CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format ... - Reichhold

DION ® 

Corrosion Guide

Content 

ASTM Reinforced Plastic Related Standards 3 

Introduction 4 

- Using the DION ® Chemical Resistance Guide 4 

- Corrosion-Resistant Resin Chemistries 5 

- Markets 5 

- Applications 5 

- Ordering DION ® Resins 6 

- Warranty 6 

- Material Safety Data Sheets 6 

Resin Descriptions 7 

Bisphenol Epoxy Vinyl Ester Resins 7 

Urethane-Modifi ed Vinyl Ester Resins 7 

Novolac Vinyl Ester Resins 8 

Elastomer-Modifi ed Vinyl Ester Resins 8 

Bisphenol-A Fumarate Polyester Resins 8 

Isophthalic and Terephthalic Polyester Resins 9 

Chlorendic Polyester Resins 10 

Specifying Composite Performance 11 

Factors Affecting Resin Performance 11 

- Shelf Life Policy 11 

- Elevated Temperatures 11 

Laminate Construction 12 

- Surfacing Veil 12 

- Chopped Strand Mat 13 

- Woven Roving 13 

- Continuous Filament Roving 13 

- Resin Curing Systems 13 

- Post-Curing 14 

- Secondary Bonding 14 

- Resin Top Coat 14 

- Dual Laminate Systems 14 

- Abrasive Materials 15 

Selected Application Recommendations 16 

- Biomass and Biochemical Conversion 16 

- Bleaching Solutions 16 

- Sodium Hypochlorite 17 

- Chlorine Dioxide 17 

- Chlor-Alkali Industry 17 

- Ozone 17 

- Concentrated Acids 18 

- Sulfuric Acid 18 

- Hydrochloric Acid 18 

- Nitric and Chromic Acid 19 

- Hydrofl uoric Acid 19 

- Acetic Acid 19 

- Acetic Acid 19 

- Perchloric Acid 19 

- Phosphoric Acid 19 

- Deionized and Distilled Water 19 

- Desalination Applications 20 

- Electroplating and other Electrochemical Processes 20 

- Fumes, Vapors, Hood & Duct Service 21 

- Flue Gas Desulfurization 22 

- Gasoline, Gasohol and Underground Storage Tanks 22 

- Ore Extraction & Hydrometallurgy 23 

- Potable Water 23 

- Radioactive Materials 24 

- Sodium Hydroxide and Alkaline Solutions 24 

- Solvents 25 

- Static Electricity 25 

- FDA Compliance 25 

- USDA Applications 25 

Additional Reference Sources 26-45 

Common Types of Metal Corrosion 46 

- Oxygen Cell-Galvanic Corrosion 46 

- Passive Alloys and Chloride Induced Stress Corrosion 47 

- Sulfi de Stress Cracking 47 

- CO 2 Corrosion 47 

- Other Types of Stress Corrosion 47 

- Hydrogen Embrittlement 48 

- Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Microbially Induced 

Corrosion (MIC) 

48 

Alternate Materials 49 

- Thermoplastics 49 

Other Thermosetting Polymers 49 

- Epoxy 49 

- Phenolic Resins 50 

- Rubber and Elastomers 50 

- Acid Resistant Brick and Refractories 50 

- Concrete 51 

2

ASTM Reinforced Plastic Related Standards 

ANSI/ ASTM E 84 

ASTM D 229 

Surface burning characteristics of building materials 

Testing rigid sheet and plate materials used in electrical 

insulation 

ASTM D 2310 

ANSI/ ASTM D 2321 

Classification for machine-made reinforced thermosetting resin 

pipe standard 

Underground installation of flexible thermoplastic sewer pipe 

ASTM D 256 

ASTM F 412 


ASTM D 543 


ASTM D 579 

ASTM C 581 

ASTM D 618 

ASTM D 621 



ASTM D 648 

ASTM D 671 

ASTM D 674 


ASTM D 696 

ASTM D 747 

ASTM D 759 

ASTM D 785 

ASTM D 790 

ASTM D 792 

Impact resistance of plastic and electrical insulating materials 

Standard defi nition of terms relating to plastic piping systems 

Kinematic viscosity of transparent and opaque liquids 

Resistance of plastics to chemical reagents 

Water absorption of plastics 

Woven glass fabrics 

Chemical resistance of thermosetting resins used in glass 

fi ber-reinforced structures 

Conditioning plastics and electrical insulating materials for 

testing 

Deformation of plastics under load 

Rate of burning and/or extent and time of burning of selfsupporting 

plastics in a horizontal position 

Tensile properties of plastics 

Defl ection temperature of plastics under flexural load 

Flexural fatigue of plastics by constant-amplitude-of-force 

Long-time creep or stress-relation test of plastics under tension 

or compression loads at different temperatures 

Compressive properties of rigid plastics 

Coeffi cient of linear thermal expansion of plastics 

Stiffness of plastics by means of cantilever beam 

Determining the physical properties of plastics at subnormal 

and supernormal temperatures 

Rockwell hardness of plastics and electrical insulating materials 

Flexural properties of plastics 

Specifi c gravity and density of plastics by displacement 

ASTM D 2343 

ASTM D 2344 

ASTM D 2412 


ASTM D 2517 


ASTM D 2583 

ASTM D 2584 

ASTM D 2585 

ASTM D 2586 

ASTM D 2733 

ASTM D 2774 

ASTM D 2924 

ASTM D 2925 

ASTM D 2990 

ASTM D 2991 

ASTM D 2992 

ASTM D 2996 

ASTM D 2997 

Tensile properties of glass fiber strands, yarns, and roving 

used in reinforced plastics 

Apparent horizontal shear strength of reinforced plastics by short 

beam method 

External loading properties of plastic pipe by parallel-plate loading 

Classification of soils for engineering purposes 

Reinforced thermosetting plastic gas pressure pipe and fittings 

Classifying visual defects in glass-reinforced plastic laminate 

parts 

Indentation hardness of plastics by means of a barcol impressor 

Ignition loss of cured reinforced resins 

Preparation and tension testing of filament-wound pressure 

vessels 

Hydrostatic compressive strength of glass reinforced plastics 

cylinders 

Interlaminar shear strength of structural reinforced plastics at 

elevated temperatures 

Underground installation of thermoplastic pressure piping 

Test for external pressure resistance of plastic pipe 

Beam deflection of reinforced thermoset plastic pipe under full 

bore flow 

Tensile and compressive creep rupture of plastics 

Stress relaxation of plastics 

Obtaining hydrostatic design basis for reinforced thermosetting 

resin pipe 

Specification for filament-wound reinforced thermosetting resin 

pipe 

Specification for centrifugally cast reinforced thermosetting resin 

pipe 

ASTM D 883 

Defi nition of terms relating to plastics 


Reinforced plastic mortar sewer pipe 

ASTM D 1045 

ASTM D 1180 



ASTM D 1599 

ASTM D 1600 

ASTM D 1694 

ASTM D 2105 


ASTM D 2143 

ASTM D 2150 

ASTM D 2153 

Sampling and testing plasticizers used in plastics 

Bursting strength of round rigid plastic tubing 

Viscosity of paints, varnishes and lacquers by the Ford 

viscosity cup 

Fine-to-failure of plastic pipe under constant internal pressure 

Short-time rupture strength of plastic pipe, tubing, and fittings 

Abbreviation of terms related to plastics 

Threads of reinforced thermoset resin pipe 

Longitudinal tensile properties of reinforced thermosetting 

plastic pipe and tube 

Determining dimensions of thermoplastic pipe and fittings 

Cyclic pressure strength of reinforced thermosetting plastic pipe 

Specifi cation for woven roving glass fiber for polyester glass 

laminates 

Calculating stress in plastic pipe under internal pressure 

ASTM D 3282 

ASTM D 3299 

ASTM D 3517 

ASTM D 3567 

ASTM D 3615 

ASTM D 3681 

ASTM D 3753 

ASTM D 3754 

ASTM D 3839 

ASTM D 3840 

Classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway 

construction purposes 

Filament-wound glass fiber-reinforced polyester chemicalresistant 

tanks 

Specification for reinforced plastic mortar pressure pipe 

Determining dimensions of reinforced thermosetting resin pipe 

and fittings 

Test for chemical resistance of thermoset molded compounds 

used in manufacture 

Chemical resistance of reinforced thermosetting resin pipe in the 

deflected condition 

Glass fiber-reinforced polyester manholes 

Specification for reinforced plastic mortar sewer and industrial 

pressure pipe 

Recommended practice for underground installation of flexible 

RTRP and RPMP 

Specification for RP mortar pipe fittings for nonpressure 

applications 

ASTM D 2290 

Apparent tensile strength of ring or tubular plastics by split 

disk method 

ASTM D 4097 

Specification for contact molded glass fiber-reinforced thermoset 

resin chemical-resistant tanks 

ASTM = The American Society for Testing and Materials 

ANSI = The American National Standards Institute 

3

Introduction 

DION ® resins are among the most established and best-recognized products in the corrosion-resistant resin market. 

DION ® resins were originally developed for some extremely demanding applications in the chlor-alkali industry and their 

success has led to diverse and highly regarded applications. These products became part of the Reichhold family of resins 

in 1989 with the acquisition of the Koppers Corporation’s resin division. Reichhold is a dedicated thermosetting polymer 

company offering a complete line of corrosion-resistant resin products and actively developing new resins to serve the 

changing needs of the industry. 

Using the DION ® Chemical Resistance Guide 

The corrosion performance of DION ® resins has been demonstrated over the past 50 years through the successful use of a 

variety of composite products in hundreds of different chemical environments. Practical experience has been supplemented 

by the systematic evaluation of composites exposed to a large number of corrosive environments under controlled laboratory 

conditions. This corrosion guide is subject to change without notice in an effort to provide the current data. Changes may affect 

suggested temperature or concentration limitations. 

Laboratory evaluation of corrosion resistance is performed according to ASTM C-581, using standard laminate test coupons that 

are subjected to a double-sided, fully immersed exposure to temperature-controlled corrosive media. Coupons are retrieved at 

intervals of 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, then tested for retained fl exural strength and modulus, barcol, hardness, changes in weight, 

and swelling/ shrinkage relative to an unexposed control. These data and a visual evaluation of the laminate’s appearance and 

surface condition are used to establish the suitability of resins in specifi c environments at the suggested maximum temperatures. 

Experience and case histories are also duly considered. 

All of the listed maximum service temperatures assume that laminates and corrosion barriers are fully cured and fabricated to 

industry accepted standards. In many service conditions, occasional temperature excursions above the listed maxima may be 

acceptable, depending on the nature of the corrosive environment. Consultation with a Reichhold technical representative is 

then advised. A Reichhold Technical Representative may be reached via the Reichhold Corrosion Hotline at 

(800) 752-0060, via email at corrosion@reichhold.com, or at www.reichhold.com/corrosion. All inquiries will be 

answered within 24 hours. 

When designing for exposures to hot, relatively non-aggressive vapors, such as in ducting, hoods, or stack linings, temperature 

extremes above those suggested may be feasible; however, extensive testing is strongly urged whenever suggested 

temperatures are exceeded. Factors such as laminate thickness, thermal conductivity, structural design performance and 

the effects of condensation must be taken into account when designing composite products for extreme temperature 

performance. 

4

Corrosion-Resistant Resin Chemistries 

The diverse corrosive properties of industrial chemicals require that a number of resin chemistries be employed to optimize 

the performance of composite materials. Basic resin chemistries include isophthalic, terephthalic, fl ame-retardant, vinyl ester, 

chlorendic and bisphenol fumarate resins. Each has unique advantages and disadvantages, and consequently it is important to 

weigh the pros and cons of each resin type when creating resin specifi cations. Reichhold is a full-line supplier of all the corrosionresistant 

resin types in common usage and will assist in evaluating specifi c requirements. 

Markets 

DION ® vinyl ester and corrosion-resistant polyester resins serve the needs of a wide range of chemical process industries. 

• Pulp and paper 

• Chlor-Alkali 

• Power generation 

• Waste treatment 

• Petroleum 

• Ore processing 

• Plating 

• Electronics 

• Water service 

• Agriculture 

• Pharmaceutical 

• Food Processing 

• Automotive 

• Aircraft 

• Marine 

• Polymer concrete 

• Alcohols and synthetic fuels 

Applications 

DION ® resins have over 50 years of fi eld service in the most severe corrosive environments. 

• Chemical storage tanks 

• Underground fuel storage tanks 

• Pickling and plating tanks 

• Chemical piping systems 

• Large diameter sewer pipes 

• Fume ducts and scrubbers 

• Chimney stacks and stack liners 

• Fans, blowers, and hoods 

• Chlorine cell covers, collectors 

• Pulp washer drums, up fl ow tubes 

• Secondary containment systems 

• Wall and roofi ng systems 

• Grating and structural profi le 

• Cooling tower elements 

• Floor coatings and mortars 

• Gasoline containment 

5

Chemical attack can alter the structural performance of composites and must be considered in the selection of an appropriate 

resin. Reichhold provides direct technical assistance for specifi c applications and for conditions that may not be covered in 

the guide. Test coupons prepared according to ASTM C-581 are available for in-plant testing. When calling, please have the 

following information ready for discussion: 

1. Precise compostion of the chemical enviroment 

2. Chemical concentration(s) 

3. Operation temperature 

(including any potential temperature fluctuations, upsets, or cycling conditons) 

4. Trace materials 

5. Potential need for flame-retardant material 

6. Type and size of equipment 

7. Fabrication process 

Warranty 

The following are general guidelines intended to assist customers in determining whether Reichhold resins are suitable for their 

applications. Reichhold products are intended for sale to sophisticated industrial and commercial customers. Reichhold requires 

customers to inspect and test our products before use and satisfy themselves as to content and suitability for their specifi c 

end-use applications. These general guidelines are not intended to be a substitute for customer testing. 

Reichhold warrants that its products will meet its standard written specifi cations. Nothing contained in these guidelines shall 

constitute any other warranty, express or implied, including any warranty of merchantability or fi tness for a particular purpose, 

nor is any protection from any law or patent to be inferred. All patent rights are reserved. The exclusive remedy for all proven 

claims is limited to replacement of our materials and in no event shall Reichhold be liable for any incidental or consequential 

damages. 

Material Safety Data Sheets 

Material safety data sheets are available for all of the products listed in this brochure. Please request the appropriate data 

sheets before handling, storing or using any product. 

Ordering DION ® Resins 

To order DION ® resins and Atprime ® 2, contact your local authorized Reichhold distributor or call Reichhold customer 

service at 1-800-448-3482. 

6

Resin Descriptions 

Bisphenol Epoxy Vinyl Ester Resins 

Bisphenol epoxy based epoxy vinyl ester resins offer 

excellent structural properties and very good resistance 

to many corrosive environments. The resins are 

styrenated and involve the extension of an epoxy 

with bisphenol-A to increase molecular weight and 

feature the characteristic vinyl ester incorporation of 

methacrylate end groups. The inherent toughness and 

resilience of epoxy vinyl esters provides enhanced 

impact resistance as well as improved stress properties, 

which is advantageous in applications involving thermal 

and cyclic stress. Non-promoted bisphenol-A based 

vinyl esters display a minimum six-month shelf life, 

and the pre-promoted versions feature a three-month 

shelf life. 

DION ® 9100 Series are non-promoted bisphenol-A 

epoxy vinyl esters used in lay-up and filament wound 

pipes for a wide range of acidic, alkaline and assorted 

chemicals, including many solvents. A pre-promoted 

version of DION ® 9100 is also available. 

DION ® 9102* Series are lower viscosity, reduced 

molecular weight versions of DION ® 9100, with 

similar corrosion resistance, mechanical properties and 

storage stability. The DION ® 9102 series also features 

improved curing at lower promoter levels for enhanced 

performance in fi lament winding applications. 

DION ® 9102-00 is unique since it is certifi ed to NSF/ 

ANSI Standard 61 for use in domestic and commercial 

potable water applications involving both piping and 

tanks at ambient temperature. 

