OFD is the drainage. Depending upon the type
<strong>of</strong> the soil and other topographic conditions, the nature, type and extent <strong>of</strong>
drainage works will be decided. This calls for systematic and scientific survey to
estimate the drainage works. But, it is unfortunate that in all the 14 projects
completed, as <strong>of</strong> March 1998, it was not carried out. With the result, only 8 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the targeted area identified for drainage. was completed by 1997. The
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loan component <strong>of</strong> Rs. 500 per ha. to construct drainage channels was very
meager and does not match with actual requirement <strong>of</strong> Rs. 2500 to 3000 as
reported by the farmers. For instance, the expenditure per ha. at the national level
was fixed at Rs. 2500, which was subsequently increased to Rs. 4000 and
currently to Rs. 6000. Based on the Kerala experiences, this norm does not hold
good because <strong>of</strong> topographical reasons.
Farmers' perceptions about OFD are different from what CADA expects
them to do. The farmers. by and large. have understood OFD as merely levelling
the land by filling the gullies and other depressions on the field and providing
earthen channels before the release <strong>of</strong> water. The drastic decline in the size <strong>of</strong>
operational holdings and uncertainty in getting timely and adequate supply <strong>of</strong>
water has made farmers to avoid cost intensive methods necessary for scientific
OFO package as promoted by the CAOA. The farmers resorted to undertake
OFO with minimum human labour, some times only with family labour.
An important positive externality <strong>of</strong> canal irrigation in general IS its
contribution to groundwater recharge. Depending upon the intensity <strong>of</strong>
groundwater recharge and its reliability farmers have invested in dugwells for
irrigation purposes. A marked improvement in the groundwater levels in Peechi
command area has made the farmers to undertake OFD on a limited scale, even
though the cost has been high. The cost was particularly more where
groundwater replenishment has been more, because <strong>of</strong> the installation <strong>of</strong> pump
sets with higher capacity. However, the small and marginal farmers need special
attention in this respect. as many <strong>of</strong> them cannot afford to have an independent
pumpset <strong>of</strong> high capacity and even if some can afford, it would not be
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economically viable. This underscores the need for developing an institutional
mechanism to promote water markets in the command area.
It was noticed that the returns on investment in the crops grown in head
and middle reaches <strong>of</strong> Peechi irrigation projects have been high when compared
to those in the tail end. A relatively more assured supply <strong>of</strong> water in the head and
middle reaches enable the farmers to apply more doses <strong>of</strong> yield-enhancing inputs.
The cost <strong>of</strong> material inputs per acre <strong>of</strong> banana has been as high as Rs. 4880 in the
head reaches as against Rs. 2717 and Rs. 1647, in the middle and tail reaches
respectively. Lack <strong>of</strong> for the tail enders obviously resulted in low input use.
The impact <strong>of</strong> OFO on yields and returns has been significant in the
Peechi project. It is noteworthy that the net additional earnings from crops grown
in the plots with OFO have been more than those without OFO works. Among
the crops. tapioca and banana are more pr<strong>of</strong>itable. For instance. the additional
output from the developed plots is 231 per cent more. In the case <strong>of</strong> banana, the
productivity in developed plots is higher by 1377 kg. per acre than the
undeveloped plots. The yield differentials are quite perceptible in case <strong>of</strong> all
other crops. though not as high as in the case <strong>of</strong> tapioca and banana.
Though rubber is a rainfed crop. its yield has been more in the developed
plots. This has been facilitated by high moisture retention capacity due to
availability <strong>of</strong> water during summer, coupled with land development. The
improved soil moisture status obviously enabled more number <strong>of</strong> tapping days
during summer, resulting in higher output.
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_.--_._---
The relative pr<strong>of</strong>itability has been examined by applying the returns to scale
concept as defined in the Cobb-Douglas production function. The costs <strong>of</strong> inputs
expressed in rupee terms included OFD expenditure, labour and material costs.
The analysis shows that the returns from coconut and banana cultivation have
been more compared to other crops. The lowest returns has been observed in the
case <strong>of</strong> paddy (0.697), which indicates decreasing returns to scale per unit <strong>of</strong>
investment. In the case <strong>of</strong> coconut, the returns to scale is almost one, indicating
constant returns. The crop combination, ie., coconut and banana give better
returns to scale (1.033) in comparison to coconut and arecanut (0.997). The
analysis <strong>of</strong> the comparative returns from different crops and crop combinations
signify that the returns to scale could be further increased if canal water supply is
adequate and assured.
The Kallada project was designed for paddy cultivation. Even so, almost
60 per cent <strong>of</strong> the command area is under dry crops. which require irrigation
during summer. Since the topography <strong>of</strong> the project area is undulating, the
underground pipe line system, called the Minor Conveyance System (MCS) was
proposed, instead <strong>of</strong> open canal system. The MCS is laid out through the farmers
plots and the financial burden on them has been very marginal or some times nil.
The construction <strong>of</strong> canal network to feed the MCS was delayed for more
than a decade. This mismatch between the construction <strong>of</strong> canal network and the
on-farm water distribution system had made the investment in MCS infructuous
or unproductive sunk capital. Furthermore, the material used to lay the pipes and
associated structures have been completely spoiled and became useless. This has
resulted in several changes in land use pattern in the command area.
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The intensity and spread <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge in the Kallada project
was very less unlike the Peechi project. This may be due to the lining <strong>of</strong> major
proportion <strong>of</strong> canal system. because <strong>of</strong> which percolation was obviously low.
Even so. a sizeable proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers has reported <strong>of</strong> having benefited by
groundwater. Almost all the farmers reporting groundwater recharge have
installed pump sets. but water availability has been less in the command area.
Farm level investment on OFD has been low. It was Rs. 1184 per acre in
the head reach plots. Rs. 1198 in the middle reaches and Rs. 1156 in the tail end.
Across the different size classes <strong>of</strong> holdings. the average expenditure incurred by
the farmers in the 2 to 4 acre size class was high. especially in the tail reaches at
Rs. 4260 as against Rs. 3874 In the head reaches and Rs. 3854 in the middle
reaches. The proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers in that size class is. however. not high in all
the three lOCutions. Thus. the positive relationship between size class and OFO
expenditure as observed in the Peechi project is not found in Kallada project.
This may be due to topographical conditions in which Kallada project is located.
The uneven and highly undulating topography requires substantial farm level
investment for cutting the mounds. some times very deeply to level the plots and
bring it to an Uniform slope.
It is important to note that in spite <strong>of</strong> the critical importance <strong>of</strong> OFO for
effective and efficient utilisation <strong>of</strong> water, its adoption on a limited scale. has not
been on scientific lines as envisaged by the CAOA. For instance, in the Peechi
project. 17 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers surveyed reported that OFO is just removing
shrubs and bushes in the fields. More than one fourth understood it as an
integrated process, which includes removmg shrubs and bushes, levelling the
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field, providing uniform and drainage channels. What is noteworthy is that 2S per
cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers are aware <strong>of</strong> the need for on-farm drainage. This is very
important to avoid adverse effects on soil. Furthermore. 26 per cent <strong>of</strong> the tail
end farmers felt the need for drainage. Because. they have been facing the
problem <strong>of</strong> seepage caused by the unlined canals. Therefore, on-farm drainage
has been a major concern among the farmers. The survey revealed that 97 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers did not realise the importance <strong>of</strong> land survey before
undertaking levelling operations. to know the exact slope it requires and other
related aspects concerned with spacing and thickness <strong>of</strong> the bunds.
The major benefits expected from undertaking OFD as realised by the
farmers included uniform spread and application <strong>of</strong> water to the plants. avoiding
wastage <strong>of</strong> water in the conveyance and thereby minimises the problem <strong>of</strong>
waterlogging and (iii) efficiency in water use in the fields. More than one fourth
<strong>of</strong> the sample farmers felt that all the benefits mentioned above could be realised
by undertaking OFD works. While 18 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers in the head reaches
consider that OFD enables to ensure efficiency in water use, it is I S per cent in
the middle reaches and 20 per cent in the tail end. The tail enders seem to be
more conscious about the efficiency in water use for obvious reasons <strong>of</strong> scarcity.
The percentage <strong>of</strong> farmers finding OFD beneficial in more than one way is the
highest at 32 in the middle reaches. followed by 26 in the head and 25 in the tail
reaches.
In terms <strong>of</strong> scope and content. MCS in the Kallada project may be
considered as synonymous to OFD followed in the open canal system In the
Peechi project. MCS may be regarded as much more efficient than OFD in terms
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<strong>of</strong> allocation and application efficiency. According to the farmers, MCS is a
sound system enabling better utilisation <strong>of</strong> water. For instance, 18 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
farmers reveal that MCS is useful to reduce only conveyance losses <strong>of</strong> water.
Land saving as an important advantage has been highlighted by 22 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
farmers. In fact, in the absence <strong>of</strong> MCS. the land would have gone for
construction <strong>of</strong> open canals. About 25 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers think that MCS is
more economical than the open canal construction. The understanding <strong>of</strong> the land
saving dimension <strong>of</strong> the MCS by the farmers is equally important where majority
<strong>of</strong> the holdings are small and marginal. The proportion <strong>of</strong> farmers reporting this
benefit is more in the middle reaches (25 %), compared to 22 per cent in the head
reaches and 21 per cent in the tail end. Thus. the MeS. in a way. is land-saving
and water-augmenting technology. as there will be no conveyance losses <strong>of</strong>
water.
Farmers in Kallada project felt that the MCS network provided for onfarm
water distribution do not warrant any investment for land development. For,
the tree crops are irrigated through flexible hose pipes and therefore, no land
levelling is required. Sixteen per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers have indicated the reasons
such as lack <strong>of</strong> finance, lack <strong>of</strong> connecting field channels and existence <strong>of</strong> rubber
plantations as the reasons for not adopting OFD works, in spite <strong>of</strong> having MeS.
Twenty three per cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers did not go for OFD due to lack <strong>of</strong> field
channels, connecting their plots to the distributory or minor. This appears to be
strange, because, unless field channels are provided to the plots. it would be
difficult for a farmer to use water from the distributory canal. Since the farmers
353

