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tasks such as cutting the harvesting, carrying the load to threshing yard, winnowing and drying the hay, were part <strong>of</strong> harvesting, for which a single wage rate existed. Table 7.13: Performance <strong>of</strong> paddy under group farming in two villages <strong>of</strong> Kallada irrigation project, 1991 Koodal Vi lIa~ e Kalanioor Village Sources <strong>of</strong> Cost! Before After Before After Income (per ha.) Diff. Diff. Group Group Group Group (%) (%) farming farming farming farming Cost <strong>of</strong> cultivation Land preparation 2420 2550 5.4 1500.0 1150.0 -23.3 Seedsl planting 3020 3180 5.3 1216.7 1100.0 -9.6 Fertilizerl manuring 1330 1480 11.3 2416.6 2200.0 -8.9 Weed control 680 705 3.7 833.3 683.3 -18.0 Plant protection 525 560 6.8 41.7 33.3 -20.0 Harvesting 1000 1205 21.0 1200.0 1261.7 5.1 Others 530 567 7.0 575.0 638.0 10.7 Total cost 9505 10247 7.8 7783.3 7066.3 -9.2 Income from paddy Paddy(h) 2425 2810 15.9 2716.7 3016.7 11.0 Value (Rs.) 8487.6 9853 16.1 8150.0 9050.0 11.0 Straw (kg) 640 800 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Value (Rs.) 1100 1255 14.1 2433.3 2700.0 10.7 Total income 9587.6 11108 15.7 10583.3 11750 11.0 Net income 82.6 861 942.4 2800.0 4683.7 67.3 BCR 1.0 I 1.08 7.5 1.36 1.66 22.3 Source: Complied from BasIc Data Register <strong>of</strong> respechve Knshl Bhavans. Many <strong>of</strong> these tasks were segregated from harvesting and each task carried a separate time or piece rate. Same was the case with post-harvesting operations. Making the hay into bundles, carrying the bundles and paddy to the customers or the homes <strong>of</strong> the cultivators, etc., which were part <strong>of</strong> a single task, became independent tasks (Nair, M K S (1999:227-8). The wage increase in the case <strong>of</strong> paddy field workers was also caused by high levels <strong>of</strong> wage relativity between various sectors due to the interaction between various institutional 298
factors l8 . As a result. the agricultural wages in Kerala have been almost moving in tandem with the wages in the construction sector, as shown in table 7.14. [t may also be noted that the agricultural wage indices outpaced the construction wage indices since the mid 80s. Table 7.14: Trends in wage rates in Kerala, 1960-97 (Index <strong>of</strong> wages, 1952 =100) Year Carpenter Mason Paddy (male) Paddy (female) 1960 117 126 122 140 1970 304 294 320 370 1976 558 567 526 663 1980 654 645 589 739 1985 1598 1618 1727 1697 1990 2209 2212 2869 2372 1995 4275 4240 5111 5749 1997 5714 5720 9586 7792 As already discussed, the price <strong>of</strong> paddy has never been attractive so as to motivate farmers to stick on to paddy cultivation even at higher levels <strong>of</strong> wages and cost <strong>of</strong> inputs. The increase in wages at current prices has been very high in relation to prices <strong>of</strong> paddy during the last one and half decade and this adversely affected the net barter terms <strong>of</strong> trade as the wages equivalent quantity <strong>of</strong> paddy substantially increased from 6.25 kg. in 1983 to 17.93 kg. in 1998 (Table 7.15). As evident from the table, there was only three fold increase in the price <strong>of</strong> paddy during the last 15 years, compared to about 8-9 fold increase in the wages <strong>of</strong> the male agricultural labourer and 7 times increase in the wages <strong>of</strong> female 18 Numerous studies have tied wage gains in Kerala to institutional factors, namely, state intervention and un ion isation (Bardhan, 1970; Kannan, 1988 , Pushpangadan, 1992; Krishnan, 1991; Baby, 1996) The fact that no serious reversals <strong>of</strong> real wage levels have occurred since the mid-70s, despite a continuous decline in the price <strong>of</strong> rice, suggests that institutional factors have insulated wages from downward pressures. 299
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, ECONOMICS OF ON-FARM DEVELOPMENT:
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DEC LARA TION I declare that the th
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I thank Dr. KM Varadan, CWRDM. Kozh
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CONTENTS Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
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4.9 Occupational Status of<
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5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 Financial Investmen
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Figures 6.1 6.2 Chart 6.1 Appendix
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Abbreviations used ASMO BFA's CADA
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An attempt has been made in this ch
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among the people and the process <s
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the Indian state had followed a pol
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water harvesting 7 by arguing that
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(World Register of
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Eighth Plan has been estimated by t
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One of the most im
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integrated development of</
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inadequate attention given to OFD w
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performance of irr
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created. According to the Central W
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7 lagoons, 901 tanks and over 30 la
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competent and responsible agency wi
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physiographic conditions of
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(14 completed and 15 ongoing) proje
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interventions to improve the operat
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a summary of findi
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economic analysis of</stron
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een brought out by many scholars in
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While the economic benefits <strong
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sources, wasteful utilisation <stro
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such as rise in pnces, inadequate i
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the completion of
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of rainfed croppin
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areas being 8 per cent (GO!, 1998).