DION ® IMPACT 9160 is a low styrene content (


Novolac Vinyl Ester Resins 

Novalac vinyl esters are based on use of multi-functional 

novolac epoxy versus a standard and more commonly 

used bisphenol-A epoxy. This increases the crosslink 

density and corresponding temperature and solvent 

resistance. 

DION ® Impact 9400 Series provides good corrosion 

resistance, including solvents. Due to reactivity, shelf 

life is limited to three months. 

Elastomer-Modified Vinyl Ester Resins 

Inclusion of high performance and special functional 

elastomers into the polymer backbone on a vinyl ester 

allows exceptional toughness. 

DION ® 9500 Series are non-accelerated rubber modified 

vinyl esters that possess high tensile elongation, 

good toughness, low shrinkage, and low peak 

exotherm. They are well-suited for dynamic loads and 

demonstrate excellent adhesion properties. Corrosion 

resistance is good, but limitations occur with 

solvents or other chemicals which display swelling 

with rubber. DION ® 9500 is well-suited for hand and 

spray lay-up applications and other fabrication techniques. 

It may also be considered for use as a primer 

with high density PVC foam or for bonding FRP to 

steel or other dissimilar substrates. 

Bisphenol-A Fumarate Polyester Resins 

Bisphenol fumarate polyester resins were among the 

earliest and most successful premium thermosetting 

resins to be used in corrosion resistant composites. They 

have an extensive history in challenging environments 

since the 1950’s. Thousands of tanks, pipes, chlorine 

cell covers, bleach towers, and scrubbers are still in 

service throughout the world. 

Bisphenol fumarate resins typically yield rigid, high 

crosslink density composites with high glass transition 

temperatures and heat distortion properties. These 

attributes enable excellent physical property retention at 

temperatures of 300° F and higher. Bisphenol fumarate 

resins also have good acid resistance which is typical 

for polyesters, but unlike other polyesters they also 

display excellent caustic and alkaline resistance as well 

as suitability for bleach environments. 

All of the bisphenol fumarate resins have excellent 

stability with a minimum shelf life of six months. 

DION ® 382* Series (Formerly Atlac ® 382) are bisphenol 

fumarate resins with a long, world-wide success 

history. They are normally supplied in pre-promoted 

and pre-accelerated versions. 

Laminates at Temperature 

Resin Tensile Strength, psi Tensile Modulus, x 10 6 psi 

77° F 150° F 200° F 250° F 300° F 77° F 150° F 200° F 250° F 300° F 

DION® 9100 19200 22100 22700 14600 9900 1.70 1.70 1.39 0.80 0.80 

DION® FR 9300 22600 28100 30100 21200 13700 2.16 1.94 1.82 1.62 1.18 

DION® 9800 19500 19500 19500 13000 9000 --- --- --- --- --- 

DION® 9400 23900 25000 27700 26700 20900 2.13 2.23 2.00 1.61 1.47 

DION® 6694 22000 22400 24800 27700 25000 1.95 2.14 1.86 1.86 1.62 

DION® 6631 31000 28600 24000 14700 4300 1.38 1.20 0.85 0.50 0.31 

DION® 382 18000 21500 21500 20000 --- 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.20 --- 

DION® 797 16800 17800 19400 20200 10900 1.39 1.36 1.21 0.98 0.59 

DION® 490 14300 16200 16600 15300 11700 1.15 0.90 0.76 0.58 0.47 

8 

Laminate Construction V/M/M/WR/M/WR/M/WR/M 

V = 10 mil C-glass veil 

M = 1.5 oz/ sq ft chopped glass mat 

WR = 24 oz woven roving 

Glass content = 45%


DION ® 6694* Series are bisphenol fumarate resins modified 

to optimize the unique properties of bisphenol fumarate 

polyesters. These resins offer excellent chemical 

resistance. They are well suited to hot alkaline environments, 

like those found in caustic/chlorine production, 

and to oxidizing environments, like those used in pulp 

bleaching . 

Isophthalic and Terephthalic Unsaturated Polyester Resins 

Isophthalic and terephthalic resins formulated for corrosion 

applications are higher in molecular weight than those 

often used in marine and other laminated composites. 

These polyesters display excellent structural properties 

and are resistant to acids, salts, and many dilute 

chemicals at moderate temperature. Resins are rigid, 

and some terephthalic resins offer improved resiliency. 

They perform well in acidic enviroments, however they 

are not recommended for caustic or alkaline environments, 

and the pH should be kept below 10.5. Oxidizing environments 

usually present limitations. These resins have 

good stability, with a minimum 3-month shelf life. 

DION ® 6334* Series are resilient non-promoted nonthixotropic 

resins. Their use is typically restricted to nonagressive 

ambient temperature applications, such as 

seawater. 

DION ® 6631* Series are rigid, thixotropic, pre-promoted 

isophthalic resins developed for hand lay-up, spray-up, 

and filament winding. A version which complies with 

SCAQMD Rule 1162 is also available. 

DION ® 490 Series (Formerly Atlac ® 490) are thixotropic, 

pre-promoted resins formulated for high temperature 

corrosion service that requires good organic solvent resistance. 

A key feature is the high crosslink density, 

which yields good heat distortion and chemical resistance 

properties. The most notable commercial application 

relates to gasoline resistance, including gasoline/ 

alcohol mixtures, where it is an economical choice. 

Approval has been obtained under the UL 1316 standard. 

In some applications DION ® 490 offers performance 

comparable with that of novolac epoxy based vinyl 

esters, but at a much lower cost. 

DION ® 495 Series are lower molecular weight and lower 

VOC versions of DION ® 490 . 

*DION® 6334, 6631, 9100, 382 and 9102 comply with FDA Title21 CFR177.2420 and can be used for 

food contact applications when properly formulated and cured by the composite fabricator. 

Laminates at Temperature 

Resin Flexural Strength, psi Flexural Modulus, x 10 6 psi 

77° F 150° F 200° F 250° F 300° F 77° F 150° F 200° F 250° F 300° F 

DION® 9100 32800 33100 25700 3000 --- 1.17 1.12 0.83 0.37 --- 

DION® FR 9300 31700 30600 30500 5100 2800 1.53 1.35 1.22 0.23 0.19 

DION® 9800 26300 25600 23100 19200 7400 1.01 0.87 0.74 0.58 0.32 

DION® 9400 30000 31800 33500 26000 7900 1.50 1.38 1.25 0.93 0.46 

DION® 6694 28700 30400 30700 29600 20900 1.50 1.39 1.25 1.08 0.87 

DION® 6631 31000 28600 24000 14700 4300 1.38 1.20 0.85 0.50 0.31 

DION® 382 25500 27000 23500 17500 --- 1.21 1.10 1.00 0.88 --- 

DION® 797 30100 30000 29600 25200 15400 1.50 1.35 1.16 0.91 0.48 

DION® 490 23600 25800 25500 22600 17100 1.08 0.99 0.85 0.60 0.41 

Laminate Construction V/M/M/WR/M/WR/M/WR/M 

V = 10 mil C-glass veil 

M = 1.5 oz/ sq ft chopped glass mat 

WR = 24 oz woven roving 

Glass content = 45% 

9


Chlorendic Polyester Resins 

Chlorendic polyester resins are based on the 

incorporation of chlorendic anhydride or chlorendic acid 

(also called HET acid) into the polymer backbone. Their 

most notable advantage is superior resistance to mixed 

acid and oxidizing environments, which makes them 

widely used for bleaching and chromic acid or nitric 

acid containing environments, such as in electroplating 

applications. The cross linked structure is quite dense, 

which results in high heat distortion and good elevated 

temperature properties. This is a dense structure that 

can display reduced ductility and reduced tensile 

elongation. Despite good acid resistance, chlorendic 

resins should not be used in alkaline environments. 

Due to the halogen content, chlorendic resins display 

flame retardant and smoke reduction properties. 

The DION ® 797 series are chlorendic anhydride based 

resins with good corrosion resistance and thermal 

properties up to 350° F. DION ® 797 is supplied as a 

pre-promoted and thixotropic version. An ASTM E-84 

flame spread rating of 30 (Class II) is obtained with the 

use of 5% antimony trioxide. Many thermal and corrosion 

resistant properties are superior to those of 

competitive chlorendic resins. 

Atprime ® 2 Bonding & Primer 

Atprime ® 2 is a two-component, moisture-activated 

primer that provides enhanced bonding of composite 

materials to a variety of substrates, such as FRP, 

concrete, steel, or thermoplastics. It is especially 

well suited for bonding to non-air-inhibited surfaces 

associated with contact molding or aged FRP 

composites. This ability is achieved due to the formation 

of a chemical bond to the FRP surface. Atprime® 2 is 

free of methylene chloride and features good storage 

stability. 

Atprime ® 2 is well-suited for repairs of FRP structures. 

Many FRP structures have been known to fail due to 

the failure of secondary bonds, which can serve as 

the weakest link in an otherwise sound structure. 

Thus Atprime ® 2 merits important consideration in 

FRP fabrication. The curing mechanism relies on 

ambient humidity and does not employ peroxide 

chemistry. 

Castings 

Resin 

Tensile 

Strength psi 

Tensile 

Modulus x10 6 

psi 

Elongation at 

Break % 

Flexural 

Strength psi 

Flexural 

Modulus x10 6 

psi 

Barcol 

Hardness 

HDT° F 

DION® 9100 11600 4.6 5.2 23000 5.0 35 220 

DION® FR 9300 10900 5.1 4.0 21900 5.2 40 230 

DION® 9800 13100 4.6 4.2 22600 4.9 38 244 

DION® 9400 9000 5.0 3.0 20500 5.1 38 290 

DION® 6694 8200 3.4 2.4 14600 4.9 38 270 

DION® 6631 9300 5.9 2.4 16600 5.2 40 225 

DION® 382 10000 4.3 2.5 17000 4.3 38 270 

DION® 797 7800 0.5 1.6 21700 1.0 45 280 

DION® 490 8700 4.8 2.1 16700 5.2 40 260 

10

Specifying Composite Performance 

The design and manufacture of composite equipment for 

corrosion service is a highly customized process. In order 

to produce a product that successfully meets the unique 

needs of each customer, it is essential for fabricators 

and material suppliers to understand the applications 

for which composite equipment is intended. One of the 

most common causes of equipment failure is exposure 

of equipment to service conditions that are more severe 

than anticipated. This issue has been addressed 

by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 

(ASME) in their RTP-1 specifi cation for corrosion-grade 

composite tanks. RTP-1 includes a section called the 

User’s Basic Requirement Specifi cations (UBRS). 

The UBRS is a standardized document provided to 

tank manufacturers before vessels are constructed. 

It identifi es, among other factors, the function and 

confi guration of the tank, internal and external operating 

conditions, mechanical loads on the vessel, installation 

requirements and applicable state and federal codes 

at the installation site. Reichhold strongly recommends 

that the information required by the UBRS is provided to 

composite equipment fabricators before any equipment 

is manufactured. 

Factors Affecting Resin Performance 

Shelf Life Policy 

Most polyester resins have a minimum three-month 

shelf life from the date of shipment from Reichhold. 

Some corrosion resistant resins have a longer shelf life, 

notably unpromoted bisphenol epoxy vinyl ester resins, 

unpromoted and accelerated bisphenol fumarate resins, 

and DION ® 6694 modifi ed bisphenol fumarate resin. 

See the individual product bulletins, available at 

www.reichhold.com, for specific information for each 

resin. Shelf stability minimums apply to resins stored in 

their original, unopened containers at temperatures not 

exceeding 75° F, away from sunlight and other sources 

of heat or extreme cold. Resins that have exceeded 

their shelf life should be tested before use. 

Elevated Temperatures 

Composites manufactured with vinyl ester or bisphenol 

fumarate resins have been used extensively in 

applications requiring long-term structural integrity at 

elevated temperatures. Good physical properties are 

generally retained at temperatures up to 200° F. The 

selection of resin becomes crucial beyond 200° F 

because excessive temperatures will cause resins to 

soften and lose physical strength. Rigid resins such 

as ultra-high crosslink density vinyl esters, bisphenol 

fumarate polyesters, epoxy novolac vinyl esters, and 

high-crosslink density terephthalics typically provide the 

best high-temperature physical properties. Appropriate 

DION ® resin systems may be considered for use in 

relatively non-aggressive gas phase environments at 

temperatures of 350° F or higher in suitably designed 

structures. 

When designing composite equipment for high 

temperature service, it is important to consider 

how heat will be distributed throughout the unit. 

Polymer composites have a low thermal conductivity 

(approximately 0.15 btu-ft/ hr-sq. ft.° F) which provides 

an insulating effect. This may allow equipment having 

high cross-sectional thickness to sustain very high 

operating temperatures at the surface, since the 

structural portion of the laminate maintains a lower 

temperature. 

11

Laminate Construction 

Composite products designed for corrosion resistance 

typically utilize a structural laminate and a corrosion 

barrier. This type of construction is necessary since the 

overall properties of a composite are derived from the 

widely differing properties of the constituent materials. 

Glass fi bers contribute strength but have little or no 

corrosion resistance in many environments. Resins 

provide corrosion resistance and channel stress into the 

glass fi bers and have little strength when unreinforced. 

Consequently, a resin-rich corrosion barrier is used to 

protect a glass-rich structural laminate. 

In accordance with general industry practice, corrosion 

barriers are typically 100-125 mils thick. They typically 

consist of a surfacing veil saturated to a 90% resin 

content, followed by the equivalent of a minimum 

of two plies of 1.5-oz to 2-oz/ ft chopped strand mat 

impregnated with about 70% resin. The structural 

portion of the laminate can be built with chopped strand 

mat, chopped roving, chopped strand mat alternating 

with woven roving, or by fi lament-winding. An additional 

ply of mat is sometimes used as a bonding layer 

between a fi lament-wound structural over-wrap and 

the corrosion barrier. Filament-wound structures have 

a glass content of approximately 70% and provide high 

strength combined with light weight. 

abrasive attack, but also yields a corrosion barrier that 

is more prone to cracking in stressed areas. This can 

be an issue in corrosion barriers where multiple plies 

of veil are used, and in areas where veil layers overlap. 

Should the resin-rich veil portion of a corrosion barrier 

crack, the barrier is breached and all of the benefi ts of 

using multiple veils are lost. Furthermore, multiple plies 

of synthetic veil can be more diffi cult to apply and often 

lead to an increase in the number of air voids trapped 

in the corrosion barrier. Many composite specifi cations, 

including ASME RTP-1, impose a maximum allowable 

amount of air void entrapment in the corrosion barrier. 

Attempts to repair air voids are time-consuming and 

can reduce the corrosion resistance of the composite. 

Fabricators utilizing two plies of synthetic veil should 

carefully follow the veil manufacturer’s instructions and 

also take special caution to ensure that no excessively 

resin-rich areas are formed. Where a two-ply corrosion 

barrier is desired, C-glass veil can be used for one or 

both plies. This provides a degree of reinforcement to 

the corrosion barrier, reduces resin drainage, and 

creates a corrosion barrier that is less prone to 

interlaminar shear cracking. 

Because resin provides corrosion resistance, a resinrich 

topcoat is often used as an exterior fi nish coat, 

particularly where occasional contact or spillage with 

aggressive chemicals might occur. UV stabilizers or 

pigments may be incorporated into top coats (to minimize 

weathering effects) or used in tanks designed to 

contain light sensitive products. A top coat is especially 

useful for fi lament-wound structures due to their high 

glass content. 

Surfacing Veil 

A well-constructed corrosion barrier utilizing surface 

veil is required for any polymer composite intended for 

corrosion service. Veils based on C-glass, synthetic 

polyester fi ber and carbon are available. C-glass 

veils are widely used because they readily conform to 

complex shapes, are easy to wet out with resin and 

provide excellent overall corrosion resistance. Synthetic 

veils are harder to set in place and wet out, but can 

provide a thicker, more resin-rich corrosion barrier. 

