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is more obvious in canal irrigation, due to the time required for the construction <strong>of</strong> the distribution system as well as switching over from rainfed to irrigated agriculture involving major changes in techniques, which the farmers take time to master. Moreover, poh:ntial utilisation also depends on several variables, including, besides, the availability <strong>of</strong> distribution networks, the volume and seasonal pattern <strong>of</strong> water availability, the losses in conveyance, distribution and application on fields, the extent to which the conjunctive use is developed and the actual crop pattern on ground. In so far as the assumptions in respect <strong>of</strong> these parameters underlying the project design are not actually realised in full, there is bound to be divergence between the actual area irrigated and potential created (GOI. 2000: 2.290-0 I). Again. the plan document considers the reported gap as dubious as it does not give a correct picture <strong>of</strong> utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation potential, mainly because <strong>of</strong> the reason that the criteria! norms for reporting the data adopted by the States are not uniform. Vaidyanathan (1999) considers capacity under-utilisation in irrigation projects as an outcome <strong>of</strong> the lack <strong>of</strong> complementarity between the state initiatives in constructing the main reservoir, main and branch canals and distributaries up to outlets as well as the beneficiary efforts in constructing field channels in their own fields necessary for irrigation. 2.2.2 Cost and time over runs in irrigation development The escalation in cost <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects and the time lag involved in completion are the other t\\O important problems widely discussed in the literature. A pioneering analysis on the rise in costs <strong>of</strong> irrigation and multipurpose projects by the Expert Committee (GOI, 1973b) identifies the reasons 43
such as rise in pnces, inadequate investigation and provISIOn, change in the scope, design and additional requirements and high expenditure fo"r rehabilitation measures as instrumental in cost escalation. Since then, the issue has been addressed in many studies (Chaturvedi, 1976; INCOLD, 1979; Pant 1982; and GOI, 1983). A more recent study by the National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development (GOI, 1999) examines the trends in costs <strong>of</strong> nine projects, which have been started during the first and second plan periods. The estimated cost <strong>of</strong> these projects together was Rs. 922.09 crores during the Sixth Plan, which increased to Rs. 3220.15 crores as per the revised cost estimates as at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the Ninth Plan. the increase in estimated cost being 346 per cent. The corresponding actual expenditure has increased from Rs. 642.11 crores to Rs. 1901.22 crores. registering an increase <strong>of</strong> 246 per cent (CWC as cited in GOI, 1999). Subsequently, there was revision in the outlay from Rs. 210.14 crores for all the projects taken together during the Sixth plan to Rs. 257.56 crores (an increase <strong>of</strong> 23 %) as per the Ninth plan estimates. The cost escalation in most cases is attributed to the delays in the completion <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects. In most cases. the delay in completion <strong>of</strong> irrigation projects is caused by change in design <strong>of</strong> the project consequent on the land use in the command area 4 . Vaidyanathan (1999) observes that very <strong>of</strong>ten, ~ For a detailed discussion on these issues. see CBI? 1997 and Vaidyanathan, 1999: 90- 102. The CBI? study observes that "'In many cases, contour surveys <strong>of</strong> the command area are not carried out. The extent <strong>of</strong> command area is not assessed on a real istic basis. The norms for the design <strong>of</strong> distribution system are not laid down in the project report. Surface and sub-surface drainage requirement <strong>of</strong> the project are not studied. and 44
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, ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT:
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DEC LARA TION I declare that the th
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I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozh
Page 7 and 8: CONTENTS Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Page 9 and 10: 4.9 Occupational Status of<
Page 11 and 12: 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 Financial Investmen
Page 13 and 14: Figures 6.1 6.2 Chart 6.1 Appendix
Page 15 and 16: Abbreviations used ASMO BFA's CADA
Page 17 and 18: An attempt has been made in this ch
Page 19 and 20: among the people and the process <s
Page 21 and 22: the Indian state had followed a pol
Page 23 and 24: water harvesting 7 by arguing that
Page 25 and 26: (World Register of
Page 27 and 28: Eighth Plan has been estimated by t
Page 29 and 30: One of the most im
Page 31 and 32: integrated development of</
Page 33 and 34: inadequate attention given to OFD w
Page 35 and 36: performance of irr
Page 37 and 38: created. According to the Central W
Page 39 and 40: 7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 la
Page 41 and 42: competent and responsible agency wi
Page 43 and 44: physiographic conditions of
Page 45 and 46: (14 completed and 15 ongoing) proje
Page 47 and 48: interventions to improve the operat
Page 49 and 50: a summary of findi
Page 51 and 52: economic analysis of</stron
Page 53 and 54: een brought out by many scholars in
Page 55 and 56: While the economic benefits <strong
Page 57: sources, wasteful utilisation <stro
Page 61 and 62: the completion of
Page 63 and 64: of rainfed croppin
Page 65 and 66: areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998).
Page 67 and 68: investment In irrigation developmen
Page 69 and 70: Subsequently, an Expert Committee w
Page 71 and 72: highlighted the problems related to
Page 73 and 74: 2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong
Page 75 and 76: command area has reduced the labour
Page 77 and 78: Nanjundappa (1988), while examining
Page 79 and 80: y the CADA have led to low producti
Page 81 and 82: agents as against 90 per cent or mo
Page 83 and 84: among their members; c) insisting t
Page 85 and 86: Ansari (1989) shows that there have
Page 87 and 88: unit of land culti
Page 89 and 90: subgroup increased from 40 per cent
Page 91 and 92: 1) The maIn activity being undertak
Page 93 and 94: which are unique in several ways, t
Page 95 and 96: across the states in different agro
Page 97 and 98: and social setting In which a proje
Page 99 and 100: The indepth study to examine the fa
Page 101 and 102: \,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana s
Page 103 and 104: understand the problems related to
Page 105 and 106: of the crop produc
Page 107 and 108: greater differences between the the
Page 109 and 110:
Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions an
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specific promotional programmes und
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Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <s
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3.3.2 Crop specific promotional ins
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non-viable paddy. Even the farmers
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'- K01HIKOO --', , .-- :,' , \. ,.'
