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achievement being 55 per cent and 78 per cent respectively (ewe, 1999). The cost <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential at current prices has increased from Rs. 1200 per ha. during the First Plan to Rs. 66570 during 1990-92. showing a 55-fold increase over time. and at constant prices, it has increased from Rs. 8620 to Rs. 29587 during the above period (GO!, 2000). It is reported that the cost over runs were due to a change in the scope <strong>of</strong> the project (leading to 35-43 % increase in the cost in some projects), followed by one-time provisions for rehabilitation and resettlement (R&R) activities and others (40-47 %), increase due to price rise/ inflation (ranging from 8 % to 63 %) (GO!, 2000: 2.30 I). The discussion, so far, gives a fairly good idea <strong>of</strong> the status <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in India, its problems, prospects and institutional support needed to improve the operational efficiency <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. A brief review <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in Kerala State, from where the irrigation projects for this study have been selected, is presented in the following section. 1.4 Irrigation Development in Kerala: A brief account <strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in Kerala is necessary to understand the problems <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in the proper perspective. It may also be necessary to examine the divergences, if any, in the pattern <strong>of</strong> irrigation development experienced by the state compared with the irrigation development scenario at the national level. Kerala is known for its abundant natural resources, especially water. The state has 44 rivers, 27 backwaters (mostly in the form <strong>of</strong> lakes and ocean inlets), 23
7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 lakh wells lo . Vembanadu is the bIggest lake. with an area <strong>of</strong> 200 square kilometers (sq. km). Manv <strong>of</strong> the rivers like I'ni\ar. - . Pampa. Manimala. Achanko\il. Meenachil and Muvattupuzha draIn (lut to backwaters. Out <strong>of</strong> the 27 backwaters. two are fresh water resources. viz .. Pookot (Kalpetta in Kozhikode) and Sasthamkotta (in Kollam district). Out <strong>of</strong> the 44 rivers, 41 are west flowing and three are east flowing which are tributaries <strong>of</strong> the Cauvery river. Of the 44 rivers. 33 are less than 100 km long. with a total length <strong>of</strong> 1577 kms covering a catchment area <strong>of</strong> 14949 sq. km. The remaining I I riycrs are above 100 kms in length and their total length is 1643 km .. with a catchment area <strong>of</strong> 25058 sq. km. and the effective catchment area <strong>of</strong> all the river basins is 38864 sq. kmll. Five major rivers, viz .. Periyar, Bhrathapuzha, Pampa. Chaliyar and Chalakudy altogether drain 40 per cent <strong>of</strong> the geographical area <strong>of</strong> the state. Apart from rivers. backwaters. tanks and wells. springs also contribute to the water resources in Kerala. The non-conventional fresh water source in northern Malabar. viz .. Slirangams (horizontal wells) is a unique source <strong>of</strong> freshwater. Kerala also has good groundwater potential. The annual utili sable groundwater 10 A survey made by the Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM) reveals that there are 901 tanks and that Kerala has the highest density <strong>of</strong> family based open wells. the density <strong>of</strong> wells being 120/ sq. km. Tube wells also form a major source <strong>of</strong> water. The estimated quantity <strong>of</strong> groundwater resources in Kcrala is 7900 MeM. (GOK, 1999). There are 236 springs, <strong>of</strong> which. 104 are having a discharge <strong>of</strong> 10 to 100 liters per minute and 37 having more than 100 liters/ minute. Similarly the Sural/gall/s in north Malabar are having a discharge <strong>of</strong> 10 to 12 liters/minute. Thc~ arc largely used as a water resource in semi-dry an:a <strong>of</strong> Malabar for drinking purpose, II Though the total catchment area works out to be 40007 Sq. km .. about 1200 Sq. kill. is in Tamilnadu and the effective catchment area within Kerala is 38864 Sq. km. 24
Page 1 and 2: , ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT:
Page 3 and 4: DEC LARA TION I declare that the th
Page 5 and 6: I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozh
Page 7 and 8: CONTENTS Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Page 9 and 10: 4.9 Occupational Status of<
Page 11 and 12: 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 Financial Investmen
Page 13 and 14: Figures 6.1 6.2 Chart 6.1 Appendix
Page 15 and 16: Abbreviations used ASMO BFA's CADA
Page 17 and 18: An attempt has been made in this ch
Page 19 and 20: among the people and the process <s
Page 21 and 22: the Indian state had followed a pol
Page 23 and 24: water harvesting 7 by arguing that
Page 25 and 26: (World Register of
Page 27 and 28: Eighth Plan has been estimated by t
Page 29 and 30: One of the most im
Page 31 and 32: integrated development of</
Page 33 and 34: inadequate attention given to OFD w
Page 35 and 36: performance of irr
Page 37: created. According to the Central W
Page 41 and 42: competent and responsible agency wi
Page 43 and 44: physiographic conditions of
Page 45 and 46: (14 completed and 15 ongoing) proje
Page 47 and 48: interventions to improve the operat
Page 49 and 50: a summary of findi
Page 51 and 52: economic analysis of</stron
Page 53 and 54: een brought out by many scholars in
Page 55 and 56: While the economic benefits <strong
Page 57 and 58: sources, wasteful utilisation <stro
Page 59 and 60: such as rise in pnces, inadequate i
Page 61 and 62: the completion of
Page 63 and 64: of rainfed croppin
Page 65 and 66: areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998).