The bulking effect of synthetic veil allows the outer 

corrosion barrier to have a very high resin content, 

which has both benefi ts and drawbacks. Higher resin 

concentration can extend resistance to chemical and 

12


Chopped Strand Mat 

Chopped strand mat is widely used in the fabrication of 

corrosion-resistant structures to obtain consistent resin/ 

glass lamination ratios. Many types of glass mat are 

available, and the importance of proper mat selection 

should not be overlooked. Mats are available with a 

variety of sizings and binders, and even the glass itself 

can vary between manufacturers. These differences 

manifest themselves in the ease of laminate wet-out, 

corrosion resistance, physical properties, and the 

tendency of the laminate to jackstraw. Manufacturers of 

glass mat can provide assistance in selecting the most 

suitable mat for specifi c and end-use applications. 

Woven Roving 

Woven continuous fi berglass roving at 24 oz/ sq.yd. 

may be used to improve the structural performance of 

FRP laminates. If more than one ply of woven roving 

is used, it should be laminated with alternating layers 

of glass mat separating each ply, otherwise, separation 

under stress can occur. Due to the wicking action of 

continuous glass fi laments, woven roving should not 

be used in any surface layer directly in contact with the 

chemical environment. 

Continuous Filament Roving 

Continuous roving may be used for chopper-gun 

lamination and in fi lament winding. Filament winding 

is widely employed for cylindrical products used in the 

chemical equipment market and is the predominant 

manufacturing process for chemical storage tanks 

and reactor vessels. Glass contents of up to 70% can 

be achieved using fi lament winding, which provides 

uniform, high-strength structural laminates. Because 

the capillary action of continuous rovings can carry 

chemical penetration deep into the composite structure, 

a well constructed, intact corrosion barrier is essential for 

fi lament-wound structures. Topcoats are often used for 

fi lament-wound products intended for outdoor exposure 

to protect the glass fi bers from UV attack. 

Some laboratory studies have suggested that 

the combination of benzyl peroxide (BPO) and 

dimethylaniline (DMA) may provide a more complete 

cure before post-curing than the standard cobalt DMA/ 

MEKP system. In some instances, resins have demonstrated 

a permanent undercure for reasons that are 

not fully understood. One theory is that undercure is 

related to initiator dispersion. Typically BPO is used in 

paste form, which is prepared by grinding solid BPO 

particles in an inert carrier. Dispersion and dissolution 

of BPO paste is clearly a more challenging procedure 

than blending in low-viscosity MEKP liquid, especially 

in cold conditions. Another advantage of MEKP systems 

is a more positive response to post-curing. 

Vinyl ester resin promoted with cobalt/ DMA tends to 

foam when MEKP initiator is added. This increases 

the diffi culty of eliminating entrapped gases from the 

laminate. Foaming can be reduced in a number of 

ways. BPO/ DMA reduces foaming, as does the use of 

an MEKP/ cumene hydroperoxide blend or straight CHP. 

Using a resin that does not foam, such as DION ® 9800 

urethane - modifi ed vinyl ester resin or a bisphenol 

fumarate resin, is another alternative. 

High-quality composite products can be fabricated 

using either of the promoter/ initiator combinations 

described above. For end-users, it is suggested that 

the preferences of the fabricator involved be taken into 

account when specifying initiator systems. 

Resin Curing Systems 

One of the most important factors governing the 

corrosion resistance of composites is the degree of 

cure that the resin attains. For general service, it is 

recommended that the laminate reach a minimum of 

90% of the clear cast Barcol hardness value listed by the 

resin manufacturer. For highly aggressive conditions, it 

may be necessary to use extraordinary measures to 

attain the highest degree of cure possible. One effective 

way to do this is to post-cure the laminate shortly after it 

has gelled and completed its exotherm. 

13


Post-Curing 

Post-Curing at elevated temperatures can enhance 

the performance of a composite product in most 

environments. Post-Curing of composites provides 

two benefi ts. The curing reaction is driven to completion 

which maximizes the cross-link density of 

the resin system, thus eliminating unreacted crosslinking 

sites in the resin. This improves both chemical 

resistance and physical properties. Thorough and even 

Post-Curing for an extended period of time can also 

relieve stresses formed in the laminate during cure, 

thus reducing the likelihood of warping during normal 

thermal cycling/ operation. 

In general, one can relate the recommended Post- 

Curing temperatures to the chemistry of the matrix resin 

used in the construction - this mostly relates to the HDT 

of the resin. 

It is recommended that the construction is kept for 16- 

24 hours at room temperature (>18° C) before Post- 

Curing at elevated temperature starts. Increasing and 

decreasing temperature should be done stepwise to 

avoid possible thermal shock, and consequent possible 

built-in stresses. 

Post-Curing 

Temp °C 

Post-Curing, hours 

HDT of the resin, °C 

65 85 100 130 

40 24 48 96 120 

50 12 24 48 92 

60 6 12 18 24 

70 3 6 9 12 

80 1.5 3 4 6 

Table shows typical recommended Post-Curing 

temperatures and times for different resins, related 

to their HDT. 

Secondary Bonding 

One of the most common locations of composite 

failure is at a secondary bond. To develop a successful 

secondary bond, the composite substrate must either 

have a tacky, air-inhibited surface or it must be specially 

prepared. 

Composites with a fully-cured surface may be prepared 

for secondary bonding by grinding the laminate down 

to exposed glass prior to applying a new laminate. 

Secondary bond strength can be greatly enhanced 

by using the Atprime ® 2 primer system. Atprime ® 2 

is specially designed to provide a direct, chemical 

bond between fully-cured composites and secondary 

laminates. Atprime ® 2 can also improve the bond 

of FRP composites to concrete, metals, and some 

thermoplastics. 

Resin Top Coating 

Top coats are often used to protect the exterior of 

composite products from weathering and from the 

effects of occasional exposure to corrosive agents. A 

topcoat may be prepared by modifying the resin used to 

manufacture the product with thixotrope, a UV absorber 

and a small amount of wax. Blending 3% fumed silica, 

suitable UV inhibitor along with 5% of a 10% wax 

solution (in styrene) to a resin is a typical approach to 

top coat formulation. 

Dual Laminate Systems 

When vinyl ester or bisphenol fumarate corrosion 

barriers are unsuitable for a particular environment, 

it may still be possible to design equipment that takes 

advantage of the benefi ts of composite materials by 

employing a thermoplastic corrosion barrier. This 

technology involves creating the desired structure by 

shaping the thermo plastic, then rigidizing it with a 

composite outer skin. Thermoplastics such as polyvinyl 

chloride, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, 

and a wide variety of high performance fl uoropolymers 

are commonly used. Dual laminates may be used 

and can provide cost-effective performance in 

conditions where composites are otherwise inappropriate. 

14


Maintenance and Inspection 

The service life that can reasonably be expected 

from corrosion-grade composite equipment will 

vary depending upon a number of factors including 

fabrication details, material selection, and the nature 

of the environment to which the equipment is exposed. 

For example, a tank that may be expected to provide 

service for 15 years or more in a non-aggressive 

environment may be deemed to have provided an 

excellent service life after less than 10 years of 

exposure to a more aggressive media. Other factors, 

such as process upsets, unanticipated changes in 

the chemical composition of equipment contents and 

unforeseen temperature fl uctuations, may also reduce 

the service life of composite products. These are some 

of the reasons why a program of regularly scheduled 

inspection and maintenance of corrosion-grade 

composite equipment is vital. A secondary benefi t is 

the reduction of downtime and minimization of repair 

expenses. 

Beyond issues of cost and equipment service life, the 

human, environmental and fi nancial implications of 

catastrophic equipment failure cannot be understated. A 

regular program of maintenance and inspection is a key 

element in the responsible care of chemical processes. 

Selected Applications Recommendations 

Abrasive Materials 

Composite pipe and ducting can offer signifi cantly better 

fl uid fl ow because of their smooth internal surfaces. For 

products designed to carry abrasive slurries and coarse 

particulates, the effects of abrasion should be considered 

during the product design process. Resistance to mild 

abrasion may be enhanced by using synthetic veil or, 

for extreme cases by using silicon carbide or ceramic 

beads as fi llers in the surface layer. Resilient liners 

based on elastomer - modifi ed vinyl ester resin are also 

effective in some cases. 

15

Selected Application Recommendations 

Biomass and Biochemical Conversion 

Applications have been increasing for processes 

which transform biomass or renewable resources into 

usable products. Most of the impetus has been energy 

related, but the technology has diverse relevance, such 

as various delignifi cation processes associated with 

elemental chlorine-free pulp production. Raw materials 

include things like grain, wood, agricultural or animal 

wastes, and high cellulose content plants. 

Sometimes the processes involve pyrolysis or 

gasifi cation steps to break down the complex molecules 

of the biomass into simpler building blocks such as 

carbon monoxide or hydrogen, which in turn can be 

used as fuels or catalytically synthesized into other 

products, such as methanol. However, the most common 

biochemical conversion process is fermentation, in 

which simple sugars, under the mediation of yeasts or 

bacteria, are converted to ethanol. With lingo-cellulose 

or hemicellulose, the fermentation must be preceded by 

thermochemical treatments which digest or otherwise 

render the complex polymers in the biomass more 

accessible to enzymatic breakdown. These enzymes 

(often under acidic conditions) then enable hydrolysis of 

starches or polysaccharides into simple sugars suitable 

for fermentation into ethanol. Many of the conversion 

steps have other embodiments, such as the anaerobic 

digestion to produce methane for gaseous fuel. 

A great deal of technology and genetic engineering is 

evolving to enable or to improve the effi ciency of these 

processes. It is expected that many of the process 

conditions can often be quite corrosive to metals, and 

FRP composites can offer distinct benefi ts. 

Bleaching Solutions 

Bleach solutions represent a variety of materials 

which display high oxidation potential, These include 

compounds or active radicals like chlorine, chlorine 

dioxide, ozone, hypochlorite or peroxide. Under most 

storage conditions these materials are quite stable, but 

when activated, such as by changes in temperature, 

concentration, or pH, the bleaches are aggressive and 

begin to oxidize many metals and organic materials, 

including resins used in composites. Thus, resins 

need to display resistance to oxidation as well as to 

the temperature and pH conditions employed in the 

process. Most interest centers on bleaching operations 

employed in the pulp and paper industry, but similar 

considerations apply to industrial, disinfection, and 

water treatment applications. 

Bleach solutions are highly electrophilic and attack 

organic materials by reacting with sources of electrons, 

of which a readily available source is the residual 

unsaturation associated with an incomplete cure. 

Consequently, the resistance of composites to bleach 

environments demands a complete cure, preferably 

followed by post-curing. Since air-inhibited surfaces are 

especially susceptible to attack, a good paraffi nated 

topcoat should be applied to non-contact surfaces, 

including the exterior, which may come into incidental 

contact with the bleach. 

BPO/ DMA curing systems are sometimes advocated 

for composites intended for bleach applications due to 

concerns over reaction with cobalt promoter involved 

in conventional MEKP/ DMA curing systems. While 

BPO/ DMA curing can offer appearance advantages, 

the conventional MEKP/ cobalt systems yield very 

dependable and predictable full extents of curing and 

thus have a good history of success. 

16


Sodium Hypochlorite 

When activated, sodium hypochlorite generates 

hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions which afford 

oxidation. Unstable solutions can decompose to form 

mono-atomic or nascent chlorine compounds which 

are exceptionally aggressive. Decomposition can be 

induced by high temperature, low pH, or UV radiation. 

Best stability is maintained at temperature no greater 

than 125 ◦ F and a pH of >10.5. This will often happen 

if over-chlorination is used in the production of sodium 

hypochlorite. Over-chlorination makes temperature 

and pH control very diffi cult and can result in rapid 

deterioration and loss of service life of the hypochlorite 

generator. Adding chlorine gas to the hypochlorite 

generator can cause mechanical stress, so attention 

should be given to velocity, thrust, and other forces which 

the generator may encounter. Composites intended 

for outdoor service should contain a UV absorbing 

additive and a light colored pigment in the fi nal exterior 

paraffi nated topcoat to shield the hypochlorite solution 

from exposure. 

Thixotropic agents based on silica should never be 

used in the construction of composite equipment or in 

topcoats intended for hypochlorite service. Attack can 

be severe when these agents are used. 

Chlorine Dioxide 

Chlorine dioxide now accounts for about 70% of 

worldwide chemically bleached pulp production and is 

fi nding growing applications in disinfection and other 

bleach applications. Use is favored largely by trends 

toward TCF (totally chlorine free) and ECF (elemental 

chlorine free) bleaching technology. Composites made 

with high performance resins have been used with great 

success for bleach tower upfl ow tubes, piping, and 

ClO 2 storage tanks. Chlorine dioxide in a mixture with 

6-12% brown stock can be serviced at a temperature up 

to 160 ◦ F. Higher temperature can be used, but at the 

expense of service life. Under bleaching conditions the 

resin surface may slowly oxidize to form a soft yellowish 

layer known as chlorine butter. In some cases the 

chlorine layer forms a protective barrier which shields 

the underlying composite from attack. However, erosion 

or abrasion by the pulp stock can reduce this protective 

effect. DION ® 6694, a modifi ed bisphenol-A fumarate 

resin displays some of the best chemical resistance to 

chlorine dioxide. 

Chlor-Alkali Industry 

Chlorine along with sodium hydroxide is co-produced 

from brine by electrolysis, with hydrogen as a 

byproduct. Modern high amperage cells separate the 

anode and cathode by ion exchange membranes or 

diaphragms. Cells can operate at 200 ◦ F or higher. 

Wet chlorine collected at the anode can be aggressive 

to many materials, but premium corrosion resistant 

composites have a long history of successful use. One 

of the best resins to consider is DION ® 6694, which 

was one of the original resins designed to contend 

with this challenging application. A major concern with 

chlorine cells is to avoid traces of hypochlorite, which 

is extremely corrosive at the temperatures involved. 

Hypochlorite content is routinely monitored, but tends 

to form as the cell membranes age or deteriorate, 

which allows chlorine and caustic to co-mingle and 

consequently react. 

Ozone 

Ozone is increasingly used for water treatment as well 

as for selective delignifi cation of pulp. Ozone is highly 

favored since it is not a halogen and is environmentally 

friendly. It is generated by an electric arc process, and 

in the event of leaks or malfunctions, the remedy can be 

simply to stop electrical power. 

The oxidizing potential of ozone is second only to that of 

fl uorine, and this makes ozone one of the most powerful 

oxidizing agents known. Even at 5 ppm in water, ozone 

is highly active and can attack the surface of composites. 

Attack is characterized by a gradual dulling or pitting. 

At


Concentrated Acids 

Containment of acids is one of the most popular uses 

of corrosion grade composites. Polyesters and vinyl 

esters display excellent acid resistance, and almost all 

acids can be accommodated in dilute form. However, 

there are some concentrated acids which can be quite 

aggressive or deserve special attention. 

Sulfuric Acid 

Sulfuric acid below 75% concentration can be handled 

at elevated temperatures quite easily in accordance 

with the material selection guide. However, because 

of the strong affi nity of SO 3 toward water, concentrated 

sulfuric acid (76-78%) is a powerful oxidizing agent 

that will spontaneously react with polymers and other 

organic materials to dehydrate the resin and yield a 

characteristic black carbonaceous char. Effectively, 

composites behave in an opposite manner to many 

metals. For very concentrated sulfuric acid, including 

oleum (fuming sulfuric acid) it is common to use steel or 

cast iron for shipment and containment, but even very 

dilute sulfuric acid can be extremely corrosive to steel. 

Hydrochloric Acid 

Although resins employed with hydrochloric acid are 

by themselves resistive, HCl is sterically a relatively 

small molecule which can diffuse into the structural 

reinforcement by mechanisms which depend in some 

part on the glass and sizing chemistry. This osmosis can 

induce a gradual green color to the composite, although 

this does not necessarily denote a problem or failure. 

Wicking or blistering is also sometimes observed. While 

elevated temperature and increased concentration 

accelerates the attack by HCl, tanks made from premium 

resins have provided service life of 20 years or more 

with concentrated (37%) acid at ambient temperature. 

Muriatic acid and other dilute forms can be handled up 

to 200 ◦ F with no blistering or wicking. 

