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MILLENNIUM SHOWDOWN FOR PUBLIC INTEREST LAW 13 ment for racially subjugated people in the United States. Both interests benefited from the energy and experience of their respective constituents and could continue to do so. A brief history of each interest's beginning is essential to identifying dysfunction or perversion that inhibits productive collaboration and achievement. An overview of the first legal aid organizations initiates this phase of the inquiry. Three groups are prominent in this discussion. Pro bono representation of indigents began in 1876. 90 A German American committee of lawyers, Deutscher Rechts-Schuts Verein, organized to provide legal services to recent German immigrants. 91 The committee represented immigrants against employers and merchants who attempted to exploit the limited knowledge and experience of new immigrants in negotiating terms of employment and purchasing goods and services.92 The committee also conducted educational sessions for the new immigrants. 93 These sessions addressed legal issues and a variety of topics that would support rapid assimilation into American life. 94 Because limited knowledge of English often contributed to the legal difficulties plaguing new immigrants, the committee also assisted immigrants with educational access and language c1asses. 95 Committee members provided these services knowing that the success or failure of the new immigrants would affect the community of established German Americans. 96 In short, successful new immigrant transition into the community was in the German American community's best interest. 97 The committee became the New York Legal Aid Society.98 Its members provided free legal services "to those of German birth, who may appear worthy thereof, but who from poverty are unable to procure it. ,,99 Similar societies evolved in other states. 1OO In Chicago around 1886, the Agency for Women and Children formed, and in 1888 Chicagoans established the Bureau of Justice. As anti-German sentiment mushroomed in response to the approaching First World 90 Michelle S. Jacobs, Full Legal Representation for the Poor: The Clash Between <strong>Law</strong>yer Values and Client Worthiness, 44 How. L. J. 257, 286 (2001). 91 [d. 92 [d. 93 [d. 94 [d. 95 Jacobs, supra note 90. 96 [d.; see also Foner, supra note 13. The experience of Black Americans during the same period in history was quite different. W.E.B. Dubois and other black leaders associated with the establishment of the N.A.A.C.P. advocated unsuccessfully for full implementation of the reconstruction constitution. The potential economic opportunity that civil rights advocates struggled to acquire for Blacks was sabotaged by closed unions and other limitation on employment during World War I. Blacks continued to be outsiders in their own country. 97 Jacobs, supra note 90, at 286. 98 [d. at 286-87. 99 [d. at 287. 100 [d.
14 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE DISTRICf OF COLUMBIA LAW REVIEW War, German lawyers in New York relinquished oversight of that legal aid society. New leadership revised eligibility standards to include all people and limited the society's work to individual representation. lot The second group evolved under different circumstances. In a 1917, a pacifist, convinced that America's entry into World War I was immoral, started a Bureau for Conscientious Objectors (the Bureau) in the American Union Against Militarism. I02 As a consequence of internal conflict, the Bureau became an independent organization later known as the National Civil Liberties Bureau. I03 The deeply held commitment to protect the rights of people to speak out against war from one's conscience inspired the creation of the Bureau. Negative public opinion could not extinguish those inspired to build the organization. 104 Baldwin embraced a vision for a better society and through the establishment of an advocacy organization and the organizing mission was broad enough to command the efforts of others to bring that vision to pass. I05 In later years the Bureau became the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU).106 The third group focused on the concerns of a racial minority. Descendants of slaves organized for equally compelling reasons early in the twentieth century. A growing concern over the brutality facing American Blacks resulted in the establishment of the National Negro Committee. 107 This multiracial group, concerned about advancing the civil rights of African Americans, became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.108 The NAACP organized protests, published public statements, and provided legal representation in high profile criminal and civil cases.109 Twenty years later the NAACP received funding from the American Fund for public service. IIO These funds were utilized to broaden the litigation reach of the organization. 1 1 I In 1939 the litigation arm of the NAACP, the Legal Defense and Educational Fund (LDF), became a separate organization. 112 In conjunction with the NAACP, 101 Washburn, supra note 36. 102 David R. Esquivel, Note, The Identity Crisis in Public Interest <strong>Law</strong>, 46 DUKE L. J. 327, 336 (1996); see also Our Roots, available at http://www.naacp.orglpasCfuture/naacptimeline.shtml. 103 Id. 104 Id. 105 Id. 106 Id. 107 Foner, supra note 13. W.E.B. Dubois and a group of lawyers sought to enforce the promise of reconstruction. World War I held the promise of economic improvement and the opportunity for service against a common enemy. The international posture of the country would focus attention on the incongruity of a domestic reluctance to support self determination for Americans of any color. See Our Roots, available at http:/www.naacp.orglpasCfuture/naacptimeline.shtmI. 108 Esquivel, supra note 1 at 338. 109 Id. 110 Id. 111 Id. 112 Esquivel, supra note 1 at 340.
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