Gale - Science and Its Times Vol 01 (2000 BC to AD 699).pdf

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Exploration & Discovery 2000 B.C. to A.D. 699 Hellenistic ruins in Turkey. (Roger Wood/Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.) ed a Thracian rebellion. He overtook a city in Thrace and renamed it Alexandropolis, after himself. Future cities named in honor of Alexander would dot his empire. In 336 B.C., at the age of 20, Alexander ascended to the Macedonian throne after Philip II was murdered by Pausanias, a king’s guard and friend to Alexander. Some historians assert that Pausanias was encouraged to murder Philip by Olympias, in retribution for Philip divorcing Olympias to marry a woman of full Macedonian heritage. After the death of his father, Alexander quickly won the allegiance of the Macedonian army and its generals. Once in power, Alexander ordered the execution of all conspirators and domestic enemies, and restored Olympias as Queen of Macedonia. The Greek cities of Athens and Thebes were reluctant, however, to pledge allegiance to the 20-year-old Alexander, and additionally considered the Macedonian culture to be inferior to their own. A revolt in the two cities soon erupted, conveniently while Alexander was away once again securing Macedonia’s northern frontier in Thrace. The revolt was fueled by rumors reaching Athens and Thebes that Alexander was killed S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E 1 31
Exploration & Discovery 2000 B.C. to A.D. 699 The empire of Alexander the Great. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.) in the northern campaign. After successfully securing the northern border in Thrace, Alexander marched 250 miles (402 km) south in a fortnight. The Greek historian Arrian (second century A.D.) wrote of Alexander marching up to the gates of Thebes in 335 B.C. and giving the Thebans a chance to change their minds. The Thebans responded with soldiers, and Alexander stormed the city, burning Thebes (sparing only the temples and the home of the poet Pindar) and killing many of its citizens (others were sold into slavery), as an example to the Athenians and the rest of Greece. Athens quickly capitulated, and remained under Alexander’s rule. All other Greek resistance evaporated as well, ensuring Alexander’s ascendancy over all of Greece and allowing him to concentrate on the impending campaign against the Persians. In 334 B.C. Alexander began his eastward march toward Asia Minor to confront the Persian Empire. His army numbered nearly 40,000 men, with 12,000 reinforcements available within the alliance. The Companion cavalry, a 2,000- strong legion of highly trained, heavily armed cavalrymen formed the key to the Macedonian military machine. The Companion cavalry was joined by light troops and the flexible phalanx, a group of highly effective armored foot soldiers who carried short swords along with long spears projecting several feet from the line. The phalanx advanced as a group before the enemy could engage with their short swords. Alexander crossed the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles) with his generals Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, and soon encountered the Persian army at the crossing of the Granicus river. The Persian army was led by their king, Darius III. Alexander led a charge across the Granicus and engaged in a pitched battle of hand-to-hand combat in which most of Darius’s generals died. In 333 B.C. Alexander engaged Darius in battle for the second time in the Syrian coastal city of Issus. Alexander was greatly outnumbered at Issus, but prevailed because of the terrain and his ability to outmaneuver Darius’s army. Darius escaped Issus, but left behind his mother, wife, and two daughters, all of whom Alexander treated with courtesy. From Issus, Alexander moved southward along the Mediterranean seacoast, vanquishing several small coastal cities. When Alexander reached the Phoenician naval home seaport of Tyre, a sevenmonth siege was necessary to obtain the city’s surrender. Alexander used tension catapults (his army was the first to use them) and rams, as well as swords during the siege. Alexander executed many who refused to surrender at Tyre, and sold the city’s women and children into slavery. The naval power of Persia was broken with the loss of Tyre, and Alexander’s navy reestablished control over the Aegean Sea. With the destruction of Tyre, it was necessary to find another center to host the growing trade of the eastern Mediterranean. Egypt was the logical location, and Alexander arrived there in late 332 B.C. In Egypt, on the westernmost 32 S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E 1
Page 1 and 2: VOLUME1 2000 B . C . to A . D . 699
Page 3 and 4: Science and Its Times VOLUME1 2000
Page 5 and 6: Contents 2000 B.C. to A.D. 699 Maya
Page 7 and 8: Preface 2000 B.C. to A.D. 699 Arran
Page 9 and 10: Contributors Amy Ackerberg-Hasting
Page 11 and 12: Introduction: 2000 B.C. to A.D. 699
Page 13 and 14: universe and the mathematical laws
Page 15 and 16: Chronology 2000 B.C. to A.D. 699 na
Page 17 and 18: Exploration & Discovery 2000 B.C. t
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Exploration & Discovery 2000 B.C. t
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Life Sciences & Medicine 2000 B.C.
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Mathematics Chronology c. 2000 B.
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Trisecting an angle seems like an e
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to make calculation easier by linki
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triangle, for example, could be con
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A.D. to the late sixth century A.D.
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some important mathematical concept
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Mathematics 2000 B.C. to A.D. 699 A
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exported some mathematics to the We
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Background Long before the inventio
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through the contacts between mercha
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B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.),
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ducing some useful results, but no
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of modern arithmetic calculation, c
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The Historical Relationship of Logi
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3. A circle can be drawn with any c
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In modern times, the huge number of
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nique called the method of exhausti
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By the time Euclid (c. 330-c. 270 B
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Background In its modern and elemen
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Impact Our word “algebra” is de
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Hipparchus considered every triangl
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tended seagoing journeys and explor
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numbers for centuries. Around A.D.
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Overview The zero was invented thre
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Further Reading Kaplan, Robert. The
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y a confederation of city-states, a
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His misfortunes began in 522, when
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Propositions 10 through 12 offered
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In fact the historical existence of
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Most likely Geminus came from the G
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other problem of long standing amon
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had yet to gain formal definition.
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ing two of the famous problems that
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Pythagoras of Samos. (Corbis Corpor
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ics: because of the massive destruc
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Archimedes c. 287-212 B.C. Greek ma
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of duplicating the cube by a number
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argued that all existing things do
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Wang Hs’iao-t’ung fl. c. 625 Ch
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gational instruments. Eratosthenes
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Physical Sciences Chronology c. 6
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siderable attention: optics (or per
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Parmenides argued that reason is su
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lated problem is that of Continuity
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tant, most concern his ethical teac
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Barnes, Jonathan. The Presocratics.
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ules for calculating solar and luna
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Egyptian civilization dominated by
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world around them. This was particu
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Overview Keeping track of the passa
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Dreyer, J.L.E. A History of Astrono
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uler maintained his positive relati
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Overview During the second century
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defended heliocentrism in the secon
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posites to be the truest substances
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Due to its far greater sophisticati
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ens stretched on infinitely above t
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Overview Located in a seismically a
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Impact Opinions vary as to whether
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In Physics, Aristotle made a distin
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Physical Sciences 2000 B.C. to A.D.
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share the same dimensions of base a
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attempting to extract general laws
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variation in the apparent diameters
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Physical Sciences 2000 B.C. to A.D.
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Epicurus. (Bettmann/Corbis. Reprodu
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Saint Isidore of Seville 560-636 Sp
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He was a native of Madaura, Numidia
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has long puzzled scholars, some of
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much easier rolling surface than ca
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complexity, in part, derived from h
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god would more likely resemble the
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trivium and quadrivium) that were t
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Marcus Manilius 48? B.C.-A.D. 20 Ro
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Shih Shen fl. c. 350 B.C. Chinese a
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Menelaus of Alexandria. Sphaerica (
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Technology & Invention 2000 B.C. to
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General Bibliography 2000 B.C. to A
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