The osmosis or diffusion effects can result in localized 

formation of water soluble salts, which in turn form salt 

solutions. This creates a concentration gradient, and 

the salt solutions effectively try to dilute themselves 

with water diffusing from a salt solution of lower 

concentration. The diffusing water thus creates osmotic 

pressure with effects such as blistering. 

Since osmotic effects are based on concentration 

differences it is advisable to always use the tank with 

the same concentration of acid and the tank should 

not be cleaned unless necessary. The cleaning should 

never be done with water. If cleaning is necessary, 

some owners will employ a slightly alkaline salt solution, 

typically 1% caustic and 10% NaCl. 

Low grades of hydrochloric acid are often produced 

via a byproduct recovery process and may contain 

traces of chlorinated hydrocarbons. These high density 

organic compounds are immiscible and may settle to 

the bottom of the tank and gradually induce swelling of 

the composite. For example, this is a common problem 

with rubber-lined railcars transporting low grade HCl. 

Purity should thus be carefully evaluated in specifying 

the equipment. 

18


Nitric and Chromic Acid 

Nitric and chromic acid (HNO 3 and H 2 CrO 4 ) are strong 

oxidizing agents that will gradually attack the composite 

surface to form a yellow crust which eventually can 

develop microcracks and lead to structural deterioration. 

Diluted nitric and chromic acids (5% or less) can be 

handled at moderate temperatures in accordance with 

the selection guide. These dilute acids are commonly 

encountered in metal plating, pickling, or electrowinning 

processes, where composites often out-perform 

competitive materials such as rubber-lined steel. 

When dealing with nitric acid, care should always be 

given to safe venting of NO x fumes as well as dealing 

with heat of dilution effects. It is also important to avoid 

contamination and avoid mixed service of the tank 

with organic materials, which can react (sometimes 

explosively) with nitric acid. 

Hydrofluoric Acid 

Hydrofl uoric acid is a strong oxidizing agent and can 

attack resin as well as glass reinforcements. This can 

occur with concentrated as well as diluted acid (to 5%). 

Synthetic surfacing veil is commonly used. 

Fluoride salts, as well as fl uoride derivatives (such as 

hydrofl uosilicic acid) used in fl uoridation of drinking 

water, can be accommodated with use of vinyl esters 

or other premium resins as indicated in the material 

selection guide. HF vapors associated with chemical 

etching in the electronics industry can be accommodated 

by resins appropriate for hood and duct service. 

Acetic Acid 

Glacial acetic acid causes rapid composite deterioration 

due to blister formation in the corrosion barrier. This is 

usually accompanied by swelling and softening. Acetic 

acid becomes less aggressive when diluted below 75% 

concentration, and at lower concentrations can be 

handled by a variety of resins. 

Perchloric Acid 

While perchloric acid can be an aggressive chemical, a 

main issue from a composite standpoint is safety. Dry 

perchloric acid is ignitable and presents a safety hazard. 

When a tank used for perchloric acid storage is emptied 

and allowed to dry out, residual acid may remain on the 

surface. Subsequent exposure to an ignition source, 

such as heat or sparks from a grinding wheel may result 

in spontaneous combustion. 

Phosphoric Acid 

Corrosion resistant composites are generally quite 

resistant to phosphoric and superphosphoric acid. 

Some technical grades may contain traces of fl uorides 

since fl uoride minerals often occur in nature within 

phosphorous deposits. This is ordinarily not a problem, 

but is worth checking. 

Deionized and Distilled Water 

High purity deionized water, often to the surprise of 

many, can be a very aggressive environment. The 

high purity water can effectively act as a solvent to 

cause wicking and blistering especially at temperature 

>150 ◦ F. Purifi ed water can also extract soluble trace 

components from the resin or glass reinforcement 

to thereby compromise purity, conductivity, or other 

attributes. Good curing, including post-curing, preferably 

in conjunction with a high temperature co-initiator, such 

a tertiary butyl perbenzoate (TBPB), is suggested to 

maximize resistance and to prevent hydrophyllic attack 

of the resin. It is best to avoid using thixotropic agents 

which can supply soluble constituents, and where 

possible any catalyst carriers or plasticizers should be 

avoided. 

19


Desalination Applications 

Droughts, demographic changes, and ever-increasing 

need for fresh water are spurring needs to desalinate 

brackish water and sea water to meet demand. There 

is already one major project in progress in the City of 

Tampa, and others are being considered on the east 

coast as well as developing countries. 

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a mature process, yet has 

become more cost effective and energy effi cient in 

recent years due primarily to advances in membrane 

technology. Although RO is regarded as the baseline 

technology, there are other desalination processes 

under development, many of which are a tribute to 

ingenuity. These include processes such as vapor 

recompression, electrodialysis, and gas hydrate 

processes which entail crystalline aggregation of 

hydrogen-bonded water around a central gas molecule 

(for example propane), such that the hydrate can be 

physically separated upon freezing, which takes less 

energy than evaporation. 

Electroplating and other Electrochemical 

Processes 

Electroplating is used to electrolytically deposit specifi c 

metals onto conductive substrates for anodizing or 

other functional or decorative purposes. Most plating 

solutions are acidic and thus reinforced composites as 

well as polymer concrete vessels that have been used 

extensively. Some plating solutions, such as those 

associated with chrome, are aggressive due to the 

oxidation potential as well as the presence of fl uorides. 

Synthetic surfacing veils are commonly used. Good 

curing is also necessary, especially if there are concerns 

about solution contamination. 

Apart from plating there can be growing applications 

in electrolysis processes which might be practical 

for hydrogen fuel production. The same applies to 

accommodation of electrolytes (such as phosphoric 

acid or potassium carbonate) associated with fuel cells. 

Vinyl esters are already being used in fuel cell plate and 

electrode applications. 

Very often, most of the expense in these processes is 

associated with water pretreatment, but nevertheless 

there is overall a great deal of equipment involved, such 

as storage tanks, piping, and reaction vessels. 

Upon desalination, some saline solutions must be 

disposed. Chlorides and other constituents can greatly 

limit the use of stainless steel, and often it is necessary 

to consider titanium or high nickel content alloys, all 

of which are expensive. Hence corrosion resistant 

composites can offer signifi cant cost and technical 

advantages. 

20


Fumes, Vapors, Hood & Duct Service 

Composites are widely used in hood, ducting, and 

ventilation systems due to corrosion resistance, cost, 

weight considerations, and dampening of noise. 

Generally speaking, corrosion resistance is quite 

good, even with relatively aggressive chemicals since 

there is so much dilution and cooling associated with 

the high volume of air. When dealing with vapors it is 

good practice to compute the dew point associated with 

individual components of the vapor and to assess the 

chance that the ducting may pass through the relevant 

dew point to result in condensation and hence high 

localized concentration of condensate. Because of 

the high air volume, the dew points are reduced and 

there is benefi t from the low thermal conductivity of the 

composite which has an insulating effect. If fumes are 

combustible, applicable fi re codes should be checked 

especially if there is chance that an explosive mixture 

could be encountered. 

DION ® fl ame retardant resins will meet the ASTM E-84 

Class 1 fl ame spread requirement of 25 when blended 

with the appropriate amount of antimony trioxide. 

Antimony trioxide provides no fl ame retardance on 

its own, but has a synergistic fl ame-retardant effect 

when used in conjunction with brominated resins. It 

is typically incorporated into resin at a 1.5-5.0% level. 

Please consult the product bulletin for a specifi c resin 

to obtain its antimony trioxide requirement. Antimony 

trioxide typically is not included in the corrosion liner 

for duct systems handling concentrated wet acidic 

gases in order to maximize corrosion resistance. It is 

used in the structural over-wrap to provide good overall 

fl ame retardance. To maximize fl ame retardance in 

less aggressive vapor-phase environments, antimony 

trioxide may be included in the liner resin. 

Accidental fi res are always a concern with ducting 

due to potential accumulation of grease or other 

combustibles. If a fi re indeed occurs, drafts may serve to 

increase fi re propagation. Concern is highest for indoor 

applications, especially in regard to smoke generation. 

Brominated fl ame retardant resins with combined 

corrosion resistance are normally selected due to their 

self-extinguishing properties as well as reduced fl ame 

spread. Unfortunately, the chemical mechanisms which 

serve to reduce fl ame spread can lead to reduced the 

rate of oxygen consumption, which generates smoke 

or soot. Many techniques have evolved to contend 

with smoke generation, including the use of fusible 

link counterweighed dampers which can shut off air 

supply. Dominant relevant standards are those of the 

National Fire Prevention Association (NFPA) and the 

International Congress of Building Offi cials (ICBO). 

DION ® FR 9300 fl ame retardant vinyl ester is widely 

used in ducting applications and conforms to ICBO 

acceptance criteria. 

21


Flue Gas Desulfurization 

Corrosion resistant composites are extensively used 

for major components of FGD systems associated 

with coal based power generation, and many of the 

structures are the largest in the world. Components 

include chimney liners, absorbers, reaction vessels, 

and piping. Operating conditions of fl ue gas 

desulfurization processes are quite corrosive to 

metals due to the presence of sulfur dioxide and sulfur 

trioxide. These serve to form sulfuric acid either within 

the scrubbing system itself or from condensation of 

SO 3 as a consequence of its affi nity for water and 

elevation of dew point. Corrosion of steel is further 

aggravated by the presence of free oxygen which 

originates from excess air used in coal combustion, 

or in some processes as a result of air blown into the 

system in order to oxidize sulfi te ions to sulfate. 

Since there is net evaporation within the absorber, and 

since coal ash contains soluble salts, chloride levels can 

be quite high, which in turn limits the use of stainless 

steel or else requires high nickel content alloys, which 

are not only expensive, but also require close attention 

to welding and other installation procedures. 

The acid and chloride resistance of FRP makes it an 

excellent choice. Wet scrubbers typically operate near 

to saturation temperatures of about 140 ◦ F, but fl ue gas 

may sometimes be reheated to >200 ◦ F to increase 

chimney draft or to reduce mist or plume visibility. 

The worst upset conditions involve a total sustained 

loss of scrubbing liquor or make-up water, which may 

allow temperature to approach that of fl ue gas leaving 

the boiler air preheater or economizer, typically up 

to 350 ◦ F. Although such temperature excursions 

are diffi cult to generalize, the usual practice is to 

employ vinyl esters or other resins with good heat 

distortion or thermal cycling properties. Although 

there are negligible (if any) combustibles present in 

FGD systems, the selected resins often display fl ame 

retardant properties in the event of accidental ignition 

or high natural drafts. 

Gasoline, Gasohol and Underground Storage 

Tanks 

Ethanol and Ethanol/ Gasoline Blends 

Ethanol derived from corn has increasingly been 

used to increase the extent of gasoline production 

and maintain octane requirements. Ethanol can be 

corrosive to steel, aluminum, and a variety of polymeric 

materials, due to the alcohol itself and the possible 

companion presence of water. Ethanol is miscible with 

water and azeotropic distillation and drying techniques 

are necessary in fuel applications. Phase separation, 

compatibility with gasoline, or salt contamination can 

infl uence many of the corrosion considerations. Vinyl 

esters as well as isophthalic and terephthalic resins 

(such as DION ® 490) can display excellent resistance 

to ethanol and various blends with gasoline, of which 

E-85 (85% gasoline/ 15% ethanol) is a popular 

example. The superior resins display a high crosslink 

density. This directly increases the solvent resistance 

by restricting permeability or diffusion into the resin 

matrix. In addition, a high degree of crosslinking 

reduces any extraction or contamination of the fuel 

by trace components in the composite matrix, such 

as residual catalyst plasticizer or carriers. As always, 

good curing and post-curing will enhance resistance. 

22


Methanol and Other Gasoline-Alcohol Blends 

Apart from ethanol, methanol is also widely considered 

in gasoline applications, and in contrast to fermentation 

of sugar or polysaccharides, methanol is ordinarily 

made from carbon monoxide and hydrogen containing 

gas associated with gasifi cation or various synthesis 

processes. Methanol has good octane properties, but 

displays similar, if not more problematic concerns over 

water, volatility, and phase separation. As in the case 

of ethanol, resins, especially those with good crosslink 

density, can display excellent resistance to methanol 

based blends of gasoline. 

Longer chain alcohols, such as butanol may fi nd 

increasing favor over ethanol due to butanol’s lower 

polarity, reduced fuel compatibility problems, and closer 

resemblance to volatility and energy content of many 

gasoline components. Historically, there have been 

many cycles of interest in alcohol fuels and other fuel 

additives, such as MTBE, and this is likely to continue 

until energy policies become more defi nitive. Thus, it 

is always good to select resins which are resistive to 

all gasoline formulations which might be reasonable 

to expect in the future. This is especially important in 

regard to the octane properties offered by alcohols. 

Octane requirements have signifi cant implications 

affecting refi nery reforming capacity and in allowing 

higher engine compression ratios necessary to meet 

mileage standards mandated for newer automobiles. 

Methanol has many other future implications for use as 

a direct fuel for internal combustion engines and is in the 

early stage of development for direct use in fuel cells. 

Ore Extraction & Hydrometallurgy 

Apart from conventional mining, smelting, and high 

temperature ore reduction, extractive metallurgy 

based on aqueous chemistry has evolved to permit 

recovery of metal from ores, concentrates, or residual 

materials. Metals produced in this manner include gold, 

molybdenum, uranium, and many others. 

Leached ores are then concentrated by a variety of 

solvent or ion exchange type extraction processes. The 

fi nal step involves metal recovery and purifi cation using 

electrolysis (such as electrowinning) or various gaseous 

reduction or precipitation processes. 

Many of these unit operations can induce galvanic or 

stress related corrosion to metals. Consequently, FRP 

has a long history of successful use in hydrometallurgical 

applications. 

Potable Water 

Piping, tanks and other components used to contain or 

to process potable water must conform to increasingly 

stringent requirements, such as those of the National 

Sanitary Foundation (NSF), Standards 61 and 14. 

Standard 61 entails a risk assessment to be performed 

by NSF on extracted organics and other health related 

features. It is always the responsibility of composite 

products to ensure that such standards are met. 

Composites based on the DION ® IMPACT 9102 series 

of vinyl esters have conformed to requirements of 

NSF/ ANSI Standard 61 as applicable to drinking water 

components. Resins, such as DION ® 6631 also conform 

to international standards associated with drinking 

water, such as British Standard 6920. 

When manufacturing composites for drinking water 

applications it is good practice to obtain a good cure, 

including post-curing and to wash exposed surfaces 

thoroughly with a warm non-ionic detergent before 

placing the equipment into service. It is also good to 

use minimal amounts of plasticizers or solvent carriers 

during fabrication. 

The fi rst step involves selective leaching of the metal 

from the ore using a variety of acidic or basic solutions 

depending on mineral forms or other factors. Acids are 

commonly sulfuric or nitric acid, and common alkaline 

materials include sodium carbonate or bicarbonate. 

The leaching can be done on pulverized or specially 

prepared ores, but some processes are amenable to 

in-situ contact with the ore, which is sometimes called 

solution mining. 

23


Radioactive Materials 

Polymer-matrix composites in general have a very low 

neutron cross-section capture effi ciency. Therefore, they 

are very well-suited to the containment of radioactive 

materials, even at relatively high levels of radioactivity. 

Testing of uncured DION ® 382 by Atlas Chemical 

Laboratories demonstrated that this resin is highly 

resistant to molecular weight changes at dosages up 

to 15 million rads. Extrapolations based on this study 

estimate that DION ® 382 may be able to withstand 50 

to 100 million rads. For reference, the lethal radiation 

dose is about 400 rads. Given the hazardous nature of 

radioactive materials, testing is recommended before 

actual use in high radiation environments. 

Sodium Hydroxide and Alkaline Solutions 

Alkaline solutions can attack the resin, usually by 

hydrolysis of any ester groups. Glass fi bers and other 

silica based materials can also be attacked or digested. 

