10 07 29 Master thesis Juliana Leon - e-Waste. This guide

Abstract 

In Colombia, as in other developing countries, the lack of an e-waste management 

system combined with the actual economic and social situation has led to the 

development of an informal sector, making a living out of the e-waste. The purpose of 

this study is to estimate the computer flows during the end-of-life phase, considering 

the specific Colombian context. First, an e-waste generation calculation was carried 

out, providing necessary input data as well as computer waste predictions until 2020. 

The evolution of the waste flow composition shows some profound changes for the 

next decade: CRT-monitors, more and more replaced by newer LCD-monitors, will 

almost disappear from the waste stream by the year 2020; and more and more 

computers will actually be laptops, thus reducing the weight per unit ratio of the 

computer waste mix. Second, an assessment of the processes carried out in the 

informal sector was completed based on a field survey conducted in the five largest 

urban areas of Colombia: Bogotá, Medellín, Barranquilla, Cali and Bucaramanga. A 

material flow analysis was carried out in order to estimate the flows in both the 

informal and formal sectors for three different scenarios: “best case”, “base” and 

“worst case”, according to the amount of e-waste calculated to be generated and the 

processes observed during the field survey. In 2009, the informal sector contributed, 

via the waste pickers – the recicladores – to the collection of 2,100 to 5,100 tons of 

computer waste; whereas informal dismantling was estimated to range from 42% to 

66% of the total generated computer waste. The model also shows that high 

amounts of potentially leaded CRT glass, plastics containing brominated flame 

retardants, and lower-grade printed wiring boards end up dumped or landfilled. 

Therefore, alternatives for the inclusion of the informal sector by economic 

intervention or formalization schemes were discussed. 

I

Abbreviations 

ANR 

ARB 

ARF 

BFR 

CCIT 

CENARE 

CIM 

CNPMLTA 

COP 

CPE 

CPU 

CRT 

DANE 

EC 

EMPA 

EPR 

HDI 

ICT 

IDC 

IDI 

IS 

IT 

ITU 

LAC 

LCD 

MAVDT 

MFA 

MLBs 

MSEs 

MSW 

NGO 

PC 

PRO 

PVC 

PWB 

UNDP 

UNEP 

USD 

VAT 

VCR 

WEEE 

Asociación Nacional de Recicladores (National Association of Waste Pickers) 

Asociación de Recicladores de Bogotá (Bogotá’s Association of Waste Pickers) 

Advanced Recycling Fee 

Brominated Flame Retardants 

Camara Colombiana de Informatica y Telecomunicaciones (Colombian ICT Chamber) 

Centro Nacional de Reciclaje de CPE (Recycling facility for PCs discarded by CPE) 

Centro de Investigación de Mercados 

Centro Nacional de Producción Más Limpia (Colombian Cleaner Production Centre) 

Colombian Pesos 

Computadores para Educar (Computers for Schools refurbishment programme) 

Central Processing Unit 

Cathode Ray Tube 

Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (National Statistics Department) 

European Community 

Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Testing and Research 

Extended Producer Responsibility 

Human Development Index 

Information and Communication Technology 

International Data Corporation 

ICT Development Index 

Informal Sector 

Information Technology 

International Telecommunication Union 

Latin America and Caribbean 

Liquid Cristal Display 

Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial (Ministry of Environment, 

Housing and Planning) 

Material Flow Analysis 

Medium and Large Businesses 

Micro and Small Enterprises 

Municipal Solid Waste 

Non Governmental Organization 

Personal Computer 

Producers Responsibility Organization 

Polyvinyl Chloride 

Printed Wiring Board 

United Nations Development Programme 

United Nations Environmental Programme 

US Dollars 

Value Added Tax 

Video Cassette Recorder 

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment 

II

Glossary 

Chatarrerías – A term used in Colombia to designate businesses that work as scrap 

metal dealers. They mainly buy ferrous scrap, steel, copper and aluminum from 

industries and recicladores. They produce an added value by sorting the different 

quality of metals and by accumulating bigger quantities before selling them to refiners 

and recyclers. 

Dismantling – Process aiming to recover components and materials from electrical 

and electronic equipments. 

E-waste – Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment 

Recicladores – A term used in Colombia to designate those workers involved in 

salvaging recyclable materials and reusable goods from mixed solid waste. Other 

names found in literature are “scrap collectors”, “waste pickers”, “rag pickers” or 

“scavengers”. 

Refurbishment – Renovation and restoration of a computer; it can include cleaning 

and technical maintenance and allows re-use of the computer. 

Reuse – Any use of the equipment or its components within the same function for 

which it was originally designed. Reuse also means that a device has more than one 

“life” and more than one user. 

III

Table of Contents 

1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................1 

1.1 Problem description ................................................................................................. 1 

1.2 Colombia as case study ........................................................................................... 2 

1.2.1 ICT use and penetration in Colombia .......................................................................... 3 

1.2.2 E-waste landscape in Colombia .................................................................................. 4 

1.3 Informal sector in the e-waste management.......................................................... 5 

1.4 Inclusion of informal sector in e-waste management ........................................... 6 

1.5 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 7 

2 METHODS...........................................................................................8 

2.1 Computer waste generation..................................................................................... 8 

2.1.1 The Market supply method .......................................................................................... 8 

2.1.2 The Market Supply Method adapted to informal economies ....................................... 8 

2.1.3 Data collection and assumptions ................................................................................. 9 

2.1.4 Distribution by consumer type ................................................................................... 11 

2.2 Field survey ............................................................................................................. 12 

2.3 Material Flow Analysis ........................................................................................... 13 

2.3.1 Definitions .................................................................................................................. 14 

2.3.2 System definition ....................................................................................................... 14 

2.3.3 Goods and Materials.................................................................................................. 15 

2.3.5 Mathematical description ........................................................................................... 16 

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..........................................................19 

3.1 Computer waste generation................................................................................... 19 

3.2 Current disposal options ....................................................................................... 21 

3.2.1 Formal e-waste processors ....................................................................................... 21 

3.2.2 Auctions ..................................................................................................................... 22 

3.2.3 Donation to social refurbishment ............................................................................... 23 

3.2.4 Disposal habits .......................................................................................................... 23 

3.2.4.1 Category 1: Households, Micro and small companies..............................................23 

3.2.4.2 Category 2: Medium and Large Business (MLBs) ....................................................24 

3.2.4.3 Category 3: Government and Education ..................................................................24 

3.3 Operation of the informal sector in Colombian main cities................................ 25 

3.3.1 Informal collection...................................................................................................... 25 

IV

3.3.2 Informal refurbishment and reparation....................................................................... 27 

3.3.3 Informal dismantling and material trading.................................................................. 29 

3.3.4 Informal metal extraction ........................................................................................... 31 


3.4.1 Definition of the system ............................................................................................. 32 

3.4.2 Model scenarios......................................................................................................... 33 

3.4.3 Assessment of total computer waste flows................................................................ 34 

3.4.4 Assessment of CRT glass flows ................................................................................ 37 

3.4.5 Assessment of PWBs flows ....................................................................................... 40 

3.4.6 Assessment of plastic flows....................................................................................... 42 

3.4.7 Other unwanted processes........................................................................................ 45 

3.5 Including the IS into a future formal e-waste management system................... 45 

3.5.1 Diversion of IS collected flows into a formal management system............................ 46 

3.5.1.1 Economical aspects..................................................................................................47 

3.5.1.2 Environmental benefits .............................................................................................49 

3.5.1.3 Social benefits ..........................................................................................................50 

3.5.2 Disassembly in waste cooperatives and municipal recycling centres........................ 50 

3.5.2.1 Economical aspects..................................................................................................51 

3.5.2.2 Environmental benefits .............................................................................................52 

3.5.2.3 Social benefits ..........................................................................................................52 

3.5.3 Promote formalization of informal businesses ........................................................... 52 

3.5.4 Exclusion of the informal sector................................................................................. 53 

4 FINAL REMARKS.............................................................................54 

4.1 Computer waste generation................................................................................... 54 

4.2 Field survey ............................................................................................................. 55 


5 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................57 

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................60 

7 REFERENCES..................................................................................61 

8 APPENDIXES ...................................................................................65 

V

List of Figures 

Figure 1: Map of topography and location of Colombian major cities __________________________2 

Figure 2: Internet use rate in 2009_____________________________________________________4 

Figure 3: Historical sales and projected sales of new computer equipments in Colombia _________10 

Figure 4: Percentage of PCs sold in Colombia by sector___________________________________11 

Figure 5: Lifecycle of an electronic device with emphasis on the end-of-life phase. ______________15 

Figure 6: Composition of the annual computer waste generated in Colombia (in units).___________19 

Figure 7: Composition of the annual computer waste generated in Colombia (in weight). _________20 

Figure 8: Average composition of computer waste in number of devices and weight percentages for 

the years 2010 and 2020. __________________________________________________________20 

Figure 9: Engines used for informal collection. Bogotá and Barranquilla (2009). ________________26 

Figure 10: Impressions of Medellín’s “Plaza Minorista” ____________________________________27 

Figure 11: Distribution of flows within the “Commercial refurbishment sub-system” ______________29 

Figure 12: Manual dismantling of computers is often done next to IT repair shops or on the streets._30 

Figure 13: Destinations of materials obtained after dismantling of computer waste ______________30 

Figure 14: Schematic representation of the MFA system and boundary as defined in this study.____33 

Figure 15: Material flows of total computer waste ________________________________________35 

Figure 16: Treatment of computer waste in the three model scenarios, Colombia 2009. __________36 

Figure 17: Analysis of collection pathways for computer waste in Colombia____________________37 

Figure 18: Final destination of computer waste formal and informally treated in Colombia in 2009. __37 

Figure 19: CRT-monitor abandoned in the "parque Simón Bolivar", after removal of the copper yoke 38 

Figure 20: Material flow of computer CRT glass within the formal and informal sector in Colombia __39 

Figure 21: Generated quantities and destination of monitors’ CRT glass in Colombia in 2009. _____40 

Figure 22: Material flows of computer PWBs within the formal and informal sector in Colombia ____41 

Figure 23: Generated quantities and final destination of PWBs according to the three scenarios. ___42 

Figure 24: Material flows of plastics from computer waste _________________________________43 

Figure 25: Total generation and final destination of plastics from computer waste. ______________44 

Figure 26: Schematic flows in a future system including the IS in the collection step. ____________47 

Figure 27: Schematic representations of flows in a future system with the inclusion of waste 

cooperatives in the disassembly step. _________________________________________________51 

VI

List of Tables 

Table 1: General information and economic indicators about Colombia.________________________3 

Table 2: ICT indicators for Colombia in year 2008. ________________________________________3 

Table 3: Parameters for the supply market method adapted to developing countries used in this study9 

Table 4: Parameters used for the computers sales projections. _____________________________10 

Table 5: Average lifespan of the devices used in this study. ________________________________11 

Table 6: Summary of interviews realized by CNPMLTA team and the author___________________13 

Table 7: Average composition of CPU, Laptop, CRT-monitor and LCD-monitor used in this study. __16 

Table 8: Data spreadsheet for an MFA with n flows and p materials. _________________________17 

Table 9: Computer waste generation in Colombia in 2009 according to lower, middle, and higher 

scenarios _______________________________________________________________________21 

Table 10: Formal companies who received computer waste in 2009 _________________________22 

Table 11: Final destination of CPUs and monitors collected from users in Bogotá’s pilot project ___28 

Table 12: Classification, possible origins and buying price of PWBs according to CI Metal Comercio 31 

Table 13: Parameters used for the MFA scenarios _______________________________________34 

Table 14: Characterization of plastic content and BFR content in CRT-monitors, LCD-monitors, CPUs 

and laptops _____________________________________________________________________44 

Table 15: Theoretical benefit from a CRT-monitor in the IS in Colombia_______________________48 

Table 16: Calculations of the cost for the diversion of CRT-monitors from informal to formal sector. _49 

List of Appendixes 

Appendix A.1: Summary of field visites.................................................................................................65 

Appendix A.2: List of expert interviews .................................................................................................66 

Appendix A.3: List of telephone interviews ...........................................................................................67 

Appendix B.1: Flow scheme for the “Best case” scenario ....................................................................68 

Appendix B.2: Flow scheme for the “Worst case” scenario ..................................................................68 

Appendix C.1: Flow Matrix for the “Best case” scenario .......................................................................69 

Appendix C.2: Flow Matrix for the “Base” scenario...............................................................................70 

Appendix C.3: Flow Matrix for the “Worst case” scenario.....................................................................71 

VII

1 INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Problem description 

According to the European Directive 2002/96/EC, waste electrical and electronic 

equipment (WEEE) or e-waste can be divided into ten categories, comprising “IT and 

telecommunications equipments” (EC, 2002b). Computer waste, the central topic of 

this thesis, is included in this category. 

With the worldwide increase of information and communication technology (ICT) use, 

e-waste has become one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world (Widmer 

et al., 2005). E-waste has become an issue in developing countries and particularly 

in Latin America due to the rapid urbanization, allowing for a high ICT penetration, 

combined with a lack of regulated end-of-life management systems for computers 

and other electronic devices (Boeni et al., 2008). 

E-waste is considered an emerging environmental issue because it contains very 

harmful and toxic components such as heavy metals and brominated flame 

retardants (EC, 2002a; Sepulveda et al., 2010). However, e-waste appears also to be 

a business opportunity because more than 60% consists of metals such as iron, 

copper, aluminium, and gold that can be recycled, whereas the fraction with toxic 

components represents approximately 2.7% (Widmer et al., 2005). 