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strictly adhered to the directions
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4.1.2 Financial aspects The total e
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4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree
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Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut , IItIJrt ~
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in lands having slopes less than 3
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Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Patte
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in terms of underg
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meters. The end of
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and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II.
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lands. The average holding size is
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The characteristics of</str
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size group is the highest in the mi
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Table 4.10: Occupational status <st
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Appendix 4.1: Physical and technica
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Chapter 5 Dynamics of</stro
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plan. annual plans (1966-69) and th
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gt:ographical concentration <strong
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Concerted efforts were also made fo
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T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I - - vS
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expenditure and p~ysical achievemen
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the state cannot be treated as a pu
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in gross irrigated area. While cana
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development of lan
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The annual compound growth rates in
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5.2.1 Dynamics of
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area and yield of
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A micro level study by Narayanan (1
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ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the
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The debate on conversion of
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(Table 5.10). The table indicates t
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eqUires substantial investment for
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Source: Govt. of K
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the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For
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The overall scenario suggests that
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project, they tend to undertake yie
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the establishment expenditure (stri
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a CriSIS. As the works involved In
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(ii) In the Karapuzha project. the
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5.15). The table indicates that the
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place. There were three revisions J
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Revenue vis Capital expenditure The
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Let us now examIne the intensity <s
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Cost escalation due to arbitration
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Another source of
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process would be very high. This al
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construction for more than 20 years
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are mainly concentrated in Thrissur
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ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot
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ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnl
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Chapter 6 Economics of</str
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conditions of the
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Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart sho
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and Palakkad together occupy 10 <st
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Table 6.2. Physical and financial t
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the total allocation has been for t
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per cent achievement in physical te
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Besides. it has been reported that
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I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.
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~~- ~- --~ In all others. the BC ra
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possible in these lands during Khar
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Hence. it may be argued that since
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It is mainly due to scarcity <stron
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project. where it is very high at R
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proper coordination between variOUS
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deficiencies that help drawing less
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conjunctive use of
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3) Again. due to the high density <
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Table 6.13: Details of</str
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doubts about the senousness <strong
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practice IS more conspIcuous In the
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2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in t
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large holders have spent two to thr
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Farming is considered mostly as a s
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The profitability
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noticed in the case of</str
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The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Function has
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· 13 Bank assistance programme and
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etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange fo
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Table 6.22: Status of</stro
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Though almost all the farmers repor
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3854 in the middle reaches. The pro
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The net income from vegetables and
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Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical
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Chapter 7 On-Farm Development: Dete
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It can be seen from the survey data
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een made to examme as to how many f
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a farmer to use water from the dist
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The farmers were asked to reflect u
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evamping needed to reorient the MCS
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supplies. What is more interesting
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the knowledge of i
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All of the five ex
Page 305 and 306:
It is evident from the table that t
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implications on the dynamics <stron
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competitive monocropl2 as no other
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of conversion thro
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involving farmers as active members
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The viability of p
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factors l8 . As a result. the agric
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The rise in price of</stron
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may be observed that the canal seep
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process of paddy l
Page 325 and 326:
Table 7.19: Productivity and gross
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The technical constraints In the de
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2) Lack of irrigat
Page 331 and 332:
manure or fertilisers are also do n
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according to the conventional basin
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Registration Act, 1860 in the erstw
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The pattern of act
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eported by CADA of
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Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion
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d,l!llS in the post-independence pc
Page 345 and 346:
all(lcatioll ill the absence <stron
Page 347 and 348:
irrigation commands. Th;; stud) was
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comparative COSI .:conomlcs <strong
Page 351 and 352:
time lag involved in completion uf
Page 353 and 354:
the state has increased by about 46
Page 355 and 356:
cultivation of com
Page 357 and 358:
through the effective implementatiC
Page 359 and 360:
een the highest in Kallada project
Page 361 and 362:
It was noticed that among the vario
Page 363 and 364:
The institutional paradigm evolved
Page 365 and 366:
of India to be rel
Page 367 and 368:
economically viable. This underscor
Page 369 and 370:
The intensity and spread of
Page 371 and 372:
of allocation and
Page 373 and 374:
shows that filed realities have not
Page 375 and 376:
as water management related factors
Page 377 and 378:
labour intensive farming operations
Page 379 and 380:
Given the dynamics, problems and co
Page 381 and 382:
ground realities associated with cr
Page 383 and 384:
Dhawan, B.D. (1989): Sludies in Irr
Page 385 and 386:
Kothari, Rajni, (1989): Politics an
Page 387 and 388:
Vaidyanathan, A (1999): Water Resou
Page 389 and 390:
Ghosh, Prabir De, Budhadeb (1998):
Page 391 and 392:
Nair, Sukumaran, M.K. (1999): 'Rura
Page 393 and 394:
Varadan, K,~ (1999): 'Estimation <s
Page 395 and 396:
GOK (1967b): Evaluation of<
Page 397 and 398:
Ferrer. A.M., .L.e. Lucero (1988):
Page 399 and 400:
Suresh, K.A. (2000): 'Group Managem
Page 401 and 402:
Tomlinson, B.R. (1992): 'The Indian
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