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arter terms <strong>of</strong> trade as the wages equivalent quantity <strong>of</strong> paddy has substantially increased from 6.25 kg. in 1983 to i 7.93 kg. in 1998. While the price <strong>of</strong> paddy registered only three- fold increase. the wages increased by about 8-9 fold. If wage payment were to be made in kind as widely practiced in the good old days, it is interesting to note that the wage equivalent quantity <strong>of</strong> paddy required to engage one male labourer was 6.25 kg. in 1983. which has increased almost three times to 17.93 kg. in 1998. In the case <strong>of</strong> female labourer. there was three times increase from 4.34 kg. to 11.39 kg. during the period under reference. This brings out very interesting dynamics <strong>of</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> costineffective paddy cultivation in the state. An analysis <strong>of</strong> the trends in output prices and factor prices (male and female agricultural wages) using the semilogarithmic function has indicated that the wage increase has been higher than that <strong>of</strong> rise in output prices. When the price <strong>of</strong> paddy increased by ahout 8 per cent. the male wage rates increased by 11.83 per cent and female wages by almost 13 per cent. Thus, the rise in factor prices has increased by almost two times than the product prices in the case <strong>of</strong> paddy. In view <strong>of</strong> this, the purchasing power <strong>of</strong> paddy has drastically declined in the respect <strong>of</strong> all the crops. The important socio-economic factors adversely affecting farming operations in general and irrigation water use for agriculture in particular are: (i) lack <strong>of</strong> interest in labour intensive farming operations, (ii) relegation <strong>of</strong> the status <strong>of</strong> farming into a secondary activity. and (iii) sociological factors. The constraints posed by large-scale marginalisation <strong>of</strong> operational holdings coupled with non-availability <strong>of</strong> labour even at higher wage rates and declining prices <strong>of</strong> food crops, especially. paddy, precluded the farmers from undertaking highly 358
labour intensive farming operations. Sociological reasons are also indicated as adversely affecting paddy cultivation. These problems include high proportion <strong>of</strong> elderly among the farmers as well as labourers. The major technical constraints for irrigation development in Kerala as brought out by the study are: (i) design <strong>of</strong> the projects exclusively for paddy cultivation; (ii) the water distribution networks in the command areas do not permit to introduce demand based supply <strong>of</strong> water; (iii) irrigation infrastructure and water distribution networks are in dilapidated condition and therefore. need immediate rehabilitation to allow designed discharge <strong>of</strong> water in the canals: (iv) improper design and alignment <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the canals and field channels adversely affecting water distribution. A major consequence <strong>of</strong> the projects being designed exclusively for paddy cultivation is that crop diversification is not legally permitted to take advantage <strong>of</strong> the abundant water available in the canals left unutilised in the absence <strong>of</strong> paddy cultivation. Though the farmers have undertaken crop diversification some <strong>of</strong> the irrigation commands. there are several practical problems arising out <strong>of</strong> inflexible design <strong>of</strong> the water distribution network enabling crop diversification. Since the terrain in many <strong>of</strong> the irrigation commands in Kerala is undulating. effective utilisation <strong>of</strong> canal water necessitates significant investment on OFD both from the irrigation department upstream side <strong>of</strong> the canal system as well as the farmers downstream. The technical constraints III the development distribution and management <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems warrants proper understanding <strong>of</strong> the land use 359
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, ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT:
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DEC LARA TION I declare that the th
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I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozh
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CONTENTS Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
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4.9 Occupational Status of<
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5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 Financial Investmen
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Figures 6.1 6.2 Chart 6.1 Appendix
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Abbreviations used ASMO BFA's CADA
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An attempt has been made in this ch
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among the people and the process <s
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the Indian state had followed a pol
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water harvesting 7 by arguing that
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(World Register of
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Eighth Plan has been estimated by t
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One of the most im
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integrated development of</
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inadequate attention given to OFD w
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performance of irr
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created. According to the Central W
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7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 la
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competent and responsible agency wi
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physiographic conditions of
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(14 completed and 15 ongoing) proje
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interventions to improve the operat
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a summary of findi
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economic analysis of</stron
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een brought out by many scholars in
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While the economic benefits <strong
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sources, wasteful utilisation <stro
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such as rise in pnces, inadequate i
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the completion of
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of rainfed croppin
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areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998).
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investment In irrigation developmen
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Subsequently, an Expert Committee w
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highlighted the problems related to
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2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong
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command area has reduced the labour
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Nanjundappa (1988), while examining
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y the CADA have led to low producti
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agents as against 90 per cent or mo
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among their members; c) insisting t
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Ansari (1989) shows that there have
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unit of land culti
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subgroup increased from 40 per cent
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1) The maIn activity being undertak
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which are unique in several ways, t
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across the states in different agro
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and social setting In which a proje
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The indepth study to examine the fa
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\,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana s
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understand the problems related to
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of the crop produc
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greater differences between the the
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Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions an
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specific promotional programmes und
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Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <s
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3.3.2 Crop specific promotional ins
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non-viable paddy. Even the farmers
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'- K01HIKOO --', , .-- :,' , \. ,.'
