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constraints In the effective utilisation and management <strong>of</strong> land and water resources in irrigation projects in Kerala. These location-specific constraints and problems need a critical understanding in a broader perspective, so as to arrive at certain policy prescriptions for the future development <strong>of</strong> irrigation sector in Kerala. An attempt has been made in the following section to discuss some <strong>of</strong> the important problems and operational constraints in respect <strong>of</strong> irrigation development in Kerala. These problems and constraints cover a broad spectrum <strong>of</strong> socio-economic, technical as well as institutional aspects governing irrigation and agricultural development in the state. Importantly, the following section is expected to provide a realistic explanation for the apparent failure <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in Kerala as an outcome <strong>of</strong> the simultaneous interaction between various socio-economic and institutional impediments (as discussed in Chapter 3) for efficient utilisation <strong>of</strong> water resources for agricultural development <strong>of</strong> the state. The analysis contained in this section largely draws from the relevant studies available and supplements the findings with adequate information gathered from the two study regions. III. Constraints in water resources development 7.3 Constraints in the development and utilisation <strong>of</strong> water resources for irrigation in Kerala ~ The various problems and operational constraints in the process <strong>of</strong> effective utilisation <strong>of</strong> land and water resources in Kerala may be broadly classified in terms <strong>of</strong> institutional, socio-economic, technological as well as water management related factors. These factors have been examined as an interface between irrigation and agricultural de\ dopment in the state with political 289
implications on the dynamics <strong>of</strong> land use and water management practices In irrigation commands. For analytical simplicity, these problems and constraints have been conceived as originating from institutional socio-economic technical , " financial and agro-management aspects affecting land development and water management measures in Kerala. Among these, the technical as well as financial constraints may be specifically identified as supply-side problems with respect to the provision <strong>of</strong> irrigation water by the government. On the other, the farmers mostly relate the socio-economic and agro-management constraints to effective utilisation <strong>of</strong> water. The institutional constraints in irrigation development and water management have both supply side as well as demand side implications. Some <strong>of</strong> these aspects have been discussed in detail in the following paragraphs. 7.3.1 Institutional factors The major institutional constraints purportedly affecting adversely the utilisation <strong>of</strong> irrigation water in the canal commands are: (i) the declining size <strong>of</strong> operational holdings leading to the failure <strong>of</strong> institutional intervention for promoting paddy cultivation; (ii) labour related problems; (iii) un-remunerative prices for paddy coupled with rising wage rates; and (v) the large-scale conversion <strong>of</strong> paddy lands in irrigation "ommands, having greater implications on water use, pattern and the consequent efficiency <strong>of</strong> irrigation systems in the state. One <strong>of</strong> the crucial factors influencing institutional issues in farming in general and irrigated farming, in particular, in Kerala is the constraints imposed by the size <strong>of</strong> holdillgs. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, marginal and smallholdings 290
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, ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT:
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DEC LARA TION I declare that the th
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I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozh
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CONTENTS Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
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4.9 Occupational Status of<
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5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 Financial Investmen
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Figures 6.1 6.2 Chart 6.1 Appendix
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Abbreviations used ASMO BFA's CADA
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An attempt has been made in this ch
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among the people and the process <s
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the Indian state had followed a pol
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water harvesting 7 by arguing that
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(World Register of
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Eighth Plan has been estimated by t
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One of the most im
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integrated development of</
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inadequate attention given to OFD w
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performance of irr
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created. According to the Central W
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7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 la
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competent and responsible agency wi
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physiographic conditions of
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(14 completed and 15 ongoing) proje
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interventions to improve the operat
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a summary of findi
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economic analysis of</stron
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een brought out by many scholars in
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While the economic benefits <strong
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sources, wasteful utilisation <stro
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such as rise in pnces, inadequate i
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the completion of
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of rainfed croppin
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areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998).
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investment In irrigation developmen
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Subsequently, an Expert Committee w
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highlighted the problems related to
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2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong
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command area has reduced the labour
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Nanjundappa (1988), while examining
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y the CADA have led to low producti
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agents as against 90 per cent or mo
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among their members; c) insisting t
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Ansari (1989) shows that there have
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unit of land culti
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subgroup increased from 40 per cent
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1) The maIn activity being undertak
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which are unique in several ways, t
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across the states in different agro
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and social setting In which a proje
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The indepth study to examine the fa
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\,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana s
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understand the problems related to
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of the crop produc
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greater differences between the the
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Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions an
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specific promotional programmes und
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Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <s
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3.3.2 Crop specific promotional ins
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non-viable paddy. Even the farmers
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'- K01HIKOO --', , .-- :,' , \. ,.'
