Official Rules - YeaHaw!

A copy of the very good website http://www.ultimatehandbook.com/. Please go there for updated version,
videos, simulations and more ! The Website is designed and maintained by David Jez (Vancouver, BC)
davidj@ee.ubc.ca, Photographs by Kim Godwin & Stephen Chiang
Beginners
Ultimate in 10 Simple Rules 3
Spirit of the Game 4
The Basics of Ultimate 5
The Physics of Flight 9
Learning to Throw Backhand 10
Learning to Throw Forehand 13
After Your First Week 18
Drills 21
The Cheer 22
Buying Cleats 23
Intermediate
The Stack 25
Cutting 28
Catching 31
Marking the Thrower 33
How To Read The Disc 38
Defense
...Player 39
...Zone 44
Offense
...Flow 51
...Player 55
...Zone 58
...Endzone 59
...Berkeley 60
Set Plays
...Standard Play 61
...Coffee Break 62
...The P Play 62
...The Weave 63
...The Looper 64
...Fast Break 65
...The Pull Play 65
Endzone Plays
...The Basics 66
...Mob 66
...Jailbreak 67
...Foreplay 67
...Endzone Soup 67
Drills
...The Basics 69
...3 Player Weave 69
...Square Drill 70
...Box Drill 70
...Breakaway 71
...Seattle Drill 72
...Second Huck 72
...Basic Weave 73
...D Score 74
...Swank Drill 75
...Go-To Drill 79
...Big Box 81
Advanced
Advanced Throws 83
Trick Throws 84
Pulling the Disc 86
Throwing Speed 90
How to Avoid Choking 92
Lazy Person's Defense 93
The Statistics of Dumping 95
Playing Deep on Offense and Defense 96
The Inner Game of Ultimate 98
Defense
...Player 99
...The Clam 100
...Changing Your Defensive Set 105
Offense
...Offensive Thoughts 107
...Re-Thinking The Stack 111
...Throw in Presence of a Mark 113
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This word document was assembled by Bernhard Frötschl (Berlin) with
help from Roman Gerlach, Lars Wolter and Max Mönch in May 2001.
Print it double sided, 2 pages on 1, so you get 63 handy pages!
Drills
...Triple Box 117
...Uphill Scrimmage 119
...Fast Break 121
History
Where the Frisbee First Flew 123
The History of Ultimate 125
Official Rules
UPA 132
WFDF 149
Callahan 165
Captains
How to Start a Team 175
Playing In Tournaments 176
Tournament Organization 177
Basic Stretches 195
Active Isolated Stretching 196
Twist & Stretch 197
Mobility Program 199
ACL Prevention 204
Yoga & Athleticism 207
Nutrition
Top 10 Foods 208
Fluid Intake 209
The Role of Meat 212
Vegetable Matter 217
Nutritional Program 219
For Women Only 222
Brain Drain 225
Game Day 227
Training
Strength Training 229
Improving Your Vertical Leap 232
Hot Stuff
The Ten Commandments Of the Disc 185
Top Ten Rule Changes ... 186
Top Ten Reasons Why ... 186
Snap Krackle Pop - No Frisbee 186
Disc Drive 187
More Than a Simple Fling: Ultimate Frisbee 188
Ultimate Frisbee Tests Character, Fitness 190
Ultimate Frisbee Gets Down and Down 191
Injuries
Ankle Advice 239
Injury Prevention 242
R.I.C.E. 244
Shin Splints 245
Down But Not Out 246
Links 250
Stretching
Glossary 251
Warming Up 194
2

Beginners
Ultimate in 10 Simple Rules
1. The Field — A rectangular shape with endzones at each end. A regulation field is 70 yards by 40 yards, with
endzones 25 yards deep.
2. Initiate Play — Each point begins with both teams lining up on the front of their respective endzone line. The
defense throws („pulls“) the disc to the offense. A regulation game has seven players per team.
3. Scoring — Each time the offense completes a pass in the defense‘s endzone, the offense scores a point.
Play is initiated after each score.
4. Movement of the Disc — The disc may be advanced in any direction by completing a pass to a teammate.
Players may not run with the disc. The person with the disc („thrower“) has ten seconds to throw the disc.
The defender guarding the thrower („marker“) counts out the stall count.
5. Change of possession — When a pass in not completed (e.g. out of bounds, drop, block, interception), the
defense immediately takes possession of the disc and becomes the offense.
6. Substitutions — Players not in the game may replace players in the game after a score and during an injury
timeout.
7. Non-contact — No physical contact is allowed between players. Picks and screens are also prohibited. A
foul occurs when contact is made.
8. Fouls — When a player initiates contact on another player a foul occurs. When a foul disrupts possession,
the play resumes as if the possession was retained. If the player committing the foul disagrees with the foul
call, the play is redone.
9. Self-Refereeing — Players are responsible for their own foul and line calls. Players resolve their own
disputes.
10. Spirit of the Game — Ultimate stresses sportsmanship and fair play. Competitive play is encouraged, but
never at the expense of respect between players, adherence to the rules, and the basic joy of play.
References
http://www.cs.rochester.edu/u/ferguson/ultimate/ultimate-simple.html
3

Spirit of the Game
„Spirit of the Game“, perhaps the central governing principle of ultimate. Ultimate players, by their own
reckoning, are among the more courtly athletes. Respect for one‘s opponent is paramount. In contrast to
crybaby sports like soccer and basketball wherein skilled thespians refine the art of fouling and being fouled, the
official ultimate rules strictly forbid any action—taunting, intentional fouls—that might be construed as bad
sportsmanship. „Often,“ says the introduction to the rules, „a player is in a position where it is clearly to the
player‘s advantage to foul“ or rattle his opponent with taunts, but such tactics are considered „a gross offense
against the spirit of sportsmanship.“ Dennis Rodman, stay right where you are.
The most compelling aspect of ultimate is the absence of penalties. In the preface to the rules, the founding
fathers of the sport, such trusting souls, „assumed that no ultimate player will intentionally violate the rules; thus
there are no harsh penalties for inadvertent infractions.“ (In fact, there really aren‘t any penalties at all.) This
statement is, in its off-hand way, revolutionary. Imagine a country with no way to enforce its laws other than
simply by presuming its citizens would never intentionally violate the law in the first place. Foolish? Naïve? In
ultimate-land, it works.
Should some vicious churl choose to flout the Spirit of the Game, the founding fathers conceived of a simple
safeguard. In place of referees, the players call their own fouls. For instance, if Jane hacks Mary while Mary is
winding up to deliver the huck to end all hucks, Mary simply yells „foul,“ and it‘s a foul. Jane is presumed to have
hacked unintentionally, and play resumes with Mary‘s possession. Since players cannot „foul out,“ a cynic might
think it a toothless sort of foul call, but the Spirit so dominates the sport as to make further disciplinary measures
unnecessary.
In Ultimate, every player is responsible for their own conduct on the field. There‘s no refs to make sure that
everyone acts like grown-ups, so it‘s the responsibility of players to call fouls on themselves if the person they
have fouled does not call the infraction. That‘s right. You can call a foul on yourself. Ultimate relies on the
honour system and the belief that no one will intentionally cheat, much like marriages, the income tax system,
and all-you-can-eat sushi bars. [1]
Ultimate‘s rules, like any sport‘s, can take a while to learn. However, they can, for the most part, be summed up
by the concept of „Spirit.“ Highly competitive play is encouraged, but never at the expense of mutual respect
between players, adherence to the agreed-upon rules of the game or the basic joy of play. The purpose of the
rules of Ultimate is to provide a guideline which describes the way the game is played. It is assumed that no
Ultimate player will intentionally violate the rules; there are no harsh penalties for inadvertent infractions but,
rather, a method for resuming play in a manner which simulated what would most likely have occurred had there
been no infraction. It couldn‘t be much simpler. Spirit allows the game to be played without refs, without
untoward aggression, and without long stoppages in play. It really can‘t be stressed too much. Spirit is what
makes Ultimate so much fun. If you can‘t relate to the concept of Spirit you might be better off trying a different
activity; such as sitting in a darkened room cleaning your firearms and obsessing over conspiracy theories. [2]
References
[1] Mark Schulte, http://www.virginiadynamics.com/ultimate.htm
[2] Vancouver Ultimate League, http://www.vul.bc.ca/
4

