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One <strong>of</strong> the objectives <strong>of</strong> irrigation is to increase crop intensity apart from bringing additional an;!a under irrigation. Accordingly. the changes in net and gross area irrigated. as well as source-wise irrigated area and cropping ll1tensity' are examined here. For instance. at the national level. as per the land use statistics. the gross irrigated area rose from ~~.6 million ha. in 1950-51 to about 28 million ha. in 1960-61. 38.2 million ha. in 1970-71. 49.9 million ha in 1980-81. 63.20 million ha. in 1990-91 and 73.28 million ha. in 1996-97. More specifically. the irrigation ratio. defined as the ratio <strong>of</strong> gross irrigated area to net sown area. rose from 19 per cent in 1950-51 to about 41 per cent in 1987-88 (Dhawan, 1991: 637). The same data available for Kerala shows that in absolute terms. the net sown area <strong>of</strong> the state has increased by about 32 per cent from 1.73 million ha. in 1952 to 2.27 million ha. in I q97 and the gro\\th in net irrig3ted 3rea in the st3te \\"35 only 9.87 per cent oyer tim/'. The cropping intensity h3s increased from 118 per cent to 131 per cent. which is abo\e the nalional ayerage. Howe\·er. the high cropping intensity as reported from ~ The impact <strong>of</strong> irrigation on intensity <strong>of</strong> cropping and other related parameters like input use efficiency. farm output. etc. have been a major source <strong>of</strong> debate in India. For a comprehensive review <strong>of</strong> the debate. sec. Vaidyanathan (1987). Dhawan (1991) and Ray (1992). • Dhawan (19&8. 1991) cautions abnut the infirmities in irrigation data as avai lable in the state. The infirmity arises because <strong>of</strong> the downward revision in the <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics pertaining to the irrigated area <strong>of</strong> the statc and "this appears to be a unique, not typical. case in India. Commencing in 1975-76. the net irrigated area <strong>of</strong> the state nosedives by half (from 4.65 lakh ha. in 1974-75 to 2.28 lakh ha. in 1975-76). and thereafter never recovers even its J.:HI <strong>of</strong> 3.36 lakh ha. allaincd bach in 1962-63" (Dhawan, 1988: 2658). As a result, the "regression results for this state arc <strong>of</strong> little worth .... and it is no wonder that no relation 145
the state cannot be treated as a pure effect <strong>of</strong> irrigation on account <strong>of</strong> the all-time low irrigation ratios as well as the specific land use pattern <strong>of</strong> the state, characterised by predominance <strong>of</strong> plantation crops7 with high density planting. Though the available statistics on net irrigated area and intensity <strong>of</strong> cropping In Kerala do not permit in drawing any meaningful and realistic conclusions about the irrigation Impact. they p[()\ide some useful insights about the low performance <strong>of</strong> irrigation in the state. The <strong>of</strong>ficial irrigation statistics 8 pertaining to the state may help in understanding this probkm in a proper perspective. Overall trends suggest that while the net sown area in the state has increased by about 46 per cent during the period 1952-1997. net irrigated area increased only by less than 10 per cent. The proportion <strong>of</strong> net irrIgated area i,; almost stagnant at 15 per cent since the 1990s. The source-wise Irrigated area indicates sharp contrast between area under canals and other sources. especially wells. It is all the more important to note that while the emerges bet\>oeen irrigation and intensity <strong>of</strong> cropping; the latter does show an upward rise" (Dha"an.1991:651). , The plantation crops are exempted from the land ceiling laws as part <strong>of</strong> the land reforms in the state. I There is immense scope for independent research on the quality and content <strong>of</strong> irrigation statistics as available in the state. However, different sources generate data employing different concepts thereby rendering the comparability between them rather difficult. While there were earnest efforts by various agencies. viz., the Public Works Department (Irrigation). the Department <strong>of</strong> Economics and Statistics (formerly known as Bureau <strong>of</strong> Economic and Statistics) and the Department <strong>of</strong> Agriculture to build up a data base on irrigation and related aspects <strong>of</strong> the state after its formation, the attempts in this direction were ralher non-existent earlier. This being so, any attempt to improve the quality <strong>of</strong> the data is hound to fail. For more discussion on this. see GOK, 1983. section III: Irrigation (141-154), especially, chapter one by Joseph and chapter two by Sthanukrishna IYI!r. 146
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, ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT:
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DEC LARA TION I declare that the th
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I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozh
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CONTENTS Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
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4.9 Occupational Status of<
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5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 Financial Investmen
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Figures 6.1 6.2 Chart 6.1 Appendix
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Abbreviations used ASMO BFA's CADA
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An attempt has been made in this ch
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among the people and the process <s
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the Indian state had followed a pol
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water harvesting 7 by arguing that
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(World Register of
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Eighth Plan has been estimated by t
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One of the most im
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integrated development of</
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inadequate attention given to OFD w
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performance of irr
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created. According to the Central W
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7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 la
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competent and responsible agency wi