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investment In irrigation developmen
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Subsequently, an Expert Committee w
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highlighted the problems related to
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2.3.1 Studies on tbe impact <strong
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command area has reduced the labour
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Nanjundappa (1988), while examining
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y the CADA have led to low producti
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agents as against 90 per cent or mo
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among their members; c) insisting t
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Ansari (1989) shows that there have
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unit of land culti
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subgroup increased from 40 per cent
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1) The maIn activity being undertak
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which are unique in several ways, t
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across the states in different agro
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and social setting In which a proje
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The indepth study to examine the fa
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\,;nar~ .NO. ~.~: .t"rocesses ana s
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understand the problems related to
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of the crop produc
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greater differences between the the
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Chart ~o J.2 'Vater Institutions an
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specific promotional programmes und
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Chart No. 3.3 Explaining failure <s
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3.3.2 Crop specific promotional ins
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non-viable paddy. Even the farmers
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'- K01HIKOO --', , .-- :,' , \. ,.'
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strictly adhered to the directions
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4.1.2 Financial aspects The total e
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4.2 The Kallada Irrigation and Tree
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Map 4.4: Kallada Ayacut , IItIJrt ~
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in lands having slopes less than 3
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Table 4.1. Envisa~ed Croppin~ Patte
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in terms of underg
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meters. The end of
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and Kayamkulam branch in Phase II.
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lands. The average holding size is
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The characteristics of</str
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size group is the highest in the mi
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Table 4.10: Occupational status <st
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Appendix 4.1: Physical and technica
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Chapter 5 Dynamics of</stro
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plan. annual plans (1966-69) and th
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gt:ographical concentration <strong
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Concerted efforts were also made fo
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T a bl e 5 3 Ph . I d Ii . I - - vS
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expenditure and p~ysical achievemen
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the state cannot be treated as a pu
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in gross irrigated area. While cana
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development of lan
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The annual compound growth rates in
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5.2.1 Dynamics of
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area and yield of
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A micro level study by Narayanan (1
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ubber cultivation. in Kallada. the
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The debate on conversion of
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(Table 5.10). The table indicates t
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eqUires substantial investment for
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Source: Govt. of K
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the period 1985-86 to 1997-98. For
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The overall scenario suggests that
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project, they tend to undertake yie
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the establishment expenditure (stri
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a CriSIS. As the works involved In
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(ii) In the Karapuzha project. the
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5.15). The table indicates that the
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place. There were three revisions J
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Revenue vis Capital expenditure The
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Let us now examIne the intensity <s
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Cost escalation due to arbitration
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Another source of
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process would be very high. This al
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construction for more than 20 years
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are mainly concentrated in Thrissur
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ApMndlJ ~.1: ProjKI-wlw Ihne tn Tot
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ArlPcndil: ~.J: "'inanchtllnnstmrnl
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Chapter 6 Economics of</str
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conditions of the
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Chart: 6.1 Organisational Chart sho
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and Palakkad together occupy 10 <st
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Table 6.2. Physical and financial t
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the total allocation has been for t
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per cent achievement in physical te
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Besides. it has been reported that
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I , MalamDuzha 387 7.39 1908.53 13.