This leads to a very characteristic type of wicking and 

blistering, as well as fi ber blooming. Dilute sodium 

hydroxide is often more aggressive than the more 

concentrated solutions. This relates to the fact that 

NaOH is a very strong base, but at higher concentration 

there is equilibrium between dissolved and solid phase 

NaOH, which reduces the caustic effects. Epoxy based 

vinyl esters and bisphenol-A based polyesters display 

exceptional resistance to caustic. 

Even though novolac based vinyl esters are wellregarded 

for excellent corrosion and thermal resistance 

in many applications, it is often observed that novolac 

based resins can show somewhat inferior caustic 

resistance. Laminates based on novolac vinyl esters 

exposed to caustic have a tendency to develop a pinkish 

color incipient to failure. It is speculated this is due to 

formation of phenolates from the novolac structure. 

There is widespread belief that it is advisable to use 

synthetic surfacing veils versus C-glass in caustic 

applications. However, controlled laboratory tests 

usually reveal no clear-cut or distinct advantages to a 

synthetic veil, and there is a long history of use of C-veil 

in alkaline environments. 

The synthetic veil allows an increased resin content at 

the surface to ostensibly afford more protection. On the 

other hand, the resin rich areas can make the surface 

more prone to cracking and can, at times, present more 

fabrication diffi culties. 

24

Solvents 

Organic solvents can exert a variety of corrosive effects 

on composites. Small polar molecules, such as methanol 

and ethanol, for example, may permeate the corrosion 

liner, causing some swelling and blistering. Chlorinated 

solvents, chlorinated aromatics, as well as lower 

aldehydes and ketones, are especially aggressive and 

can cause swelling and spalling of the corrosion liner 

surface. Corrosive environments containing low levels 

of solvents may still exert signifi cant effects depending 

on the solvent involved and the properties of any other 

materials present. 

Best results in solvent environments are obtained by 

using resins with high crosslink density, such as DION ® 

9400, DION ® 6694, and DION ® 490. 

Static Electricity 

Resin/ glass composites are non-conductive materials, 

and high static electric charges can develop inducting 

and piping. Static build-up can be reduced by using 

conductive graphite fi llers, graphite veils or continuous 

carbon fi laments in the surface layer. Use of copper 

should be avoided because it can inhibit the resin cure. 

FDA Compliance 

The various versions of DION ® 382, DION ® 6631, DION ® 490, DION ® 9102 DION ® 6334, and 

DION ® 9100 conform to the formulation provisons specifi ed for food contact in FDA Title 21, CFR 

177.2420. These resins may be used for food contact when properly formulated and cured. 

It is good practice to follow the general curing and surface preparation techniques that apply to 

potable water, as described herein. 

It is the responsibility of the manufacturer of composite materials to ensure conformance 

to all FDA requirements. 

USDA Applications 

USDA approvals must be petitioned directly from the USDA by the fabricator. Typically, any 

product which conforms to the requirements of FDA Title 21, CFR 177.2420 will be approved. 

25

Additional Reference Sources 

SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦ F 

A 

CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT 

% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 

VINYL ESTER BISPHENOL FUMARATE TEREPHTHALIC ISOPHTHALIC CHLORENDIC 

DION ® 9800 DION ® 9400 DION ® 6694 DION ® 382 DION ® 490 DION ® 6631 DION ® 797 

Acetaldehyde 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Acetic Acid 

Acetic Acid 

Acetic Acid 

10 210 210 210 210 210 170 170 210 

25 180 180 180 180 180 150 150 210 

50 140 140 140 140 140 --- --- 125 

Acetic Acid, Glacial 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Acetic Anhydride 100 NR -- 100 110 110 NR NR 100 

Acetone 

Acetone 

10 180 180 180 180 180 NR NR NR 

100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Acetonitrile 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Acetophenone 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 75 

Acetyl Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Acrylic Acid 0-25 100 100 110 110 100 --- NR NR 

Acrylic Latex All 120 150 160 150 150 130 --- 80 

Acrylonitrile 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Acrylontirile Latex All --- 150 --- 150 150 --- --- 80 

Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid 92 120 120 120 150 150 --- --- 120 

Alkyl Benzene C10 - C12 100 150 150 --- 150 150 --- --- 100 

Allyl Alcohol 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Allyl Chloride All NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Alpha Methyl Styrene 100 NR NR 90 NR NR NR NR NR 

Alpha Olefi n Sulfates 100 120 120 120 120 120 --- --- 80 

Alum All 210 210 250 250 220 170 170 200 

Aluminum Chloride All 210 210 250 250 220 170 170 210 

Aluminum Chlorohydrate All 210 210 210 250 210 150 150 165 

Aluminum Chlorohydroxide 50 210 210 210 250 210 150 150 NR 

Aluminum Citrate All 210 210 250 250 210 170 170 150 

Aluminum Fluoride 1 All 80 110 80 120 110 NR NR 150 

Aluminum Hydroxide All 180 180 190 210 210 NR NR NR 

Aluminum Nitrate All 180 180 180 180 180 170 140 --- 

Aluminum Potassium Sulfate All 210 200 250 250 210 170 170 210 

Aluminum Sulfate All 210 200 250 250 210 175 170 220 

Amino Acids All 100 100 100 100 100 --- -- --- 

Ammonia, Liquifi ed All NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

26



Ammonia Aqueous 

(see Ammonium Hydroxide) 

% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



1 200 200 210 200 200 NR NR NR 

Ammonia (Dry Gas) All 100 200 100 200 200 --- --- NR 

Ammonium Acetate 65 100 110 80 110 110 80 NR 80 

Ammonium Benzoate All 180 180 180 180 180 140 --- 150 

Ammonium Bicarbonate 100 160 160 160 170 160 120 120 130 

Ammonium Bisulfi te 

Black Liquor 

-- 180 180 180 210 180 NR NR 195 

Ammonium Bromate 40 160 160 160 160 160 --- --- 150 

Ammonium Bromide 40 160 160 160 160 160 --- --- 150 

Ammonium Carbonate All 150 150 150 150 150 140 80 150 

Ammonium Chloride All 210 210 210 210 210 170 170 200 

Ammonium Citrate All 160 160 160 170 160 120 120 --- 

Ammonium Fluoride 3 All 150 150 150 150 140 NR NR 150 

Ammonium Hydroxide 

(Aqueous Ammonia) 



1 200 200 190 200 200 NR NR NR 

5 180 180 180 180 180 NR NR NR 

10 150 150 150 170 150 NR NR NR 



20 150 150 100 150 140 NR NR NR 

29 100 100 100 100 100 NR NR NR 

Ammonium Lauryl Sulfate 30 120 120 120 120 120 --- --- --- 

Ammonium Ligno Sulfonate 50 --- 160 --- 180 180 --- --- --- 

Ammonium Nitrate All 200 200 150 250 210 140 140 200 

Ammonium Persulfate All 180 180 210 210 180 140 NR 150 

Ammonium Phosphate 

(Di or Mono Basic) 

All 210 210 210 210 180 140 140 180 

Ammonium Sulfate All 210 200 250 250 210 170 170 220 

Ammonium Sulfide (Bisulfi de) All 120 110 120 110 110 --- NR 120 

Ammonium Sulfite All 150 150 150 150 150 80 NR 150 

Ammonium Thiocyanate 

20 210 210 210 250 210 140 140 180 

50 110 110 110 150 110 80 80 180 

Ammonium Thiosulfate 50 100 100 120 150 110 --- NR 180 

Amyl Acetate 60 NR NR 120 NR NR 80 NR NR 

Amyl Alcohol All 120 150 150 210 210 170 80 200 

Amyl Alcohol (Vapor) --- 150 150 140 210 210 100 100 100 

Amyl Chloride All 120 --- 120 --- --- NR NR NR 

Aniline All NR NR 70 NR NR NR NR 125 

27



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Aniline Hydrochloride All 180 180 180 180 180 140 --- --- 

Aniline Sulfate Sat’d 210 210 210 250 210 140 140 200 

Aqua Regia (3:1 HCl HNO 3 ) All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 130 

Arsenic Acid 80 110 110 140 110 110 80 --- 110 

Arsenious Acid 20 180 180 180 180 180 80 80 180 

B 

Barium Acetate All 180 180 180 180 180 140 NR 180 

Barium Bromide All 210 210 210 210 180 --- --- --- 

Barium Carbonate All 210 210 180 250 210 80 80 200 

Barium Chloride All 210 210 210 250 210 175 170 200 

Barium Cyanide All 150 150 150 150 150 --- --- --- 

Barium Hydroxide All 150 160 150 170 160 NR NR NR 

Barium Sulfate All 210 210 210 180 210 175 170 180 

Barium Sulfi de All 180 180 180 180 180 NR NR --- 

Beer --- --- --- --- --- 110 --- 80 --- 

Beet Sugar Liquor All 180 180 180 180 180 175 110 180 

Benzaldehyde 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Benzene 100 NR NR 100 NR NR NR NR 75 

Benzene, HCl (wet) All NR NR 100 NR NR NR NR NR 

Benzene Sulfonic Acid All 210 210 150 180 210 140 NR 200 

Benzene Vapor All NR NR 100 NR NR NR NR NR 

Benzoic Acid All 210 240 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Benzoquinones All 150 180 180 180 180 --- --- --- 

Benzyl Alcohol All NR 110 100 90 100 80 NR --- 

Benzyl Chloride All NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Biodiesel Fuel All 180 180 180 180 180 175 140 175 

Black Liquor (pulp mill) All 180 200 180 210 200 NR NR NR 

Bleach Solutions 

(see selected applications) 

Calcium Hypochlorite All 180 200 100 210 210 NR NR --- 

Chlorine Dioxide --- 160 160 160 160 160 NR NR 180 

Chlorine Water All 180 200 180 210 200 NR NR 200 

Chlorite 50 100 110 100 110 110 NR NR 110 

Hydrosulfi te --- 180 190 180 190 190 NR NR --- 

Sodium Hypochlorite 15 125 125 125 125 125 NR NR --- 

28



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Borax All 210 210 210 210 210 175 170 170 

Boric Acid All 210 210 210 250 210 170 170 200 

Brake Fluid --- 110 110 110 110 110 --- --- --- 

Brine, salt All 210 210 180 250 210 175 170 220 

Bromine Liquid NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Bromine Water 5 180 180 180 180 180 80 --- --- 

Brown Stock (pulp mill) --- 180 180 180 180 180 --- NR --- 

Bunker C Fuel Oil 100 210 210 220 220 210 175 140 175 

Butanol All 120 120 120 150 110 100 NR 100 

Butanol, Tertiary All --- NR --- 110 110 --- --- 100 

Butyl Acetate 100 NR NR 80 NR NR 80 NR 80 

Butyl Acrylate 100 NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Butyl Amine All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Butyl Benzoate 100 --- --- 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Butyl Benzyl Phthalate 100 180 180 180 210 210 175 NR NR 

Butyl Carbitol 80 100 --- 100 100 100 NR NR NR 

Butyl Cellosolve 100 100 100 100 120 120 NR NR 85 

Butylene Glycol 100 160 180 180 200 180 175 150 120 

Butylene Oxide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Butyraldehyde 100 NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR --- 

Butyric Acid 50 210 210 210 210 210 100 80 120 

Butyric Acid 85 80 110 110 110 110 NR NR 80 

C 

Cadmium Chloride All 180 190 180 190 180 150 150 150 

Calcium Bisulfite All 180 180 180 200 180 140 140 150 

Calcium Bromide All 200 200 190 250 210 --- --- 200 

Calcium Carbonate All 180 200 180 250 210 160 160 180 

Calcium Chlorate 


All 210 200 250 250 210 150 150 220 

Calcium Chloride Sat'd 210 210 250 240 210 175 170 220 

29



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 


DION ® 

9800 

DION ® 

9400 

DION ® 

6694 

DION ® 382 DION ® 490 DION ® 6631 DION ® 797 

Calcium Hydroxide All 180 180 180 210 180 160 160 NR 

Calcium Hypochlorite 


All 180 200 180 210 200 NR NR 180 

Calcium Nitrate All 210 210 210 250 210 170 170 200 

Calcium Sulfate All 210 210 250 240 210 175 170 220 

Calcium Sulfi te All 180 180 180 200 190 --- --- 180 

Cane Sugar Liquor and Sweet 

Water 

All 180 180 180 180 180 175 110 180 

Capric Acid All 180 180 210 210 200 140 --- 180 

Caprylic Acid (Octanoic Acid) All 180 180 210 210 200 140 --- 140 

Carbon Dioxide Gas --- 210 200 300 300 300 210 210 250 

Carbon Disulfi de 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Carbon Monoxide Gas --- 210 200 300 300 300 210 210 160 

Carbon Tetrachloride 100 100 100 150 100 100 80 NR NR 

Carbowax 7 100 100 100 120 100 100 120 --- --- 

Carbowax 7 Polyethylene 

Glycols 

All 150 180 180 --- 180 --- --- 150 

Carboxy Methyl Cellulose All 150 160 150 160 160 --- --- --- 

Carboxy Ethyl Cellulose 10 150 160 180 180 180 --- --- 150 

Cashew Nut Oil All --- 200 --- 200 200 140 --- --- 

Castor Oil All 160 160 160 160 160 80 --- --- 

Chlorinated Pulp 


--- 180 180 180 200 200 --- --- 180 

Chlorinated Washer Hoods --- 180 180 180 200 180 NR NR 150 

Chlorinated Waxes All 180 180 180 180 180 150 150 150 

Chlorine (liquid) 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Chlorine Gas (wet or dry) --- 210 200 210 210 210 --- --- 200 

Chlorine Dioxide --- 160 160 160 160 160 NR NR 160 

Chlorine Water All 180 200 180 210 200 NR NR 200 

Chloroacetic Acid 25 180 200 120 210 210 80 NR 90 

Chloroacetic Acid 50 100 140 100 150 140 80 NR 80 

Chlorobenzene 100 NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Chloroform 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Chloropyridine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

30



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Chlorosulfonic Acid All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Chloroethylene 

(1,1,1-trichloroethylene) 

--- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Chlorotoluene 100 NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Chromic Acid 


Chromic Acid 


5 110 110 120 120 110 80 NR 200 

20 NR NR 110 100 NR NR NR 195 

Chromic:sulfuric acid 20:20 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 180 

Chromium Sulfate All 150 150 180 180 150 140 --- --- 

Chromous Sulfate All 180 140 180 180 160 140 140 150 

Citric Acid All 210 210 210 250 210 175 160 180 

Cobalt Chloride All 180 180 180 180 180 --- --- --- 

Cobalt Citrate All 180 180 180 --- 180 --- --- --- 

Cobalt Naphthenate All 150 150 150 150 150 --- --- --- 

Cobalt Nitrate 15 120 180 120 180 180 --- --- 120 

Cobalt Octoate All 150 150 150 150 150 --- --- --- 

Coconut Oil All 180 200 190 250 200 175 150 --- 

Copper Acetate All 210 180 180 250 180 170 170 --- 

Copper Chloride All 210 210 250 250 210 170 170 220 

Copper Cyanide All 210 210 210 250 210 140 130 200 

Copper Fluoride All 210 --- --- 210 --- NR NR 170 

Copper Nitrate All 210 210 210 250 210 170 170 140 

Copper Sulfate All 210 210 250 240 220 175 170 220 

Corn Oil All 200 200 190 200 200 175 170 175 

Corn Starch All 210 210 210 210 210 175 --- 200 

Corn Sugar All 210 210 210 210 210 175 --- 200 

Cottonseed Oil All 210 210 210 200 200 175 --- 175 

Cresol 10 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Cresylic Acid All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Crude Oil, Sour or Sweet 100 210 210 250 250 210 170 170 210 

Cyclohexane 100 120 NR 150 120 110 80 NR 140 

Cyclohexanone 100 NR NR 100 NR NR --- NR --- 

31


D 


% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Decanol 100 120 150 180 180 180 --- --- --- 