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physiographic conditions of
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(14 completed and 15 ongoing) proje
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interventions to improve the operat
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a summary of findi
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economic analysis of</stron
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een brought out by many scholars in
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While the economic benefits <strong
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sources, wasteful utilisation <stro
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such as rise in pnces, inadequate i
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the completion of
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of rainfed croppin
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areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998).
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investment In irrigation developmen
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Subsequently, an Expert Committee w
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highlighted the problems related to
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2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong
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command area has reduced the labour
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Nanjundappa (1988), while examining
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y the CADA have led to low producti
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agents as against 90 per cent or mo
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among their members; c) insisting t
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Ansari (1989) shows that there have
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unit of land culti
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subgroup increased from 40 per cent
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1) The maIn activity being undertak
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which are unique in several ways, t
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across the states in different agro
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and social setting In which a proje
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The indepth study to examine the fa
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\,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana s
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understand the problems related to
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of the crop produc
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greater differences between the the
Page 109 and 110: Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions an
Page 111 and 112: specific promotional programmes und
Page 113 and 114: Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <s
Page 115 and 116: 3.3.2 Crop specific promotional ins
Page 117 and 118: non-viable paddy. Even the farmers
Page 119 and 120: '- K01HIKOO --', , .-- :,' , \. ,.'
Page 121 and 122: strictly adhered to the directions
Page 123 and 124: 4.1.2 Financial aspects The total e
Page 125 and 126: 4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree
Page 127 and 128: Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut , IItIJrt ~
Page 129 and 130: in lands having slopes less than 3
Page 131 and 132: Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Patte
Page 133 and 134: in terms of underg
Page 135 and 136: meters. The end of
Page 137 and 138: and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II.
Page 139 and 140: lands. The average holding size is
Page 141 and 142: The characteristics of</str
Page 143 and 144: size group is the highest in the mi
Page 145 and 146: Table 4.10: Occupational status <st
Page 147 and 148: Appendix 4.1: Physical and technica
Page 149 and 150: Chapter 5 Dynamics of</stro
Page 151 and 152: plan. annual plans (1966-69) and th
Page 153 and 154: gt:ographical concentration <strong
Page 155 and 156: Concerted efforts were also made fo
Page 157 and 158: T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I - - vS
Page 159: expenditure and p~ysical achievemen
Page 163 and 164: in gross irrigated area. While cana
Page 165 and 166: development of lan
Page 167 and 168: The annual compound growth rates in
Page 169 and 170: 5.2.1 Dynamics of
Page 171 and 172: area and yield of
Page 173 and 174: A micro level study by Narayanan (1
Page 175 and 176: ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the
Page 177 and 178: The debate on conversion of
Page 179 and 180: (Table 5.10). The table indicates t
Page 181 and 182: eqUires substantial investment for
Page 183 and 184: Source: Govt. of K
Page 185 and 186: the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For
Page 187 and 188: The overall scenario suggests that
Page 189 and 190: project, they tend to undertake yie
Page 191 and 192: the establishment expenditure (stri
Page 193 and 194: a CriSIS. As the works involved In
Page 195 and 196: (ii) In the Karapuzha project. the
Page 197 and 198: 5.15). The table indicates that the
Page 199 and 200: place. There were three revisions J
Page 201 and 202: Revenue vis Capital expenditure The
Page 203 and 204: Let us now examIne the intensity <s
Page 205 and 206: Cost escalation due to arbitration
Page 207 and 208: Another source of
Page 209 and 210: process would be very high. This al
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construction for more than 20 years
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are mainly concentrated in Thrissur
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ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot
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ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnl
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Chapter 6 Economics of</str
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conditions of the
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Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart sho
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and Palakkad together occupy 10 <st
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Table 6.2. Physical and financial t
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the total allocation has been for t
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per cent achievement in physical te
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Besides. it has been reported that
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I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.