Studies have demonstrated that in countries such as China and India the recycling of 

this waste stream is performed mostly by the informal sector (IS) using artisanal 

practices (Streicher-Porte et al., 2005; Rochat et al., 2007; Hicks et al., 2005). These 

artisanal practices not only are very inefficient from a resource conservation point of 

view (Keller, 2006), but also represent high health risks due to the workers’ exposure 

to hazardous substances (e.g. lead, arsenic or cadmium). Additionally, these 

practices have a negative environmental impact as a result of inappropriate disposal 

of hazardous materials (e.g. cathode ray tubes lead glass), as well as emissions in 

air, water and soils (Sepulveda et al., 2010). 

1

1.2 Colombia as case study 

The Republic of Colombia is the fourth-largest and second-most populated country in 

South America with 45.5 millions inhabitants. Bogotá, the capital and largest city, 

contains close to 9 million people. Figure 1 shows the locations of the five most 

important agglomerations in the country. 

Barranquilla 

Figure 1: Map of topography and location of Colombian major cities (Source: 

ochaonline.un.org). These five agglomerations concentrate 40% of inhabitants (DANE, 2005) 

and more than 90% of computers (Ott, 2008). 

Table 1 presents some general and economic indicators about the country. Colombia 

is a lower-middle-income country, placed on 110 th position according to its Gross 

Domestic Product based on purchasing-power-poverty (GDP ppp) per capita for 

2009 (CIA Factbook, 2010). The industrial sector contributes about 38.2% to the 

GDP, while agriculture and services contribute about 9.1% and 52.8% respectively. 

2

The country was ranked 77 according to its Human Development Index (HDI) 1 for 

2007 (UNDP, 2009). According to the Gini index, Colombia has the 9 th most 

inequitable family income distribution in the world (UNDP, 2009). 

Table 1: General information and economic indicators about Colombia. 

Surface 1'038'700 km 2 

Total Population 45.5 millions (July 2010) 

Annual population growth 1.4% 

Urban population 74 % 

GDP (ppp) US $ 401 billion (2009) 

Population below poverty line 46.8% (2008) 

HDI 0.807 (Sweden: 0.971, Niger: 0.34) 

Gini Index 58.5 (Sweden: 23, Namibia: 70.7) 

Source: CIA Factbook 

1.2.1 ICT use and penetration in Colombia 

Table 2 shows some ICT indicators for the country. Colombia was ranked 63 

according to its ICT Development Index (IDI) of 2008, gaining 6 positions compared 

to 2007 (ITU, 2010). The IDI is made up of 11 indicators covering ICT access, use, 

and skills. 

Table 2: ICT indicators for Colombia in year 2008. 

IDI 2008 (ITU, 2010) 3.65 (Sweden: 7.85 and Chad: 0.79) 

Households with computer 22.8% 

Households with colour TV 88.5% 

Households with mobile phone 83.8% 

People that uses computer 46.4% 

Source: DANE 2009 

Colombia is facing a rapid increase in computers sales today. In 2006, the 

Colombian government decided a VAT exemption for desktop and laptop computers 

costing less than 82 UVT 2 , aiming to incentivize the internal PC demand and, thus, to 

contribute to an increase of the national productivity and competitiveness. This 

incentive, combined with the political and economic situations of the country, 

generates big advances in the “IT investment per-capita” and “PC penetration rate” 

indicators (CCIT, 2009). Between 2006 and 2008, the number of computers sold 

1 The Human Development Index (HDI) takes into account the life expectancy, the education 

enrolment and literacy rate and the quality of life through GDP. 

2 UVT: Unidad de valor tributario. 82 UVT are equivalent to approximately US$ 897 in 2007 and US$ 

943 in 2008. 

3

(both laptop and desktop) in Colombia has increased by 211% from 596,418 in 2006 

to 1,257,462 in 2008 (CCIT, 2009). In Colombia, 45.3% of the population use the 

internet, which is far more than the worldwide mean of 26.6% (Figure 2). 

60% 

Internet use rate 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

Figure 2: Internet use rate in 2009 (Data from Internet World Stats, 2009) 

1.2.2 E-waste landscape in Colombia 

The Colombian Ministry of Environment, Housing and Planning (MAVDT) started to 

study the national e-waste situation in 2004. In 2006, different stakeholders were 

invited to take part in thematic workshops in order to find solutions. As a result, the 

mobile phone and lighting industries have signed voluntary agreements in order to 

implement take-back campaigns. As negotiations to sign an agreement with the 

computer sector failed, the MAVDT aspires to increase the pressure on the industry 

with a specific regulation for computers and peripherals 3 that has already passed by 

public consultation and should come into force soon. 

Since the beginning of 2007, research has been carried out in collaboration with the 

Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA) and its local 

partner the Cleaner Production Centre (CNPMLTA), resulting in two national e-waste 

3 Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial. Proyecto de Resolución “por la cual se 

establecen obligaciones para la recolección y gestión ambiental de residuos de computadores y 

periféricos y se adoptan otras disposiciones”. Can be downloaded at: http://raee.org.co/foro/proyectode-resolución-4138-gestión 

(Last accessed: 15.06.2010) 

4

assessments: the first focuses on computers and mobile phones (Ott, 2008), the 

second on electronic home appliances (Blaser, 2009). In addition to the compilation 

of a substantial quantity of information, the computer and mobile phone assessment 

states that between 1998 and 2007 Colombia generated approximately 45,000 tons 

of computer waste, including 6,000 to 9,000 tons of computers that reached their 

end-of-life during 2007. 

1.3 Informal sector in the e-waste management 

In many developing countries, informal networks of “scrap collectors”, who collect the 

recyclables materials for revenue, are playing an important role in the solid waste 

management (UNEP, 2008). Traditionally, these workers called recicladores or 

recuperadores in Colombia, also known as “waste pickers” or “scavengers”, perform 

collection, sorting, and trade of materials such as paper, glass, metals, and plastics, 

contributing to the reuse of thousands of tons of resources and the prolongation of 

lifespan of landfills. 

According to the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2002) the term “informal 

economy” refers to “all economic activities by workers or economic units that are – in 

law or practice – not covered by formal arrangements.” In the case of scrap 

collectors, they can be independent workers or be organized into cooperatives. In 

Colombia, the UNEP (2008) estimates that 100 scrap cooperatives collect about 

300,000 tons of waste each year. 

Studies in some developing countries such as China (Hicks et al., 2005), India 

(Streicher-Porte et al., 2005; Rochat et al., 2008), and Chile (Wolfensberger, 2009) 

have shown that e-waste is often handled by the IS due to its content of precious and 

non-precious metals. 

In Colombia, e-waste recycling has also been proven to be an important source of 

jobs and income for the IS composed of recicladores, intermediaries, and dealers 

that operate in streets, small workshops, and in their own houses (Uribe et al., 2010). 

The processes carried out by the different actors in the chain have been investigated 

in the four major Colombian cities: Bogotá, Medellín, Cali, and Barranquilla (Uribe et 

al., 2009; Uribe et al., 2010). Informal and semi-formal stakeholders appear in the 

5

collection, refurbishment, manual dismantling, and recycling processes, mainly 

recovering and taking profit of metals contained in e-waste that finally are 

transformed into secondary resources for the production chains, while simply 

dumping the non-profitable and often hazardous components. 

1.4 Inclusion of informal sector in e-waste management 

The inclusion of the informal sector (IS) in municipal solid waste management 

systems has been broadly studied (Wilson et al., 2006; Gerold, 2009; GTZ, 2010). 

The development of the IS organizations with the support of municipalities and the 

consideration of IS in planning and policy formulation appear to be successful factors 

for the integration process (Gerold, 2009). Participation of NGO’s in the integration 

process and collaboration with the private formal sector are also key factors for the 

integration (GTZ, 2010). 

Studies about the inclusion of the informal e-waste sector in India focus on the 

country’s major problem: the use of toxic chemicals to recover metals such as gold, 

silver, and copper from Printed Wiring Boards (PWBs) by wet chemical leaching 

processes (Rochat et al., 2008). These artisanal practices cause a direct impact on 

the environment and workers’ health, and their inefficiency compared to industrial 

refining processes has been demonstrated (Keller, 2006). Based on that, alternate 

business models were proposed according to which workers from the informal sector 

have to change their habits and instead of collecting e-waste and conditioning it for 

the recovery of gold, they prepare the optimal fractions for shipping to an integrated 

smelter in Belgium (Rochat et al., 2008). 

The application of economic instruments to channel scrap circuit boards from 

informal to formal recycling has also been presented by Williams et al. (2010) who 

proposes that an interface organization could play a key role by purchasing circuit 

boards from informal dismantlers and selling them to advanced metal refineries. 

Based on field investigations in Chile, Wolfensberger (2010) has proposed an 

inclusion model with three possible levels of participation for the actual informal (and 

future formalized) sector. Levels of inclusion depend on the step of the end-of-life 

process where the inclusion is done. Level 1 proposes to integrate individual waste 

6

pickers for the e-waste collection. Level 2 and 3 propose to include groups or 

associations of waste collectors, which carry out refurbishment and disassembly 

steps respectively. 

1.5 Research Questions 

The aim of the present study is to assess the actual e-waste flows that are handled 

by the IS in Colombia using Material Flow Analysis, as well as to analyse the 

sustainability of different strategies for the inclusion of the IS into a future formal e- 

waste management system. 

We can formulate the following as the first research question: 

A. What are the actual e-waste flows handled by the informal sector in 

Colombia 

In order to study and design an e-waste management system for this country, it is 

necessary to understand and assess the current e-waste flows on a national basis. It 

is also important to determine which are the flows or processes to be avoided in the 

future for a sustainable e-waste management system 

Based on the material flow assessment, the following question has been 

investigated in order to attain the objective of the study: 

B. How can the current informal e-waste recycling activities in 

Colombia be integrated into a future formal recycling system in a 

sustainable manner 

Therefore, possible alternatives to integrate the IS in the collection and disassembly 

steps were identified and analysed. Economics aspects of these alternatives, as well 

as social and environmental impacts or benefits were discussed. 

7

2 METHODS 

2.1 Computer waste generation 

The existing data about computer waste (PC waste) generation in Colombia – 

needed as starting point for modelling the further processes after use by consumers 

– is neither abundant nor precise. We know from a previous study that for the year 

2009, PC waste generation in Colombia ranged from 6,600 to 12,200 tons (Ott, 

2008). These values correspond to the grand total for computers and peripherals 

without device distinction. 

2.1.1 The Market supply method 

In the present study, a simple method for estimating the PC waste generation is 

employed, differentiating four categories of computer equipment: Central Processing 

Units (CPU), laptops, Cathode Ray Tube monitors (CRT-monitors) and Liquid Crystal 

Displays (LCD-monitors). Calculations are based on the “Market Supply Method” that 

approximates the number of WEEE of each category produced in the year t , using 

historical sales figures and the average lifespan ( ls) of the considered device 

(Rochat et al., 2009). 

€ 

WEEE generation(t) = Sales(t € − ls) (1) 

The WEEE potential by weight is then calculated by multiplying the number of WEEE 

produced for € each device by its average weight. The average weights used for the 

calculations are those reported in Table 7 as total weights. 

2.1.2 The Market Supply Method adapted to informal economies 

Three scenarios of PC waste generation were taken into consideration. Equation 1 is 

used to calculate the lower scenario. The middle and higher scenarios are calculated 

by including in the main Market Supply Method equation an “Informal Sector 

Coefficient” (ISC) and a “Re-circulated Waste Coefficient” (RWC) (Equation 2). 

8

The ISC allows the boost of sales figures in an attempt to take into account the 

informal market in developing countries that involves activities such as illegal import, 

local assembly of non-branded products, and electronic equipments bought abroad 

by travellers (Equation 3). For a completely formal market, the ISC is equal to 1, and 

for a country where informal sales amount to the number of formal sales, the ISC is 

equal to 2. The RWC is integrated in an effort to take into account repair and 

refurbishment activities that feed a low-cost second-hand market by adding the 

additional waste generated by these activities (Equation 4). If the average lifespan for 

the second-hand devices is called ls 2 H 

, then, the RWC would be the percentage of 

the WEEE generated and re-entering the market in the year 

accounted for as waste in the year t . 

€ 

! 

WEEE generation DC 

(t) = ISC " Sales(t # ls) + RWC € " Sales(t # ls # ls 2 H 

) 

€ 

ISC = f (illegal import, non branded, travellers equipments...) 

! 

The parameters used for the model calculations are shown in Table 3. 

t − ls 2 H 

that is again 

Table 3: Parameters for the market supply method adapted to developing countries used in 

this study for the three different computer waste generation scenarios. 

Parameter Description 

PC waste generation scenarios 

Lower Middle Upper 

ISC Increase of sales data due to informal sales 1 1.2 1.4 

RWC 

! 

RWC = f (Waste from 2nd hand PCs) 

Second-hand PCs sold at the year 

t − ls 2 H 0% 15% 30% 

ls 2 H 

Second-hand equipment lifespan - 4 4 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

€ 

2.1.3 Data collection and assumptions 

€ 

Historical market data for desktop and laptop PCs was obtained from publications 

citing IDC Colombia (Ott, 2008 and CCIT, 2009). As information for sales of CRTand 

LCD-monitors was not available, it was assumed that with every CPU there was 

one monitoƒr (CRT or LCD) sold, and that the fraction of LCD-/CRT-monitors sold 

each year was the same as in Chile (Steubing, 2007). According to this, Figure 3 

shows the historical and projected sales for the “Middle” scenario. Projections of 

market evolution were made according to Table 4. 

9

Table 4: Parameters used for the computers sales projections in the three scenarios. 

Sales growth rate (%) 

Laptops/total PC sold 

Lower scenario Middle scenario Upper scenario All scenarios 

2009 10 20 25 55% 

2010 10 15 20 57% 

2011-2015 5 10 15 60% 

According to IDC data, the percentage of laptops over total PCs sold was 35% in 

2007 and 45% in 2008. Thus, this percentage is assumed to be 55% in 2009, 57% in 

2010, and 60% from 2011 on, as it was applied in the Chilean case following current 

trends (Steubing et al., 2010). 