The Basics of Ultimate
Who catches a disc better than anyone? Dogs. And they don‘t even have thumbs. It goes to show, a long
history of taking part in team sports and being a jock isn‘t necessary to be an Ultimate player. As even the
briefest exposure to the game demonstrates, running, throwing, and catching are the key physical skills that
make a good Ultimate player. An understanding of strategy and positioning are the most important mental
aspects of the game.
Both sides of the game can be learned easily with practice. The best way to gain those skills is through
exposure to the game. Taking the opportunity to join pick-up games often means getting to play with some
experienced players. Some cities will even offer skills clinics which is an invaluable way to receive top-notch
coaching.
Running
A disc is like a pair of scissors. You‘re not supposed to run with either. There‘s still a lot of running in Ultimate
however. So, don‘t blame anyone if you start feeling fitter and your clothes are getting baggy.
Offensive players are constantly on the look out for open areas to provide the thrower, known as the „handler“,
with targets. This means sudden changes in direction, speed and angle - „cuts“ - to break away from their check
(i.e. the defensive player covering them). Defensive players are reacting to those cuts and anticipating the next
move. When on offense try and think ahead and plan your cuts. If you find one that works against a particular
check, don‘t be afraid to exploit it a few times until they catch on. When on defense try to anticipate where your
check might go so you can prevent, intercept, or block the throw.
Unlike other sports, particularly basketball, you cannot use any other player on the field to impede the progress
of your check. This is called a „pick“. This rule is designed to prevent injuries. Even an unintentional pick can
result in high-speed collisions between players. It‘s of the utmost importance to make sure that everyone on
your team knows how to spot and avoid picks.
One of the reasons there‘s a lot of running in Ultimate is that „turnovers“ occur. This means that during the
course of uninterupted play you may switch from being on offense to defense a number of times. When a
turnover occurs, yell „Turnover“ or „TO“ nice and loud so that the rest of your team can change from offense to
defense quickly. If you are on offense when the turnover occurs and you are unsure where to go - just stick with
whoever is checking you. Also make sure that there are at least as many players from your team as your
opponents‘ between you and your end zone. If not, fall back and check the unguarded player closest to the
endzone. A simple way to remember this is with the following phrase: „always take the runner“ (unguarded
player).
Throwing
There are more ways to throw a disc than you ever imagined. A general rule of thumb is: the sillier the name of
the throw - the stranger the technique required. Most of the time, however, you will rely on three kinds: the
forehand of „flick“, the backhand, and hammer. The backhand is the throw everybody used since day one to
chuck a disc around on the beach. The hammer is an upside-down forehand. The forehand is the most
improbably combination of physics and goofy body language ever invented. After about a million throws you‘ll
start to feel like you don‘t look somewhat silly when you throw a forehand. Don‘t get your hopes up.
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However, long before then you‘ll have developed a forehand throw that actually works. Remember that spin is
the most important factor in a disc‘s flight and try a lot of different, subtle variations. Everybody‘s got their
favourite tip or technique which they will be more than happy to share. Ask around and find out what works for
you.
Catching
For most catches below your shoulder and above your knees the „pancake“ catch is your best bet. Simply trap
the disc between your palms when it approaches. For more extreme situations two or one-handed rim catches
are required. Try to practice one-handed and wrong-handed catches when warming up or doing drills so that
you are always improving your hand/eye coordination.
Remember to watch the disc all the way into your hands and make sure you have caught it before turning and
looking for the next receiver. Another important pointer is to never give up on a disc. Catches that seem
improbably are often quite catchable if they start to hand in the air due to wind or flight angle.
However, do not crash into other players in an attempt to perform a leaping catch. A rule called the „principle of
verticality“ stipulated that each player is entitled to the space above his body. Nor can you hipcheck another
player or hold them down to prevent them from jumping up to catch the disc. Anything beyond the most
incedental contact between players is a foul in Ultimate (unless there‘s tickling involved).
What Happens During a Game
Captains from each team flip a disc simultaneously. A captain or third player calls „Same“ or „Different“ before
the discs hit the ground. If the player‘s call is correct then his/her team has the choice to throw or receive the
first „pull“, or to choose which end zone they would like to defend for the first point. Generally speaking,
choosing to receive the pull is the most logical choice. The team which loses the flip takes the remaining option.
Each team lines up seven players on their respective goal line. The pulling team must stay on or behind their
goal line until the pull occurs. The receiving team must stand on the goal line and maintain their positions
relative to each other until the pull is thrown - to make it easier for each member of the pulling team to figure out
who they will check. If you hear the call „Hold your line“ it means that a receiving team is shifting positions on
the line prior to the pull.
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When the pulling team is ready to begin play, the puller holds the disc above his/her head. When a member of
the receiving team holds their hand above their head to signal readiness, the pull can be thrown.
So, everyboday is in position, smiling, and ready to go. The pull is thrown, the disc sails gracefully towards the
other end zone - a shining miracle of aerodynamics - and the pulling team runs down the field to pick up their
checks and another game of Ultimate is underway. Now the fun really begins.
On the pull, the receiving team does not have to catch the disc to take possession. It can simply be allowed to
land. However, whoever touches the disc first ( either by catching it or picking it up from the ground) must be the
first handler. Usually a receiving team will designate a player to be the handler before the pull, to minimize
confusion. If the disc hits the ground and begins rolling, any player on the receiving team can stop its progress
without having to become the handler.
Because you can‘t run with the disc once caught, players must establish a pivot foot when they are in
possession of the disc. Usually, if you are right-handed it will be your left foot, and vice versa for lefties. You
can‘t drag or lift your foot until you have thrown the disc. If you do so, it‘s a „travelling“ violating.
Unless you are very confident that you‘re going to catch it, let the disc hit the ground. This is very, very
important! If you try and catch the disc, and fail, bobbling the disc and dropping it, then a turnover occurs
(usually just a few meters from your end zone). Which wouldn‘t be so bad if not for the fact that every person
who saw the event will probably mock you mercilessly, your team will be a tad disappointed, and you‘ll have to
think up a lame excuse on short notice. You have been warned!
In the event that the disc flies out of bounds and is caught before touching the ground, the receiving team must
begin on the sideline at the point where the disc went out of bounds.
If the disc flies out of bounds and last the most common choice is invoke the „Middle“ rule. This means that
before the disc hits the ground someone from the receiving team raises his arm and calls „Middle“. This allows
the receiving team to begin play in the middle of the field at the point where the disc crossed the sideline.
If the disc lands in the end zone, then the receiving team can begin play immediately from within the endzone,
or walk the disc to the goal line, touch it to the ground, and begin play from that point. You cannot decide to
begin play from the goal line, and then change your mind and throw the disc prior to reaching the goal line.
If the disc remains airborne and flies out the back of the endzone, it is considered a „Brick“ and play is initiated
in the middle of the field, three meters forward of the goal line.
After the initial pull the receiving team becomes the offense. The offense will usually try to form „stack“. When
you first begin playing, a stack will seem far too pre-meditated and the best option will seem like running willynilly
around the field. The sooner your team can shake themselves of this misapprehension the better. Scrambly
play may seem to work at the beginner level, but it will quickly prove ineffective against more experienced
teams.
When forming a stack the offensive players should get to the stack as quickly as possible, form a straight line
between the thrower and the opponents‘ end zone, and take their rest in the stack rather than jogging to the
stack. This reduces „clogging“. Clogging is a situation where potential receivers are stationary and occupying
the „flat“ (an open area where the thrower could complete a pass to them).
Generally, one side of the field will be open to receivers because the person checking the thrower, the „marker“
is „forcing“ (favouring one side of the thrower to force them to throw to one area of the field) as he/she calls out
the „stall count“. As a rule, try to decide which side your team will force to (usually designated as „home“ or
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„away“) for the duration of the point so that your players can anticipate where to mark if their player catches the
disc, and what area to guard when their check is cutting for a pass.
The marker counts (at one second intervals) „Stall one, Stall two, ... up to „Stall Ten“. If the marker reached Stall
Ten (as soon as he/she begins to speak the word) before the thrower initiates the pass then a turnover occurs.
A fast count is not only against the rules, it‘s very tacky. And who wants to be tacky? In the event of a fast count
by the thrower, two seconds are deducted from the count and play is continued without interruption. A second
fast count call results in a foul. The disc is checked and the count is reset to zero.
The key points for marking are: the marker must be closer than three meters (before initiating the stall count) but
no less than one disc width from the thrower, they cannot straddle the thrower‘s pivot foot, and they cannot
prevent the thrower from pivoting. Only one person can mark the handler at any one time.
In a perfect world, the handler completes his pass, runs to take his position in the stack, and the process
repeats as many times as necessary to get to the end zone and score. Usually, however, there will be a
turnover before a point is scored and it‘s time to switch from offense to defense, or vice versa. Once a point is
scored, the teams swap ends and the scoring team pulls to restart play.
How to Score
To gain points in an Ultimate game you have to have a member of your team catch the disc in the „end zone“. If
you‘re close to the end zone and you catch the disc... Stop! If your team-mates are yelling at you to „Check
Feet!“ you‘re probably in the end-zone. The reason for their insistence if that if you pass the disc inside the end
zone, and the receiver fails to catch the disc, no points are scored and a turnover occurs.
If you decide that you are outisde the end zone, continue play. If your are in the end zone, stop play and
prepare to smile graciously as everyone compliments you on your skill, luck, timing, good looks, or combination
thereof. If you catch the disc, and your momentum carries you into the end zone, go back to the place where
you caught the disc and resume play. You cannot intentially tip or deflect the disc forward into the end zone (or
any part of the field for that matter) and then catch it, although unintentional bobbling to control and catchthe
disc is allowed.
When a point is scored, it is the only time during the regular play that substitutions can occur, unless the
substitution is to replace an injured player. You can’t change the line on the fly as in hockey or when a time-out
is called.
So that‘s Ultimate in a nutshell. It‘s about fun, friends, and chasing a piece of flying molded plastic around the
sky until your tongue is dragging on the field—just so that you can make up a song about the whole experience.
References
The Vancouver Ultimate League, http://www.vul.bc.ca
8

The Physics of Flight
Forward flight splits rushing air at the disk‘s leading edge: half goes over the Frisbee; half goes under. Because
the edge is tipped up, the disk deflects the lower airstream downward. As the Frisbee pushes down on the air,
the air pushes upward on the Frisbee—a force known as aerodynamic lift. The upper airstream is also deflected
downward. Like all viscous fluids, flowing air tends to follow curving surfaces—even when those surfaces bend
away from the airstream. The inward bend of the upper airstream is accompanied by a substantial drop in air
pressure just above the Frisbee, sucking it upward (Bernoulli effect). These two forces taken together tend to
LIFT the Frisbee against gravity.
Limits to the airstream‘s ability to follow a surface explain why a Frisbee flies so poorly upside down. When the
upper airstream tries to follow the sharp curve of an inverted Frisbee‘s hand grip, its inertia breaks it away from
the surface. A swirling air pocket forms behind the Frisbee and destroys the suction, raising the air resistance.
Once this air resistance has sapped the inverted disk‘s forward momentum, it drops like a rock. Players can
take advantage of this effect in a hard-to-catch throw called the hammer.
Rotation is crucial. Without it, even an upright Frisbee would flutter and tumble like a falling leaf, because the
aerodynamic forces aren‘t perfectly centered. Indeed, the lift is often slightly stronger on the forward half of the
Frisbee, and so that half usually rises, causing the Frisbee to flip over. A spinning Frisbee, though, can maintain
its orientation for a long time because it has angular momentum, which dramatically changes the way it
responds to aerodynamic twists, or torques. The careful design of the Frisbee places its lift almost perfectly at
its center. The disk is thicker at its edges, maximizing its angular momentum when it spins. And the tiny ridges
on the Frisbee‘s top surface introduce microscopic turbulence into the layer of air just above the label. Oddly
enough, this turbulence helps to keep the upper airstream attached to the Frisbee, thereby allowing it to travel
farther.
References
Louis A. Bloomfield Professor of Physics, University of Virginia Author of How Things Work: The Physics of
Everyday Life, http://www.scientificamerican.com/1999/0499issue/0499working.html
9