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~~- ~- --~ In all others. the BC ra
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possible in these lands during Khar
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Hence. it may be argued that since
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It is mainly due to scarcity <stron
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project. where it is very high at R
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proper coordination between variOUS
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deficiencies that help drawing less
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conjunctive use of
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3) Again. due to the high density <
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Table 6.13: Details of</str
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doubts about the senousness <strong
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practice IS more conspIcuous In the
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2.05 HP as compared to 1.68 HP in t
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large holders have spent two to thr
Page 265 and 266: Farming is considered mostly as a s
Page 267 and 268: The profitability
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Page 271 and 272: The Cobb-Douglas (CD) Function has
Page 273 and 274: · 13 Bank assistance programme and
Page 275 and 276: etween I to 2 ha. are to arrange fo
Page 277 and 278: Table 6.22: Status of</stro
Page 279 and 280: Though almost all the farmers repor
Page 281 and 282: 3854 in the middle reaches. The pro
Page 283 and 284: The net income from vegetables and
Page 285 and 286: Appendix 6.1: Project-Wise Physical
Page 287 and 288: Chapter 7 On-Farm Development: Dete
Page 289 and 290: It can be seen from the survey data
Page 291 and 292: een made to examme as to how many f
Page 293 and 294: a farmer to use water from the dist
Page 295 and 296: The farmers were asked to reflect u
Page 297 and 298: evamping needed to reorient the MCS
Page 299 and 300: supplies. What is more interesting
Page 301 and 302: the knowledge of i
Page 303 and 304: All of the five ex
Page 305 and 306: It is evident from the table that t
Page 307 and 308: implications on the dynamics <stron
Page 309 and 310: competitive monocropl2 as no other
Page 311 and 312: of conversion thro
Page 313 and 314: involving farmers as active members
Page 315: The viability of p
Page 319 and 320: The rise in price of</stron
Page 321 and 322: may be observed that the canal seep
Page 323 and 324: process of paddy l
Page 325 and 326: Table 7.19: Productivity and gross
Page 327 and 328: The technical constraints In the de
Page 329 and 330: 2) Lack of irrigat
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Page 333 and 334: according to the conventional basin
Page 335 and 336: Registration Act, 1860 in the erstw
Page 337 and 338: The pattern of act
Page 339 and 340: eported by CADA of
Page 341 and 342: Appendix 7.2: Paddy land conversion
Page 343 and 344: d,l!llS in the post-independence pc
Page 345 and 346: all(lcatioll ill the absence <stron
Page 347 and 348: irrigation commands. Th;; stud) was
Page 349 and 350: comparative COSI .:conomlcs <strong
Page 351 and 352: time lag involved in completion uf
Page 353 and 354: the state has increased by about 46
Page 355 and 356: cultivation of com
Page 357 and 358: through the effective implementatiC
Page 359 and 360: een the highest in Kallada project
Page 361 and 362: It was noticed that among the vario
Page 363 and 364: The institutional paradigm evolved
Page 365 and 366: of India to be rel
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economically viable. This underscor
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The intensity and spread of
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of allocation and
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shows that filed realities have not
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as water management related factors
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labour intensive farming operations
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Given the dynamics, problems and co
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ground realities associated with cr
Page 383 and 384:
Dhawan, B.D. (1989): Sludies in Irr
Page 385 and 386:
Kothari, Rajni, (1989): Politics an
Page 387 and 388:
Vaidyanathan, A (1999): Water Resou
Page 389 and 390:
Ghosh, Prabir De, Budhadeb (1998):
Page 391 and 392:
Nair, Sukumaran, M.K. (1999): 'Rura
Page 393 and 394:
Varadan, K,~ (1999): 'Estimation <s
Page 395 and 396:
GOK (1967b): Evaluation of<
Page 397 and 398:
Ferrer. A.M., .L.e. Lucero (1988):
Page 399 and 400:
Suresh, K.A. (2000): 'Group Managem
Page 401 and 402:
Tomlinson, B.R. (1992): 'The Indian
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