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H# Hypothesis Findings Supported? P-value 5 AIS-supported operators Partially will show decreased effort in using the system, compared to operators not using AIS 6a 6b 7a 7b 7c AIS-supported operators will report greater monitoring vigilance than operators not using AIS AIS-supported operators will report less fatigue than operators not using AIS AIS-supported operators will perceive greater decision support capabilities provided by the technology than operators not using AIS AIS-supported operators will perceive greater system benefits than operators not using AIS AIS-supported operators will report lower degrees of distraction provided by the technology than operators not using AIS Survey analysis shows that AIS significantly increases physical effort in all subjects. - Masters report greater physical effort required. - Mates report lower mental effort required. TLX workload analysis shows significantly reduced workload for each subject type. - Overall results indicate that using AIS improves monitoring vigilance. - TMS Operators report significantly improved monitoring vigilance. - Overall results indicate that using AIS does not reduce fatigue level. - Masters report greater fatigue using AIS. Overall results significantly indicate that subjects perceive AIS to provide greater decision support capabilities. Overall results indicate that subjects do not perceive any significant system benefit by using the AIS. Overall results indicate that AIS does not provide lower degree of distraction than the traditional bridge equipment. Yes No Yes No No Survey Overall p=0.014 Masters p= 0.023 Mates p= 0.052 TLX Masters p= 0.208 Mates p= 0.371 TMS Operators p= 0.773 Overall p=0.049 TMS Operators p= 0.047 Overall p= 0.340 Masters p=0.058 Overall p=0.038 Overall p=0.712 Overall p=0.169 14
AIS was also found to significantly improve monitoring vigilance for all operators, and for traffic management system (TMS) operators in particular. Finally, AIS was perceived by operators to offer significant decision support capabilities, particularly in terms of better and more efficient decision making, in planning the voyage, in situation monitoring, and in reduced mental workload. Each of these benefits can contribute to improved operator performance. AIS impacts varied significantly by subject type, suggesting that AIS technology impacted operators in different ways. Understanding these differences is important for regulators, managers, operators, and those interested in understanding technology impacts in safety-critical systems. For instance, TMS operators found that AIS significantly improved their threat avoidance ability, significantly reduced their workload, and significantly improved their monitoring vigilance. TMS operators are responsible for monitoring traffic in the channel as well as monitoring the status of each vessel in the vicinity. Improvement in TMS threat avoidance, monitoring and workload capabilities are thus important technology impacts. Mates also reported significantly improved voyage plan monitoring, and significantly reduced workload and mental effort when using the AIS. Thus, for operators with similar cognitive tasks, Grabowski and Sanborn (2001), AIS users reported similar benefits. The same could not be said for operators with more strategic cognitive task responsibilities; i.e., vessel masters. Masters using AIS reported significantly more physical effort required, as well as greater fatigue. Thus, the overall AIS benefits of improved voyage plan monitoring, improved monitoring vigilance, and improved decision support came at the expense of increased workload and effort for masters, but decreased workload for mates and TMS operators. These findings are consistent with earlier findings that identified differential technology impact on vessel operators with different cognitive task requirements, Grabowski and Sanborn (2001). The findings provide important insights with respect to technology impacts in safety-critical systems. However, caution is advised with the use of these findings. First, the overall number of subjects (48) is low, which limits the statistical strength of these findings. Follow-on work is required to increase the number of subjects in the study in order to strengthen the statistical validity of the results. In addition, the number of masters, mates and TMS operators is low, suggesting that more of these types of subjects are required in follow-on work in order to strengthen the validity of the by-subject analyses. Finally, no ship’s pilots were involved in this first phase of AIS impact research. Follow-on studies to study pilot impressions of AIS technology impacts are an important next step. It is worth noting that this evaluation is an early post-implementation study, conducted immediately after the introduction of the AIS technology on the Seaway. It is anticipated that results from a later implementation study of the AIS technology might differ significantly from these early postimplementation results. This research provides findings from first movers in technology adoption in a large-scale system. It remains for future work to investigate the generalizability of first mover findings over the long term. Follow-on surveys for later post-AIS technology impact evaluation are required in order to develop steady state, mature technology insertion findings. Finally, these results reflect a relatively homogenous subject pool of well-educated, highly experienced, middle-aged English-speaking males who were very familiar with the technology under study. Results with a less homogenous subject pool—with less well educated, less experienced, more international, less technology-familiar and of varying ages—may provide interesting results and comparisons. The generalizability of the current findings across demographic, social, cultural and technology attributes can be established with such cross-comparisons, the topic of future work. The results of this preliminary assessment suggest that technology contributions and costs can differ widely among operators in the same safety-critical system. Managers, researchers, regulators and operators should therefore consider overall costs and benefits, as well as technology impacts on different types of operators, when deploying new technology in a safety-critical system. 15
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