have no easy accessibility to water. it is obvious that they have not taken up
OFD.
Another important factor contributing to the non-adoption <strong>of</strong> OFD in the
Kallada is the crop shift from paddy to rubber. Since rubber is a rainfed crop,
farmers do not feel the need for OFD. However, as observed earlier. the
productivity <strong>of</strong> rubber is relatively high in developed plots than in undeveloped
plots. though it is a rainfed crop.
Regarding the current status <strong>of</strong> functioning <strong>of</strong> MCS. 30 per cent <strong>of</strong> the
farmers from the head and 26 per cent from the middle reaches felt that MCS has
become defunct due to broken water distribution net works. Improper design <strong>of</strong>
the system. not conforming to the ground realities is another problem. For
example. the hydrants are fixed at lower layers <strong>of</strong> the plot and crops are grown in
upper layers. This is a major problem in the head reaches as reported by 29 per
cent <strong>of</strong> the farmers. followed by 26 per cent in the tail reach and 22 per cent in
the middle. Lack <strong>of</strong> adequate pressure in the flow <strong>of</strong> water is also reported as a
major problem across the three reaches. Timely repair or replacement <strong>of</strong> the
broken parts <strong>of</strong> the distribution systems is hardly attended to. This is partly due
to farmers indifference to bring it to the notice <strong>of</strong> the department. since they are
not using the system.
Thus. various problems rangmg from technical to management have
contributed to the less efficient functioning <strong>of</strong> the MCS. though a limited
potential <strong>of</strong> the system is actually utilised. The technical sophistication. with
which MCS has been installed and practical difficulties to use it effectively
354