Dechlorinated Brine Storage All 180 --- 180 180 180 --- --- 180 

Deionized Water All 200 200 190 210 210 175 170 200 

Demineralized Water All 200 200 190 210 210 175 170 200 

Detergents, Organic 100 160 160 160 180 180 --- 100 100 

Detergents, Sulfonated All 200 200 190 210 210 120 120 200 

Diallylphthalate All 180 180 210 210 180 175 110 120 

Diammonium Phosphate 65 210 210 210 210 180 --- 120 --- 

Dibasic Acids 

(FGD Applications) 

30 180 180 180 180 180 180 170 180 

Dibromophenol --- NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Dibromopropanol All NR NR 100 NR NR NR NR NR 

Dibutyl Ether 100 100 100 150 110 110 80 NR 80 

Dibutyl Phthalate 100 180 180 190 200 180 175 150 80 

Dibutyl Sebacate All 200 200 190 210 210 --- --- --- 

Dichlorobenzene 100 NR NR 100 NR NR 80 NR NR 

Dichloroethane 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Dichloroethylene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Dichloromethane 

(Methylene Chloride) 


Dichloropropane 100 NR NR 100 NR NR NR NR --- 

Dichloropropene 100 NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR --- 

Dichloropropionic Acid 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Diesel Fuel All 180 180 210 210 180 175 140 175 

Diethanol Amine 100 80 110 110 110 110 NR NR 110 

Diethyl Amine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Diethyl Ether (Ethyl Ether) 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Diethyl Ketone 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Diethyl Formamide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Diethyl Maleate 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Di 2 Ethyl Hexyl Phosphate 20 --- 200 --- 210 210 --- --- 220 

Diethylenetriamine (DETA) 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Diethylene Glycol 100 200 200 190 250 210 175 170 100 

Diisobutyl Ketone 100 NR NR 100 NR NR NR NR NR 

32



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Diisobutyl Phthalate 100 120 150 150 180 180 --- --- 80 

Diisobutylene 100 NR NR 100 NR NR NR NR --- 

Diisopropanol Amine 100 110 110 120 100 100 --- --- --- 

Dimethyl Formamide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Dimethyl Phthalate 100 150 150 170 170 150 140 NR 80 

Dioctyl Phthalate 100 180 180 190 210 180 175 150 80 

Dioxane 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Diphenyl Ether 100 80 120 120 140 120 120 NR --- 

Dipiperazine Sulfate Solution All --- 100 --- --- 100 80 --- --- 

Dipropylene Glycol All 200 200 210 250 210 175 170 --- 

Distilled Water All 180 200 190 210 210 --- 170 200 

Divinyl Benzene 100 NR NR 100 NR NR NR NR NR 

Dodecyl Alcohol 100 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 150 

E 

Embalming Fluid All 110 110 110 110 110 NR NR 110 

Epichlorohydrin 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Epoxidized Soya Bean Oil All 150 200 150 200 200 --- --- 150 

Esters of Fatty Acids 100 180 180 180 210 180 --- 150 120 

Ethanol Amine 100 NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethyl Acetate 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethyl Acrylate 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol) 10 120 140 150 150 140 110 --- 110 

Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol) 50 100 100 120 120 120 100 --- 125 

Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol) 95-100 80 80 100 120 110 80 --- 80 

Ethyl Benzene 100 NR NR 100 NR 100 NR NR NR 

Ethyl Benzene / Benzene 

Blends 


Ethyl Bromide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethyl Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethyl Ether (Diethyl Ether) 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethylene Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethylene Chloroformate 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethylene Chlorohydrin 100 100 110 100 110 110 80 NR 200 

33



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Ethylene Diamine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethylene Dibromide All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethylene Dichloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Ethylene Glycol All 200 200 210 250 210 180 170 250 

Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl 100 100 100 100 100 100 NR --- NR 

Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic 

Acid 

100 100 110 100 110 110 NR NR --- 

Ethylene Oxide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Eucalyptus Oil 100 140 140 140 140 140 --- --- --- 

F 

Fatty Acids All 210 210 250 250 210 175 170 220 

Ferric Acetate All 180 180 180 180 180 140 --- --- 

Ferric Chloride All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Ferric Nitrate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Ferric Sulfate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 200 

Ferrous Chloride All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Ferrous Nitrate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 210 

Ferrous Sulfate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Fertilizer, 8,8,8 --- 120 110 120 120 110 --- 120 --- 

Fertilizer, URAN --- 120 110 120 120 110 --- 120 --- 

Flue Gases --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 

Fluoboric Acid 10 210 180 250 250 200 --- 150 --- 

Fluoride Salts & HCl 30:10 --- 120 120 --- --- --- --- --- 

Fluosilicic Acid 10 150 150 150 150 150 NR NR 180 

Fluosilicic Acid 35 100 100 100 100 100 NR NR 160 

Fluosilicic Acid Fumes 180 180 180 180 180 NR NR --- 

Fly Ash Slurry 


--- --- 180 --- --- 180 --- --- --- 

Formaldehyde All 150 110 150 150 150 NR NR 150 

Formic Acid 10 180 150 180 150 150 120 100 200 

Formic Acid 50 100 110 100 110 110 80 NR 100 

Freon 11 100 --- 110 100 NR 110 80 NR NR 

Fuel Oil 100 210 210 210 210 210 175 140 175 

Furfural 10 100 110 120 150 110 NR NR 80 

Furfural 50-100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 80 

34


G 


% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Gallic Acid Sat'd 100 100 100 100 100 --- --- --- 

Gasoline 


Premium Unleaded 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 

Regular Unleaded 100 80 --- 100 --- --- 110 --- 110 

Alcohol-Containing 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 

Gluconic Acid 50 160 160 160 160 160 100 100 140 

Glucose All 210 180 210 180 210 110 110 180 

Glutaric Acid 50 120 120 120 120 120 --- --- 200 

Glycerine 100 210 210 210 210 210 180 170 150 

Glycolic Acid 

(Hydroxyacetic Acid) 

Glycolic Acid 


Glycolic Acid 


10 180 --- 200 --- 200 --- --- 200 

35 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 

70 80 --- 100 100 --- --- --- 200 

Glyoxal 40 100 110 100 110 110 80 --- 200 

Green Liquor (pulp mill) --- 180 200 180 210 200 140 NR NR 

H 

Heptane 100 200 200 210 210 200 150 140 200 

Hexachlorocyclopentadiene 100 --- 110 110 110 110 80 NR 200 

Hexachoropentadiene 100 --- --- --- 110 --- 80 NR --- 

Hexamethylenetetramine 65 --- 110 120 --- 110 80 NR NR 

Hexane 100 150 140 150 150 140 80 --- --- 

Hydraulic Fluid 100 150 180 180 180 180 NR NR 150 

Hydrazine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Hydrobromic Acid 18 180 200 180 210 210 140 --- 200 

Hydrobromic Acid 48 150 160 150 170 160 80 80 200 

Hydrochloric Acid 


10 210 200 250 210 210 160 160 230 

Hydrocloric Acid 15 210 200 210 210 210 140 140 210 

Hydrocloric Acid 25 160 150 160 150 150 140 110 180 

Hydrocloric Acid 37 110 110 110 110 110 80 --- 100 

Hydrocloric Acid and Organics --- NR NR 140 NR NR NR NR NR 

Hydrocyanic Acid 10 180 200 180 210 210 140 80 200 

Hydrofluoric Acid 1 125 125 125 125 125 NR NR --- 

35



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Hydrofl uoric Acid 10 125 125 120 125 125 NR NR 80 

Hydrofl uoric Acid 20 100 100 100 100 100 NR NR 80 

Hydrofl uosilicic Acid 10 150 150 160 150 150 NR NR 180 

Hydrofl uosilicic Acid 35 100 100 100 100 100 NR NR 160 

Hydrogen Bromide, vapor All 180 --- 180 210 210 NR 140 140 

Hydrogen Chloride, dry gas 100 210 180 210 250 200 NR 150 250 

Hydrogen Fluoride, vapor All 150 150 150 180 180 NR 80 80 

Hydrogen Peroxide 

(storage) 

5 150 150 150 150 150 80 NR 210 

Hydrogen Peroxide 30 100 150 100 100 100 NR NR 105 

Hydrogen Sulfi de, gas All 210 200 210 240 210 140 140 250 

Hydroiodic Acid 10 150 --- 150 150 150 --- 80 --- 

Hypophosphorus Acid 50 120 --- 120 --- 120 --- --- 120 

I 

Iodine, Solid All 150 150 150 170 150 --- NR --- 

Isoamyl Alcohol 100 120 120 120 120 120 --- --- --- 

Isobutyl Alcohol All 120 125 120 125 125 120 --- --- 

Isodecanol All 120 150 180 180 180 140 --- 150 

Isononyl Alcohol 100 --- 125 140 125 125 --- --- 125 

Isooctyl Adipate 100 --- 180 150 --- 180 --- --- --- 

Isooctyl Alcohol 100 --- 100 140 150 150 --- --- --- 

Isopropyl Alcohol All 120 110 120 120 110 80 80 160 

Isopropyl Amine All 100 --- 120 120 --- --- --- --- 

Isopropyl Myristate All 200 200 190 210 210 --- --- --- 

Isopropyl Palmitate All 200 200 210 210 210 180 --- --- 

Itaconic Acid All 120 125 120 125 125 80 --- 95 

J 

Jet Fuel 

--- 180 180 180 210 180 140 140 175 

Jojoba Oil 100 180 180 180 180 180 --- --- 180 

K 

Kerosene 100 180 180 180 210 180 140 140 175 

36


L 


% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Lactic Acid All 210 200 210 250 210 140 130 200 

Latex All 120 150 120 150 150 120 --- 120 

Lauric Acid All 210 200 210 210 210 180 --- 180 

Lauryl Alcohol 100 150 160 180 180 180 --- --- --- 

Lauryl Mercaptan All --- 150 150 150 150 --- --- --- 

Lead Acetate All 210 200 250 250 210 140 110 160 

Lead Chloride All 200 200 250 210 210 140 --- 200 

Lead Nitrate All 210 200 250 250 210 --- 140 200 

Levulinic Acid All 210 200 250 210 210 140 --- 200 

Lime Slurry All 180 180 180 210 180 --- 160 NR 

Linseed Oil All 210 200 250 250 200 180 --- 203 

Lithium Bromide All 210 200 250 250 210 --- 170 --- 

Lithium Carbonate All --- --- 150 --- --- --- --- --- 

Lithuim Chloride All 210 200 210 250 210 180 170 --- 

Lithium Sulfate All 210 --- 210 210 210 --- --- --- 

M 

Magnesium Bicarbonate All 180 170 180 210 170 130 130 --- 

Magnesium Bisulfi te All 180 180 180 180 180 140 --- 180 

Magnesium Carbonate 15 180 180 180 210 180 130 130 180 

Magnesium Chloride All 210 200 250 250 210 140 140 220 

Magnesium Hydroxide All 210 200 210 210 210 --- --- NR 

Magnesium Nitrate All 210 --- 210 250 210 --- 170 --- 

Magnesium Sulfate 

All 210 200 250 210 210 175 150 200 

Magnesium Silica Fluoride 37.5 --- 140 140 140 140 --- --- 140 

Maleic Acid All 200 200 250 210 210 140 140 200 

Maleic Anhydride 100 200 200 210 210 210 140 140 --- 

Manganese Chloride All 210 200 210 250 210 --- --- --- 

Manganese Sulfate All 210 200 210 210 210 --- 150 150 

Mercuric Chloride All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 210 

Mercurous Chloride All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 210 

37



% 

CONCENTRATION 


DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 


Mercury --- 210 200 250 250 210 175 170 250 

Methyl Alcohol (Methanol) 100 80 80 95 110 110 80 80 125 

Methyl Bromide (Gas) 10 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Methyl Ethyl Ketone All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Methyl Isobutyl Ketone 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Methyl Methacrylate All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Methyl Styrene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Methyl Tertiarybutyl Ether 

(MTBE) 

All 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 

Methylene Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Milk and Milk Products Al l--- --- --- --- 100 100 --- 100 

Mineral Oils 100 210 200 250 250 210 175 170 80 

Molasses and Invert Molasses All --- 110 110 110 110 80 --- --- 

Molybdenum Disulfi de All 200 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 

Molybdic Acid 25 --- 150 150 150 150 140 --- --- 

Monochloroacetic Acid 80 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Monochlorobenzene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Monoethanolamine 

100 80 NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Monomethylhydrazine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Morpholine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 

Motor Oil 100 210 210 250 250 210 175 140 --- 

Mustard All --- --- --- --- 210 140 --- --- 

Myristic Acid All 210 210 210 210 210 80 --- --- 

N 

Naphtha, Aliphatic 100 180 150 190 180 150 130 110 200 

Naphtha, Aromatic 100 --- 110 120 --- 110 120 --- --- 

Naphthalene All 180 --- 210 250 200 --- 130 --- 

Nickel Choride All 210 200 210 250 210 140 140 220 

Nickel Nitrate All 210 200 210 250 210 --- 140 220 

Nickel Sulfate All 210 200 210 250 210 180 140 220 

Nicotinic Acid (Niacin) All --- 110 --- --- 110 80 --- 110 

Nitric Acid 


2 160 200 180 210 210 150 150 210 

Nitric Acid Fumes --- --- 180 --- --- 120 --- 200 

Nitrobezene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Nitrogen Tetroxide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

38


O 


% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Octylamine, Tertiary 100 --- 110 110 110 110 80 --- --- 

Oil, Sweet or Sour Crude 100 210 210 250 250 210 175 140 210 

Oleic Acid 

All 210 200 210 250 210 175 170 200 

Oleum (Fuming Sulfuric Acid) --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Olive Oil 100 210 200 250 250 200 175 170 --- 

Orange Oil (limonene) 100 210 200 160 180 200 175 170 --- 

Organic Detergents, pH5 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 100 

Phenol Formaldehyde Resin All 100 120 120 120 120 --- --- --- 

Phosphoric Acid 80 210 200 210 210 210 140 140 250 

Phosphoric Acid 

Vapor & Condensate 

--- 210 180 210 210 190 --- 170 210 

Phosphorous Trichloride --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Phthalic Acid 100 210 200 210 210 210 170 170 --- 

Phthalic Anhydride 100 210 200 210 210 210 170 170 200 

Picric Acid (Alcoholic) 10 --- 110 110 110 110 80 NR 100 

Pine Oil 

100 --- 150 --- 150 150 NR NR --- 

Pine Oil Disinfectant All --- 120 --- 120 120 120 NR --- 

Piperazine Monohydrochloride --- --- 110 --- 110 110 80 NR --- 

Plating Solutions 


--- 

Cadmium Cyanide 180 200 180 210 210 80 --- --- 

39



% 

CONCENTRATION 


DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 


Chrome --- 120 --- 120 130 --- 80 NR 200 

Gold --- 100 200 100 210 210 140 --- 200 

Lead --- 180 200 190 210 210 80 --- 200 

Nickel --- 180 200 180 210 210 140 --- 200 

Platinum --- 180 180 180 180 180 80 --- 200 

Silver --- 180 200 180 210 210 140 --- 200 

Tin Fluoborate --- 200 200 210 210 210 80 --- 200 

Zinc Fluoborate --- 180 200 180 210 210 80 --- 180 

Polyphosphoric Acid (115%) --- 210 200 210 210 210 140 140 180 

Polyvinyl Acetate Adhesive All --- 120 120 120 120 --- --- --- 

Polyvinyl Acetate Emulsion All 120 150 140 140 150 120 120 120 

Polyvinyl Alcohol All 120 150 120 150 150 80 80 80 

Potassium Aluminum Sulfate All 210 200 250 250 210 170 170 200 

Potassium Amyl Xanthate 5 --- 150 150 150 150 140 --- 150 

Potassium Bicarbonate 10 150 160 150 170 160 80 --- 80 

Potassium Bicarbonate 50 140 140 140 140 140 80 --- 80 

Potassium Bromide All 210 200 190 210 210 150 150 150 

Potassium Carbonate 10 150 150 150 180 150 180 80 110 

Potassium Carbonate 50 140 --- 140 140 110 NR --- 110 

Potassium Chloride 

All 210 200 210 250 210 175 170 220 

Potassium Dichromate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 200 

Potassium Ferricyanide All 210 200 210 250 250 140 130 200 

Potassium Ferrocyanide All 210 200 210 250 210 140 130 200 

Potassium Hydroxide 10 150 150 150 150 150 NR NR NR 

Potassium Hydroxide 25 110 110 110 140 140 NR NR NR 

Potassium Iodide All --- 150 150 150 150 140 --- --- 

Potassium Nitrate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 200 

Potassium Permanganate All 210 200 210 210 210 140 80 150 

Potassium Persulfate All 210 200 210 210 210 140 80 80 

Potassium Pyrophosphate 60 --- 150 150 150 150 --- --- 150 

Potassium Sulfate All 210 200 210 250 210 175 170 220 

Propionic Acid 20 200 --- 190 --- 200 --- --- --- 

Propionic Acid 50 180 180 180 180 180 --- --- --- 

Propylene Glycol All 210 200 210 220 210 175 170 180 

i-Propyl Palmitate All --- 200 210 210 210 175 --- --- 

Pyridine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

40


Q 


% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Quaternary Ammonium Salts All --- 150 150 150 150 120 --- 80 