Learning to Throw Backhand
There are two main factors to consider when throwing a disc; forward momentum and centrifugal force (spin). In
other words, a well-thrown disc will have both sufficient wrist „snap“ AND force behind it. Wrist snap is often
overlooked by novices, but is essential to throwing the disc successfully.
Two additional important considerations are the angle to the ground at which the disc is released, and the point
in the throw at which the disc is released. If this all sounds confusing, don‘t worry too much. With disc in hand,
your physical instincts will kick in and grasp the mechanics fairly quickly.
Just as in tennis, there are two main throws: the forehand (aka flick) and the backhand. If you‘ve thrown around
with your friends, you have probably been throwing backhands. Here is some useful advice on this throw.
The Backhand
...The Basic Grip
Shown are a couple of different versions of this grip. It is characterised by the index finger of the throwing hand
being placed along the outside rim of the disc.
The first version has the middle finger of the throwing hand extended towards the center of the disc. This
version gives a high degree of control and stability, since the index finger along the rim helps with direction and
the middle finger supporting the disc supplies stability.
On the down side, there are only two fingers gripping the rim, and this leads to much less power than most of
the other grips. Most of the power in a grip comes from the ripping of the disc off the end of the index finger.
The second version is one rarely seen. It has the index finger on the rim but not the middle finger support. It
gives a little more power as more fingers are gripping the rim, but the power gain is fairly insignificant compared
to the loss of control. Bigger power gains are obtained by having the index finger gripping the rim.
...The Power Grip
This is the most popular grip among experienced throwers, and is the one used by almost all disc golfers. All
fingers are gripping the rim tightly, and there are no fingers supporting the disc.
This means there is a considerable loss of control, since the release point is much harder to judge. A fair degree
of control can be regained through practice, and the loss is offset in some ways by the large power gain
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produced by the disc ripping off the end of the index finger. This grip does however make it harder to throw the
high backhand as there is no support for the sharp upward push on the disc just prior to release.
A certain amount of control also depends on the position of the thumb, and how tight the grip is on the disc. In
general, the tighter the grip, the more spin which is able to be imparted to the disc, and hence better control in
the wind. The thumb can also be placed anywhere from along the rim of the disc to pointing towards the center
of the disc.
The best control, particularly with respect to air bounces, is to have the thumb pointing towards the center of the
disc, and this also aids a tight grip. A tight grip also keeps the disc steady and makes high backhands easier to
throw. On the down side, it seems a little harder to get as much distance with the thumb pointing toward the
middle. This is because of the tendency to drag the thumb across the back edge of the disc on release.
...The Hybrid Grip
As its name suggests, this grip is a combination of the two grips shown above. It provides power with the index
finger gripping the rim. It also gives support in an unusual way. The middle finger of the throwing hand is slightly
extended so that the disc is supported by it.
This grip makes it possible to throw all throws easily, including high backhands, without the need to change
grips. The drawback is a slight loss of power in the throw, in the order of 5m over a 60m throw relative to a
power grip. The comments with regard to thumb position apply equally to the hybrid grip as well as the power
grip. [1]
...The Backhand Throw
Our natural tendency is to directly face the person we‘re throwing the disc to. Unfortunately, this often results in
throws that veer wildly off target. So, position yourself accordingly:
- If you‘re right handed, stand with your right shoulder toward your target; left handers should stand with their
left shoulder facing the target.
- Spread your feet about hip width apart, so that you have a more stable platform to throw from. Flex your
knees slightly, so that your body is not rigid.
- Bring your arm backwards, so that the disc is next to your rear leg and you feel your weight shift slightly
back. Your forearm should not be parallel to the ground, but dropped a bit, so that the disc is at about a 45
degree angle.
Remember, the force in this throw comes not only through arm strength, but from your weight (and body mass)
shifting forward as well.
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- Bring your arm forward with some force. Not a desperate heave, but a smooth, disciplined action. The disc
should remain at an angle to the ground, although that angle may be decreased in a natural, swinging
motion.
- As you bring your arm forward, shift your weight forward and take a slight step ahead with your front foot.
This will add force to the throw, so that your arm doesn‘t have to do all the work.
Here‘s where it all comes together - with the final two components, release point and wrist snap.
- Be aware of where the disc is while your arm is in motion. The point in the motion at which you release the
disc will determine where the disc goes: left, right or straight ahead.
- As you release the disc, snap your wrist forward, so that the disc „jumps“ off the side of your first finger. This
will impart spin to the disc, and stabilize it in flight. The harder you snap the wrist, the more spin the disc
gains and the better the throw will be.
- Be careful to keep your wrist in line with your arm as you snap it. If you allow your thumb to lift upwards,
you‘ll lose control of the disc and it won‘t go anywhere near ist target.
- Continue your arm motion after the disc jumps off your finger. Known as „following through“, this will help
direct the disc towards its target. [2]
...The Backhand Throw - Advanced
In Ultimate, you have to establish a pivot foot and since it is natural for righties to step forward with their left foot
before throwing a baseball, they assume that they should pivot on their right foot. Okay, step back for a moment
and think about how WRONG this is... Try to stand with your right foot stationary and reach as far to your right
as possible, as if you‘re trying to hit a forehand in tennis. Now reach as far to your left as possible (with your
right hand) as if you were trying to hit a backhand.
Not much extension, eh? Alright, now try it with your left as the pivot foot, you can step all the way to one side
with your right foot to hit the forehand, and then step all the way across your body to hit the backhand. MUCH
more extension. In ultimate this is key, because there‘s a big hairy monster standing in front of you trying its
darndest to keep you from throwing around it. The extra extension from pivoting on your left allows you to get
around the monster. Remember, righties pivot on their left foot, lefties on their right.
In the case of the backhand throw, first you step out so that your right foot is in front and to the left of your left
foot (i.e. the line made by your feet is at a 45 degree angle to the direction you want the disc to go). Now put
ALL your weight on your right foot... I‘m serious here, the only reason your left foot is still on the ground is
because it‘s your pivot foot... it‘s good if only the big toe on your left foot is touching the ground. Practice
throwing the backhand in this stance; Always maintain balance!!! [3]
References
[1] Hong Kong Ultimate Players Association, http://www.nunan.com/ultimate/docs/throws.html
[2] Learn2.com, http://www.learn2.com/04/0469/0469.asp
[3] GT Ultimate, http://cyberbuzz.gatech.edu/ultimate/mens/flick.html
12

Learning to Throw Forehand
There are two main factors to consider when throwing a disc; forward momentum and centrifugal force (spin). In
other words, a well-thrown disc will have both sufficient wrist „snap“ AND force behind it. Wrist snap is often
overlooked by novices, but is essential to throwing the disc successfully.
Two additional important considerations are the angle to the ground at which the disc is released, and the point
in the throw at which the disc is released. If this all sounds confusing, don‘t worry too much. With disc in hand,
your physical instincts will kick in and grasp the mechanics fairly quickly.
The Forehand (a.k.a. Flick)
...The Basic Grip
This grip is in principle very similar to the corresponding backhand grip. The middle finger of the throwing hand
is inside the rim and the index finger is extended towards the center of the disc for support.
The advantage of this method is control. The disadvantage is a corresponding loss of power, because the
spreading of the fingers makes it impossible to cock the wrist back as far just before release.
...The Power Grip
There are a couple of different versions of this grip. The first has the index finger next to the middle finger and
hard up against the rim.
This grip increases power since the wrist can now be cocked back further and more snap imparted no the disc.
As expected, there is a loss of control as there is no finger to support the disc. The disc has a tendency to
wobble up and down, and this can reduce distance if the disc and the wrist are not at the same angle at release.
The second is a slight improvement (not pictured), where the index and middle fingers are slightly curled, and
the disc can balance on these two fingers prior to the throw. This grip is more like the hybrid grip below in the
way it provides support. It also makes it easier to throw the high forehand.
Like the backhand, the thumb should be used to grip the disc tightly. This will give better spin and more control
in the wind, since the disc has less tendency to wobble during the wind-up and throw.
13

...The Hybrid Grip
This grip is analogous to the hybrid backhand grip, although it does seem to be more popular and widely used.
Instead of the index finger and middle fingers being parallel, the index finger is slightly bent.
This is exaggerated a little in the diagram. The pad of the index finger is pressed firmly on the rim, as is the pad
of the middle finger. The bend in the index finger can then be used to support the disc, while the wrist can still
be cocked well back for a power throw. The disc can be held out flat and ready to throw, which makes it a good
grip for throwing the high forehand.
...Other Grips
The following grip is an interesting way of helping improve forehand throws in weaker players. Instead of the
pads of the fingers being against the rim, the side of the middle finger is against the rim.
This grip promotes a palm-up follow through, and helps stop people from turning their forehands over on
release. The down side of this grip is that the snap puts lateral pressure on the finger joints, and persistent hard
throws using this grip can damage the joints. It is therefore only recommended as a teaching aid, and not for
use by experienced players. [1]
...The Forehand Throw - Beginner
Your stance here will be quite different from the backhanded throw.
- If you‘re right handed, stand with your left shoulder forward, your torso turned slightly towards your target.
Left handers stand with their right shoulder forward, torso turned slightly towards the target.
- Keep your feet shoulder width apart and your arm behind your rear leg. Flex your knees again, so that your
body‘s not rigid.
- Bring your arm backwards, so that the disc is next to your rear leg and you feel your weight shift slightly
back. Your forearm should not be parallel to the ground, but dropped a bit, so that the disc is at about a 45
degree angle.
In this throw, most of your force will actually come from the wrist snap and weight transfer, as your arm will
move only a short distance.
- Bring your arm forward with considerable force. Your elbow will be the pivot point, and your hand will
actually stop with a jerk before it reaches your front leg.
14