shows that filed realities have not been understood properly. Not fixing the
hydrants at appropriate levels and places clearly demonstrates the ignorance <strong>of</strong>
the engineers about the ground realities. Interestingly, local farmers were not
taken into confidence while laying the system. This brings out the uutright
neglect <strong>of</strong> farmers' participation in the design <strong>of</strong> water distribution network.
Though hoses are provided to farmers for taking water from the hydrant to the
upper layers. lack <strong>of</strong> pressure make water flow difficult and inadequate.
I nterpersonal relations and local dynamics also play an important role in
operationalising the system more efficiently.
The role <strong>of</strong> the region-specific factors in influencing the adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO
in both the irrigation commands has been examined using the multiple regression
analysis. The important explanatory variables used in the analysis included
extent <strong>of</strong> ground water recharged by the seepage in the Peechi canal, capacity <strong>of</strong>
the pump set, proportion <strong>of</strong> dry area that could be brought under irrigation,
occupational status <strong>of</strong> the farmer and the availability <strong>of</strong> family labour. The
analysis indicated that farm level adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO in the Peechi command has
been well explained by all the variables selected. except family labour, which
showed a negative coefficient. Thus. the farm level expenditure on OFO in the
Peechi project is determined by the extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater replenishment caused
by the seepage in canals, capacity <strong>of</strong> the pump set available for irrigating the plot
and the proportion <strong>of</strong> dry area that could be brought under irrigation. The
occupational status <strong>of</strong> the farmers has also been found to be important. which
implies that if farming is the main source <strong>of</strong> income <strong>of</strong> the farmer, he invariably
undertakes OFD in whatsoever limited scale possible. The functional form with
355