R 

Radioactive Materials, solids 

(See Special Applications) 

--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 

Rayon Spin Bath --- --- 150 150 140 140 NR NR 180 

S 

Salicylic Acid All 140 150 160 150 150 140 --- 200 

Sea Water --- 210 210 210 210 210 --- 170 200 

Sebacic Acid All 210 --- 210 --- --- --- --- 200 

Selenious Acid All 210 180 210 180 180 140 --- 200 

Silicic Acid (hydrated silica) All 250 --- 200 250 --- --- 170 --- 

Silver Cyanide 

All 200 200 200 210 210 140 --- 200 

Silver Nitrate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Sodium Acetate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 200 

Sodium Alkyl Aryl Sulfonates All 180 200 180 210 210 80 --- 120 

Sodium Aluminate All 120 150 160 150 150 140 --- NR 

Sodium Benzoate All 180 180 180 180 180 170 170 180 

Sodium Bicarbonate All 180 180 180 210 180 100 100 140 

Sodium Bifluoride 100 120 120 120 --- --- --- --- 120 

Sodium Bisulfate All 210 200 210 250 210 175 170 200 

Sodium Bisulfite All 210 200 210 220 210 170 170 200 

Sodium Borate All 210 200 210 220 210 170 170 170 

Sodium Bromate 5 --- 110 110 110 110 --- --- 100 

Sodium Bromide All 210 200 200 210 210 170 170 200 

Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash) 10 180 180 180 180 180 80 NR 80 

Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash) 35 160 160 150 160 160 NR NR 80 

Sodium Chlorate 


All 210 200 210 210 210 NR NR 200 

Sodium Chloride All 210 200 210 250 210 180 130 250 

Sodium Chlorite 10 160 160 160 160 160 NR NR 175 

Sodium Chlorite 50 100 110 --- 110 110 --- NR --- 

Sodium Chromate 50 210 200 210 250 210 --- --- 180 

Sodium Cyanide 5 210 200 210 250 210 140 80 200 

Sodium Cyanide 15 --- 150 150 --- 150 80 --- 150 

41



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Sodium Dichromate All 210 200 210 250 210 --- 140 200 

Sodium Diphosphate 100 210 180 200 210 200 170 170 200 

Sodium Dodecyl 

Benzene Sulfonate 

All --- 200 --- 210 210 --- --- 120 

Sodium Ethyl Xanthate 5 --- 150 150 150 150 140 --- --- 

Sodium Ferricyanide All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Sodium Ferrocyanide 

All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 180 

Sodium Fluoride All 180 180 180 180 180 --- 80 180 

Sodium Fluorosilicate All 120 120 120 120 120 --- --- --- 

Sodium Hexametaphosphate 10 150 120 150 150 150 --- --- --- 

Sodium Hydrosulfi de 20 160 180 180 180 180 --- --- 160 

Sodium Hydroxide 


1 150 200 140 210 200 NR NR --- 

Sodium Hydroxide 5 150 150 140 160 150 NR NR --- 

Sodium Hydroxid 10/25 150 150 140 160 150 NR NR NR 

Sodium Hydroxide 50 200 200 180 210 210 NR NR NR 

Sodium Hypochlorite 15 125 125 125 125 125 NR NR --- 

Sodium Hyposulfi te 20 --- --- 180 210 200 --- 170 150 

Sodium Lauryl Sulfate All 180 160 180 200 160 --- --- 100 

Sodium Monophosphate All 210 200 210 210 200 --- 170 --- 

Sodium Nitrate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Sodium Nitrite All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 180 

Sodium Oxalate All 180 180 180 200 200 --- --- --- 

Sodium Persulfate 20 --- 120 --- --- 130 --- --- --- 

Sodium Polyacrylate All 150 150 150 150 150 140 --- 180 

Sodium Silicate, pH12 100 210 200 210 200 200 --- NR NR 

Sodium Sulfate All 210 200 210 250 210 180 170 80 

Sodium Sulfi de All 210 200 210 250 210 80 80 140 

Sodium Sulfi te All 210 200 210 250 210 80 80 220 

Sodium Tetraborate All 200 --- 170 210 170 170 170 170 

Sodium Tetrabromide All --- 160 180 180 180 --- --- --- 

Sodium Thiocyanate 57 180 --- 180 180 --- --- --- --- 

42



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Sodium Thiosulfate All 180 180 150 150 --- 140 140 --- 

Sodium Triphosphate All 210 180 200 210 210 140 120 125 

Sodium Xylene Sulfonate 

40 --- 200 210 --- 210 140 80 150 

Sorbitol All 180 180 180 200 180 175 170 --- 

Soybean Oil All 210 200 200 250 200 170 170 200 

Soy Sauce All --- --- --- --- 110 80 --- NR 

Spearmint Oil All --- 150 150 --- 150 80 --- --- 

Stannic Chloride All 210 200 200 250 200 170 170 80 

Stannous Chloride All 210 200 200 250 200 170 170 220 

Stearic Acid All 210 200 210 250 210 175 170 220 

Styrene 100 NR NR 80 NR NR NR NR NR 

Styrene Acrylic Emulsion All 120 120 120 120 120 --- --- 80 

Styrene Butadiene Latex All 120 120 120 120 120 --- --- 80 

Succinonitrile, Aqueous All 100 110 100 110 110 80 --- --- 

Sucrose All 210 190 210 210 210 --- 140 200 

Sulfamic Acid 10 210 200 210 210 210 --- 150 200 

Sulfamic Acid 25 150 150 150 150 150 --- 110 160 

Sulfanilic Acid All 210 180 210 180 180 80 --- 160 

Sulfite/Sulfate Liquors 

(pulp mill) 

--- 200 200 190 210 210 140 --- NR 

Sulfonated Animal Fats 100 --- 180 180 180 180 --- --- 180 

Sulfonyl Chloride, Aromatic --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 80 

Sulfur Dichloride --- NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR 

Sulfur Dioxide (dry or wet gas) 


5 210 200 200 210 220 170 140 250 

Sulfur, Molten --- --- 150 --- 250 200 --- --- 150 

Sulfur Trioxide Gas (dry) 


Sulfuric Acid 


Trace 210 200 200 250 210 NR NR 200 

0-25 210 200 210 250 200 175 170 250 

Sulfuric Acid 50 180 200 180 250 200 160 140 200 

Sulfuric Acid 70 180 190 180 180 190 100 NR 190 

Sulfuric Acid 75 120 110 120 120 110 NR NR 175 

Sulfuric Acid 80 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 150 

Sulfuric Acid 

Dry Fumes 210 200 200 250 200 175 170 200 

Sulfuric Acid/Ferrous Sulfate 10/Sat’d 200 200 200 210 200 --- --- 200 

43



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Sulfuric Acid/ Phosphoric Acid 10/20 180 180 180 180 180 --- --- 200 

Sulfuryl Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

SuperPhosphoric Acid 

(105% H 3 PO 4 ) 

T 

100 210 200 210 210 210 140 --- 180 

Tall Oil All 150 150 190 160 150 140 --- 200 

Tannic Acid All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Tartaric Acid All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 220 

Tert-Amylmethyl Ether (TAME) All 180 180 180 180 180 170 170 170 

Tetrachloroethane 100 NR NR NR NR NR --- NR 100 

Tetrachloropentane 100 NR NR NR NR NR --- NR NR 

Tetrachloropyridine --- NR NR NR NR NR --- NR NR 

Tetrapotassium Pyrophosphate 60 125 125 150 125 125 80 --- 80 

Tetrasodium Ethylenediamine 

Tetracetic Acid Salts 

All 140 120 150 --- 120 --- --- 80 

Tetrasodium Ethylenediamine --- 120 --- --- 120 120 80 --- --- 

Tetrasodium Pyrophosphate 5 --- 200 120 150 125 --- --- --- 

Tetrapotassium Pyrophosphate 60 125 125 140 150 125 80 80 --- 

Textone 7 --- 200 200 210 --- 210 140 --- --- 

Thioglycolic Acid 10 100 120 100 140 120 80 --- --- 

Thionyl Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Tobias Acid(2-Naphthylamine 

Sulfonic Acid) 

--- 210 180 200 --- 210 --- --- --- 

Toluene 100 NR NR 100 NR NR 80 NR 80 

Toluene Di-isocyanate (TDI) 100 NR NR NR NR NR 80 NR 150 

Toluene Diisocyanate Fumes 80 --- 80 --- --- --- --- 80 

Toluene Sulfonic Acid All 210 200 210 250 210 --- --- 100 

Transformer Oils 100 210 210 230 210 210 175 --- 175 

Tributyl Phosphate 100 --- 140 120 140 140 --- --- --- 

Trichloroacetaldehyde 


Trichloroacetic Acid 50 210 200 210 250 210 80 80 80 

Trichloroethane 100 --- NR 120 NR NR --- NR 80 

Trichlorophenol 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 

Tridecylbenzene All --- 200 --- --- 200 --- --- --- 

Tridecylbenzene Sulfonate All 210 200 210 210 210 140 --- 120 

Triehanolamine All --- 150 120 --- 150 120 110 --- 

Triethanolamine Lauryl Sulfate All --- 110 --- --- 110 80 --- --- 

Triethylamine All --- 125 120 --- 125 80 --- --- 

Triethylene Glycol 100 --- 180 180 --- 180 --- --- --- 

44



% 

CONCENTRATION 

DION ® 9100 

DION ® 9102 

FR 9300 



Trimethylamine Chlorobromide --- NR NR NR NR NR --- NR --- 

Trimethylamine Hydrochloride All 130 130 130 130 130 80 NR --- 

Triphenyl Phosphite All --- --- --- 100 --- NR NR --- 

Tripropylene Glycol 100 --- 180 --- --- 180 --- --- --- 

Trisodium Phosphate 50 175 175 180 175 175 140 120 --- 

Turpentine --- --- 150 150 150 150 80 NR --- 

U 

Uranium Extraction 


--- --- 180 --- --- 180 --- --- NR 

Urea All 150 150 150 170 150 80 120 160 

V 

Vegetable Oils All 210 200 180 250 210 --- 170 170 

Vinegar All 210 200 180 250 210 150 150 200 

Vinyl Acetate All NR NR 70 NR NR NR NR --- 

Vinyl Toluene 100 80 NR 100 NR NR NR NR --- 

W 

Water, Deionized 


All 180 200 200 210 210 175 170 --- 

Water, Distilled 


All 180 200 200 210 210 175 160 --- 

Water, Sea 

All 210 210 210 210 210 175 170 NR 

Whiskey All --- --- --- --- 110 80 --- --- 

White Liquor (pulp mill) 


All 180 180 --- 200 --- NR --- NR 

Wine 4 All --- --- --- 110 --- 80 80 --- 

X 

Xylene All NR NR 100 NR NR 80 NR 100 

Z 

Zeolite All --- 200 210 210 210 --- --- --- 

Zinc Chlorate All 210 200 210 210 210 --- 170 200 

Zinc Chloride All 210 200 210 210 210 170 170 220 

Zinc Cyanide All --- --- 160 180 180 --- --- --- 

Zinc Nitrate All 210 200 210 250 210 170 170 180 

Zinc Sulfate All 210 200 210 250 210 175 170 220 

Zinc Sulfite All 210 200 210 250 210 --- 170 --- 

45

Common Types of Metal Corrosion 

Fiber reinforced composites do not match the 

characteristically high elastic modulus and ductility of 

steel and other metals, yet they display lower density, 

this often translates to favorable strength/ weight ratio 

which, in turn, leads to favor in transportation and 

various industrial and architectural applications. 

Composites can present other advantages over 

steel, such as low thermal conductivity and good 

dielectric or electrical insulating properties. However, 

an overwhelming advantage to composites rests with 

corrosion resistance. 

When the cost and benefi ts of FRP and special resins 

are considered for particular environments, it is useful to 

understand the common mechanisms by which metals 

are oxidized or corroded. FRP is immune or otherwise 

quite resistive to many of these infl uences, at least 

within the range of practical limits of temperature and 

stress. 

Oxygen Cell-Galvanic Corrosion 

The most commonly observed instances of corrosion 

to carbon steel involve oxidation-reduction galvanic 

couplings in the presence of molecular oxygen and 

hydrogen ion associated with acids. 

Oxidation (anode) 

Fe – 2e - → Fe 2+ 

Reduction (cathode) 

O 2 + 2H 2 O + 4e - → 4OH - 

2H + + 2e - → H 2 

Most forms of steel corrosion relate to some variation 

of these mechanisms, as hereby the steel effectively 

functions as an anode and becomes oxidized. Dissolved 

salts and ionic components can accelerate this type 

of corrosion by increasing electrical conductivity. It 

can also occur in the presence of stray leaks of direct 

current, such as in the vicinity of mass transit systems. 

Galvanic corrosion of steel is accelerated in the vicinity 

of metals such as copper which are cathodic to steel. 

Due to impurities, as well as various metallurgical or 

geometric factors, steel substrates are not always 

uniform. There can be numerous microscopic anodecathode 

couplings along the surface or cross-sectional 

gradients of the steel, and each can effectively function 

as a galvanic oxidation cell. 

Apart from paints and other protective or dielectric 

coatings, various forms of cathodic protection are often 

employed with steel. For small structures, sacrifi cial 

anodes may be located near to the steel, so that 

these anodes corrode selectively, or preferentially, 

to the steel. Sacrifi cial anodes employ metals which 

are more electronegative than iron within the galvanic 

series. Examples include zinc, magnesium, or various 

aluminum alloys. For larger structures, such as tanks, 

impressed current methods are frequently used. This 

involves use of separate anodes and DC current to 

reverse or alter polarity, allowing the steel to function as 

a cathode rather than as an anode, which is where the 

oxidation occurs. 

Galvanic corrosion is exceptionally severe in wet 

acidic environments where free oxygen is present. 

Flue gas desulfurization is a good example of where 

the conditions strongly favor this type of corrosion. This 

is due to the presence of sulfuric acid in combination 

with oxygen associated with the excess air ordinarily 

employed in coal combustion. Polyesters and vinyl 

esters display excellent acid resistance and common 

galvanic corrosion mechanisms do not infl uence 

properly designed FRP. 

46


Passive Alloys and Chloride Induced Stress Corrosion 

To avoid galvanic corrosion to steel, it is common 

practice to employ stainless steel or other passive alloys. 

Stainless steel contains at least 10.5% chromium, which 

passivates the surface with a very thin chrome-oxide 

fi lm. This, in turn, serves to protect against acids and 

other inducers of galvanic corrosion. 

