COMPIT 2005 in Hamburg - TUHH

ecause of the technology per se but also because of the way the technology is implemented in
practice. Problems of false alarms from automated alerting systems, automated systems that provide
inadequate feedback to the human operator, Norman (1990), and automation that fails “silently”
without salient indications, fall into this category. Sometimes these problems can be alleviated by
more effective operator training, but not always.
Problems can also arise from unanticipated interactions between technology, human operators, and
other systems in the environment. These can be problems inherent to the technology, as well as to the
technology’s behavior in a larger, more complex system, Tenner (1996). This can be seen in
integrated ship’s bridge systems, where system performance can be determined by the interaction of
multiple sensors, systems, people, and technologies, Grabowski and Roberts (1996), Grabowski and
Sanborn (2001).
The benefits of new technology in marine transportation can include cost savings, more precise
navigation and vessel control, fuel efficiency, all-weather operations, elimination of some error types,
and reduced operator workload during certain phases of the voyage. For instance, some of the benefits
of today’s bridge and navigation systems include improved awareness of hazardous conditions, the
ability to detect risk of collision, elimination of some routine actions that allow the operator to
concentrate on other tasks, and, on some waterways, a reduction in unnecessary verbal
communications on congested voice traffic frequencies.
However, the benefits of new automation and technology in marine transportation are not guaranteed.
In some cases, the economic arguments that initially stimulate investment are clearly reinforced by the
financial return on that investment. On the other hand, technology benefits can also be overcome by
disadvantages or cost. For instance, bridge automation can reduce operator workload during some
voyage phases, but can increase workload in other phases of the voyage, perhaps during arrival or
departure, particularly if the operator is unfamiliar with the technology, Grabowski and Sanborn
(2001). As a result, the anticipated workload reduction benefit of the technology may not be realized.
Thus, there are promises and pitfalls to the introduction of new technology. We can expect that some
of these phenomena will be evident in new technology systems, and we can expect that new promises
and pitfalls will arise as new systems are introduced. We now explore the impact of the introduction
of one such technology, automated identification systems (AIS).
New Technology Introduction: Automated Identification Systems
Automated Identification Systems (AIS), a communications protocol being developed under the aegis
of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), was initially implemented aboard vessels around
the world in 2003. This technology is designed to automatically provide vessel position and other data
to other vessels and shore stations and to facilitate the communication of vessel traffic management
and navigational safety data from designated shore stations to vessels. The onboard "AIS unit"
(which consists of a VHF-FM transceiver, an assembly unit, and a communications transceiver) continuously
and automatically broadcasts identification, location, and other vessel voyage data, and receives
messages from other ships and shore stations, National Research Council (2003).
Many benefits of AIS have been projected. For ship owners, AIS is projected to reduce transit times,
with accompanying lower fuel consumption, improving fleet management. Since arrival times will be
accurately known, better scheduling of passages through locks, minimizing delays, is possible, as pilots,
inspectors, and other shore-based personnel can be dispatched when needed. AIS is also projected
to enhance safety by transmitting precise environmental information to vessels and by transmitting
real-time ship-to-ship communications of course and location of each equipped vessel. AIS is
also projected to enhance traffic management by continuously monitoring vessel location and speed in
all weather conditions, permitting timely pilot dispatching, timely ship inspections, better speed control,
better scheduling of lockages and vessel tie-ups, and faster response times to accidents and/or incidents,
particularly when hazardous cargoes are involved.
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