the set <strong>of</strong> variables appears to be a good fit as evident from the 'R square' values
as well other parameters estimated.
The analytical model used for explaining the various factors determining
adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO in the Kallada project identified factors such as: holding size,
proportion <strong>of</strong> paddy area converted, extent <strong>of</strong> rubber area, the extent <strong>of</strong>
groundwater recharging caused, age <strong>of</strong> the farmer, occupational
status,
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> MCS, availability <strong>of</strong> pumpset. etc. It is found that the variables
used in the analysis explain almost 73 per cent <strong>of</strong> the farm level adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO
by the farmers. Among the important factors identified, the area under rubber has
been found to be negatively influencing OFO. In other words, the negative
regression coefficient in respect <strong>of</strong> the variable. RUBSHARE implies that the
farmers having higher proportion <strong>of</strong> area under rubber do not undertake OFO
works. as they consider rubber as a rainfed crop. Age <strong>of</strong> the farmer was also
inversely related to expenditure on OFO. implying that the farmers become less
interested in doing farming activities as they become old. The average age <strong>of</strong> the
sample farmers in the Kallada command was 53 years. The variables such as
extent <strong>of</strong> groundwater recharge, the availability <strong>of</strong> pumpset, the presence <strong>of</strong>
effective MCS network. the share <strong>of</strong> paddy area converted into wet crops as well
as the full time farming status <strong>of</strong> the farmer have been found to be positively
influencing the farm level adoption <strong>of</strong> OFO in the Kallada irrigation command as
revealed by the significantly positive regression coefficients.
The various problems and operational constraints In the process <strong>of</strong>
effective utilisation <strong>of</strong> land and water resources in Kerala have been broadly
explained in a framework <strong>of</strong> institutional. socio-economic, technological as well
356

as water management related factors. These factors have posed serious problems
on the dynamics <strong>of</strong> land use and water management practices in irrigation
commands in the context <strong>of</strong> the interface between irrigation and agricultural
development in the state.
The major institutional constraints hindering the process <strong>of</strong> better
utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation water in the canal commands are (i) the declining size <strong>of</strong>
operational holdings. leading to th~
failure <strong>of</strong> institutional intervention for
promoting paddy cultivation. (ii) lahour related problems. (iii) un-remunerative
rric.:s for paddy coupled with rising wage rates. and (v) large scale conversion <strong>of</strong>
raddy lands for ocher crops and also for non-agricultural purposes.
The Group Farming (GF) has heen an important institutional intervention
hv the government In
Kerab for augmenting paddy cultivation through
consolidation <strong>of</strong> holdings and ensure \iability <strong>of</strong> paddy. It has also been intended
to arrest the process <strong>of</strong> further conversion. However. the programme was only a
temporary success. as it could neither arrest the process <strong>of</strong> area conversion nor
ensure increase in returns to rice growers.
An Important reason why the cost <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation could not he
reduced under the group farming is the bbour intensity coupled with high wage
rate. The wage cost has increased substantially owing to the multiplication <strong>of</strong>
tasks caused by fragmentation <strong>of</strong> operational holdings and also operation-linked
wage rate. On the other hand. prices <strong>of</strong> paddy have never been attractive. The
increase in wages at current prices has been very high in relation to prices <strong>of</strong>
paddy during the last one and half decade and this adversely affected the net
357