The importance of the release point and wrist snap are magnified with this throw.
- As your arm only travels a short distance, the possible release points are much closer together. Even a
slight variance will greatly affect the flight direction.
- A good starting point is to release the disc just after your wrist crosses your rear leg. The disc angle must be
fairly steep when released.
Snap your wrist quite firmly as you release. This throw will not be successful unless the disc has good spin.
After the disc leaves your hand, your first two fingers should remain firmly extended. Following through is not
necessary or desirable in this instance.
...Common Problems with the Forehand Throw
The single most common fault is that the disc will turn over hitting the ground. This fault is caused by one or
more of the following:
- The angle of release is wrong
- The disc wobbles too much
- Turning the wrist over during the release
- Not enough spin, especially with unstable discs or into the wind
- Using a circular swing rather than „straight“ at the target
- Not enough distance
..Solutions
The angle of release is wrong
Usually the edge furthest away from the thrower is too high. If a beginner thinks he‘s releasing it level it
generally has the outer tip up.
- Lifting a leg and throwing under it. As well as forcing the release to be lower this also tends to keep far edge
lower. It can also help get more flick into the throw. This not only works 75% of the time but also gets
beginners psyched as hell; not only did they learn a new throw, but, in their mind, they learned a „trick“
throw as well.
- Stand closer and downwind so that you don‘t have to throw it harder.
The disc wobbles too much
- Keeping the disc flat during the swing. Avoid wind-ups where the disc is not in the horizontal plane.
- Pull the disc rather than push it onto its flight path. Pulling the disc keeps the flight plate of the disc trailing
behind the axis of the motion.
Turning the wrist over during the release
- Practice a palm facing up follow through. (Not a recommended technique for advanced throwers because it
puts too much sideways force on the finger joints )
The disc does not spin enough
15

- Using a motion similar to flicking a towel
- Start with the disc cocked (or „wound up“) as back as it can go. Check your grip.
- Using more wrist rather than arm
- Focus on the „catapult“ feeling that one gets in the middle finger
- Pulling the disc forward with the fingers on the inside rim
- Using a circular swing rather than „straight“ at the target
- Lead the throw with the elbow
- Follow through by pointing throwing hand at the target
Not enough distance
- Don‘t worry about it if you’re a beginner. Just more practice is required to get those finger muscles
strengthened and the flick automatic. Most beginners try to throw the disc rather than flick it. Thus, if they
concentrate on proper release angle (arm and disk) and imparting spin on the disc, a flick of the wrist, they
tend to get the basics down quickly. Once the basics are there, the distance will
Not enough accuracy
- Check that the grip is not finger tips only and the swing is not circular, but in line to the target.
- Can‘t remember all of the tips at once.
- Return to basics. Remind yourself what it was like to learn, try throwing opposite handed for a while. [2]
The Forehand Throw - Advanced
Remember the pivot foot! First you step out so that your right foot is in front and to the right of your left foot (i.e.
the line made by your feet is at a 45 degree angle to the direction you want the disc to go). Now put ALL your
weight on your right foot... The only reason your left foot is still on the ground is because it‘s your pivot foot... it‘s
good if only the big toe on your left foot is touching the ground.
One mistake that people make is keeping their elbow pinned into their waist and flinging the disc forward. This is
BAD. You want to start with your elbow near shoulder height and the disc into your body.
Differences:
- Notice at the top the elbow is pinched in, while at the bottom the elbow is out away from the body. At the
top, she is leaning back, while at the bottom her weight is far forward and to the side.
- At the bottom, her follow-through is far below the release point. This causes the back of the disc to drop
down slightly, which allows you to throw with more touch. Note that you can actually see a tiny bit of the
underside of the disc... This affects the flight by slowing it down as it travels and causes it to hang. This is
good because you can throw the disc to a part of the field and have it almost stop completely. It will then just
hang there for a second or two for someone to run on to.
- One thing she‘s doing wrong in both pictures is that her arm never fully extends. When you snap down with
your elbow, it whips your hand around, so that with very little effort you can generate a tremendous amount
of speed (like snapping a towel). But you can only take advantage of this by fully extending your arm at the
16

exact moment you flick the disc off your middle finger. Note also that follow-through should be palm-up and
down and across your body.
So when you‘re trying to practice this, these are the main points to remember:
- Righties pivot on their left foot.
- Don‘t step too far out, as you need to get your entire weight over your one leg.
- Lean far forward and to the side.
- Start with your elbow about shoulder height and disc into the body.
- The snap starts with your elbow shooting down, whipping your hand around.
- Your arm should be FULLY extended at the exact moment of release.
- Follow through DOWN, with your palm facing up.
- You should hold the disc so that your wrist is never bent... i.e., so that the back of your hand is in the same
plane as the back of your forearm.[2]
References
[1] Frisbee Australia, http://www.afda.com/skills/grips.htm
[2] Compiled by Maurice Cinquini with input from bo186@cleveland.Freenet.Edu (Retsu Takahashi),
markh@sag4.ssl.berkeley.edu (Mark Hurwitz), lind@ils.nwu.edu (Jeff Lind), jims@bnr.ca (Jim Spallin),
mwaa+@andrew.cmu.edu (Matthew S. Weiss), trills@matai.vuw.ac.nz (Judi Lapsley),
pastore@humu.NOSC.Mil (Thomas J. Pastore), ferguson@cs.rochester.edu (George Ferguson),
70540.1522@compuserve.com (Eric Simon), fau@po.CWRU.Edu (Francis A. Uy) donc@ISI.EDU,
http://www.cs.uiowa.edu/~willemsn/ultimate/teaching_forehand
17

After Your First Week
Now that you‘ve got your first week of Ultimate under your belt and you‘ve been completely and utterly
swamped with people trying to help, let‘s talk about what the hell they have been saying to you. Ultimate has
more phrases than a millipede has legs.
The Stall Count
Every player has 10 seconds to throw the disc. If your check (i.e. the player defending you when you have the
disc) is not counting, please remind them to count out loud to 10; often newer players forget. If someone is
counting too fast you may call fast count; at this point they must go back 2 in the stall count. If they continue to
count too fast and you call it again within the same stall count, the play stops and the count goes back to 0.
Picks
If any player on the field impedes the progress of a defensive player trying to check their offensive counterpart,
the defensive player should call pick very loudly so play does not continue. If play continues and the disc is
turned over, the turnover. The defensive player must be within 10 feet (3 meters) of their check to call a pick.
Double Teams
Only one defensive player may be within 10 feet of the thrower unless another offensive player is within a 10
foot radius of the thrower.
Fouls
Fouls are the result of physical contact between opposing players. A catching foul may be called when there is
contact between opposing players in the process of attempting a catch, interception, or knock down. A certain
amount of incidental contact during or immediately after the catching attempt is often unavoidable and is not a
foul. If a player contacts an opponent before the disc arrives and thereby interferes with that opponent‘s attempt
to make a play on the disc, that player has committed a foul. If a player‘s attempt to make a play on the disc
causes significant impact with a legitimately positioned stationary opponent, before or after the disc arrives, it is
considered „harmful endangerment“ and is a foul.
DANGEROUS, AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR OR RECKLESS DISREGARD FOR THE SAFETY OF FELLOW
PLAYERS IS ALWAYS A FOUL.
If a catching foul occurs and is uncontested, the player fouled gains possession at the point of the infraction. If
the call is disputed, the disc goes back to the thrower. If an uncontested foul occurs in the end zone, the player
fouled gains possession at the closest point on the goal line to the infraction.
Throwing fouls are when the thrower‘s passing motion is impeded by a moving marker prior to releasing the
disc. If the marker is stationary the thrower may not step into them to complete a pass.
18

Strips
A defensive player may not knock the disc from the hands of an offensive player.
Traveling
The offensive player may not drag their pivot foot or run with the disc. A player who is running and catching
must try to stop as quickly as possible (3 steps maximum) prior to throwing to a teammate.
These are the most common rules. If someone is constantly breaking a rule, it may not be because they are
unspirited; it may be because they don‘t know the rules.
Transition
I see it every time I watch newer players play Ultimate. They are on offense running down the field and a
turnover occurs. It takes a second or two for them to realize that, „Hey, my team doesn‘t have the disc
anymore,“ and by this time their check has run into the endzone and is wide open for a few seconds.
Ultimate is a very high paced game and turnovers occur quite frequently. If you see the disc hit the ground, you
should immediately find your check because he is going to try and roast you like you have never been roasted
before. The instinct to become a defensive player is not natural. You are going one way, in control of everything,
and then all of the sudden all the control is taken away from your team and given to your opponents. But there is
something you can do about this. Get the disc back by playing some incredibly gnarly, layout, in your face D.
Transition defense may also get some help form the marker. Your team should have picked a direction to force
the disc in the event that you would wind up on defense. If the person who is, or will be marking the disc, sees
someone wide open down field, he should put on what is called a „Straight Up Force“ for a few stall counts in
order for that open person‘s check to catch up to him. By playing a straight up force, the marker is trying to
prevent the thrower from hucking the disc a long distance. The marker should try to get back to the original force
direction before too long or he will get broken, thus giving all the advantage back to the offense.
More experienced players: You should be reading the play as it moves down field and if you see a potential
turnover situation you should be preparing yourself to play defense before the disc even comes close to hitting
the ground. This way you will be prepared to shut down the huck if someone on your team gets roasted by quick
transition. This does not mean „don‘t have faith in your teammates“. You may be surprised how your team can
come out of an adverse situation. As an experienced player you should have two or three strategies planned out
for many different eventualities. If the pass is caught by a teammate you may find yourself wide open because
your defender thought there would be a turnover. [1]
Holding the Force
This is probably one of the most misunderstood phrases in the game for new players. I will try to clarify it for
you. The field has an imaginary line that originates at the disc and runs from end zone to end zone, parallel to
the sideline. Got it!? All your stuff and your teammates‘ stuff and your water bottles and lawn chairs and
umbrellas and your coolers full of beer and ... your ... this is the „Home“ side. The other side is the „Away“ side.
At the beginning of each point your team should decide which way it is going to force your opponents to throw.
For this example say you are forcing the thrower „Home“. This means that you are making a commitment to
your teammates that you will not let the thrower throw to the „Away“ or „Closed“ side of the field. You should
position yourself so that your body and arms are in a plane (not wrapping around the thrower as this is a foul)
and you are at anywhere from a 45 to 90 degree angle to the thrower. (If you are at 90 degrees you would be
facing directly „Home.“) From this position you should be light enough on your feet that if the thrower tries to
step around your force (either forward or backward) you can move quickly to shut down the new angle the
thrower establishes. Maintaining a force is critical as your teammates are depending on you to make the thrower
throw in one particular direction. While you are forcing „Home“ your teammates are trying not to let their checks
get open on the „Home“ of „Open“ side of the field. The figure below illustrates the „Home“ force.
19