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~~- ~- --~ In all others. the BC ra
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possible in these lands during Khar
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Hence. it may be argued that since
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It is mainly due to scarcity <stron
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project. where it is very high at R
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proper coordination between variOUS
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deficiencies that help drawing less
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conjunctive use of
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3) Again. due to the high density <
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Table 6.13: Details of</str
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doubts about the senousness <strong
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practice IS more conspIcuous In the
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2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in t
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large holders have spent two to thr
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Farming is considered mostly as a s
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The profitability
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noticed in the case of</str
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The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Function has
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· 13 Bank assistance programme and
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etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange fo
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Table 6.22: Status of</stro
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Though almost all the farmers repor
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3854 in the middle reaches. The pro
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The net income from vegetables and
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Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical
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Chapter 7 On-Farm Development: Dete
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It can be seen from the survey data
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een made to examme as to how many f
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a farmer to use water from the dist
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The farmers were asked to reflect u
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evamping needed to reorient the MCS
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supplies. What is more interesting
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the knowledge of i
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All of the five ex
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It is evident from the table that t
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implications on the dynamics <stron
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competitive monocropl2 as no other
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of conversion thro
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involving farmers as active members
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The viability of p
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factors l8 . As a result. the agric
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The rise in price of</stron
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may be observed that the canal seep
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process of paddy l
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Table 7.19: Productivity and gross
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The technical constraints In the de
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2) Lack of irrigat
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manure or fertilisers are also do n
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according to the conventional basin
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Registration Act, 1860 in the erstw
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The pattern of act
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eported by CADA of
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Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion
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d,l!llS in the post-independence pc
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all(lcatioll ill the absence <stron
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irrigation commands. Th;; stud) was
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comparative COSI .:conomlcs <strong
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time lag involved in completion uf
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the state has increased by about 46
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cultivation of com
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through the effective implementatiC
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een the highest in Kallada project
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It was noticed that among the vario
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The institutional paradigm evolved
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of India to be rel
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economically viable. This underscor
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The intensity and spread of
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of allocation and
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shows that filed realities have not
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as water management related factors
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labour intensive farming operations
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Given the dynamics, problems and co
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ground realities associated with cr
Page 383 and 384:
Dhawan, B.D. (1989): Sludies in Irr
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Kothari, Rajni, (1989): Politics an
Page 387 and 388:
Vaidyanathan, A (1999): Water Resou
Page 389 and 390:
Ghosh, Prabir De, Budhadeb (1998):
Page 391 and 392:
Nair, Sukumaran, M.K. (1999): 'Rura
Page 393 and 394:
Varadan, K,~ (1999): 'Estimation <s
Page 395 and 396:
GOK (1967b): Evaluation of<
Page 397 and 398:
Ferrer. A.M., .L.e. Lucero (1988):
Page 399 and 400:
Suresh, K.A. (2000): 'Group Managem
Page 401 and 402:
Tomlinson, B.R. (1992): 'The Indian
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