arter terms <strong>of</strong> trade as the wages equivalent quantity <strong>of</strong> paddy has substantially
increased from 6.25 kg. in 1983 to i 7.93 kg. in 1998. While the price <strong>of</strong> paddy
registered only three- fold increase. the wages increased by about 8-9 fold. If
wage payment were to be made in kind as widely practiced in the good old days,
it is interesting to note that the wage equivalent quantity <strong>of</strong> paddy required to
engage one male labourer was 6.25 kg. in 1983. which has increased almost three
times to 17.93 kg. in 1998. In the case <strong>of</strong> female labourer. there was three times
increase from 4.34 kg. to 11.39 kg. during the period under reference.
This brings out very interesting dynamics <strong>of</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> costineffective
paddy cultivation in the state. An analysis <strong>of</strong> the trends in output
prices and factor prices (male and female agricultural wages) using the semilogarithmic
function has indicated that the wage increase has been higher than
that <strong>of</strong> rise in output prices. When the price <strong>of</strong> paddy increased by ahout 8 per
cent. the male wage rates increased by 11.83 per cent and female wages by
almost 13 per cent. Thus, the rise in factor prices has increased by almost two
times than the product prices in the case <strong>of</strong> paddy. In view <strong>of</strong> this, the purchasing
power <strong>of</strong> paddy has drastically declined in the respect <strong>of</strong> all the crops.
The important socio-economic factors adversely affecting farming
operations in general and irrigation water use for agriculture in particular are: (i)
lack <strong>of</strong> interest in labour intensive farming operations, (ii) relegation <strong>of</strong> the status
<strong>of</strong> farming into a secondary activity. and (iii) sociological factors. The
constraints posed by large-scale marginalisation <strong>of</strong> operational holdings coupled
with non-availability <strong>of</strong> labour even at higher wage rates and declining prices <strong>of</strong>
food crops, especially. paddy, precluded the farmers from undertaking highly
358

labour intensive farming operations. Sociological reasons are also indicated as
adversely affecting paddy cultivation. These problems include high proportion <strong>of</strong>
elderly among the farmers as well as labourers.
The major technical constraints for irrigation development in Kerala as
brought out by the study are: (i) design <strong>of</strong> the projects exclusively for paddy
cultivation; (ii) the water distribution networks in the command areas do not
permit to introduce demand based supply <strong>of</strong> water; (iii) irrigation infrastructure
and water distribution networks are in dilapidated condition and therefore. need
immediate rehabilitation to allow designed discharge <strong>of</strong> water in the canals: (iv)
improper design and alignment <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the canals and field channels
adversely affecting water distribution.
A major consequence <strong>of</strong> the projects being designed exclusively for
paddy cultivation is that crop diversification is not legally permitted to take
advantage <strong>of</strong> the abundant water available in the canals left unutilised in the
absence <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation. Though the farmers have undertaken crop
diversification some <strong>of</strong> the irrigation commands. there are several practical
problems arising out <strong>of</strong> inflexible design <strong>of</strong> the water distribution network
enabling crop diversification. Since the terrain in many <strong>of</strong> the irrigation
commands in Kerala is undulating. effective utilisation <strong>of</strong> canal water
necessitates significant investment on OFD both from the irrigation department
upstream side <strong>of</strong> the canal system as well as the farmers downstream.
The technical constraints III the development distribution and
management <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems warrants proper understanding <strong>of</strong> the land use
359

dynamics at the local level. Given th ...
topographical characteristics, the state
would need irrigation projects with an unique design <strong>of</strong> water distribution,
network and planning to promote systems depending upon the topography, as in
the Kallada irrigation project. Though Kallada irrigation scheme appears to be a
technically sound system suitable to the specific terrain it commands, the scheme
could not be successfully implemented for the reasons mentioned already. This
raIses an important question as to how the irrigation systems in Kerala could be
reoriented,) What should be the development priorities in the changing scenario?
These are the important questions that policy makers should bear in mind while
planning for rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> the completed projects and expediting completion
<strong>of</strong> the ongoing ones.
Some <strong>of</strong> the expenences In the contemporary development scenano
regarding crop diversification need to be retlected upon to drav,i lessons for
future planning. For example, there are growing apprehensions that cultivation <strong>of</strong>
coconut under assured canal irrigation may not bring the desired results, in view
<strong>of</strong> the various problems affecting stagnant performance <strong>of</strong> coconut in the state. It
is relevant to note that the stagnancy in yield <strong>of</strong> coconut has been persisting in
spite <strong>of</strong> the tremendous increase in area under coconut in the state. The important
reasons widely reported for the relatively low and stagnant yield <strong>of</strong> coconut
include: (i) higher proportion <strong>of</strong> old generation palms; (ii) lack <strong>of</strong> irrigation
facilities during summer: (iii) the problem <strong>of</strong> root-wilt: (iv) low input use; (v)
decline in average size <strong>of</strong> coconut holdings; and (vi) absence <strong>of</strong> technological
innovation.
360