Figure 3: Historical sales and projected sales of new computer equipments in Colombia. 

Historical sales are data from IDC Colombia and projected sales are according to the middle 

scenario. 

Average lifespan of desktop PCs (here taken as a CPU with CRT-monitor) and 

laptops including the use and storage period are available from a survey done in 

2008 by the “Centro de Investigación de Mercados” (CIM, 2008). According to this 

survey, in average, public and private institutions use desktops and laptops during 4 

years and then store them for 3 more years. Households have the same behaviour 

10

ut store laptops for 5 years in average. The lifespan of a LCD-monitor is assumed to 

be the same as for a laptop. Table 5 presents the average lifespan ( ls) used for the 

calculation of computer waste generation in this study. 

! 

Table 5: Average lifespan of the devices used in this study for the calculation of the three 

computer waste generation scenarios, differentiated between type of user. 

Households & MSEs 

Public and private institutions 

Lower Middle Upper Lower Middle Upper 

scenario scenario scenario scenario scenario scenario 

CPU 7* 6 5 7* 6 5 

Laptop 9* 8 7 7* 6 5 

CRT-monitor 7* 6 5 7* 6 5 

LCD-monitor 9 8 7 7 6 5 

*Data from CIM survey. Middle and Upper scenarios are adaptations from the author. 

2.1.4 Distribution by consumer type 

Assuming similarities in the behaviour of different users with respect to e-waste, 

computer consumers were classified into three categories. The first category 

comprises households and micro and small enterprises (MSEs), the second category 

includes medium and large businesses (MLBs), and the third category consists of 

public and educational institutions. Figure 4 shows the distribution of computers sold 

in Colombia into these three categories according to IDC Colombia data. 

100% 

90% 

80% 

70% 

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

2001 2002 2003 2004 

Government/Education 13.1% 13.8% 15.6% 17.6% 

Medium/Large Business 29.1% 29.2% 23.0% 30.1% 

Households/MSEs 57.8% 57.0% 61.4% 52.3% 

Figure 4: Percentage of PCs sold in Colombia by sector, adapted from (Ott, 2008) 

Based on the preceding figures, in the present study the assumption that the average 

distribution in sales from the years 2001-2004 is found in computer waste in 2009 is 

11

made. This means that from the total of computers that are discarded as e-waste in 

2009, 57% are coming from households and MSEs (category 1), 28% from MLBs 

(category 2), and 15% from the government and education sectors (category 3). 

2.2 Field survey 

Data used for chapters 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 is based on information that CNPMLTA 4 and 

EMPA have been gathering since the beginning of the Colombian e-waste project in 

2007 and particularly on field studies conducted in 2009 in Colombia’s four main 

cities Bogotá, Medellín, Cali, and Barranquilla (Uribe et al., 2009; Uribe et al., 2010; 

and unpublished field reports). All the data was complemented by literature research, 

interviews, and field visits carried out by the author from February 2010 to May 2010. 

The information gathered corresponds to what is happening in the five most 

important cities that are Bogotá, Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla and Bucaramanga. 

These five urban areas concentrate 40% of the Colombian population (DANE, 2005) 

and more than 90% of the Colombian computers (Ott, 2008). 

Information was collected through observations and semi-structured interviews 

carried out during the field visits and complemented with telephone interviews. The 

number of personal and telephone interviews on which this study is based are 

consigned in Table 6. A summary of the field visits, personal expert interviews and 

telephone interviews made by the author is available on Appendix A. 

4 The Centro Nacional de Producción mas limpia y tecnologías ambientales (CNPMLTA) is the local 

agency charged of the implementation of the “Swiss e-waste programme” in Colombia. 

12

Table 6: Summary of personal and telephone interviews in which this study is based, sorted by 

type of stakeholder and city. Interviews were realized by the CNPMLTA team and the author 

during 2009 and 2010. 

Stakeholder 

City 

Middlemen/ scrap metal dealers 

(with or without dismantling) 

Commercial refurbishment, 

technical service, supplies seller 

Formal e-waste recycling 

companies 

Bogotá Medellín Cali Barranquilla Bucaramanga Total 

7 4 7 14 7 39 

9 3 5 7 5 29 

7 3 3 3 0 12* 

Recicladores 3 2 1 4 3 13 

Recyclers cooperatives, 

associations, foundations 

Municipal solid waste and 

transport companies 

Other (public institution, auction 

organizer, consulting firm) 

3 3 4 2 2 14 

3 1 3 1 1 9 

6 3 2 1 3 13* 

Interviews made by the author 6 (15%) 5 (26%) 1 (4%) 0 (0%) 22 (100%) 34 (25%) 

* Companies present in more than one city are counted only once. 

Approach and questions asked depended on the type of actor. For example, with 

middlemen, scrap metal dealers, refurbishers and recicladores the goal was to 

understand (a) the functioning of the value chain, (b) who is selling and who is 

buying, (c) which processes are being realized for recycling of computer parts or 

material, and (d) the treatment or place for disposal of the non valuable parts. In 

addition to the mentioned targets, the formal e-waste recyclers were also asked 

about quantities, capacities, and details of their technical processes. 

2.3 Material Flow Analysis 

The Material Flow Analysis (MFA) is a common method to analyse the flow of a 

material or good in a defined system. Because of the mass conservation law, the 

results of an MFA can be verified by a simple material balance comparing all inputs, 

stocks, and outputs of a process. MFA has already been used for the assessment 

and modelling of e-waste quantities in developing countries such as Chile (Steubing 

et al., 2010), South Africa (Zumbuehl, 2006), and India (Streicher-Porte et al., 2005) 

– the last study with a special emphasis on the IS. 

13

2.3.1 Definitions 

The following important terms for a MFA are defined according to the “Practical 

Handbook of Material Flow Analysis” by Brunner and Rechberger (2004) 

Material 

The term material includes substances and goods. Substances are defined as the 

elemental components of which a thing consists, whereas goods are entities of 

matter made up of one or several substances. 

Process 

A process is defined as the transformation, transport, or storage of materials. 

Processes are symbolized as rectangular boxes while a smaller box within a 

“process” box symbolizes the “stock” of a process. 

Flow 

A flow or mass flow rate is defined as the rate of mass per time from a specific 

material that flows between a “process of origin” and a “process of destination”. The 

physical unit of a flow may, thus, be given in units of tons/year or kg/day. 

Transfer coefficient 

When a process has multiple outputs, transfer coefficients describe the partitioning of 

a material into different flows. 

2.3.2 System definition 

The lifecycle of an electronic device can be divided into the production, use, and endof-life 

phases. The system that will be analysed in this thesis focuses on the 

processes carried out in the end-of-life phase (Figure 5). 

14

Figure 5: Lifecycle of an electronic device with emphasis on the end-of-life phase. 

Although the aim is to analyse the e-waste treatment in Colombia, this study limits its 

investigations to computers only as a tracer item for the different types of e-waste 

that could be encountered. Computers were chosen due to the greater data 

availability in this sector and also because they represent a challenging item to 

recycle, as they are composed of a multitude of different components, some of them 

toxic and/or valuable. Furthermore, because of their valuable materials and parts, 

computers seem to appear more recurrently in the informal sector than other types of 

e-waste. 

The system studied includes the whole computer waste treatment chain in Colombia 

beginning when users discard computers and ending with the final disposal or 

recycling of the different constitutive elements. The reference year for the MFA is 

2009. 

2.3.3 Goods and Materials 

In this study, materials are differentiated in two levels. Goods (or level one materials) 

are CPUs, laptops, CRT-monitors, and LCD-monitors. These goods are broken down 

into level two materials not only ferrous metals, plastics, and copper, but also PWBs, 

CRT glass, and LCD screen modules. The compositions of each good regarding 

level two materials are shown in Table 7. 

15

Table 7: Average composition and weight of CPU, Laptop, CRT-monitor and LCD-monitor used 

in this study. 

Material Level 1 → CPU (1) Laptop (2) CRT-monitor (3) LCD-monitor (4) 

↓ Material Level 2 kg/CPU (%) kg/laptop (%) kg/CRT (%) kg/LCD (%) 

Ferrous metals 6.700 67.00% 0.554 18.47% 1.250 10.42% - - 

Aluminium 0.380 3.80% 0.168 5.60% 0.200 1.67% 0.550 11.00% 

Copper 0.120 1.20% 0.014 0.47% 0.500 4.17% 0.010 0.20% 

Brass 0.020 0.20% - - - - - - 

Metals (non defined) - - 0.560 18.67% - - - - 

PWBs 1.320 13.20% 0.410 13.67% 1.200 10.00% 0.220 4.40% 

Plastics 0.810 8.10% 0.420 14.00% 2.400 20.00% 1.900 38.00% 

CRT - - - - 6.450 53.75% - - 

Screen - - 0.600 20.00% - - 2.320 46.40% 

Batteries, capacitors 0.080 0.80% 0.274 9.13% - - - - 

Other waste 0.220 2.20% - - - - - - 

Copper (from wires) 0.220 2.20% - - - - - - 

Plastic (from wires) 0.130 1.30% - - - - - - 

Total weight (kg) 10.000 3.000 12.000 5.000 

(1) Adapted from Gmünder (2007), Ministerio de Comunicaciones et al. (2008) and Laffely (2007) 

(2) Adapted from Ecoinvent data v2.01 found in Wolfensberger (2010) 

(3) Adapted from Marthaler (2008), Laffely (2007) and Ministerio de Comunicaciones et al. (2008) 

(4) Adapted from Ecoinvent data v2.01 found in Wolfensberger (2010) 

2.3.5 Mathematical description 

Let the number of flows in the system be n, the number of goods be q and the 

number of materials be p. According to the mass balance principle, the mass of all 

inputs entering a process equals the mass of all outputs of this process plus a 

storage term that takes into account accumulation or depletion of materials in the 

process. This principle is valid for total flows (Equation 5) as well as for individual 

material flows (Equation 6). 

∑ 

n I 

F ˙ 

input 

= 

∑ F ˙ 

output 

+ F ˙ 

storage 

(5) 

n O 

€ 

∑ 

n I 

m ˙ input 

= 

∑ m ˙ output 

+ m ˙ storage 

(6) 

n O 

As expressed in Equation 7, the aggregated flow for a material ( M ˙ ) is composed by 

the sum of material € flows in each good ( m ˙ ). 

q 

€ 

M ˙ 

k 

ij 

= ∑ m ˙ ij (7) 

k =1 

€ 

€ 

16

where: 

i=1,…,n as the index for flows 

j=1,…,p as the index for materials 

k=1,…,q as the index for goods 

We can then sum the different aggregated material flows to obtain the total flow 

rates. 

p 

F ˙ 

i 

= ∑ M ˙ 

ij 

(8) 

j =1 

Table 8 shows how data is managed during the course of the MFA in order to 

consider for € each flow the different materials resulting from each good. A tool 

including a dynamic spreadsheet was implemented using Microsoft Excel ® that has 

also been used as modelling software. The m ˙ -matrix has to be filled for each good, 

in this case for CPUs, laptops, CRT- and LCD-monitors. Although it is possible to 

calculate the flows of these goods ( G ˙ ) for the generation, use, and collection phases, 

! 

it does not make sense to do it for the recycling or disposal phases as entire goods 

do not physically exist any € more and their forming materials are dispersed in a 

different manner in the system processes. 

Table 8: Data spreadsheet for an MFA with n flows and p materials. The 

filled for each good. 

˙ m 

matrix has to be 

€ 

€ 

€ 

€ 

€ 

Total 

flow rate 

(tons/year) 

˙ F 1 

˙ F 2 

˙ 

€ 

 

€ 

˙ 

€ 

F 3 

F n 

€ 

€ 

€ 

Material flow rate from good G k 

k 

m ˙ 11 

j 

m ˙ 21 

k 

m ˙ 12 

j 

m ˙ 22 

j 

m ˙ 31 

€ 

 

€ 

j 

m ˙ n1 

˙ 

€ 

j 

m ˙ 32 

(tons/year) 

€ 

j 

€ 

€ 

€ 

€ 

m n 2 

k 

m ˙ 13 

j 

m ˙ 23 

j 

˙ 

€ 

 

€ 

j 

˙ 

€ 

m 33 

m n 3 

 

 

 

€ 

 

€ 

 

€ 

k 

m ˙ 1p 

j 

m ˙ 2 p 

˙ 

j 

m 3 p 

 

˙ 

€ 

€ 

k 

m np 

€ 

Aggregated Material flow rate 

˙ M 11 

˙ M 21 

˙ 

M 31 

 

˙ 

M n1 

€ 

€ 

€ 

˙ M 12 

˙ M 22 

˙ M 32 

(tons/year) 

€ 

€ 

€ 

€ 

€ 

˙ M 13 

˙ M 23 

˙ 

€ 

 

€ 

˙ 

€ 

M 33 

 

 

 

 

 

€ 

€ 

€ 

˙ M 1p 

˙ M 2p 

˙ 

€ 

 

˙ € 

€ 

M 3p 

Material concentration in 

c 11 

c 21 

c 31 

€ 

 

€ 

€ 

the total flow (kg/tons) 

€ € € € € € € € € € € € 

€ In this € case, € concentrations € € of materials € € in the total € flows € (c) are € unknown, € but € can be 

calculated once the aggregated material flow ( M ˙ ) and the total flow ( F ˙ ) are known. 

 

˙ 

M n 2 

M n 3 

! 