Reverse everything for an „Away“ force.
Common phrases you’ll here on the ultimate field are:
„Don‘t get broken“
„Nothing Out“
„No I/O“ or „No Inside/Out.“
„No step around“
All of these translate to HOLD THE FORCE. Have I made it painfully obvious yet that holding the force is
probably the most important concept in defense?
References
[1] Mich‘s Guide to Ultimate (Vancouver Ultimate League), http://www.vul.bc.ca/
[2] Ian „Scott“ Scotland Issue 34, November 1996, Page 11 British Ultimate Federation (BUF) Newsletter
Ultimatum
20

Drills
Throwing in Pairs
Each pair stands a comfortable distance apart and completes passes between each other to practice the basic
techniques of throwing a forehand and backhand. This is used as a basic warm-up and practice at all levels of
play.
Variations:
Get the throwers to throw high, floating passes to practice high catches.
Increase the distance between the throwers to practice longer passes.
Wheel Relay
Forms a well-spaced circle facing inwards and with one person holding a disc. The first person passes the disc
to their right and then runs around the outside of the circle in the opposite direction (clockwise). The disc is
passed around the circle and meets the thrower as they arrive back in place. They pass it on to the next player
(on the right) who then does the same thing. The relay continues until it is the original thrower‘s turn.
Try to get players to throw backhands if right-handed and forehands if left-handed.
Variations:
Change the directions of passing and running so that both forehands and backhands are practiced. [2]
Diamond Drill
Form two stacks of at least three players each, facing each other behind cones about 15m apart. The first player
from one line cuts to their right and is thrown the disc by the first player in the other stack. The thrower then
makes the next cut to the other line, while the receiver continues through to join the end of the opposite line
from which they came. Two extra cones may be used to provide a cutting and throwing target. After a while
change the direction of cuts so that both backhands and forehands are practiced.
Variations:
Challenge the players to get 10 connections in a row.
Have the receivers stop and return the disc to the line before joining the end of the line.
Put a check on the thrower. [2]
Kill Drill
One person stands stationary for the entire drill. Second person starts out only about 4 to 5 meters away. Cuts
from throwers left to right. Stationary person throws forehand (or inside out backhand) to cutting person quickly.
Cutter sets, plants, and returns throw with a backhand and immediately cuts in the opposite direction. Thrower
rewards cutter with a backhand this time. Cutter returns a forehand. Continue this drill for a timed period, then
cutter becomes stationary thrower, and thrower becomes cutter.
Circle Drill
To run this drill properly, you need about 14 players. 11 of the players are on offense and stand in a circle. The
remaining 3 players are on defense and are in the center of the circle. The circle should be at least 30 feet
across. These numbers are all adjustable depending on the number of participants you have.
The goal of the drill is for the offense to keep completing passes between each other while the defense tries to
force turnovers. Each player on the offense can throw to any other player on offense except for the two players
closest to them on both sides. The defense is arranged with one player marking the disc and the other two
playing a loose cup to try to poach passes across the circle.
21

Hammers and bloopers over the heads of the defenders are not allowed. Players on the offense cannot run into
the circle to catch a short throw, but they can run out of the circle to catch a long throw. Each set of defenders
stays in for five minutes. If an incompletion occurs, the guilty party must do a lap around the circle.
The strategy for the offense is to keep moving the disc as fast as possible to tire out the defenders. The defense
must work hard to force incompletions. [1]
Three Player
This is a great warmup drill before practice. It does not involve a great deal of running, but it is non-stop action.
At any given point during the drill there is a thrower, receiver and a marker. After releasing the disc, the roles
change: the receiver has the disc and becomes the thrower, the old thrower becomes the marker and must run
down and mark the disc. The receiver must be stationary. The thrower and the receiver should be about 20 feet
apart. The stall count is 5 seconds and the marker should start stalling at 6 (ie, „Stall 6, 7 8, 9, 10 STALL!“). If
the throw is incomplete, players do not switch roles. Keep trying until you make a completion. [1]
The more pressure the marker puts on the thrower the better the drill is. This is an excellent way to teach new
players how to make a good throw when there is a defender. The thrower should try to break the mark and then,
barring that, take what she or he can get. Hammers are declasse, but anything else is good.
References
[1] Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow/drills/BasicWeave.html
[2] AFDA, http://www.afda.com/development/drills/index.html#pivotthrow
The Cheer
The first time you’re at an Ultimate game you might notice a lot of singing going on at the end of a game. That‘s
because a quick Hip-Hip-Hooray to the other team just doesn‘t cut it in Ultimate. At the end of each game each
team creates a customized cheer to salute their opponents.
Usually it consists of taking a song that everybody knows and making up lyrics to commemorate the fun you had
playing with your opponents. Recounting the game‘s highlights is nice, a little friendly slagging doesn‘t hurt, and
naughty lyrics are welcomed.
If you feel you can’t sing or aren‘t very good at coming up with words, don‘t worry. Enthusiasm counts more than
talent when it comes to the cheer. It‘s just another extension of Spirit. No matter how bad or good your team did
on that particular day, it‘s pretty hard to take yourself too seriously when a bunch of people are massacring a
perfectly good pop song with off-key singing and x-rated lyrics.
22

Buying Cleats
Buying the right kind of cleats is an essential skill for any ultimate player. A poor choice could result in severe
blistering, ankle problems, and even injury. Because there have been so many questions posted about this
subject, I decided to take a survey using the rec.sport.disc newsgroup. In total, over 60 people responded,
giving information about their favorite cleats, what they like about them, what they don't like, how they think
cleats should be improved. The results of this survey are shown below.
The biggest challenge I had was organizing the information into a format that people could use effectively. I
decided on choosing the five most popular cleats and outlining their plus and minuses. Keep in mind that all
these comments are based on consensus. There will undoubtedly be players who disagree with some of the
results.
Below are some useful comments made by players:
"I usually get leather cleats big enough to shrink a little, then I soak them down and wear them while they dry.
They get broke in pretty quick and the leather is soft, light, and comfortable. Right now for soft mud I have a pair
with six removable cleats, and for everything else I have one with about thirty-something molded cleats."
"It really comes down to what you feel comfortable with and what gives you the best traction on the type of turf
you are playing on."
"Seems like you need two sets. One for soft flat fields, screw ins, and one for rock hard baylands cement. I've
thought of this a lot and have come to a couple conclusions: Football versus soccer screw-ins. Football design
makes more sense for the type of cutting we do on the field. A good receiver or d-back football style will last
longer than the soccer do. Made for more abuse by the cuts instead of ball control. The toe cleat on a football
cleat is important in cutting. High or mid tops recommended. I see so many ultimate players with these light
soccer shoes wearing those damn ankle braces it makes me sick. You'll get much more protection with
integrated mid or high top support than adding a bulky uncomfortable brace. Getting the shoe that fits your foot
is the main thing. And not a cheap pair either. It's your feet-- take care of them."
"If you get too much traction, knee injuries are knocking at the door."
" The difference in comfort and the process of being broken in is entirely different when there is a nice leather
shoe versus a synthetic shoe. That is one of the reasons I like soccer cleats more than football cleats."
"Keep the distance between your foot and the bottom of the shoe to a minimum - it decreases the chance of
rolling your ankle. The problem this poses is a matter of comfort for the bottom of your feet."
"While some folks will choose one pair for tourneys and one for practice, I prefer to alternate each time I play...
with ultimate five days a week (two practices, two summer league nights, one pick-up) in the Summer, it helps
me to maintain the upkeep of both feet and shoes to switch up cleats"
"Soccer cleats in general work well as long as the ground is soft/gives a little. We've had several seasons in the
past few years where the fields have gotten excessively hard after a drought period. With soccer cleats, this
hard ground can cause a lot of problems from the impact with the ground. I had some trouble with my knees last
year for this very reason. Shorter studs, and more of them, is good because it more evenly distributes the
impact."
GAIA Strike ($ 84.99 USD) (http://www.gaia-ultimate.com)
Positive Comments:
- Pretty durable
- Very comfortable
- No break in needed
- Great ankle support
- Lighter by far than other cleats.
- Good for wet conditions
- Toe is reinforced which is a big deal when you pivot a lot (my old cleats always wore out on the pivot foot
toe)
- I love the super hard base on the gaia, it gives you a very solid surface to push off when cutting on hard
ground.
23