The most practical limitations occur in environments 

where this chrome-oxide fi lm can be broken down. Very 

typically this occurs in the presence of the chloride ion, 

particularly in the vicinity of areas such as welds, where 

tensile stress is present. Although the mechanism 

can be complex, the corrosion is accompanied by 

a distinctive destruction of grain boundaries, which 

characterize the morphology or metallurgical structure 

of the stainless steel. This is ordinarily manifested as 

pitting, crevice corrosion, or corrosion stress-cracking, 

which may proceed rapidly once initiated. Chlorides can 

often be present at exceptionally high levels, especially 

in applications such as fl ue desulfurization, where there 

is a net evaporation of water as well as leaching of 

coal ash. Thus, even though stainless steel will display 

quite good acid resistance, the corrosion can be severe 

due to chlorides. Chlorides tend to be quite prevalent 

in industrial environments, even in places where they 

might not be obvious, so it is always important to be 

wary in the use of stainless steels. Another corrosive 

limitation to stainless steel relates to oxygen depletion. 

Since the passivity of stainless steel depends on a thin 

protective chrome oxide fi lm, it is important to keep the 

surface in an oxidized state. The passive fi lm may no 

longer be preserved in certain reducing environments, 

or where the surface is insulated from oxygen by scale 

or other strongly adhering deposits. 

The class of stainless steel most commonly considered 

in corrosive environments is known as austenite, 

but the other types (martensetic and ferritic) are also 

common. Over the years, many grades have been 

developed to improve resistance to chloride and to 

afford better strength, heat resistance, and welding 

properties to minimize the effects of stress induced 

corrosion. Characteristically, increased nickel content 

alloys are favored for high chloride applications, such 

as type 317L stainless steel, Hastelloy, Inconel, or 

the various Haynes series alloys, such as C-276. Since 

these alloys are expensive, applications often involve 

cladding or thin “wallpapering” procedures. The use of 

these selections involves a great deal of welding, which 

must be done with a high degree of expertise, expense, 

and high level inspections with attention to detail, since 

welds are especially susceptible to stress corrosion. 

Sulfide Stress Cracking 

Somewhat akin to chloride-induced stress corrosion 

is sulfi de stress corrosion cracking. This is common 

in oilfi eld and other applications, such as geothermal 

energy recovery and waste treatment. Carbon steel as 

well as other alloys can react with hydrogen sulfi de (H 2 S), 

which is prevalent in sour oil, gas, and gas condensate 

deposits. Reaction products include sulfi des and atomic 

hydrogen which forms by a cathodic reaction and 

diffuses into the metal matrix. The hydrogen can also 

react with carbon in the steel to form methane, which 

leads to embrittlement and cracking of the metal. 

CO 2 Corrosion 

Carbon dioxide can be quite corrosive to steel (at times 

in excess of thousands of mils per year) due to the 

formation of weak carbonic acid as well as cathodic 

depolarization. This type of corrosion is especially 

devastating in oil and gas production and is apt to receive 

even more attention in the future due to increased 

use of CO 2 for enhanced oil recovery. Additionally, 

various underground sequestering processes are being 

inspired by concerns over global warming. Turbulence, 

or gas velocity, can be a big factor in the CO 2 induced 

corrosion of steel due to the formation and/ or removal 

of protective ion carbonate scale. On the other hand, 

FRP is not affected by these mechanisms of corrosion. 

Other Types of Stress Corrosion 

Sometimes internal stress corrosion-cracking of steels 

may occur unexpectedly due to mechanisms which 

are not yet completely understood. For example, there 

is some evidence this occurs with ethanol in high 

concentrations, especially around welds. Likewise, 

anhydrous methanol can be corrosive to aluminum as 

well as titanium. 

47


Hydrogen Embrittlement 

Atomic hydrogen can diffuse or become adsorbed into 

steel. It then reacts with carbon to form methane or 

microscopic gas formations which weaken and detract 

from ductility. Usually this happens at high temperature 

under conditions where FRP is ordinarily not considered. 

The same type of mechanism of attack is associated 

at lower temperatures with various forms of galvanic 

or stress induced corrosion. Quite often hydrogen 

embrittlement can be a problem for steel which has 

been electroplated or pickled, especially when done 

improperly or ineffi ciently. Some of these matters are 

receiving more attention due to future considerations of 

hydrogen in fuel cell and other energy applications. 

Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Microbially Induced 

Corrosion (MIC) 

Colonies of microorganisms, especially aerobic and 

anaerobic bacteria contribute greatly to corrosion of 

steel through a wide variety of galvanic and depositional 

mechanisms. Usually the corrosion is manifested in the 

form of pitting or sulfi de induced stress cracking. Perhaps 

the most signifi cant type of such corrosion involves 

sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), which metabolize 

sulfates to produce sulfuric acid or hydrogen sulfi de. 

Such bacteria are prolifi c in water (including seawater), 

mud, soil, sludge, and other organic matter. 

These bacteria are a major reason why underground 

steel storage tanks are corroded, and this has 

lead to widespread use of FRP as an alternative or 

as an external protective barrier to steel. Various 

manifestations of MIC are seen far-and wide, including 

industrial environments which inadvertently serve as 

warm or nutrient-rich cultures for biological growth. 

FRP is unaffected by many of the mechanisms 

associated with MIC. 

Apart from sulfate reducing bacteria, other forms of 

microbial corrosion which affect metals include acid 

producing bacteria, slime forming organisms, denitrifying 

bacteria which generate ammonia, and other corrosion 

associated with various species of algae and fungi. 

It is expected that biologically induced corrosion will 

receive increased attention as more applications and 

technologies evolve in the fi eld of energy production 

associated with biomass and renewable resources. 

Processing will include such things as aerobic and 

anaerobic digestion, fermentation, enzymatic hydrolysis 

and conversion of cellulose, lignin, or polysaccharides 

to sugars, which in turn may be converted to ethanol. 

Carbon and stainless steels are not the only metals 

affected by MIC. Also routinely corroded are copper and 

various alloys as well as concrete. The most common 

example of which involves sewage and waste treatment 

applications in the presence of the thiobacillus bacteria, 

which oxidizes H 2 S to sulfuric acid. FRP has a long 

history of successful use in these environments. 

48

Alternate Materials 

Thermoplastics 

There are numerous commercially available 

thermoplastics. In the context of most industrial 

corrosion resistant applications, the more common 

competitive encounters with vinyl ester or polyester 

composites involve the use of thermoplastics which 

are glass reinforced. Apart from specialized and costly 

so-called engineered plastics, most of these reinforced 

thermoplastics are polyolefi ns, such as isotactic 

polypropylene or polyethylene. These polymers tend to 

be high in molecular weight and display good resistance 

to solvents and many other chemical environments. 

A major disadvantage to thermoplastics involves 

restrictions to the size of equipment. Thermoplastics 

normally require extrusion, injection molding, blow 

molding, or other methods either impractical or 

prohibitively costly for some of the sizes commonly 

involved with lay-up or fi lament wound composites. 

However, fairly large diameter extruded plastic pipe 

(usually not reinforced) is commonly used. 

Often plasticizers are necessary, which in some cases 

can detract from chemical or thermal resistance, and 

furthermore may introduce extraction concerns in the 

fi nal application. Glass and other fi brous reinforcement 

can be diffi cult to wet-out or bind with thermoplastics. 

Special coupling agents are normally required. 

Longer fi bers improve physical properties, but extrusion 

and molding operating degrade longer fi bers. Thus, 

glass reinforced thermoplastics are limited to fairly 

short fi bers and cannot be employed with many of 

the directional or multi-compositional reinforcements 

common to the composites industry. 

Although reinforcement greatly improves heat distortion 

and thermal expansion properties, thermoplastic resins 

differ quite distinctly from thermosetting resins (such as 

crosslinked vinyl esters or polyesters). Thermoplastics 

display distinct glass transition temperatures and 

can melt or distort at elevated temperatures, so quite 

often they cannot be considered in high temperature 

applications. 

Another problem with thermoplastics relate to water 

absorption or permeation, which plagues even 

expensive and highly corrosion resistant plastics such 

as fl uoro-polymers. Due to water permeation, cracks or 

other damages with thermoplastics are diffi cult, if not 

impossible, to repair. 

Cracking of thermoplastics is common due to loss of 

ductility especially at low temperatures, and secondary 

bonding or painting can be a big problem. 

Some relatively large thermoplastic tanks are mass 

produced by roto-molding techniques. These can 

be made from thermoplastic powders by thermal 

rotational casting methods, to avoid sophisticated high 

pressure injection equipment. Most often, the polymer 

is a crosslinkable polyethylene. High temperature 

peroxide initiators are used to crosslink through vinyl 

unsaturation incorporated into the polymer. Most 

often, these tanks are used in municipal applications 

(such as for storage of hypochlorite) or for agricultural 

uses and liquid transport. Common problems involve 

cracking and diffi culties in repair. A variety of hybrids 

or combined technologies have evolved. Sheet stocks 

of specially reinforced thermoplastics can be bonded to 

FRP surfaces during manufacturing, to make so-called 

dual laminates. Various thermoplastic coatings are 

also quite common. At times, thermoplastic piping may 

be fi lament wound with a thermosetting composite to 

improve structural strength. 

Other Thermosetting Polymers 

Epoxy 

The composites described in this guide are focused on 

resins based on vinyl esters and polyesters. 

Although vinyl esters employ epoxies in their formulation, 

the epoxy (glycidal) functionality is extended and 

chemically modifi ed for vinyl curing, and should not 

be confused with direct use of epoxy resins. Both 

Bisphenol-A as well as novolac epoxies may be used 

directly in fi ber reinforced composites. They are cured 

on a two-component basis with aromatic or aliphatic 

amines, diamines, or polyamides. Most epoxy composite 

applications involve high glass content fi lament wound 

pipe used largely in oil recovery applications. Generally 

speaking, viscosities are higher, and glass wet-out and 

compatibility is always a concern. At times solvents 

or reactive diluents are used to reduce viscosity. 

Toughness is good, but thermal properties are inferior to 

those of premium vinyl esters and polyesters. A medium 

viscosity general purpose aliphatic amine cured epoxy 

heat distortion temperature can be typically only 155- 

160° F. Alkali and solvent resistance are generally good, 

but acid resistance can sometimes present limitations 

and is highly dependent on the curing system. Curing 

and hardness development can be another limitation, 

which may require heat activation and post-curing. 

49


Phenolic Resins 

Phenolic resins have been used for a long time. They 

are highly crosslinked resins based on reaction between 

phenol and formaldehyde. Advantages include very good 

heat resistance as well as low smoke generation due to 

ablative or carbonizing properties. The ratio of phenol to 

formaldehyde primarily determines the properties. Novolac 

resins are based on a defi ciency of formaldehyde and 

are supplied as solid powders typically used in reactive 

injection molding applications. They are then cured with 

hexa methylene tetramine, which provides a formaldehyde 

source. Resoles, on the other hand, are made with an 

excess of formaldehyde and are normally supplied as 

low viscosity liquids dissolved in water. They are normally 

cured by application of heat and catalysis by an acid. 

Composite applications employ the resole versions. A big 

disadvantage to resole resins is the out-gassing of water 

vapor which occurs during the cure. This leads to porosity 

and voids as well as odor problems during processing. 

These voids detract from composite properties including 

corrosion resistance. Glass wet-out is another problem. 

Quite often glass reinforcement commonly used in the 

composites industry is not compatible with phenolic resin. 

Since resoles are water soluble, corrosion resistance to 

water or aqueous based solutions can be very poor if the 

cure is not conducted properly. Care should also be taken 

to avoid contact of phenolic composites with carbon steel 

in the fi nal application. Over time, the acid catalyst can 

leach out and severely corrode the steel. 

Acid Resistant Brick and Refractories 

Both castable and mortar block chemically resistant 

refractories have been used extensively. A good example 

is in chimney construction, to withstand sulfuric acid 

dew point corrosion. Usually steel is used for structural 

support along with appropriate buckstays. Installation 

costs can be high. Castable products must be anchored 

to the steel structure by studs or Y-anchors. Refractories 

are not ductile and concerns involve thermal cycling and 

cracking. Block must be skillfully placed with proper acid 

resistant mortar. High weight is a factor as well as seismic 

considerations. The biggest problems involve operation 

of wet stacks in conjunction with fl ue gas desulfurization. 

Moisture leads to absorption and swelling, which may 

eventually induce leaning. It is also common practice with 

wet stacks to employ pressurized membranes to prevent 

condensation onto the cold external steel surface. This 

also can be expensive. 

Rubber and Elastomers 

Rubber often displays good chemical resistance, especially 

to sulfuric acid. It is sometimes used in FGD applications for 

lining of steel piping and process equipment. Rubber liners 

have also been used in various bleaching applications. 

Apart from corrosion resistance, rubber can offer good 

abrasion resistance. 

In the case of rubber linings, skilled and specialized 

installation is required, which tends to make them 

expensive. Many of the linings are diffi cult, if not impossible, 

to install around restrictive geometry. It is essential to 

obtain good bonding between the rubber and steel since 

any permeation or damage to the liner can cause the steel 

to quickly corrode. The low glass transition temperature 

of rubber restricts use to moderate temperatures. Some 

rubbers and elastomers can become embrittled if subjected 

to cyclic wet and dry conditions. Solvents present swelling 

problems, and water permeation can also be an important 

consideration. 

50


Concrete 

Without a doubt, concrete represents the world’s most 

extensively used material of construction. However, it is 

subject to direct corrosive attack as well as spalling, or 

cavitation. Good examples of corrosive attack involve 

acids, including even dilute acid associated with acid 

rain. Sulfates are also especially aggressive to concrete, 

which presents problems when used in the vicinity of 

FGD applications. Protection of concrete fl oors with a 

layer of FRP is common practice. Acid resistant grades 

of concrete have been developed, as well as so-called 

polymer concrete wherein resin is used to replace all, or 

a portion, of the Portland cement used in the concrete 

formulation. 

Almost all concrete is reinforced with steel mesh or 

rebar due to the low tensile strength of concrete. Upon 

cracking and permeation by acids or salt solutions the 

steel is attacked by galvanic corrosion. This then spalls 

and weakens the structure due to high tensile stress in 

the vicinity of the corroding steel. Dangerous situations 

sometimes exist with concrete used in infrastructure 

applications. Composite structures including composite 

rebar offer novel approaches. 

Another corrosion mechanism associated with concrete 

is carbonation. It occurs when carbon dioxide from the 

surrounding air reacts with calcium hydroxide contained 

in the concrete, to produce calcium carbonate. 

Because calcium carbonate is more acidic than the 

parent material, it effectively depassivates the alkaline 

environment of concrete. At pH levels below about 9.8, 

the concrete mass can reduce the passive fi lm which 

serves to protect the steel reinforcement. This type of 

attack is commonly observed with concrete hyperbolic 

cooling towers, where elevated temperature and high 

humidity promote the progression of a carbonation 

front. The same conditions promote diffusion inside 

of the hyperbolic tower. This can lead to corrosion 

of steel, especially around cracks or in the vicinity of 

joints associated with slip forms used in construction. 

Due to water conservation as well as scarcity of fresh 

water, greater use of evaporative cooling is leading to 

new designs in cooling towers. As a result, more scale 

formation along with higher salt concentrations favors 

composities which can be used more extensively as an 

alternative to concrete. 

51

Design and Production www.ElcaMedia.com 

For more information please contact our World Headquarters: 

Reichhold 

P.O. Box 13582 

Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 

(800) 431-1920 ext. 1 

Corrosion Hotline: (800) 752-0060 

Customer Service: (800) 448-3482 

www.Reichhold.com/corrosion 

Email: corrosion@reichhold.com 

The information herein is to help customers determine whether this product is suitable for their 

applications. Our products are intended for sale to industrial and commercial customers. We request 

that customers inspect and test our products before using them to satisfy themselves as to contents 

and suitability. 

We warrant that our products will meet our written specifi cations. Nothing herein shall constitute 

any other warranty express or implied, including any warranty of merchantability or fitness 

for a particular purpose, nor is protection from any law or patent to be inferred. All patent rights 

are reserved. The exclusive remedy for all proven claims is replacement of our materials, and in 

no event shall we be liable for special, incidental, or consequential damages. 

Reproduction of all or any part is prohibited except by permission of authorized Reichhold 

personnel. Copyright © 2009 by Reichhold, Inc. All rights reserved.

CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format ... - Reichhold

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