M np 

c n1 

c 12 

c 22 

c 32 

€ 

€ 

€ 

€ 

€ 

c n 2 

c 13 

c 23 

c 33 

€ 

 

€ 

c n 3 

€ 

 

 

 

 

 

c 1p 

c 2 p 

c 3 p 

 

c np 

€ 

17 

€

M 

c ik 

= ˙ 

ik 

˙ 

(9) 

F i 

The distribution of materials among the outputs of a process depends on the transfer 

coefficient € allocated for the entire good or individual materials. These transfer 

coefficients are set according to the processes observed in the field survey. 

18

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The results for the quantities of computer waste generated from 2005 to 2009 and 

predictions of quantities to be generated in the following years are presented in 

chapter 3.1. The two following chapters (3.2 and 3.3) describe the main findings of 

the field survey useful as input for the MFA presented in chapter 3.4. Finally, chapter 

3.5 presents some alternatives for the inclusion of the IS. 


The annual e-waste generation differentiated between CPUs, laptops, CRT-monitors, 

and LCD-monitors as calculated for the middle scenario is depicted in Figure 6 (in 

units) and Figure 7 (in tons). In addition to that, the totals obtained with the lower and 

higher scenarios are also illustrated in these charts. When comparing units and 

weight graphs, one can perceive a higher growth in number of devices compared to 

the growth in weight. The differences between the trend in number of devices and 

weight are basically due to the fact that new technologies such as laptops and LCDscreens 

are lighter than CPUs and CRT-monitors. 

Figure 6: Composition of the annual computer waste generated in Colombia (in units). 

19

In 2009, waste of more recent technologies (i.e. laptops and LCD-monitors) is still 

negligible, but it will rapidly become an important fraction of the e-waste flow, while 

CRT-monitors are decreasing from being more than half of the total stream in 2005 to 

almost nothing by 2020. 

Figure 7: Estimated composition of the annual computer waste generated in Colombia (in 

weight). 

A future e-waste management system should take into consideration this change of 

technology in the computer market that will be reflected in a changing composition of 

e-waste. This change is clearly shown in Figure 8, comparing the average 

composition of the computer waste stream in number of devices and weight between 

the years 2010 and 2020. 

2010 (weight) 

2010 (number) 

2020 (weight) 

2020 (number) 

CPU 

laptop 

CRT 

LCD 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 

Figure 8: Comparison of the estimated average composition of computer waste in number of 

devices and weight percentages between the years 2010 and 2020. 

20

The quantities calculated for 2009 are shown in Table 9. This figures rounded to the 

next hundred are taken as input for the MFA scenarios presented in chapter 3.4. 

Table 9: Computer waste generation in Colombia in 2009 according to lower, middle, and 

higher scenarios. 

Scenario Total Units Total Tons 

Lower 598,467 6,073 

Middle 790,468 8,063 

Higher 1,153,888 11,332 

3.2 Current disposal options 

In this chapter, current disposal options existing in Colombia are presented with 

exception of the informal sector that will be presented in a chapter of its own. 

3.2.1 Formal e-waste processors 

In recent years, a certain number of formal e-waste recycling companies with 

environmental licence have started the collection of e-waste, mainly from private 

businesses. However, only few of these companies are making recycling processes 

themselves. The others are only collecting e-waste as part of an integrated 

management of industrial waste service they offer on a business-to-business basis 

and, then, transmitting collected e-waste to processors. A compilation of the existing 

e-waste related formal companies is shown in Table 10. 

Although accurate data from CENARE, CI Recycables, eCycling, Ecoeficiencia, and 

Ecoprocesamiento was gathered, quantities about one of the bigger processors, Lito 

Ltda, 5 or about another possible processor, Aire were not obtained. The amount of 

computer waste received by CI Recycables and all its suppliers that is originating 

exclusively from Medium and Large Businesses 6 (MLBs) is estimated to be between 

5 Except data about the temporary take-back campaign organized by Lito in 2009 and addressed to all 

sectors, in particular households. 

6 For the definition of this category of users have a look at chapter 3.2.4.2. 

21

200 and 350 tons. Based on the latter, the total amount of computer waste going 

from MLBs to formal e-waste treatment has been taken as a variable in the MFA (see 

Table 13). 

Table 10: Formal companies who received computer waste in 2009 

Formal e-waste processor Interview Processes In 2009 they send PWBs to: 

CENARE (Bogotá) SV D Lito Ltda, CI Recycables 

Lito Ltda (4 cities) - D, R Pre-treatment, export 

CI Recycables (Cartagena) T, E D, R Pre-treatment, export 

Gaia Vitare (Bogotá) T D, R CI Recycables 

Aire SA (Bogotá) - D 

eCycling (Medellín) T, E D Still not commercializing in 2009 

PM Group (Cali) T R Started to buy PWBs in 2010 

Formal e-waste collectors 

In 2009 they send WEEE to: 

Ecoeficiencia (Bogotá) T No process CI Recycables 

Ecosoluciones (Bogotá) - No process CI Recycables 

Asei Ltda (Medellín) - No process CI Recycables 

SAAM (Cali) - No process CI Recycables 

Ecoprocesamiento (Bogotá) T No process Lito Ltda 

Lasea Soluciones (Bogotá) - No process Gaia Vitare 

SV: site visit; T: telephone; E: e-mail; D: dismantling; R: recycling processes; : unknown 

3.2.2 Auctions 

In Colombia, public institutions have to sell their stocks via public auctions. Auctions 

are organized by one department inside the institution (e.g. inventory department as 

it is the case for the “Universidad Industrial de Santander”) or via financial entities 

authorized to organize public auctions. The main organizer of public auctions is the 

“Martillo del Banco Popular” which is present in 85 offices all around the country. 

It is very difficult to calculate how many computers were auctioned in 2009 because 

not only organizers cannot share their registers, but also it is rare to have lots 

exclusively with computers and they do not register the exact content of each lot. 

Most of the time lots contain others electronic and office equipments such as printers, 

machines, photocopiers, and even furniture. According to an employee of “Martillo 

del Banco Popular”, they organize around 4 to 5 public auctions per month with many 

22

lots containing computers. Some of the lots can contain up to 50-100 computers 

(Gonzales, 2010). 

3.2.3 Donation to social refurbishment 

“Computadores para Educar” (CPE) is the most successful refurbishment program 

with social aim in Latin America. It’s a governmental initiative launched in 2000 that 

refurbishes locally donated computers and distributes them to public schools all over 

the country. In 2009, CPE received around 20,000 computers in donation from all 

kind of users: public and private companies, international organizations, and natural 

persons. From this quantity, 17,845 computers were refurbished and sent to public 

schools all over Colombia. 

The computers that cannot be refurbished are sent to the CENARE, the “Centro 

Nacional de Aprovechamiento de Residuos Electrónicos”, a formal recycling facility 

receiving exclusively computer waste from CPE. The CENARE performs dismantling 

of computers and sorting of all materials. As they are a public entity, they have to sell 

all the materials and fractions recovered via public auctions. Nevertheless, contrarily 

to standard public auctions, CENARE request registers about the way of treatment of 

each fraction to each buyer. Then, metals are sold to chatarrerías or other 

intermediaries; PWBs and other electronic parts only to authorized processors; 

plastics to polymer recyclers; and for the moment CRT glass is being stockpiled. As 

CPE has refurbishment centers in three cities and CENARE is only located in Bogotá 

and has not enough capacity to treat all the computer waste generated by CPE, 

others auctions are organized in Cali and Medellín. These auctions are only 

addressed to authorized processors. 

3.2.4 Disposal habits 

3.2.4.1 Category 1: Households, Micro and small companies 

In 2009, households and small enterprises have given close to 25 tons 7 of PCs to the 

CPE refurbishment program and about 375 tons 8 of PCs to Lito Ltda (one of the 

7 Calculated by the author with CPE data provided by Angel Camacho. 

8 Calculated by the author with data supplied by the MAVDT. 

23

iggest formal e-waste recycling companies) in a temporary take-back campaign 

supported by the MAVDT. 

In addition to donations to CPE and temporary take-back campaigns, households 

and MSEs use three more exit channels to discard their obsolete PCs. First, they 

give it to a reciclador; second, they leave it at an informal or semi-formal computer 

shop in exchange for money or a discount on their next purchase; and third, they 

dispose off with normal solid waste. From this last alternative, one part ends up in 

hands of recicladores and another part is collected by the Municipal Solid Waste 

(MSW) truck. 

3.2.4.2 Category 2: Medium and Large Business (MLBs) 

Big companies with an environmental consciousness are donating their computers to 

CPE or paying specialized companies for the environmental sound treatment of their 

ICT equipments. In 2009, MLBs gave close to 406 tons to CPE, the major donators 

being companies from the banking sector (Camacho, 2010). 

Other companies that do not want to pay for the treatment mostly organize auctions 

or just sell off packages of IT material to intermediaries. Other possible outputs for 

this category (i.e. recicladores, MSW collection) were neglected. 

3.2.4.3 Category 3: Government and Education 

By law, public institutions cannot give their goods to private companies or persons; 

this is why they are giving their obsolete computers either to the CPE program (as a 

donation to another public institution) or organizing public auctions. Due to this 

shortage of possibilities, some public universities have huge stocks of obsolete 

computers awaiting a solution (Uribe et al., 2010). 

In this category, private educational institutions (i.e. private universities and schools) 

are also included. They are mainly giving their equipments to CPE or selling off 

packages of IT material to intermediaries. As in the MFA, public auctions and 

intermediaries are grouped in the same process box, the flow of computers that exits 

from users category “Government and Education” and goes to “Auctions/Middlemen” 

process is set as the total generation of this category minus the donations to CPE. 

24

3.3 Operation of the informal sector in Colombian main cities 

In Colombia, there is no specific law that regulates e-waste recycling yet. The lack of 

control and regulation combined with high unemployment rates and poverty in the 

country has led some groups of people to find an economic benefit by doing 

collection, disassembly, sorting, and trade of valuable parts of waste electronic 

equipments. These processes are carried out with unprofessional methods while 

simply dumping the often-hazardous non-profitable components. 

For the representation in the MFA, activities performed by the IS concerning e-waste 

management can be simplified into four processes: informal collection, informal 

disassembly, informal refurbishment, and informal metal extraction. The same person 

can perform two or more processes and almost all stakeholders realize additionally 

storing, buying, and selling. Although these processes are informal, all except metal 

extraction have also positive impacts: they contribute to employment and income 

generation, stimulate the repair-and-refurbish industry, increase the lifespan of 

disposal sites and promote sustainable resource use. Based on the field 

observations, relevant activities performed under the four mentioned processes are 

explained below. 

3.3.1 Informal collection 

Informal collection is in most cases performed by recicladores who also gather other 

recyclable materials (paper, glass, plastics, etc.) and useful devices. The informal 

waste harvesting currently practiced in Colombia includes activities such as door-todoor 

collection, retrieval of waste from public places, dumpsite recovery and waste 

exchange involving households, middlemen, recicladores, traders, and wholesalers. 

Through door-to-door collection, the recicladores collect materials such as paper, 

glass and plastics directly from households or businesses, generally “as a donation”. 

Street waste picking consists of the recovery of materials or commodities from mixed 

waste thrown on the streets or from communal bins. In the case of computers, the 

possibility that a device found in the street is broken or incomplete is quite high. In 

25

this study, the term “informal collection” includes both door-to-door and waste 

picking, while dumpsite scavenging is not taken into account 9 . 

Estimations from the “Asociación Nacional de Recicladores” (ANR) 10 indicate that in 

2001 about 50,000 families (300,000 people) were working as recicladores 

throughout Colombia (MAVDT, 2004). Due to rural emigration, these numbers have 

risen to approximately 80,000 families (450,000 people) in 2010, and at this moment 

only 12 to 18% of them are organized into cooperatives or associations (ARB, 2010). 

These people are often in the most vulnerable situation of poverty, and even though 

visibility through organization like ANR has decidedly improved their social 

recognition, some of them still experience social exclusion. 

The recicladores transport waste by different means such as self-constructed 

wooden carts pushed or pulled by them everyday, or, in the better case, owned horse 

carts (Figure 9). 

Figure 9: Engines used for informal collection. Bogotá and Barranquilla (2009). Photo credit: 

CNPMLTA. 

Because of the informality of this activity, it is not possible to know how many 

recicladores work with or have a special preference for electronic waste. During 

interviews with recicladores in Bogotá, Medellín and Bucaramanga, some of them 

9 During the last years, the access for the reclicladores to dumpsites has been prohibited in the 

principal cities, because of their conversion to sanitary landfills. 

10 The ANR is the National Recyclers Association that aims to implement gremial, social and cultural 

policies to benefit its associates that are smaller cooperatives and organizations of street collectors in 

Colombia. 

26

declared to get from time to time electronic devices such as TVs, VCRs, cell phones, 

microwaves, and PCs, when working in residential sectors. Those that have a 

particular interest in e-waste work in or near technology malls where the computer 

shop density is high and regularly receive parts of devices not useful anymore for the 

repair shops. Once computers are in the hands of the recicladores, technical services 

or intermediaries, the pathway is always the same: they verify which parts are still 

working and they use or sell them as supplies for reparation or refurbishment of other 

computers. The rest of the computer is manually dismantled and materials are sold to 

intermediaries. 

3.3.2 Informal refurbishment and reparation 

In Colombia, repair and refurbishment of PCs is a very common practice carried out 

in informal or semi-formal workshops. Small family ventures and middlemen buy 

obsolete PCs stocks directly from businesses or via auctions (see chapter 3.2.2, 

even if businesses frequently extract some parts for maintenance of other PCs. The 

refurbishing activities include one or more of the following activities: assembling of 

new and old parts, repair, upgrading of some components, cleaning, painting of the 

casing, software installation, and test runs. In other words, they give a new life to 

discarded electronic equipments, which can be translated to less e-waste to be 

treated and access to low cost technology (Figure 10). 