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strictly adhered to the directions
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4.1.2 Financial aspects The total e
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4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree
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Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut , IItIJrt ~
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in lands having slopes less than 3
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Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Patte
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in terms of underg
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meters. The end of
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and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II.
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lands. The average holding size is
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The characteristics of</str
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size group is the highest in the mi
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Table 4.10: Occupational status <st
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Appendix 4.1: Physical and technica
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Chapter 5 Dynamics of</stro
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plan. annual plans (1966-69) and th
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gt:ographical concentration <strong
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Concerted efforts were also made fo
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T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I - - vS
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expenditure and p~ysical achievemen
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the state cannot be treated as a pu
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in gross irrigated area. While cana
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development of lan
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The annual compound growth rates in
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5.2.1 Dynamics of
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area and yield of
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A micro level study by Narayanan (1
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ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the
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The debate on conversion of
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(Table 5.10). The table indicates t
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eqUires substantial investment for
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Source: Govt. of K
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the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For
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The overall scenario suggests that
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project, they tend to undertake yie
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the establishment expenditure (stri
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a CriSIS. As the works involved In
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(ii) In the Karapuzha project. the
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5.15). The table indicates that the
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place. There were three revisions J
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Revenue vis Capital expenditure The
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Let us now examIne the intensity <s
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Cost escalation due to arbitration
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Another source of
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process would be very high. This al
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construction for more than 20 years
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are mainly concentrated in Thrissur
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ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot
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ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnl
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Chapter 6 Economics of</str
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conditions of the
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Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart sho
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and Palakkad together occupy 10 <st
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Table 6.2. Physical and financial t
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the total allocation has been for t
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per cent achievement in physical te
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Besides. it has been reported that
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I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.
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~~- ~- --~ In all others. the BC ra
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possible in these lands during Khar
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Hence. it may be argued that since
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It is mainly due to scarcity <stron
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project. where it is very high at R
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proper coordination between variOUS
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deficiencies that help drawing less
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conjunctive use of
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3) Again. due to the high density <
Page 255 and 256: Table 6.13: Details of</str
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Page 265 and 266: Farming is considered mostly as a s
Page 267 and 268: The profitability
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Page 277 and 278: Table 6.22: Status of</stro
Page 279 and 280: Though almost all the farmers repor
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Page 285 and 286: Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical
Page 287 and 288: Chapter 7 On-Farm Development: Dete
Page 289 and 290: It can be seen from the survey data
Page 291 and 292: een made to examme as to how many f
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Page 295 and 296: The farmers were asked to reflect u
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Page 299 and 300: supplies. What is more interesting
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Page 305: It is evident from the table that t
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Page 317 and 318: factors l8 . As a result. the agric
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Page 321 and 322: may be observed that the canal seep
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Page 325 and 326: Table 7.19: Productivity and gross
Page 327 and 328: The technical constraints In the de
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Page 337 and 338: The pattern of act
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Page 341 and 342: Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion
Page 343 and 344: d,l!llS in the post-independence pc
Page 345 and 346: all(lcatioll ill the absence <stron
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through the effective implementatiC
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een the highest in Kallada project
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It was noticed that among the vario
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The institutional paradigm evolved
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of India to be rel
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economically viable. This underscor
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The intensity and spread of
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of allocation and
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shows that filed realities have not
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as water management related factors
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labour intensive farming operations
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Given the dynamics, problems and co
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ground realities associated with cr
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Dhawan, B.D. (1989): Sludies in Irr
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Kothari, Rajni, (1989): Politics an
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Vaidyanathan, A (1999): Water Resou
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Ghosh, Prabir De, Budhadeb (1998):
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Nair, Sukumaran, M.K. (1999): 'Rura
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Varadan, K,~ (1999): 'Estimation <s
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GOK (1967b): Evaluation of<
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Ferrer. A.M., .L.e. Lucero (1988):
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Suresh, K.A. (2000): 'Group Managem
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Tomlinson, B.R. (1992): 'The Indian
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