Negative Comments:
2nd pair of Gaias don't fit as well as the first pair I bought. Despite being the identical model and size.
- Me and all my teammates have noticed that you need at least a heel cup if not an extra sole with these.
If they can fix the fit a little, they'll be pretty much perfect.
- They are showing wear after a year.
- They take some time to stretch in the toebox. It took me about 2 months before I thought they were
comfortable.
- The only thing that would make them better is for the cleats to be moved closer to the edge of the sole.
Adidas Copa Mundial ($ 99.99 USD) (http://www.adidas.com)
Positive Comments:
- Good for gripping the ground
- Soft kangaroo leather breaks in immediately, lasts forever.
- Lightweight and fast
- I use it because it is a molded cleat that works well on the hard california surfaces where we have most of
our tournaments.
- Flexible
- No blisters ever, light, lasts for years even with a beating
Negative Comments:
- Better insoles. Weren't cushioned enough in the heel.
- Adidas makes narrow shoes and my feet aren't so narrow. I've been leaning towards the Nike's which are
wider.
A little more ankle support would be great
- They expand a little bit too much when it gets wet up here in Oregon.
- Most of the Addidas models have little or no insole, and don't work well with my orthodics.
- Every Addidas I have owned has developed a gaping hole on the toe or on the side near the front.
- With soccer cleats, hard ground can cause a lot of problems from the impact. I had some trouble with my
knees last year for this very reason.
Nike Sharks ($80-120 USD) (http://www.nike.com)
Positive Comments:
- Pretty lightweight and breathable for hightops and grip well
- Provide a lot of ankle support, so much so that I stopped wearing an ankle brace pretty soon after an injury
and have not reinsured it.
- I've been leaning towards the Nike's which are wider.
- I have had them for 3+ years and still wear them regularly.
- solid, available, less ankle rotation than screw-ins.
- They have a little more cushion than the most addidas cleats.
- The assorted "teeth" make them wearable on a variety of surfaces. Good for summer at venues with
variable (grass coverage/drainage) pitch qualities, especially where the ground is hard under the grass.
Negative Comments:
- Partially made of fake suede-like material that rips pretty easily when wet. So, I have gaping holes where
my arch flairs out to couple with my big toe. However, I can still wear them and it doesn't seem to detract
from the comfort or performance
Kelme Turf Shoe ($80 USD) (http://www.kelme.com)
Positive Comments:
- The Kelme Turf shoes rock for hard fields
- They have a wide toebox
- If you have a wide foot get Kelme Turf shoes. They are great on dry ground and your feet will thank you.
Negative Comments
- Turf shoes clog in wet conditions
Nike Speed TDs ($80 USD) (http://www.nike.com)
Positive Comments:
- The shoes are super light, great for traction, and the baseplate curves up on the sides to prevent your foot
from sliding around when making hard cuts.
- They're very very very light; they have an excellent cleat pattern, similar to Slams, but with longer, and
round cleats that are better for really mushy conditions.
24

Intermediate
The Stack
Ultimate is a game of flow. A good offense is characterized by quick passes, one after the other, that quickly
move up the field. One of the most tell-tale signs of a beginner team is the problem of ‚clogging‘. With fourteen
players on the field at any given time, twelve of which are running in order to try and get open for the pass,
things very quickly get chaotic, and disorganized. People begin to find that it is difficult to get open because
someone is always in their way. Because picks are a violation in ultimate, you also find that occasionally you
must stop so that you don‘t inadvertently pick an opponent. The most common strategy for reducing clogging is
called ‚stacking‘.
The idea behind the stack is simply to make room on the field. Essentially, the players line up down the field
from the disc. The first player lines up about 15-20 yards away, and the other players line up behind, with a
separation of about 5-10 yards. Because ultimate is most commonly played using a ‚player-on-player‘ defense,
this draws the opposing team into a similar configuration. The field directly ahead of the disc is now opened up
for pass reception. Generally, players at the head of the stack (closest to the disc) are called ‚handlers‘, players
in the middle are called ‚mids‘, and players towards the end of the stack are ‚longs‘.
Theory
Players can now make running plays to try and get open for the pass. This is usually done in a cascade of ‚cuts‘.
The player at the beginning of the stack runs towards the thrower, and then cuts sharply to the right or the left
(those with knee injuries will want to moderate the severity of the cut to reduce joint stress). This sharp cut
usually gets the player a step or two in front of the defense. It is important to get eye contact with the thrower
just before the cut. This running pattern gives the offense good chances for leading passes (thrown in front of,
not at, the running player).
If the thrower elects not to attempt a pass, the runner will circle back and re-enter the stack (preferably near
where they began). By the time the runner begins to circle back, the second runner in the stack should already
be making her cut. It takes some ‚field sense‘ in order to determine the optimum time for making a cut, but you
want the thrower to have a new pass option immediately after an old one evaporates—this ensures best usage
of the 10 second stall count.
If the pass is received, someone further along in the stack should immediately begin to run. This way, when the
receiver (now thrower) turns around, a pass option opens up right away.
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Player ‚1‘ has just made a successful pass to Player ‚2‘, and has begun to run up-field in order to re-enter the
stack. Further up the stack, a mid has just started running (#1). By the time ‚2‘ looks up-field, Cut #1 is already
happening—there should be an opportunity for a quick successive pass. If #1 does not look good, another
player in the stack should already be making Cut #2. By the time #1 or #2 receives the pass, Player ‚1‘ may be
ready to receive another pass, or else they can look downfield towards the stack which has now moved back a
few yards.
Finally, as mid-field is reached, players continue to make cuts, but ‚longs‘ can now begin to think about making
a short cut inwards, and then attempting to make runs at the end-zone. This is done while the handlers and
mids continue to attempt this steady cascading ‚weave‘ up the field.
A player has just received the disc. They look down the field, and see that Cut #1 is already happening. It is a
long, who immediately turns down field and breaks for the end-zone. If she is out-distancing her defender, it
may be possible to throw a long bomb for a scoring attempt. If it doesn‘t look good, Cut #2 is already happening,
and provides the opportunity for a short pass. Otherwise, the previous thrower may be getting into position
across the field for a third option.
This cyclical type of play, with the cascade of cutting runners makes a very fast flowing offense possible
because the running patterns do not cross each other chaotically. Instead, the offense attempts to set a tempo
of short quick passes, with the opportunity of surprise long passes to get the disc up the field. When this is
executed well, it is beautiful to watch.
In Practice
There is no question that it takes a great deal of practice to make these kinds of plays smooth. And when you
look at the diagrams that I have drawn, things look very complicated. When should you run, and how? In this
section, I‘ll discuss briefly the tactics at an individual level that will make it possible for the stack to work for the
team.
Guidelines for the Cutter
The key to the stack is order. By order, I mean a nice sequence of running. It requires a sense of timing which
may take some time to develop. The idea is to always have someone cutting towards an open space so that the
thrower has opportunities to move the disc forward. If you are the first cutter, begin running as soon as the disc
is received. Make eye contact with the thrower, then quickly go one way or the other. If the thrower does not
26