Figure 10: Impressions of Medellín’s “Plaza Minorista” a traditional place were IS 

refurbishment, dismantling and trade is practiced. Small IT shops (left) and PCs ready for a 

second life in the counter of a refurbisher (right). 

27

A pilot project conducted in Bogotá in April 2008 by the Ministry of Communication, 

the MAVDT, and CPE achieved the collection of more than 15 tons of computers and 

peripherals in four take-back points located in hypermarkets. After the collection, 

CPE technicians completed the sorting in order to evaluate which computers or parts 

were suitable to be refurbished, used in robotics kits or recycled. The results of this 

pilot project are shown in Table 11. 

Table 11: Final destination of CPUs and monitors collected from users in Bogotá’s CPE pilot 

project (Source: Ministerio de Comunicaciones et al., 2008). This information is used for the 

estimation of the average computer refurbishment rate in Colombia. 

Suitable for CPU Monitors 

Refurbishment 29.1% 35.6% 

Dismantling 70.4% 35.3% 

Parts for robotics platforms 12.4% 0% 

Parts for refurbishment/maintenance 6.4% 0.9% 

Material recycling 44.6% 23.3% 

Non recyclable (disposal or storage) 7.0% 11.1% 

Robotics platforms (entire equipments) - 29.1% 

Computer museum 0.5% - 

Total reused (without robotics) 35.5% 36.5% 

Counting the “refurbishment” line with the “parts for refurbishment/maintenance” line 

of Table 11 gives the potential of reuse that is around 35.5% for a CPU and 36.5% 

for a CRT-monitor. This percentage is significantly higher if we take into account the 

recuperation of computer waste for the construction of educational robotics platforms 

performed by CPE. 

Based on these figures, the commercial refurbishment rate (as defined in Figure 11) 

has been taken between 20 and 40% depending of the MFA scenario. This rate 

signifies that from the flows arriving to the informal sector 20 to 40% are still useful 

(either as entire devices or as components) and can be reused or repaired. They 

then re-enter a reverse supply chain. 

28

Figure 11: Distribution of flows within the “Commercial refurbishment sub-system” with a 

refurbishment rate R. 

3.3.3 Informal dismantling and material trading 

Dismantling is defined here as a destructive method used to recover materials 

contained in a device or in parts of it (e.g. steel from CPU casings, aluminium from 

hard disk drives (HDD), or copper from monitor yokes). It should not be confused 

with the removal of functional parts (e.g. CD drive, HDD, processor or memory cards 

from CPUs) that is performed with non-destructive methods. The removal of 

functioning parts is fulfilled already by users, recicladores, middlemen, or inside the 

“commercial refurbishment” process. 

In Colombia, dismantling is performed in streets, private households or in the best 

case in warehouses. Usually, it is performed with simple tools such as screwdrivers 

and hammers, but in some cases just by hand and by pounding the object against 

the floor. Almost always, no protection equipment like security glasses or gloves is 

worn (Figure 12). 

29

Figure 12: Manual dismantling of computers is often done next to IT repair shops or on the 

streets. Medellín, May 2010. 

The way in which the IS deals with recovered materials after the “informal 

dismantling” process is described in Figure 13. 

Figure 13: Destinations of materials obtained after dismantling of computer waste, according 

to field survey. 

The field survey reveals that in the informal sector, PWBs have the highest value 

following computer parts that can be reused. The price paid by intermediaries or 

computer shop owners to the recicladores depends not only on the type of board, but 

also on the skills and the dealing power of who is selling. Chatarrerías or “scrap 

metal dealers” often buy boards at standard prices ranging from 2,000 to 4,500 

30

Colombian Pesos (COP) per kg while big metal traders (only one to three by city) buy 

at higher prices, but only sorted material and in large quantities. Metal traders, 

classify PWBs into three categories as shown in Table 12. 

Table 12: Classification, possible origins and buying price of PWBs according to CI Metal 

Comercio functioning as intermediary between chatarrerías in Bucaramanga and CI 

Recycables (Cartagena). The metal trader doesn’t accept type 4 PWBs like the ones in 

monitors. 

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 

With golden components: 

Mobile phones, HDD PWB, 

video cards, chips 

With many valuable 

components: 

Old servers and CPUs 

With some valuable 

components: 

New and old computers 

6,000 COP/kg 5,000 COP/kg 1,000 COP/kg 

Low-grade PWBs, such as the ones found in monitors are accepted by the formal 

treatment companies but without paying for them. Nevertheless, the upstream 

stakeholders such as big metal traders, chatarrerías and recicladores do not have 

any interest in collecting low-grade PWBs. 

3.3.4 Informal metal extraction 

Informal metal extraction includes precious metal extraction from PWBs using acid 

baths or others artisanal methods, as well as wires burning for copper recuperation. 

According to Colombian and Swiss experts, leaching of gold from PWBs in Colombia 

is not as important as in other developing countries such as India or China, and 

seems to remain a sporadic practice, at least for the moment. This can be explained 

by the fact that one of the biggest formal e-waste recycling companies (CI 

Recycables) is receiving large quantities of PWBs from the informal sector by a 

network of intermediaries and partnerships with the biggest metal traders of each 

31

city. Scrap metal dealers are then working as an interface between the informal and 

the formal sector. This business model has the benefit that it is contributing to 

prevent informal treatment of a big amount of PWBs; however, by buying only 

valuable parts they encourage informal dismantling upstream and improper dumping 

of non-valuable parts. 

Although site visits could not confirm it, some stakeholders gave indications that 

alchemical processes are being employed in backyards, small workshops, or rural 

houses. According to Mr. Jaramillo from CI Recycables, this informal practice has 

been growing in the country’s main cities and became important in the last 3-4 years 

at the point that it is actually a competitor for the enterprise’s activities especially in 

Medellín, Bogotá, and Bucaramanga. He estimates that in 2009 around five tons per 

month of PC processors and PWBs stayed in the hands of artisanal “recyclers” 

(Jaramillo, 2010). 

Cable burning seems to be a very common practice in Colombian cities where it is 

often performed by recicladores or intermediaries in non-frequented streets, 

unconstructed lands, or in backyards (Uribe et al., 2009 and Uribe et al., 2010). Out 

of the 52 recicladores, intermediaries, or scrap metal dealers interviewed, only 6 

affirmed to strip the cables with a knife instead of burning it. Moreover, scrap metal 

dealers do not make any distinction between burned or non-burned copper from 

cables when buying copper. Only less than half of the scrap metal dealers accept still 

coated cables. 


3.4.1 Definition of the system 

The reality is far too complex to correctly quantify the flows between all the actors 

and processes that occur. Hence, the system to be modelled needs to be simplified, 

especially regarding the number of processes and flows that are taken into 

consideration. The simplification and the definition of the system is an iterative 

process during the whole study that depends also on the available data. In this case, 

a simplification was to merge some of the disposal and recycling processes together 

32

due to the non-availability of accurate data for the distribution of output flows 

between these processes. 

As already stated in the methodology, the material flow analysis requires a welldefined 

boundary for the system to be analysed. The studied system is completely 

located in Colombia, meaning that every process considered in this analysis is taking 

place there. The boundary of the system can be seen in Figure 14. 

Figure 14: Schematic representation of the MFA system and boundary as defined in this study. 

3.4.2 Model scenarios 

Three different scenarios have been studied in order to assess possible ranges for 

the results given that most of the input data is not very precisely known. Only some 

of the flows – most of the flows entering or coming from the “social refurbishment” 

and “formal treatment” processes – were considered constant between the three 

scenarios, since they were based on information from the registers these institutions 

have to keep and they were willing to share. All the missing flows can be determined 

by setting some parameters that were adjusted according to the three MFA scenarios 

(the respective values can be found in Table 13) and are described hereafter. 

The total generated computer waste varies according to the lower, middle, and 

higher scenarios of waste generation presented in chapter 3.1. 

33

The direct MSW collection rate is the fraction of computer waste generated by 

households and MSEs that is thrown away with the rubbish and collected by the 

MSW truck. According to the CIM survey 7% of the households discarded their PC 

with the rubbish (CIM, 2008), but normally recicladores recover part of this fraction. 

This is why this parameter has been estimated at 5% in the base scenario, with a 

minimum of 0% (best case) and a maximum of 10% (worst case). The direct IS 

collection rate is the fraction of computer waste generated by households and MSEs 

that finishes in the hands of recicladores. There is no information available regarding 

this parameter so the author has estimated it between a minimum of 20% (best case) 

and a maximum of 60% (worst case) resulting in a mean value of 40% for the base 

scenario. However a short analysis of the system shows that this parameter doesn’t 

have much influence on the final results and only modifies the flows between 

“informal collection” and “commercial refurbishment” processes. 

Table 13: Parameters used for the MFA scenarios 

Base scenario Best case scenario Worst case scenario 

Total generated computer waste 8,100 tons 6,100 tons 11,400 tons 

Direct MSW collection rate 5% 0% 10% 

Direct IS collection rate 40% 20% 60% 

Refurbishment rate 30% 40% 20% 

MLBs paying for formal treatment 30% (680 tons) 50% (854 tons) 10% (319 tons) 

Cable burning rate in the IS 80% 70% 90% 

The refurbishment rate is defined in Figure 11. This parameter has been set between 

20% (worst case) and 40% (best case) based on experience from the CPE 

refurbishment programme in Colombia (figures in Table 11). The quantity of PC 

waste coming from businesses and treated by formal processors has been estimated 

with data from the field survey (see chapter 3.2.1) as representing more than 320 

tons (worst case) and less than 854 tons (best case) with a value of 680 tons for the 

base scenario. Finally the cable-burning rate refers to the fraction of cables going 

from “informal dismantling” to “informal metal extraction”. This practice seems to be 

very common in Colombia and the quantity of cables passing through the IS that are 

stripped instead of burned has been roughly estimated by the author to be between 

10% (worst case) and 30% (best case) according to what was observed in the field 

survey. 

34

3.4.3 Assessment of total computer waste flows 

The resulting flows for the base scenario calculated for the year 2009 are illustrated 

in Figure 15 (the “best case” and “worst case” scenario flow schemes are presented 

in Appendix A.1 and A.2). 

Figure 15: Material flows of computer waste within the formal and informal sector in Colombia 

as calculated with the base scenario for the year 2009. Flows in bold are well known and are 

constant for all the scenarios. The “informal metal extraction” process includes both cables 

burning as well as gold extraction from PWBs by artisanal methods. 

In the base scenario, the IS collects 23% (or 1,847 tons) of the total computer waste 

produced in 2009, directly at the point of generation – exclusively households and 

MSEs – and about 41% (or 3,315 tons 11 ), if the amount of waste collected from the 

commercial refurbishment is also taken into account. Overall, 54% (or 4,374 tons 12 ) 

of the generated PC waste are treated through the IS (basically manual dismantling 

and trade of materials), while the amount dismantled by the formal sector represents 

only 14% (or 1,185 tons 13 ). 

11 i.e. 1,847 + 1,468 tons, the sum of all the flows entering the “informal collection” process 

12 i.e. 2,761 + 1,613 tons, the sum of all the input flows for the “informal dismantling” process 

13 i.e. 375 + 680 + 130 tons, the sum of all the flows entering the “formal treatment” process 

35

In the three scenarios, informally dismantled computers appear to be a significant 

part of the total generated quantities (Figure 16). The informal dismantling varies 

considerably between the three scenarios mainly because the quantity treated by the 

formal sector is pretty well known, and therefore, varies little between the scenarios. 

The refurbishment business (formal, semi-formal and informal) is broadly practiced 

as stated before, and without this practice, informal dismantling would probably be 

much higher. 

Computer Waste 

[tons/year] 

12,000 

10,000 

8,000 

6,000 

4,000 

2,000 

0 

Total generation 

Formal 

treatment 

Refurbish 

Informal 

Dismantling 

Base scenario 8,100 1,186 2,280 4,374 

Best case 6,100 1,359 2,132 2,579 

Worst case 11,400 825 2,299 7,551 

Figure 16: Treatment of computer waste in the three model scenarios, Colombia 2009. 

Quantities corresponding to the different collection pathways are shown in Figure 17. 

Depending on the scenario, formal collection (i.e. pickup transport service arranged 

by CPE or by formal treatment companies) can range from 11% to 29% of the total 

generated waste, whereas informal direct collection (from users) varies from 11% to 

34% of the total generated waste. In total, the recicladores contribute to the collection 

with 2,100 to 5,100 tons of computer waste in 2009. Although auctions are a legal 

mechanism to get rid of lots of obsolete computers, they are also an important entry 

to the IS. 

36

MSW collection 

Brought by users to IT shops 

Worst case 

Best case 

Base scenario 

Auctions (middlemen) 

Informal collection (from IT shops) 

Informal collection (from users) 

Formal collection 

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 

Computer Waste [tons/year] 

Figure 17: Analysis of collection pathways for computer waste in Colombia, comparison of the 

three scenarios. 

Looking at the final destination of computer waste in Colombia for the year 2009 

(Figure 18), it can be observed that at the end the bigger portion (in mass, without 

material distinction) is going to a sound treatment. This can be explained by the huge 

quantities of metals (around 2,500 tons for the base scenario) that are assumed to be 

recycled, locally or after export. However, another important portion is going to nonsuitable 

destinations. The significant fractions in this case are plastics and CRT 

glass. 

Computer Waste [tons] 

4,000 

3,000 

2,000 

1,000 

0 

Illegal disposal, 

Landfilling 

Local recycling, 

Export, Safe disposal 

Stockpiling, Burning, 

Unknown 

Base scenario 2,298 3,246 277 

Best case 1,167 2,588 214 

Worst case 4,205 4,373 522 

Figure 18: Final destination of computer waste formal and informally treated in Colombia in 

2009 according to the three modeled scenarios. 