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strictly adhered to the directions
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4.1.2 Financial aspects The total e
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4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree
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Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut , IItIJrt ~
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in lands having slopes less than 3
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Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Patte
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in terms of underg
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meters. The end of
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and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II.
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lands. The average holding size is
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The characteristics of</str
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size group is the highest in the mi
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Table 4.10: Occupational status <st
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Appendix 4.1: Physical and technica
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Chapter 5 Dynamics of</stro
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plan. annual plans (1966-69) and th
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gt:ographical concentration <strong
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Concerted efforts were also made fo
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T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I - - vS
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expenditure and p~ysical achievemen
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the state cannot be treated as a pu
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in gross irrigated area. While cana
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development of lan
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The annual compound growth rates in
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5.2.1 Dynamics of
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area and yield of
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A micro level study by Narayanan (1
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ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the
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The debate on conversion of
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(Table 5.10). The table indicates t
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eqUires substantial investment for
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Source: Govt. of K
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the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For
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The overall scenario suggests that
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project, they tend to undertake yie
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the establishment expenditure (stri
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a CriSIS. As the works involved In
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(ii) In the Karapuzha project. the
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5.15). The table indicates that the
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place. There were three revisions J
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Revenue vis Capital expenditure The
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Let us now examIne the intensity <s
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Cost escalation due to arbitration
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Another source of
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process would be very high. This al
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construction for more than 20 years
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are mainly concentrated in Thrissur
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ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot
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ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnl
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Chapter 6 Economics of</str
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conditions of the
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Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart sho
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and Palakkad together occupy 10 <st
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Table 6.2. Physical and financial t
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the total allocation has been for t
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per cent achievement in physical te
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Besides. it has been reported that
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I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.
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~~- ~- --~ In all others. the BC ra
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possible in these lands during Khar
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Hence. it may be argued that since
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It is mainly due to scarcity <stron
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project. where it is very high at R
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proper coordination between variOUS
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deficiencies that help drawing less
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conjunctive use of
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3) Again. due to the high density <
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Table 6.13: Details of</str
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doubts about the senousness <strong
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practice IS more conspIcuous In the
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2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in t
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large holders have spent two to thr
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Farming is considered mostly as a s
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The profitability
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noticed in the case of</str
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The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Function has
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· 13 Bank assistance programme and
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etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange fo
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Table 6.22: Status of</stro
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Though almost all the farmers repor
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3854 in the middle reaches. The pro
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The net income from vegetables and
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Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical
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Chapter 7 On-Farm Development: Dete
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It can be seen from the survey data
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een made to examme as to how many f
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a farmer to use water from the dist
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The farmers were asked to reflect u
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evamping needed to reorient the MCS
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supplies. What is more interesting
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the knowledge of i
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All of the five ex
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It is evident from the table that t
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implications on the dynamics <stron
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competitive monocropl2 as no other
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of conversion thro
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involving farmers as active members
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The viability of p
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factors l8 . As a result. the agric
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The rise in price of</stron
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may be observed that the canal seep
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process of paddy l
Page 325 and 326: Table 7.19: Productivity and gross
Page 327 and 328: The technical constraints In the de
Page 329 and 330: 2) Lack of irrigat
Page 331 and 332: manure or fertilisers are also do n
Page 333 and 334: according to the conventional basin
Page 335 and 336: Registration Act, 1860 in the erstw
Page 337 and 338: The pattern of act
Page 339 and 340: eported by CADA of
Page 341 and 342: Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion
Page 343 and 344: d,l!llS in the post-independence pc
Page 345 and 346: all(lcatioll ill the absence <stron
Page 347 and 348: irrigation commands. Th;; stud) was
Page 349 and 350: comparative COSI .:conomlcs <strong
Page 351 and 352: time lag involved in completion uf
Page 353 and 354: the state has increased by about 46
Page 355 and 356: cultivation of com
Page 357 and 358: through the effective implementatiC
Page 359 and 360: een the highest in Kallada project
Page 361 and 362: It was noticed that among the vario
Page 363 and 364: The institutional paradigm evolved
Page 365 and 366: of India to be rel
Page 367 and 368: economically viable. This underscor
Page 369 and 370: The intensity and spread of
Page 371 and 372: of allocation and
Page 373 and 374: shows that filed realities have not
Page 375: as water management related factors
Page 379 and 380: Given the dynamics, problems and co
Page 381 and 382: ground realities associated with cr
Page 383 and 384: Dhawan, B.D. (1989): Sludies in Irr
Page 385 and 386: Kothari, Rajni, (1989): Politics an
Page 387 and 388: Vaidyanathan, A (1999): Water Resou
Page 389 and 390: Ghosh, Prabir De, Budhadeb (1998):
Page 391 and 392: Nair, Sukumaran, M.K. (1999): 'Rura
Page 393 and 394: Varadan, K,~ (1999): 'Estimation <s
Page 395 and 396: GOK (1967b): Evaluation of<
Page 397 and 398: Ferrer. A.M., .L.e. Lucero (1988):
Page 399 and 400: Suresh, K.A. (2000): 'Group Managem
Page 401 and 402: Tomlinson, B.R. (1992): 'The Indian
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