pass to you, get out of the way. By getting out of the way quickly, you draw your defender with you. This give
the next cutter an open area to work with. If you are the second cutter, if you see that the disc is not going to be
thrown to the first, then begin running immediately, make eye contact, and then a cut. Every run should be
aimed at providing a new pass opportunity immediately after the last.
As the disc moves down the field, the stack should be slowly backstepping to follow the movement.
Guidelines for the Thrower
Once you‘ve received your pass, turn around quickly and look upfield. If your stack is good, someone should
already be cutting. This is your best chance to make a pass—before someone catches up to you and begins
counting.
If your team is running well, there should be an abundance of passing opportunities. The most important thing in
passing is to ‚lead‘ the receiver by throwing the disc ahead of them, not at them. A throw directly at the receiver
will cause them to try and immediately stop. If they cannot stop, the defender will be right there to intercept the
late pass. If the defender is too close, you might consider waiting for the next cut. Try to meet the eyes of your
receiver just before they make the cut. This will give you an indication of what‘s going to happen.
Finally, once you‘ve released the disc, RUN. A common error is to stand and watch your own pass. Everyone
does it. But people who run right after they‘ve thrown the disc are very hard to cover—they usually end up
ahead of their defender by a couple of steps. Unless you‘re sure that the toss you just made is a real stinker,
just start running down the field. It might mean that you get the pass right back.
Clogging
If your team has developed enough to actually have a stack and after you or anyone else on your team has cut
you may hear people yelling, „Clear Out“ or „Don‘t Clog“.
What is happening and why are people yelling?
The person (let‘s say you) who has cut to the easiest open area of the field is now sort of hanging around
making it next to impossible for anyone else to cut to that area.
Why doesn‘t someone cut somewhere else?
If someone cuts to a spot behind you farther down field then the thrower not only has to make a longer pass, but
they have to throw it around you, around your defender and to a much harder area of the field.
If someone cuts to the other side of the field then the thrower has to try to break the force and the defense will
do everything that they can to not let this happen.
What should I do now?
You should run like crazy to the back of the stack (farthest from the disc), always looking to see if someone is
going to throw you the disc or you should come behind the disc for a dump (more on this later). The main
objective here is to get out of the way, BUT to also run to an area where you may still be effective in the overall
offence. If you run to the back of the stack you may eventually have to come back in to get the disc again or you
may get a pass thrown to you while you are clearing out that scores your team a point. You may also wind up
behind the disc where you are now a second option for the thrower. If no one is getting open down field the
thrower may turn to you and give you the disc (you still have to work to get open).
As a side note for every player, Man, Woman, Experienced or New, there is nothing wrong with throwing a
dump pass. I repeat, there is nothing wrong with throwing a dump pass. The best teams in the world have dump
passes built in to their offense. It changes the position of the disc on the field, thus making the defense change
position (this may allow for a split second of reaction time in favor of the offence) and it gives your team another
10 seconds to throw the disc.
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For those of you who take this to heart, good, now look for the give and go pass—you may catch your defender
napping.
DUMP IT, DON‘T PUMP IT!
If your team has the disc, the other team can‘t score.
References
http://www.nunan.com/ultimate/docs/strategy.html
Cutting
When you cut, you run to an open space on the field to attempt to receive a pass. This is done by some
combination of running as fast as you can and faking to make the defender think you‘re running to a different
area. Cuts should accomplish one of three things:
1. Gain yardage
2. Move the disc to a better position on the field
3. Maintain possession
Most passes should be type 1, where the receiver is relatively far downfield. Type 2 passes will get the frisbee
away from the sideline or else go to an unmarked thrower. Type 3 passes should be for high stall count dumps
or else for weaker throwers. Usually you want a handler making the type 3 cuts. [1]
Know Your Thrower
One of the first things to remember when cutting is who are you cutting for. It is not much use being ten meters
free on the break side if the thrower is a beginner who is not even going to try to break the force. If you have a
thrower who likes to throw the break throw, sometimes an effective cut consists of heading straight for the break
side, assuming your defender will be a few steps behind. This is more effective the more your defender marks
on the open side. Try and know what throws the thrower likes and make your cuts accordingly.
Outsmart your Defender
The next thing to look at is your defender. There will be some times when you can simply run past your
defender. This is not great practice for when you are being marked by a good defender, but hey...open is open.
Other times you may be being marked by someone who is fast, but slow to change direction. A hard run one
way followed by a quick direction change always loses them. In general, though, you will be marked by
someone of roughly your own ability, and the rest of the section will assume that.
Chances are your defender will set up a few meters in front of you, and slightly on the open side. The defender‘s
aim is always to be able to watch you. As a result, an effective cut generally makes the defender have to turn
around. The best way to do this is to run directly at the defender. The defender will back away, but assuming
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you can run faster forwards than they can backwards, they will eventually have to turn. When this happens, put
in a fake or two until the defender, who should be looking in the other direction, goes the wrong way. You should
then be open.
The mistake a lot of cutters make is to start faking sideways while their defender is still able to watch them. The
defender can just stand and watch and when the cutter finally goes one way the defender will follow without any
trouble.
Defender Proximity
The closer you get to the defender the more difficult it is for them to react to your movement. If you make your
cut out in front of them, the defender can see which way you are going and take a step to the side to be right
with you. If you run right up close to the defender and break to one side or the other, then by the time the
defender can start moving you will be past them.
Short or deep?
When you do what your defender expects it makes it a lot harder to get open. Forcing the defender to choose
what cut to cover gives you the advantage. One good way to do this is to start running deep. By running down
the field you force your defender to cover you since they don‘t want you to catch a huck. Once you go deep the
defense will often run past you to cover the deep throw, or will at least be running near you at a high speed.
Either way you can hit the brakes and turn around to cut in towards the disc and usually end up with your
defender behind you. This technique can be especially effective with good timing. Try to run deep at a point
where you could actually get a huck. Then catch the huck if you get it, or wait until the next throw happens. Turn
around right as that throw goes, so you will be open running in towards the disc right when the person with the
disc looks downfield for a receiver.
This can also work in the reverse direction. If you don‘t get open cutting in, turn around and run deep. Again,
with good timing you could be open deep just at the point when the next catch is made and the receiver is
looking downfield.
Distractions everywhere!
Cuts can also be useful in distracting the defense to help other cuts get open. I often make cuts against the
force to give the marker something to worry about. This can make it easier for the thrower to get off a good
throw with the force or up the middle.
Where is the disc?
This is an advanced technique which is one of my favorites because you get to mess with your defender‘s head.
As I mentioned above I usually get front guarded with my defender looking at me. This means that they don‘t
always have firsthand information about where the disc is. Waiting patiently in the stack I look at where the disc
is. After the next throw I don‘t shift my view to where the disc went. If my defender doesn‘t look to see where the
disc went they may get caught out of position (and if they do look, make the cut when they aren‘t looking). Then
I wait for an opening and make my cut.
Always Be a Threat
The best way to improve your cutting skills is to learn a great variety of cuts that go in many directions. Then
based on where your defender is and where the disc and the force is going you can choose a cut with the best
possibility for success. And even better, when your defender knows you can cut in any direction, it makes it
easier to get open even on the simplest of cuts. [2]
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Various Cutting Techniques
It is important to build up a repertoire of cuts. Everyone has a couple of favorite cuts they make successfully
over and over. But in top competition or against difficult defenses, the old favorites may not work. You need to
be able to adapt your cuts to the game and your particular position and, most importantly, to keep the defense
guessing.
Basic Cut
The basic cut to the disc is a side-to-side variation. The cutter fakes going to one side and then turns hard to cut
to the other side. If you can disguise your direction then the defender will have to react quicker to stay with you.
As you make your cut you can tilt your head and/or shoulders in one direction while planting your feet to cut in
the other.
To turn as rapidly as possible, remember:
Keep your weight low
Make fewer, more powerful steps
Run Fast
Either taking off quickly or running fast can simply get you past your defender.
Shoulder Cut
This involves getting your inside shoulder and leg in front of the defender and then protecting you cut with your
body.
Banana Cut
When the defender is overplaying your forward cut, you can fade out to the open side and away from the disc at
about 45 degrees. The throw is a high, loopy, slow, leading pass which you run down. The defender is stuck in
no-man’s land, and is often unsighted.
Goose Step
This simply involves a rapid change of pace and/or direction, which the defender fails to respond to quickly
enough.
From the Back
From the back of the stack, fake to cut deep (and away from the stack to avoid a pick), and then turn sharply
back to the disc and run parallel with the stack. The throw should be slow enough to make it a simple catch and
allow a larger margin of error.
From the Front
From the front of the stack, fake forward to the open side and then turn sharply to run up the break side of the
stack and then look for the huck down the open sideline. You should be attacking the disc with a good sight of it
coming over the shoulder, not watching it floating over your head.
747 Cut
This is a head fake. Watch the imaginary disc going up-field and past you. As soon as your defender looks
around, make the cut to the disc.
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Eclipse Cut
This is similar to the cut from behind the disc. Run towards the thrower and end up close and on the break side,
effectively eclipsing the thrower with the marker. Then button-hook around and flare out on the open side to
receive a leading pass.
Fake the Catch
Run to one side, jump and pretend to receive the disc at about head height, then turn and cut in the other
direction.
Isolation cut (Moose)
Start off standing out on the open side of the stack and at least 10m from the stack proper. Make sure you are
reasonably close to the thrower (15m at most). You then have the freedom to make any cut you like to get free.
The most usual cuts are to fake short and cut long, or vice versa. This is EXTREMELY difficult to stop if the
cutter makes hard turns. It is especially useful in a line trap situation, and can make for massive gains with a
good huck down the line.
From Behind the Disc - Break Side (Cooee)
Stand behind and to the break side of the thrower. Fake going for the dump and then run forward and slightly
across to the open side. The throw should be early and slow, so that the receiver can easily run it down.
Alternatively, fake the cut forward and come back for the easy dump. This is a valuable cut for when the thrower
is trapped on the line where it is called the „cooee“ cut. [2]
References
[1] Jim Parinella, http://www.tiac.net/users/parinell/tip4
[2] Tom Brennan and Jonathan Potts, http://www.afda.com/skills/
Catching
Catching is an underrated skill in ultimate. Some very experienced players are lazy and display poor catching
techniques, and this is reflected in frequent drops. A good catcher makes difficult catches look easy and
impossible catches look gettable. It is often said that if you get a hand to a disc you should catch it. More
correctly, if the disc is thrown to you, you should make your best attempt to catch it. Desperation wins games.
On the other hand, poor catching can often lose games.
Two-Handed Catching
Using two hands is essential for catches from just below the knees to just above the top of the head and at least
a foot either side of the body. There are a few different styles of catching, used under different circumstances.
Most straightforward catches will use the pancake style, while harder passes, particularly those when the
receiver is running at speed may use the crocodile style. Only catches that are too high or two low to be caught
safely with palms facing each other should be caught with both hands on the rim.
Pancake Catch
Whenever possible, catches should be attempted two-handed, with the palms facing each other. The pancake
style is close to the body, with hands at right angles to each other. The receiver should attempt to get their body
behind the direction of travel of the disc. It has the advantage that if the catch is mistimed, there is a good
31