3.4.4 Assessment of CRT glass flows 

According to Swiss and Colombian experts, one of the worst problems concerning 

current computer recycling in Colombia is that huge flows of CRTs end up in landfills, 

37

are mixed with common glass, or are not properly disposed of. This was confirmed 

by the field survey, which revealed that CRT-monitors are frequently dismantled only 

because of the copper yoke and some small metals parts that can be sold as metal 

scrap, but CRT glass does not have an economic value (Figure 19). Sometimes 

CRTs are broken in order to extract the “shadow mask” that represent some 

hundreds of grams of iron and after that the glass is discarded with the rubbish, 

mixed with normal glass, or even buried. 

Figure 19: CRT-monitor abandoned in the "parque Simón Bolivar", after removal of the copper 

yoke. Bogotá, April 2010. 

Discussions with formal recycling companies reveal that in Colombia there is no 

recycling market for CRT glass. What formal recyclers are currently doing is paying 

for a safe disposal in a hazardous waste disposal site (428 USD per ton) 14 , to export 

it for recycling abroad, or just to stockpile them waiting for a better solution. The 

problem with exporting, in addition to transport costs, is that CRT waste is specifically 

listed as regulated waste under the Basel Convention 15 and, thus, export requires 

special permits. 

The flows of CRT glass 16 within the formal and the informal sector as calculated with 

the base scenario can be seen in Figure 20. In 2009, more than 1,100 tons of 

14 According to Mr Javier Cardozo from “Rellenos de Colombia SA”, e-waste as “Non ferrous heavy 

metals residues” are encapsulated in security cells for final disposal at a price of 830 COP per kg, 

which is equivalent to 428 USD (Calculated the 11.06.2010 with an official exchange rate of 1 USD = 

1,938 COP). Rellenos de Colombia SA manages a security landfill for hazardous waste located 3km 

to the north of Bogotá. 

15 www.basel.int, Annex VIII, A 2010. 

16 In this study, the average weight of a CRT-monitor is 12 kg from which 6.45 kg is glass as show in 

Table 7. 

38

potentially hazardous 17 CRT glass were dumped or landfilled. From this quantity, 

around 66% take its origin in households, 17% in MLBs, and 17% in official 

institutions; thus, all consumer categories are contributing to this practice. This is due 

to the inexistence of an interface diverting CRT glass flows from the informal to the 

formal sector; thus, once a CRT enters the IS it is never going to be safely disposed, 

because nobody would assume this cost. 

Figure 20: Material flow of computer CRT glass within the formal and informal sector in 

Colombia. Base scenario calculated for the year 2009. 

As shown in Figure 21, the improper disposal of CRTs could be much higher (1,910 

tons for the “worst case” scenario) because the quantity for the “state of the art” 

disposal is pretty well known and, thus, almost constant between the scenarios. 

Again, refurbishment is very high and without it, the improperly disposed CRT glass 

would probably be much higher. The field survey shows that even if new monitors 

17 The content of lead and other heavy metals on CRT glass depend on the location of the glass in the 

CRT. Panel glass contains 1.9 to 14.2% of barium oxide (BaO) and can also contain up to 11.6% of 

strontium oxide (SrO) and up to 3.3% of lead oxide (PbO), while funnel glass PbO content range from 

11.6 to 24.6% (BMLFUW, 2006). According to Musson et al., (2000), leachate lead concentration from 

funnel glass exceed by far EPA regulatory limits what is not the case for panel glass. 

39

entering the market are almost exclusively LCD-monitors, refurbishment of CRTmonitors 

is still a common practice to feed the second-hand market and also in the 

case of social refurbishment. A CRT-monitor can be sold at some informal IT shops 

at a price ranging from 5,000 to 30,000 COP if it is still working (for refurbishment) 

and at not more than 4,000 COP if it is damaged (for dismantling). After 

refurbishment, the CRT-monitor will cost between 30,000 to 50,000 COP depending 

on the model and how it looks. 

According to CPE statistics figures, almost all the monitors received in donation and 

refurbished in the year 2009 within the CPE program were CRTs, whereas new 

monitors assembled in order to succeed with the CPE goals were exclusively LCDmonitors 

(Camacho, 2010). 

CRT glass waste 

[tons/year] 

3,000 

2,500 

2,000 

1,500 

1,000 

500 

0 

Total 

Generated 

Improper 

Disposal 

State of the 

art treatment/ 

disposal 

Refurbish 

Base scenario 1,994 1,146 173 560 

Best case 1,473 635 194 515 

Worst case 2,629 1,910 114 529 

Figure 21: Generated quantities and destination of monitors’ CRT glass in Colombia in 2009. 

A collaboration project between CNPMLTA and CPE aiming to determine the content 

and hazardousness of the different type of glass present in a CRT, as well as to find 

local recycling alternatives is planned to start in the second half of 2010 (CNPMLTA 

and CPE, 2010). 

3.4.5 Assessment of PWBs flows 

Another potentially harmful component are the PWBs, present in all the analysed 

devices with different grades of precious metal content. As stated before, PWBs are 

really appreciated in both formal and informal sectors. 

40

The flows of PWBs within the formal and the informal sectors as calculated with the 

base scenario are presented in Figure 22. Although the majority of medium and highgrade 

boards finally end up at the formal e-waste recycling companies, only a small 

part arrives there via the formal pathway. This is also shown by the highest flow in 

the model that is the one going from “informal collection” to “informal dismantling”. 

This flow is composed of PWBs still part of entire devices and also of isolated PWBs 

that the recicladores obtain from computer shops. 

Figure 22: Material flows of computer PWBs within the formal and informal sector in Colombia. 

Base scenario calculated for 2009. 

Once again, as the formally treated part is well known, the difference in the total 

generated quantity between the scenarios is distributed into “disposal” and “informal 

extraction” processes (Figure 23). The fraction of the total generated scrap PWBs 

that is currently going to “informal extraction” is almost zero for the “best case 

scenario”, 8.2% for the base scenario, and 22.8% for the “worst case” scenario. 

Although the quantity of informally processed PWBs is always lower than the one 

that is formally treated, up to 295 tons of computer PWBs (worst case) can undergo 

artisanal processes, making this practice maybe not as sporadic as initially thought. 

41

Non treated (low-grade 

PWBs) 

Formal treatment & 

export 

Worst case 

Best case 

Base scenario 

Refurbish 

Informal extraction 

Total generated 

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 

Scrap computer PWBs [tons/year] 

Figure 23: Generated quantities and final destination of scrap computer PWBs in Colombia for 

the year 2009 according to the three scenarios. 

The hypothesis that all PWBs from monitors passing through the “informal 

dismantling” process are landfilled or dumped results in huge quantities of potentially 

hazardous components that are not treated. 

3.4.6 Assessment of plastic flows 

The main issue with plastics originating from computer waste is their potential 

content of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as polybrominated dipheniethers 

(PBDEs). Especially two commercial products from the PBDEs family can be found in 

computers: OctaBDE most used in ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) and 

DecaBDE in HIPS (high-impact polystyrene) (Sepulveda et al., 2010). No flawless 

solution exists: on the one hand, to landfill plastic casings represents a loss of 

resources, and on the other hand, plastic recycling can be questionable due to the 

potential release of hazardous substances such as polybrominated dibenzodioxins, 

during the recycling process (Wäger et al., 2009). However, in the case of Colombia, 

the MAVDT, EMPA, and the CNPMLTA are privileging plastic recycling over state-ofthe-art 

incineration and do not consider the final disposal as an option (Ott et al., 

2010). 

Concerning the fate of plastics in the system, the field survey revealed the existence 

of a recycling market in the formal sector but neither in the IS nor an interface 

between both sectors as demonstrated by Figure 24. Formal companies, have the 

capacity to carefully sort all kind of plastics, to clean them (e.g. by removing stickers) 

42

and to accumulate big quantities that allow their sale to specific recyclers in the local 

market or abroad. On the contrary, computer plastic casings do not have any value in 

the IS and are, thus, dumped or landfilled. This leads to huge untreated quantities of 

potentially dangerous and recyclable materials. 

Figure 24: Material flows of plastics from computer waste within the formal and informal sector 

in Colombia. Base scenario calculated for the year 2009. 

The final destination of plastics from computers is depicted in Figure 25. Only a small 

part of them pass through the formal pathway, and between 370 tons (“best case”) 

and 1,230 tons (“worst case”) are at the end dumped or landfilled approximately 64% 

of them coming from CRT-monitors, 30% from CPUs, and the remaining part from 

LCD and laptops. Based on these figures and using the plastic characterization 

presented in Table 14, this results in the dumping or landfilling in 2009 of around 170 

tons (“best case”) to 570 tons (“worst case”) of plastics containing BFRs. 

43

Refurbish 

Formal treatment 

Worst case 

Best case 

Base scenario 

Burning (wires) 

Dumping & Landfill 

Total generated 

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 

Computer plastic waste [tons/year] 

Figure 25: Total generation and final destination of plastics from computer waste. 

Table 14: Characterization of plastic content and BFR content in CRT-monitors, LCD-monitors, 

CPUs and laptops according to (Wäger et al., 2008). 

CRT-monitors LCD-monitors CPUs Laptops 

Range total plastic content 13-38% 32-41% 6-13% 14-35% 

ABS (with BFR) 22.5% 18.75% 33.75% 21% 

ABS (BFR-free) 22.5% 6.25% 11.25% 7% 

HIPS (with BFR) 7.5% 6% 9% 9% 

HIPS (BFR-free) 17.5% 4% 6% 6% 

ABS/PC (BFR-free) 10% 10% 10% 10% 

PPO/PS (BFR-free) 10% 10% 10% 15% 

Other () 10% 45% 20% 32% 

Total plastics BFR content >30% >24.75% >42.75% >30% 

In addition to BFRs, the use of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb) based 

additives in plastic casings of IT equipment also seems to be problematic (Wäger et 

al., 2009). 

As stated before, cable burning for copper recovery is a very common practice in 

Colombia. The model indicates that in 2009 from computer waste only, 30 to 120 

tons of cables have been burned. Electrical cables are composed of copper wires of 

different diameters coated with an isolating plastic, most frequently PVC (polyvinyl 

chloride). The burning of PVC generates as by-products dioxins and furans that are 

among the most harmful anthropogenic contaminants (Sepulveda et al., 2010). The 

recycling of PVC would be possible, but the manual separation process (i.e. stripping 

using knives) being very time-consuming is only little put in practice. 

44

3.4.7 Other unwanted processes 

Other unwanted processes occurring in the IS but not discussed in this study are: 

• The dismantling of computers in non-adapted places (e.g. streets, improvised 

workshops, private households) without basic security equipment, generating 

health risks for workers, workers’ families and passers-by. 

• The inappropriate stockpiling of electronic equipments 

• In addition to CRTs, brominated plastics and PWBs, other PC components 

considered hazardous are being disposed in inappropriate ways. This is the 

case for capacitors, different types of batteries and mercury fluorescent tubes 

(from LCD screens) that should normally be recycled in specialized industries 

or send to a hazardous waste disposal facility. 

3.5 Including the IS into a future formal e-waste management 

system 

As described in the previous chapters, at this moment, Colombia does not have an 

adapted formal infrastructure to treat the PC waste it is generating. The IS is for now 

well involved and firmly installed in the refurbishment and recycling “market”. This 

fact, combined with the drastic increase of PC waste that the country will have to face 

within the next decade, will lead to a worsening of the actual environmental situation, 

if no counteractive actions are put in place. 

The legal framework in Colombia does not yet oblige producers and importers to take 

responsibility of the end-of-life phase of their products. However, as mentioned 

earlier, a regulation for computers and peripherals is supposed to be put into force 

soon. From then on, producers will have the obligation to assume the responsibility 

for their end-of-life products. They can either do this individually or through a 

collective system e.g. by creating a Producers Responsibility Organization (PRO) 

that would be in charge of the collection and environmentally sound recycling of 

computers of all the brands. The CCIT (Colombian ICT Chamber) has been studying, 

in collaboration with EMPA, the feasibility of the creation of a PRO for its members. 

One of the mechanisms contemplated for the financing of all these tasks is the 

45

introduction of an Advanced Recycling Fee (ARF) through which the final disposal 

costs are transmitted to the consumers at the moment of purchase. 

The planned computer regulation would ban the following practices: 

• The disposal of computers, peripherals or their components together with 

other domestic waste. 

• Open-air burning, burying of computer waste. 

• To abandon computer waste in the public space such as roads, soils, 

swamps, parks, and water bodies. 

• To practice the computer dismantling in the public space. 

Since hundreds of workers make their living out of informal processes related to 

computer recycling, it is essential to promote the integration of the IS in the planned 

e-waste management system in order to increase eco-efficiency. The challenge for a 

successful inclusion of the IS in the context of e-waste recycling is to prevent 

pollution without taking away the income from the working population. This could be 

done either by formalizing current IS workers or their activities or by the 

implementation of economic incentives that would attempt to redirect the most 

problematic flows into the formal e-waste management scheme. 

3.5.1 Diversion of IS collected flows into a formal management system 

To work with recicladores in the collection phase means that there is easy access to 

a very decentralized network of collectors going directly to the source, in this case 

consumer households. One way to facilitate the inclusion of recicladores in the future 

formal system is to work with waste cooperatives. The material collected by 

recicladores will then be bought by the cooperative (on behalf of the PRO) and given 

to formal e-waste treatment facilities. Since in Colombia recicladores are mostly 

working with human or horse powered transport, it would be worth to implement this 

type of collection for households and small companies, while public and private 

institutions would use motorized transport. Figure 26 is a schematic representation of 

the computer waste and money flows for the system described in this paragraph. 