Given the dynamics, problems and constraints as discussed above. it may
be concluded that reorienting the scope <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects in favour <strong>of</strong> crop
diversification. especially, coconut. needs further investment at the system !evel
to redesign the irrigation structures for facilitating irrigation <strong>of</strong> these crops. that
are grown in homesteads, much above the low lying paddy fields. This also calls
for huge investment at the farm level in terms <strong>of</strong> OFD to irrigate coconut
according to the conventional basin irrigation method. As the existing coconut
palms are <strong>of</strong> the traditional variety. an important step is needed to initiate a
massive replanting programme for coconut with HYV planting, coupled with
R&D support. The crops like banana. arecanut. vegetable. tapioca. may also be
brought under irrigation by redesigning water distribution netwroks ..
Tht issues in water distrihution and management in irrigation commands
In Kerala are yet to receive adequate attention in the irrigation management
literature. A possible explanation for this could be the lack <strong>of</strong> farmer interest in
irrigated farming per se. Furthermore. there are not many reports or complaints
on inequitable distribution <strong>of</strong> water and water- related conflicts across the canal
commands in the state. However. based on the findings <strong>of</strong> the present study.
some <strong>of</strong> the watcr management related constraints could bc identified as: (i)
inadequate supply <strong>of</strong> water across the canal reaches. (ii) non-pricing <strong>of</strong> water and
the subsequent wasteful utilisation; (iii) lack <strong>of</strong> efficient co-ordination <strong>of</strong> water
management activities. and (iv) non-functioining <strong>of</strong> water users associations.
An important aspect with respect to water distribution is that there are
wide differences in water requirements <strong>of</strong> different crops in irrigation commands.
The water distribution plan needs to be flexible so as to cater to the water
361

equirements <strong>of</strong> both dry as well as wet crops. No canal operational plans are
prepared in advance to supply and regulate water according to the requirements
in di ffc:rent seasons.
In many <strong>of</strong> the irrigation projects coming under CADA, the field channels
arc not constructed, or left incomplete. The cost estimates <strong>of</strong> OFD works as
reported by CADA <strong>of</strong>ficials, have to be necessarily conformed to the norms and
guidelines stipulated by the Government <strong>of</strong> India. But due to the special
conditions prevailing in Kerala, such as undulating topography, high cost <strong>of</strong>
construction on account <strong>of</strong> cost <strong>of</strong> transportation <strong>of</strong> materials, labour charges,
density <strong>of</strong> population. etc .. it is not possible to cover the targeted area within the
stipulated in\'estment allocation. As a result. some ayacut <strong>of</strong> the project had to be
left without 01'0 works. e\en alier spending the full amount allotted to a project
as per norms.
The awareness levels <strong>of</strong> farmers about the need for and importance <strong>of</strong>
OFD are fairly high. However, its progress at the farm level is not up to the
expected levels. The complexities and dynamics related to the design <strong>of</strong> the
projects, cropping pattern envisaged and realised, construction <strong>of</strong> water
distribution networks. crop diversification and the consequent changes in water
balance and so on arc wide and varied. The important institutional, socioeconomic,
technical and management related constraints noticed in the
development. distrihution and management <strong>of</strong> land and water resources in Kerala
calls for a judicious plan <strong>of</strong> action 1'0. the irrigation sector. It is more so because
<strong>of</strong> the changing scenario <strong>of</strong> agricultural development in the state. The
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> irrigation planning however, depends upon understanding <strong>of</strong> the
362

ground realities associated with crop based land use dynamics ill irrigation
projects and its implications on efficient utilisation <strong>of</strong> water resources.
The study on the <strong>economics</strong> <strong>of</strong>OFD in irrigation projects in Kerala brings
out very interesting dynamics <strong>of</strong> theoretically well conceived and operationally
ill-operated irrigation systems in the state. The region and farm specific
operational constraints in the development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems as revealed by
the study need to be understood, diagnosed in proper perspective to formulate
corrective measures. Given the complexities involved in understanding end
explaining the dynamics, the study makes a modest attempt to explain the
apparent divergences between irrigation infrastructure development and
agricultural performance. This study throws open number <strong>of</strong> issues for research,
based or. the experienc.:s <strong>of</strong> Kerala. One <strong>of</strong> the issues need addressing is to
examine the implications <strong>of</strong> crop conversion from paddy based food crops to
commercial crops on the utilisation <strong>of</strong> water resources <strong>of</strong> the state. In the light <strong>of</strong>
the emerging reforms in the water sector, how the newly emerged local level
planning could be effectively integrated in the process <strong>of</strong> governance <strong>of</strong> water
institutions in the state, which are fraught with number <strong>of</strong> technical, operational
and managerial problems.
363

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