Page 67 and 68: investment In irrigation developmen
Page 69 and 70: Subsequently, an Expert Committee w
Page 71 and 72: highlighted the problems related to
Page 73 and 74: 2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong
Page 75 and 76: command area has reduced the labour
Page 77 and 78: Nanjundappa (1988), while examining
Page 79 and 80: y the CADA have led to low producti
Page 81 and 82: agents as against 90 per cent or mo
Page 83 and 84: among their members; c) insisting t
Page 85 and 86: Ansari (1989) shows that there have
Page 87 and 88: unit of land culti
Page 89 and 90:
subgroup increased from 40 per cent
Page 91 and 92:
1) The maIn activity being undertak
Page 93 and 94:
which are unique in several ways, t
Page 95 and 96:
across the states in different agro
Page 97 and 98:
and social setting In which a proje
Page 99 and 100:
The indepth study to examine the fa
Page 101 and 102:
\,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana s
Page 103 and 104:
understand the problems related to
Page 105 and 106:
of the crop produc
Page 107 and 108:
greater differences between the the
Page 109 and 110:
Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions an
Page 111 and 112:
specific promotional programmes und
Page 113 and 114:
Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <s
Page 115 and 116:
3.3.2 Crop specific promotional ins
Page 117 and 118:
non-viable paddy. Even the farmers
Page 119 and 120:
'- K01HIKOO --', , .-- :,' , \. ,.'
Page 121 and 122:
strictly adhered to the directions
Page 123 and 124:
4.1.2 Financial aspects The total e
Page 125 and 126:
4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree
Page 127 and 128:
Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut , IItIJrt ~
Page 129 and 130:
in lands having slopes less than 3
Page 131 and 132:
Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Patte
Page 133 and 134:
in terms of underg
Page 135 and 136:
meters. The end of
Page 137 and 138:
and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II.
Page 139 and 140:
lands. The average holding size is
Page 141 and 142:
The characteristics of</str
Page 143 and 144:
size group is the highest in the mi
Page 145 and 146:
Table 4.10: Occupational status <st
Page 147 and 148:
Appendix 4.1: Physical and technica
Page 149 and 150:
Chapter 5 Dynamics of</stro
Page 151 and 152:
plan. annual plans (1966-69) and th
Page 153 and 154:
gt:ographical concentration <strong
Page 155 and 156:
Concerted efforts were also made fo
Page 157 and 158:
T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I - - vS
Page 159 and 160:
expenditure and p~ysical achievemen
Page 161 and 162:
the state cannot be treated as a pu
Page 163 and 164:
in gross irrigated area. While cana
Page 165 and 166:
development of lan
Page 167 and 168:
The annual compound growth rates in
Page 169 and 170:
5.2.1 Dynamics of
Page 171 and 172:
area and yield of
Page 173 and 174:
A micro level study by Narayanan (1
Page 175 and 176:
ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the
Page 177 and 178:
The debate on conversion of
Page 179 and 180:
(Table 5.10). The table indicates t
Page 181 and 182:
eqUires substantial investment for
Page 183 and 184:
Source: Govt. of K
Page 185 and 186:
the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For
Page 187 and 188:
The overall scenario suggests that
Page 189 and 190:
project, they tend to undertake yie
Page 191 and 192:
the establishment expenditure (stri
Page 193 and 194:
a CriSIS. As the works involved In
Page 195 and 196:
(ii) In the Karapuzha project. the
Page 197 and 198:
5.15). The table indicates that the
Page 199 and 200:
place. There were three revisions J
Page 201 and 202:
Revenue vis Capital expenditure The
Page 203 and 204:
Let us now examIne the intensity <s
Page 205 and 206:
Cost escalation due to arbitration
Page 207 and 208:
Another source of
Page 209 and 210:
process would be very high. This al
Page 211 and 212:
construction for more than 20 years
Page 213 and 214:
are mainly concentrated in Thrissur
Page 215 and 216:
ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot
Page 217 and 218:
ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnl
Page 219 and 220:
Chapter 6 Economics of</str
Page 221 and 222:
conditions of the
Page 223 and 224:
Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart sho
Page 225 and 226:
and Palakkad together occupy 10 <st
Page 227 and 228:
Table 6.2. Physical and financial t
Page 229 and 230:
the total allocation has been for t
Page 231 and 232:
per cent achievement in physical te
Page 233 and 234:
Besides. it has been reported that
Page 235 and 236:
I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.