46

Figure 26: Schematic flows in a future system including the IS in the collection step. 

3.5.1.1 Economical aspects 

According to the MFA results, CRT-monitors combine the three problematic 

components that most often end up dumped or landfilled: CRT-glass, low-grade 

PWBs, and plastic casings. They are also almost disappearing from the market and, 

thus, most probably less and less refurbished until finally being excluded from the 

reverse supply chain. Due to the small amount of really valuable parts in these 

monitors, the chance of recovering them in one piece is much higher than for CPUs, 

for example. These are only some of the reasons, why the economic calculation has 

been done solely for CRT-monitors. 

The theoretical benefit that a reciclador can obtain by selling the materials contained 

in an average CRT-monitor is analyzed in Table 15. Three literature sources were 

compared in order to obtain the minimum and maximum amount of each material 

contained in an average CRT-monitor (Laffely, 2007; Marthaler, 2008; Ministerio de 

Comunicaciones et al., 2008). These values were then multiplied by the minimum 

and maximum material price paid to the recicladores, as found out during the field 

survey. 

47

Table 15: Theoretical benefit from a CRT-monitor in the IS in Colombia. Minimum and 

maximum weight come from literature while prices are according to the field survey. 18 

Material/Part 

min 

Weight 

(kg/unit) 

max 

Actual material price in 

the IS (COP/kg) 

Benefit 

(COP/unit) 

Plastic 1.90 2.47 0 0 0 

Copper 0.23 0.41 6,000-9,000 1,380 3,690 

Steel 0.79 0.80 1000-2,100 790 1,680 

Ferrous metal 0.09 0.45 200-300 18 61 

Aluminium 0.08 0.23 1,500-2,000 120 460 

PWB 1.20 1.58 0 0 0 

CRT 4.82 8.50 0 0 0 

Mixed wiring 0.29 0.46 2,000-5,400 580 2,484 

min 

max 

Total (kg/unit) 9.40 14.89 

Benefit range 

(COP/unit) 

2,888 8,375 

According to Table 15, the benefits gained by informal dismantlers from each CRTmonitor 

range between 2,900 and 8,400 COP, while investing less than one hour of 

work. Nevertheless, these numbers strongly depend on the copper price. During the 

field survey, only a few individuals, IT shops or chatarrerías were found buying entire 

monitors that they dismantle. The prices in this case range from 2,000 to 4,000 COP 

per unit, meaning that a reciclador getting a damaged monitor can sell it at this price 

or dismantle it himself and maybe earn a little more money. 

The price a cooperative would have to pay, supported by the PRO, to “compete” with 

this IS price in order to be sure to catch a big amount of the CRT-monitors can be 

estimated to 5,000 or 6,000 COP per unit, which is equivalent to 160 or 260 USD/ton. 

The calculations shown in Table 16 are made under the hypothesis that 60% of the 

amount of CRT-monitor waste produced in the next years pass through the hands of 

the recicladores and that a PRO wants to redirect this flow from the IS into the formal 

sector. The initial amounts of CRT-monitor waste are those calculated in the middle 

scenario developed in chapter 3.1. 

The annual cost to redirect the considered quantities of CRT-monitors to a state-ofthe-art 

recycling would be at its maximum around 497,000 USD for 2011 and then 

decrease until reaching 12,000 USD in 2020 according to the decline of CRTmonitors. 

The overall cost for the decade 2011-2020 would be 2.3 millions USD. 

18 As of June 11 th , 2010, the exchange rate of the Colombian Peso is 1,940 COP to 1 US dollar. This 

rate has been taken for all the calculations in this chapter. 

48

Table 16: Calculations of the cost for the diversion of CRT-monitors from informal to formal 

sector (Mio. COP = millions of COP). 

Year 

CRT-monitors 

arriving to the 

IS (60% of 

annual CRT 

waste) 

Cost of diversion to the 

formal sector 

(5,000 COP/unit) 

Mio. COP/year 

USD/year 

Projections 

new PCs sold 

(units) 

Diversion cost in 

% of the new PC 

sales assuming 

890 USD/PC 

2011 192,925 964.6 497,230 2,169,122

3.5.1.3 Social benefits 

Allowing the recicladores to perform the collection of CRT-monitors (or other 

electronic devices) and paying them for this service at least as much as they would 

earn by recovering the materials is a way to achieve one of the goals of an inclusion 

system: to prevent pollution without diminishing the income IS workers have. Such a 

system would benefit a high number of low-skilled workers who are often the ones 

suffering from extreme poverty and social exclusion. Furthermore, avoiding informal 

manual dismantling in inappropriate conditions reduces serious health risks for the 

workers and their families. 

3.5.2 Disassembly in waste cooperatives and municipal recycling centres 

For the time being, Colombia has made many progresses concerning the 

organization of recicladores within cooperatives or associations. The benefits for the 

recicladores belonging to a cooperative are the increase of their revenue 

(cooperatives can negotiate better prices from bigger intermediaries or recycling 

companies), the amelioration of their working conditions (no more work on 

dumpsites, getting tools such as gloves, uniforms, etc.), and the access to credit, 

training and social programs. At present, some of the existing cooperatives have their 

own warehouse or have contracts allowing them to work in the municipal recycling 

centres, sorting and pre-processing recyclables from solid waste. 

With this evolution, some of the once street recicladores are now employed as 

operators in cooperatives deposits or municipal recycling centres and the ones with 

entrepreneurship skills have founded their own recycling business. This is only an 

example of how offering economic alternatives to recicladores allows them to 

ameliorate their income and gives them opportunities to move to others steps in the 

recycling chain improving their quality of life. 

Another alternative to the one presented in the previous chapter is that in addition to 

performing collection, recicladores would be trained for the dismantling of electronic 

devices in adapted workshops. These workshops can initially be set up in the 

cooperatives warehouses, but depending on the collected quantities, it would be 

worth to evolve as e-waste dismantling workshops. Figure 27 presents the computer 

waste and money flows for a system including dismantling by waste cooperatives. 

50

Figure 27: Schematic representations of flows in a future system with the inclusion of waste 

cooperatives in the disassembly step. 

The cooperatives would manage the dismantling of the computer waste without 

further manipulation of the hazardous material containing components, which would 

be transferred to a formal specialized e-waste recycler. 

3.5.2.1 Economical aspects 

In the current context, only formal recyclers are assuming the costs of an 

environmentally sound treatment of the hazardous e-waste fractions. Most informal 

recyclers simply discard them or leave them for the MSW trucks. Offering an efficient 

alternative via the cooperatives to separate correctly what is safe and can be sold 

(e.g. metals, still working parts, etc.), from what is hazardous and needs a proper 

treatment. In this alternative the dismantling is already done in the cooperatives, the 

transport costs for a PRO would thus be lower. Since the reciclador would be paid by 

part of the benefits the cooperative can make by selling the safe and valuable parts 

in the equipment, the PRO would only need to subsidise the transport and treatment 

of the hazardous fraction by a certified formal treatment facility if the benefits that 

could be made by the cooperatives would not cover those costs entirely. 

51

3.5.2.2 Environmental benefits 

Evidently, the dismantling would, in this alternative, not be done by a formal recycler, 

but this does not mean that it would be done under inadequate conditions. The 

cooperatives and all enterprises desirous to do business with e-waste treatment 

would need to follow defined rules and regulations and receive certified training for its 

workers. Compared to a completely formal system, this alternative presents the 

advantage of including at least a part of the informal sector in a formalized e-waste 

treatment system and, thus, limiting the possible reinforcement of the existing 

informal by-market and the associated unsafe practices mentioned earlier. 

3.5.2.3 Social benefits 

As it has been happening in the case of other recyclable solid waste, the alternative 

proposed would allow the formalization of a certain number of recicladores who 

would then be engaged as operators. A formalization of the now informal actors 

would allow them to earn new skills, reinforce their social position and maybe lead to 

the creation of new micro or small recycling businesses. 

3.5.3 Promote formalization of informal businesses 

As stated by some of the intermediaries and recicladores, private companies are 

giving less and less of the e-waste they generate to informal companies who offer to 

buy it. They prefer to give it to officially authorized companies who can certify an 

environmental friendly treatment of the waste they are receiving. This is the reason 

why some of the informal recyclers are interested in entering in the formal business 

by getting licenses from local authorities. These initiatives should really be 

encouraged because they combine all the sustainability criteria: they create new 

skilled and low-skilled jobs, limit the unsafe manipulation of e-waste, and are good 

business opportunities. 

Some of the incentives that would allow the formalization of these businesses are: 

• Granting access to financial aids in order to obtain the starting capital needed, 

for example, by loans or credit programs supported by the government, by 

tributary exemptions during a certain grace period, by the support of 

international entities, foundations, NGO’s or directly from computer producers. 

52

• Receiving capacity building in order to acquire sufficient knowledge and 

knowhow concerning specifically the environmental and health related risks, 

best practices, etc. This training could be given by local agencies having 

gathered profound knowledge on the subject, the MAVDT, CPE’s CENARE 

could serve as a good example. The certification for the workers and technical 

training could possibly be provided by the SENA 19 . 

• Defining precisely the requirements needed to obtain environmental permits 

for e-waste treatment from local authorities. For the time being, in many 

municipalities no official guidelines exist concerning the delivery of these 

environmental permits, in others, the requirements are by far too strict. 

Moreover, the whole e-waste treatment business is rather new and although 

the need for a permit is recognized, the precise procedures are nearly 

undefined. 

3.5.4 Exclusion of the informal sector 

The last alternative considered in this study is the exclusion of the informal sector 

from all e-waste related activities, having decided that only enterprises with 

authorized treatment methods would be allowed to collect e-waste. Two ways of 

implementing such a system exist: an active one, by enforcing a law that prohibits all 

informal processes such as informal collection, dismantling or trade by nonauthorized 

personnel; or a passive one, where such laws might exists, but the main 

effort is made in promoting formal alternatives instead of forbidding the informal 

ones. 

In China a poorly enforced ban of informal activities has been shown to be totally 

unproductive (Williams et al., 2009). In other countries, a too rigid application of such 

a ban has led to the involvement of organized crime and the development of mafialike 

structures in this new illegal market and worsened the general situation (Warren, 

2009; Spies, 2004). Therefore, additional measures are required to reduce this risk. 

19 The “Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje” (SENA) is a public institution that offers free professional 

and technical instruction to millions of Colombian students and workers. The whole program is 

financed by compulsory contributions collected from all Colombian enterprises. 

53

4 FINAL REMARKS 


The market supply method used for the calculation of the computer waste generation 

was already employed in another study (Streicher-Porte et al., 2005) and used as 

validation for a more complex e-waste generation model in Chile (Steubing, 2007). 

The generation data was needed as input for the calculations done in the MFA. An 

adaptation of the market supply method to take into account informal activities (e.g. 

illegal imports) and the recirculation of components, as it occurs in the refurbishment 

process, was made. However, this included the addition of two coefficients and no 

objective data was available to correctly quantify them. The different computer waste 

generation scenarios considered (lower, middle and higher) were, thus, based on 

relatively large variations of these parameters in order to consider a wide range of 

possible values. Another hypothesis made for the waste generation was the constant 

lifespan over the time. Normally, the lifespan of electronic equipments is rather 

decreasing, as the ever-accelerated development of newer technologies reduces the 

time before equipments are considered obsolete. 

The only available study that calculates PC waste in Colombia before is Ott’s study in 

2008. Ott’s calculations were based on five scenarios using import and sales data as 

input and assuming different lifespan or obsolescence rates, the results range until 

2013. The waste generation results computed are in accordance with those by Ott, 

except for the inferior limit, which is lower in this study. This is due to mainly two 

reasons: the consideration of differentiated weights between CRT- and LCD-monitors 

that were not considered in Ott’s study and the inclusion of peripherals in addition to 

computers for some of Ott’s models. The novelty of the present model is the 

differentiation into the type of devices and the resulted computer waste predictions 

until 2020, based on market predictions assumed from literature. The observed 

changes in the waste flow compositions constitute important information for the 

adaptation of the recycling facilities to the differences in treatment between CRT- and 

LCD-monitors or laptops and desktop computers. 

54

4.2 Field survey 

The vast majority of the interviews made during the field survey were made in the 

informal sector. Except for materials or PC component prices, no quantitative data 

was obtained from discussions with informal workers. On the one hand, due to the 

informality of the business, no register is consigned; on the other hand, a certain fear 

of giving information was observed. Most probably, these people think that they might 

get in trouble with the authorities or that these precise questions about their business 

(e.g. quantities and methods) might be used by a competitor. When asked about 

quantities treated per week or per month, people mostly roughly estimated or 

guessed, or just answered that they did not have this information. 

Nevertheless, the great amount of qualitative data obtained through the field survey 

accomplished by the CNPMLTA and complemented by the author allows for a good 

understanding of the relations between the stakeholders present in the IS and the 

processes carried out there. It represented a very good starting point for the 

construction of the model used in the MFA. 

Concerning the gathering of data from formal recyclers, it was quite a time 

consuming task, and most of the time no answers to the questions asked were 

received, either because they did not want to answer, even when knowing the exact 

reason for the query and the aim of the project, or because they would not share the 

information requested arguing it was confidential. However, detailed data from one of 

the processors receiving entire devices, sorted material and especially PWBs from 

other formal companies allowed the estimation of a certain span of e-waste quantities 

for the whole formal e-waste sector. 


The method applied in this study, a MFA based on interviews with main stakeholders 

and field surveys, shows the potential to generate robust results concerning the 

material flows within the formal and the informal sectors. Particularly, it is possible to 

evaluate with precision the potentially hazardous material flows, in order to identify 

55

possible intervention points. Therefore, this model could be used in the future as a 

tool when developing strategic plans for the implementation of alternative systems. 

