Sample Chapter - United Nations University

6 Yoshinobu Yamamoto
(1) Relationships between nations
To oversimplify a bit, relationships between nations can be thought of
along the following axis. First, there is the case in which each nation acts
independently. This includes both situations in which there is little interaction
(interdependence) and situations in which there is interdependence,
but it is of a zero-sum nature in which national interests are at odds
with each other (thus, there is no possibility of cooperation). Then there
is the case in which nations cooperate with other nations to further their
own interests. This cooperation can be ad hoc short-term cooperation (a
“coalition of the willing”) that solves a specific issue by combining individual
resources and then ends. However, there is also cooperation that
extends over a long period of time, addressing a variety of problems.
Frameworks that undertake long-term cooperation decrease transaction
costs and are convenient for information collection. This type of cooperation
can be referred to as a regularized forum (or network).
Furthermore, ongoing cooperation can be institutionalized to varying
degrees; that is, rules and norms are spelled out and then used to try to
solve problems or maintain stability by regulating the actions of members.
This is what is generally referred to as an international regime (Krasner,
1983). There are also international regimes in which international organizations
are created and nations delegate some of their functions in order
to fulfil the goal of the regime. 1 Such organizations might execute the
functions of the regime within the scope of the authority delegated to
them (for example, data collection and monitoring of rule compliance).
Others, such as courts, might be given stand-alone functions.
There can also be international organizations that, with respect to specific
problems, use decision rules such as majority voting and perform
activities that go above and beyond individual nations (supranational organizations).
If such a supranational organization were to then expand
into more areas (in particular, areas such as diplomacy and military matters),
it could become a single state.
The progression described here is depicted in Figures 1.1 and 1.2 (Figure
1.2 is just a simplified version of Figure 1.1).
Figures 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate a variety of different forms of relationship
between nations. Figure 1.1 details the mechanisms and forms of institutionalization.
The left-hand side of Figure 1.1 shows the types of choices
and the right-hand side shows the outcomes of each choice. For example,
if nations choose continued cooperation, a regularized forum will result.
Figure 1.2 shows a simplification, focusing on the levels of institutionalization
(the decision outcomes on the right-hand side in Figure 1.1). 2
Figures 1.1 and 1.2 can be applied to both global and regional levels.
Generally, these different forms of relationship between nations exhibit a
variety of distributions in time and space.