Page 237 and 238:
~~- ~- --~ In all others. the BC ra
Page 239 and 240:
possible in these lands during Khar
Page 241 and 242:
Hence. it may be argued that since
Page 243 and 244:
It is mainly due to scarcity <stron
Page 245 and 246:
project. where it is very high at R
Page 247 and 248:
proper coordination between variOUS
Page 249 and 250:
deficiencies that help drawing less
Page 251 and 252:
conjunctive use of
Page 253 and 254:
3) Again. due to the high density <
Page 255 and 256:
Table 6.13: Details of</str
Page 257 and 258:
doubts about the senousness <strong
Page 259 and 260:
practice IS more conspIcuous In the
Page 261 and 262:
2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in t
Page 263 and 264:
large holders have spent two to thr
Page 265 and 266:
Farming is considered mostly as a s
Page 267 and 268:
The profitability
Page 269 and 270:
noticed in the case of</str
Page 271 and 272:
The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Function has
Page 273 and 274:
· 13 Bank assistance programme and
Page 275 and 276:
etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange fo
Page 277 and 278:
Table 6.22: Status of</stro
Page 279 and 280:
Though almost all the farmers repor
Page 281 and 282:
3854 in the middle reaches. The pro
Page 283 and 284:
The net income from vegetables and
Page 285 and 286:
Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical
Page 287 and 288:
Chapter 7 On-Farm Development: Dete
Page 289 and 290:
It can be seen from the survey data
Page 291 and 292:
een made to examme as to how many f
Page 293 and 294:
a farmer to use water from the dist
Page 295 and 296:
The farmers were asked to reflect u
Page 297 and 298:
evamping needed to reorient the MCS
Page 299 and 300:
supplies. What is more interesting
Page 301 and 302:
the knowledge of i
Page 303 and 304:
All of the five ex
Page 305 and 306:
It is evident from the table that t
Page 307 and 308:
implications on the dynamics <stron
Page 309 and 310:
competitive monocropl2 as no other
Page 311 and 312:
of conversion thro
Page 313 and 314:
involving farmers as active members
Page 315 and 316:
The viability of p
Page 317 and 318:
factors l8 . As a result. the agric
Page 319 and 320:
The rise in price of</stron
Page 321 and 322:
may be observed that the canal seep
Page 323 and 324:
process of paddy l
Page 325 and 326:
Table 7.19: Productivity and gross
Page 327 and 328:
The technical constraints In the de
Page 329 and 330:
2) Lack of irrigat
Page 331 and 332:
manure or fertilisers are also do n
Page 333 and 334:
according to the conventional basin
Page 335 and 336:
Registration Act, 1860 in the erstw
Page 337 and 338:
The pattern of act
Page 339 and 340:
eported by CADA of
Page 341 and 342:
Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion
Page 343 and 344:
d,l!llS in the post-independence pc
Page 345 and 346:
all(lcatioll ill the absence <stron
Page 347 and 348:
irrigation commands. Th;; stud) was
Page 349 and 350:
comparative COSI .:conomlcs <strong
Page 351 and 352:
time lag involved in completion uf
Page 353 and 354:
the state has increased by about 46
Page 355 and 356:
cultivation of com
Page 357 and 358:
through the effective implementatiC
Page 359 and 360:
een the highest in Kallada project
Page 361 and 362:
It was noticed that among the vario
Page 363 and 364:
The institutional paradigm evolved
Page 365 and 366:
of India to be rel
Page 367 and 368:
economically viable. This underscor
Page 369 and 370:
The intensity and spread of
Page 371 and 372:
of allocation and
Page 373 and 374:
shows that filed realities have not
Page 375 and 376:
as water management related factors
Page 377 and 378:
labour intensive farming operations
Page 379 and 380:
Given the dynamics, problems and co
Page 381 and 382:
ground realities associated with cr
Page 383 and 384:
Dhawan, B.D. (1989): Sludies in Irr
Page 385 and 386:
Kothari, Rajni, (1989): Politics an
Page 387 and 388:
Vaidyanathan, A (1999): Water Resou
Page 389 and 390:
Ghosh, Prabir De, Budhadeb (1998):
Page 391 and 392:
Nair, Sukumaran, M.K. (1999): 'Rura
Page 393 and 394:
Varadan, K,~ (1999): 'Estimation <s
Page 395 and 396:
GOK (1967b): Evaluation of<
Page 397 and 398:
Ferrer. A.M., .L.e. Lucero (1988):
Page 399 and 400:
Suresh, K.A. (2000): 'Group Managem
Page 401 and 402:
Tomlinson, B.R. (1992): 'The Indian
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