However, the model relies on certain assumptions; some limiting factors are: 

• By definition, the model is a simplification of the reality; 

• The consumers’ disposal habits are partly estimated; and 

• The model reflects only what is happening in large cities and, although it is 

known that majority of computers are in these areas, it might not reflect the 

nationwide reality. 

Although the model was not implemented precisely aiming at economical analysis or 

environmental assessment, such further applications are feasible. The model 

proposed can serve as a basis for an Economically Extended MFA by introducing 

economical values such as the market price for each flow and the added value for 

each process. The model can also lead to further calculations of the environmental 

impacts associated with each process by introducing data such as material recovery 

(or loss), energy consumption, and emissions generated. 

By adapting some entries, such as consumer habits, refurbishment rate and formal 

disposal possibility, the model could be applied to other e-waste categories such as 

TVs and printers, photocopiers, and video recorders. Nevertheless, other smaller 

devices such as mobile phones, digital cameras, or music devices may not behave 

similarly, especially considering the storage, which might be longer, and or collection 

by MSW trucks. 

Although the quantity of informally processed PWBs is always lower than the one 

that is formally treated, the “worst scenario” features up to 295 tons of computer 

PWBs that might undergo artisanal processes, making this practice perhaps not as 

sporadic as initially thought. However, this practice is really clandestine and the field 

survey did not allow knowing further details, which makes it really complicated the 

discussion of numbers found. The only point of comparison existing is an estimation 

of 5 tons per month given by CI Recycables after their own investigations following a 

decrease in the amount of PWBs received in some cities (Jaramillo, 2010). This 

estimation of 60 tons/year is close to the base scenario, where this represents 76 

tons/year. 

56

5 CONCLUSIONS 

What are the actual e-waste flows handled by the informal sector in Colombia 

The base scenario of the Material Flow Analysis modelled in this study shows that 

54% of the total computer waste generated in 2009 was treated through the informal 

sector, basically by dismantling and trade of the valuable parts, whereas only 14% 

was treated by the formal sector. Depending on the scenario, the recicladores 

contributed with the collection of 2,100 to 5,100 tons of computer waste from 

households, small businesses, and computer shops. Interfaces between the informal 

and the formal sectors are allowing the recovery of metals and the redirection of 

PWBs to formal recycling companies, whereas the non-valuable parts in the informal 

sector such as CRT glass, plastics, and low grade PWBs are being dumped or 

landfilled. 

Furthermore, the refurbishment and upgrading of computers appear to generate 

multiple benefits. First, they constitute the most effective way to reintroduce materials 

and function as a reverse supply chain contributing to the reduction of the flow rates 

throughout the whole system and, thus, moderating the load arriving at the starting e- 

waste recycling industry in Colombia. Second, it is a really profitable market that 

generates much more added value than the recycling industry given that all the parts 

have a higher functional value than what can be earned from their materials, 

redistributing this added value to the creation of jobs and business opportunities. 

Finally, the reverse supply chain feeds an ever-increasing demand for low-cost 

computers contributing to bridging the digital divide. When planning for a new 

system, it is important not to interfere with the existing commercial refurbishment 

activities and, even better, to promote them as they play such an important role. 

Which are the flows or processes to be avoided in the future for a sustainable e- 

waste management system 

Based on the Material Flow Analysis, the most problematic components were 

identified and the corresponding flows analysed. The field survey revealed that in the 

IS, CRT-monitors are often dismantled only because of the copper yoke and some 

57

small metal parts that can be sold, but CRT glass does not have an economic value 

and is often discarded improperly. In the best case, it is brought to a security landfill 

at a high cost by the formal sector; in the worst case, it is simply broken and 

dispersed in the environment. Local recycling solutions need to be found to avoid the 

expensive disposal of CRTs that generate a loss of important quantities of resources 

and can turn the computer recycling non-profitable. In addition to CRT glass, the high 

flows passing through the IS have lead to the unsafe disposal of (usually low-grade) 

PWBs, plastics containing BFRs and other hazardous components (e.g. batteries, 

mercury light tubes). Another undesirable flow are the high quantities of computer 

waste coming from public and private companies penetrating the IS via auctions and 

middlemen that increase the huge amount of informally dismantled PCs coming from 

households. 

How can the current informal e-waste recycling activities in Colombia be integrated 

into a future formal recycling system in a sustainable manner 

The challenge for a successful inclusion of the IS in the context of e-waste recycling 

is to prevent pollution without taking away the income from the working population, 

while at the same time reducing health risks. Basically, two alternatives were 

proposed. The first one consists of an intervention with economic incentives in an 

effort to redirect the most problematic flows into the formal e-waste management 

system. The investment needed for the collection of CRT-monitors by the 

recicladores has been estimated for each year of the period 2011-2020. For the 

decade, the total investment is estimated at 2.3 millions USD, representing less than 

0.01% of the new PC sales (assuming 890 USD/PC). 

The second alternative consists on the formalization of current informal dismantling 

activities by allowing trained workers to perform this activity in adapted workshops 

(e.g. installed in cooperatives warehouses). Additionally, formalization of informal 

enterprises should be promoted at all levels, using financial incentives, providing 

capacity building and training, and by clarifying the certification process. 

Whatever the chosen alternative or solution, it is important to maintain, as long as e- 

waste is collected informally, the existing interfaces between the informal and the 

formal sector, which allow to recover some of the informal flows and divert them 

58

towards a formal treatment and recycling process. The best example for such an 

interface and the subsequent recovery of informally collected e-waste are the PWBs. 

In 2009, more than 220 tons 20 of PWBs – equivalent to between 17% and 31% of the 

total amount depending on the scenario – were treated formally after having been 

collected and removed from their casings by actors of the IS. Eliminating this 

interface (e.g. by prohibiting formal treatment enterprises to acquire PWBs without 

traceable origins) would most probably lead to an increase in informal extraction 

processes, since the metals contained in the PWBs would still be valuable for the IS. 

20 This quantity corresponds to PWBs from computers exclusively. 

59

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who have supported me in the 

completion of this thesis. Special thanks are given to: 

Professor Christian Ludwig and Heinz Böni for the supervision of this thesis. 

Daniel Ott for the supervision, guidance and useful inputs, as well as the revision of 

this document. 

Sandra Rodriguez for her assistance during the fieldwork and her engagement for my 

study. 

The CNPMLTA for the local support during my stay in Colombia, and specially Carlos 

Fernando Cadavid and Carlos Hernandez for the expertise provided. 

Angel Camacho for his valuable expertise, for sharing many useful data about 

Computadores para Educar, and for the interesting and informative visit to the 

CENARE. 

Juan Fernando Jaramillo for sharing information about his company. 

Recicladores and waste cooperatives for giving information about their labour, 

specially the ARB, RECIMED and COOPRESER. 

Laura G. Guzman and Jan P. Robra for the proofreading of the thesis. 

Furthermore, I would like to thank the following institutions for their financial support 

during my stay in Colombia: 

• “Ingénieurs du Monde” Association 

• EPFL 

• EMPA 

60

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waste management developing countries. Habitat International 30: 797-808. 

Wolfensberger M. (2009) Manejo de residuos electrónicos a través del sector 

informal en Santiago de Chile. Plataforma RELAC/IDRC/SUR and Swiss Federal 


http://www.ewasteguide.info/Wolfensberger_2009_RELAC-Empa 

Wolfensberger M. (2010) El sector informal en la gestion de RAEE- Propuesta de un 

modelo de inclusión. Plataforma RELAC/IDRC/SUR and Swiss Federal Laboratories 

for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA). 

Zumbuehl D. (2006) Mass Flow Assessment (MFA) and Assessment of recycling 

strategies for cathode ray tubes (CRTs) for the Cape Metropolitan Area (CMA), 

South Africa. Master thesis, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich (ETHZ) and 

Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA). 

64

8 APPENDIXES 

Appendix A.1: Summary of field visites 

Name of the Place City Description and collected data 

RECIMED 

COOPRESER 

ARB 

CI Metal Comercio 

Universidad Industrial 

de Santander 

El Bazar de los 

Puentes 

Plaza Minorista 

Sector La Paz 

Sector San Francisco 

– Quebradaseca 

San Andresito Centro, 

San Andresito La Isla, 

CC Gratamira 

Medellin 

Bucaramanga 

Bogotá 

Bucaramanga 

Bucaramanga 

Medellin 

Medellin 

Medellin 

Bucaramanga 

Bucaramanga 

Waste cooperative grouping recicladores (still informal 

workers) supported by the municipality and managing 

several warehouses in the city 

Waste cooperative working with formalized 

recicladores. Operates with trucks in residential 

sectors, owns a warehouse for sorting and preconditioning 

and contracts with big companies for the 

commercialization of the materials 

Association grouping several waste cooperatives from 

Bogotá and lobbying for the inclusion of recicladores in 

the municipal solid waste planning, having a contract 

for managing one municipal solid waste warehouse 

PWB classification, prices and informal-formal sector 

interface 

Behavior of a public institution, Information about 

public auctions 

Informal covered market. Many electronic repairing 

shops trading new and used electronic equipments 

and supplies. Some shops buy e-waste and 

particularly PWBs. 

Informal covered market. Many electronic repairing 

shops trading new and used electronic equipments 

and supplies. Informal refurbishment and dismantling 

is broadly practiced inside the building and on the 

neighboring streets. 

Trade of e-waste and dismantling practiced inside 

metal scrap depot or in the streets. People dismantling 

CRT-monitors in the streets. 

In this sector more than 20 chatarrerias and 

warehouses were accounted for out of which 7 were 

interviewed. They all operate in the same way: 

recicladores get e-waste from households, electronic 

malls or IT shops, they dismantle or bring them as a 

whole to the chatarrerías where they trade the valuable 

materials (boards, metal scrap, copper). Chatarrerías 

perform dismantling, sorting and accumulation of big 

quantities. No valuable materials are discarded in the 

street and collected by the MSW truck. When they 

have sufficient quantities, PWBs are sold to CI Metal 

Comercio, an associate of CI Recycables. They are 

then transported to Cartagena and exported. 

These three informal and semi-formal malls have 

special sections for the selling and reparation of 

electronic devices. They all have “contracts” with 

recicladores working in a place reserved in the 

basement for recovering all recyclable materials from 

the building. The recicladores are dismantling e-waste 

and selling valuable parts to chatarrerias in San 

Francisco sector. 

65

Appendix A.2: List of expert interviews 

Person Institution/ Function Place Collected data 

Angel Camacho 

CPE, e-waste area 

coordinator 

Bogotá 

Leydy Suarez MAVDT Bogotá 

Carlos Ramirez MAVDT Bogotá 

Natalia Rincón RECIMED, Director Medellín 

Elsa Maria Coopreser Bucaramanga 

Catalina Melguizo CI Metal Comercio Bucaramanga 

Silvio Ruiz ARB Bogotá 

Carlos Josué León UIS, Inventory chief Bucaramanga 

Germán Realpe Pensar Verde Bogotá 

Sandra Pascua, 

Carlos Ospina and 

Gabriel Müller 

CCIT 

Bogotá 

Carlos Hernandez CNPMLTA Bogotá 

Carlos Cadavid CNPMLTA, Subdirector Medellín 

Sandra Rodriguez CNPMLTA Medellín 

Refurbishment, technical information 

about dismantling and material trading 

Position of the Ministry concerning the 

inclusion of the informal sector in the 

e-waste context 

Formalization process of recicladores 

in the solid waste context 

Cooperative operation, informal 

workers behavior, material prices 

Cooperative operation, informal 

workers behavior 

PWB classification, prices and 

informal-formal sector interface 

Informal sector operation, cooperatives 

contracts with municipalities 

Behavior of a public institution, 

Information about public auctions and 

experience with CPE program 

Disposition options for medium and 

large businesses, middlemen, auctions 

IT formal and informal market in 

Colombia, future establishment of 

CCIT as a PRO and willing to 

cooperate with the informal sector 

Formal and informal sector behavior 

and general information about e-waste 

in Colombia 

Discussion about MFA scenarios and 

inclusion scenarios 

Data and information about field 

studies in Colombian cities. Data about 

formal e-waste processors. 

66

Appendix A.3: List of telephone interviews 

Institution/ Function Person Place Collected data 

Martillo del Banco 

Popular 

Rellenos de Colombia 

Efrén 

Gonzales 

Javier 

Cardozo 

Bogotá 

Bogotá 

PM Group Juan Delgado Cali 

CI Recycables, Director 

eCycling, Director 

Corporación 

Ecoeficiencia 

CDMB (Bucaramanga 

environmental agency) 

Ecoeficiencia 

Juan F. 

Jaramillo 

Esteban 

Jimenez 

Luz Marina 

Acevedo 

Gustavo 

Mantilla 

Jorge 

Merchán 

Cartagena 

Medellín 

Bucaramanga 

Bucaramanga 

Bogotá 

Ecoprocesamiento Bogotá 

Biotratamiento de 

residuos el Muña 

Leonardo 

Bogotá 

Information about public auctions 

Final disposal of e-waste, disposal 

prices 

Quantities of PC waste and particularly 

PWBs collected via the formal and the 

informal sector 

Quantities of PC waste and particularly 

PWBs collected via the formal and the 

informal sector 

Quantities of PC waste collected and 

processes practiced 

General information about the e-waste 

sector in the city 

General information about the e-waste 

sector in the city and work already 

done for the creation of cooperatives in 

the solid waste context 







67

Appendix B.1: Flow scheme for the “Best case” scenario 

Appendix B.2: Flow scheme for the “Worst case” scenario 

68

Appendix C.1: Flow Matrix for the “Best case” scenario 

69

Appendix C.2: Flow Matrix for the “Base” scenario 

70

Appendix C.3: Flow Matrix for the “Worst case” scenario 

71

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