chance that the disc will hit the body of the receiver and still be caught between the hands. This is the style that
should be used for the majority of throws as it is least prone to error.
Crocodile Catch
The crocodile style is out in front of the body with arms almost parallel, and often with some of the impact being
absorbed by the fore-arms. As for the pancake catch, the receiver should attempt to get their body behind the
disc. The reason in this case is to get the arms in line with the direction of travel of the disc. The main use for
this type of catch is when the disc is travelling at speed relative to the receiver. The forearms provide a longer
area to decelerate the disc over, and hard throws are less likely to be dropped. The disadvantage is that
because the arms are roughly parallel, the disc has a tendency to flip out sideways if the arms do not move
directly up and down towards each other.
Rim Catch
Catches with both hands on the rim are risky and rarely necessary. They should only be used if the disc is well
above the head or the around ankles, and in the latter case only when it is not possible or reasonable to dive or
slide to catch it. The disc should be caught with both hands on the leading edge, one hand on either side of the
disc. The reason rim catches are risky is that they have a tendency to spin out of the hands sideways, a
tendency which is stopped by catching the disc on top and bottom.
Layout Catch
Often, it is necessary to layout in order to get near enough to the disc to attempt a catch or to get away from
striving defenders. The style should be either a „crocodile“ catch or a rim catch, preferably the former. Twohanded
layout catches may well be more difficult than one-handed because it is harder to cushion the impact
with the ground. This impact often dislodges the disc, and is called a ground strip. To avoid being ground
stripped, the catcher should try to keep the arms from hitting the ground, and use the rest of the body to take the
impact. This is one time when a rim catch has the advantage, because once the disc is in the hands, it is much
harder to dislodge.
One-Handed Catching
A one-handed catch should be attempted anywhere where it is difficult or impossible to catch with two hands.
Having to stretch a bit or avoiding falling on the ground is not an excuse for catching one-handed. Catches
around the ankles, well above the head, or far to either side must necessarily be caught with one hand. When
the disc is skied above receivers and defenders heads in the air it is usually most advantageous to contest it
with one hand. If the disc is above the elbow, it should be caught thumb down, otherwise thumb up: experience
will show the difference.
One-handed catches are attempted on the rim of the disc, but should preferably NOT be on the leading edge.
The „sweet spot“ for catching is to one side of the most leading point on the edge, depending on the direction of
spin. This is because both angular and linear momentum must be absorbed by the catch. Experimentation will
help most in understanding this.
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The One-Handed Layout
One-handed layouts are easier on the body than two-handed layouts, since there is more flexibility in the
position that the receiver can land in. The fingers will be underneath the disc with the thumb on top. A tight grip
is needed once the disc is caught to avoid being ground stripped. As for the two-handed layout, the receiver
should try to keep the arm with the disc, or at least the elbow, off the ground.
Final Comments About Catching
As mentioned above, contested catches are much harder to make than uncontested catches. The receiver has
to actually catch the disc, while the defender usually only has to get a finger to the disc to make the D. As a
result, the defender can often be in a slightly worse position and still be able get the block. For example, a
defender can jump from behind and often get a hand in on the disc, although they would never be able to catch
it from there. To avoid this, the receiver can try and occupy the position that the defender wants to be in while
still preventing the defender from getting the best position for catching (and note that they are not necessarily
the same).
Lastly, be aware of the rules, and what constitutes a foul or a strip. If you have the disc in your possession, and
it is knocked out, either by the defender knocking the disc or any part of your body, that is a strip, and you retain
possession of the disc if the strip is not contested. If you do not have possession of the disc, but you are
prevented from making a play on it by the defender hitting your body, that is a foul. If the foul was in the act of
catching, you get possession of the disc. Otherwise it goes back to the thrower. Also, remember that while most
fouls are against the defense, you can just as easily commit a foul as receiver. You only have the rights to the
space which you occupy, and directly above you, and contact with people outside that space can be called as a
foul. Read the rules for more elaboration, and only call fouls which are actually fouls.
References
[1] Tom Brennan and Jonathan Potts, http://www.afda.com/skills/
Marking The Thrower
In a player-to-player defense, the marker is responsible for preventing the thrower from throwing the disc to a
large area of the field. The team should agree in advance on a significant object or objects on each side of the
field, say a clubhouse on one side and trees on the other, or use generic terms such as „Home“ and „Away“
which can apply to any field. The marker then calls a force, eg „Force clubhouse“, which means that he will only
let the thrower throw to that side of the field. He does this by standing at about 45° to the thrower on the
opposite side to the force. The defenders then assume that throws are far more likely to come to the force side,
and defend accordingly.
It is the marker’s responsibility not to let the thrower throw in the opposite direction to the force. If this happens,
it is called a break of force, and often results in the opposition getting two or three easy passes in a row, as the
defenders are assuming that the force will be held. If a break happens, the marker should call „Break“ loudly
and clearly for the benefit of the defenders.
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Tactics
Which direction to choose to force in the first place is determined by the marker, but influenced by a number of
factors. Often a team will have a plan in advance for which way to force in any given situation. These include:
Force Middle
The thrower is always forced towards the middle of the field. This is quite common, as it stops teams from
stringing a number of passes together down a sideline („Flow“).
Force Line (Trap)
The thrower is always forced towards the nearest sideline. This is used against teams with weaker throwers, as
it leaves only a very small area on the side of the field for the thrower to throw into. The disadvantage is that
with good throwers, it leaves the endzone fairly open, and makes goals off one or two passes much more likely.
Force to a Particular Side
Always force to a particular side eg „Force clubhouse“, regardless of where the thrower is. This is easy for both
marker and defender as they always know how to mark up, but suffers from the same danger as force line.
Force Wind
The thrower is always forced into/against the wind. This is also effective against weak throwers.
Trap For One
The first throw is forced towards the nearest sideline, but after that, the plan reverts to some other force. This is
designed to make the first pass difficult, but removes the disadvantage of always forcing line.
Force Up
Force up, or force straight up, means that the marker stands directly in front of the thrower, and does not force
to a particular side. This is usually only used for a couple of seconds, to prevent the thrower getting a quick pass
away. The marker then reverts to a directional force. It may however be used effectively to stop teams who are
hucking a lot, but places a heavy load on the defenders. It can also be used against weak throwers.
Basic Marking
Marking is an active process, not a passive one. It involves reacting to whatever the thrower is doing to try to
make any throw a more difficult one. The harder the marker works, and the better the mark, the less work
defenders have to do to shut down their receivers.
So how do you put a good mark on a thrower? The following are general tips to improve your marking if you are
not already doing them:
Keep on the Balls of Your Feet
You have to be able to react and move quickly, and this is not possible if you are back on your heels. You have
much better balance if you are leaning slightly forwards.
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Keep Your Weight Low
Crouch down, or at least bend your knees slightly. If you are marking well you should feel the effort in your
quads. This allows you to get your hands low and also gives you much better balance.
Keep Your Hands Low and Arms Spread
This also helps your balance. Obviously though, if you are trying to prevent a high throw, that arm will have to
be up. In general, the arm on the force side should always be as low as possible, since it is much harder to
throw a good throw from higher up.
Learn to Read Fakes
Many throwers make weak fakes without ever intending to throw. If you can pick these up, you will not be
sucked in to following them and leaving an easy throw open.
Don’t Over-commit on the Open Side
It is not your job to block an open side throw. That is the defenders’ responsibility. If you let the thrower break
because you tried too hard to block an open side throw, that is your fault.
Call „UP!“ Loudly When the Thrower Throws
This allows the defenders to glance around to see where the disc is, since they will otherwise be watching the
receivers. If the throw is hucked, call „Up long“, to allow the people marking the opposing deep players time to
see the disc. [4]
Advanced Marking
All of the Basic Marking tips are generalizations. Most of the tips will apply to most players, but for really good
marking, nothing beats knowing the thrower. If you know which throws a thrower prefers, which fakes they use
and how they like to break the force, you can modify your marking style and you are far more likely both to get
hand blocks and mark more effectively.
There are also times in the game when a standard mark is inappropriate, and something different is called for.
Being able to recognize these situations is important, and knowing how to react to them even more so.
Hands High/Low?
Usually it is better to keep both your hands low, since low throws tend to be more dangerous, but this is not
always the case. If you are marking a player who likes hammers or high backhands then it may be wise to keep
your right hand up. This gives you a chance of blocking either of these high release throws.
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Watch Fakes
As mentioned above, try not to fall for obvious or weak fakes. This is easier if you know the thrower, since they
tend to use the same fakes to try to throw you off.
Straight Up Force
There are a few times in a game when a force to one side is inappropriate. Usually this is just after a huck, when
you may be marking the person who has just caught the huck, and there is a man free in the endzone. The
thrower will be trying to hit this man before the rest of the defense catches up. In this case, it is your job to make
it as difficult for the thrower for as long as possible. The best way is to use a straight up force. This means that
instead of standing to one side of the thrower, you stand directly in front and try and block any throw. Usually it
is best to drop back a meter or two to maximize the time you have to see the disc coming. This type of force will
only be used for a few seconds, until the defense has time to regroup.
Preventing the Huck
There are also times in the game when it is obvious that the thrower wants to huck the disc, mostly when
someone is running free long. You need to recognize these situations and make it as difficult as possible for the
thrower to get a good long throw off. This will most often involve a straight up force. Follow all of the fakes,
because it is important to make the huck as difficult as possible, even at the cost of an easy short throw.
Recognize that most players prefer to huck backhand, so overplay the backhand side of the force to stop them.
As with a straight up force, you will only usually need to mark like this for a few seconds.
Where are the receivers?
If you have particularly good game sense or peripheral vision, you may be able to tell where the potential
receivers are. In this case you can overplay that side of the force a little. One way you may be able to tell is by
watching the thrower’s eyes - it is difficult to fake effectively with your eyes. Another way is from communication
from defenders and the sideline. „No break!“ is a call to overplay the break side. „Strike!“ is a call from a
defender to switch the force to the other side for a second, as a receiver is open on the open side.
Marking Off
The marker is allowed to stand one disc width from the thrower, but it is not always best to stand this close.
Against weak throwers, it is fine to pressure them by standing as close as possible. However, against strong
throwers who enjoy throwing inside-out and break passes, it is often best to drop back about a meter. The
advantage of this is that there is an extra fraction of a second after the throw for the marker to get their hand in
position for a block, particularly against the inside-out pass. In theory this may seem insignificant, but in practice
that fraction of a second is often the difference between a throw going under or over the marker‘s hand and the
marker getting the block. The other advantage is that if a block is made, it is much less likely to be called for a
foul because the disc is more likely to have left the thrower‘s hand.
On the down side, there is less pressure on wide throws to the open side, and it is a little easier to break the
force with a wide throw since the marker has moved their body away from blocking the break side. The
advantages appear to outweigh the disadvantages, however.
Strike
A strike occurs when the marker temporarily switches the direction of the force. There are a couple of instances
when this comes in useful.
The first is when there is a high stall count on the thrower already. If the count is at 8 or 9 it is obvious that the
thrower will have to throw almost immediately. The usual throw is a huck on the open side. By employing a
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strike, the marker may be suddenly in a position to block this throw, since they are now standing on what was
previously the open side. There is then a good chance of a stall, throwaway or block.
The second is called by one of the defenders. If the man being defended by one of the defenders gets free on
the open side, the defender may call „Strike“. This tells the marker to switch force for a second or two to stop the
easy pass to this cutter. After a second, the marker will switch back, by which stage hopefully the defender will
be close to their man again, or the pass will no longer look so inviting. This is not a good call to make if there are
also men free on the break side, and it should be used carefully. The marker needs to be listening carefully to
make sure they switch immediately.
Hand Blocks
Along with layouts, hand blocks are one of the big psych-inducing plays in a game of Ultimate. However, hand
blocks are not something that can be generated at will, despite some people’s thoughts to the contrary. They
are a combination of good positioning and balance, support from defenders, quick reactions, the right (wrong??)
throw, and a certain amount of luck. As well, they are not something that should be aimed for. Actively
attempting hand blocks tends to be a sure fire way to let the thrower get an easy break.
The best way to improve your chances of getting hand blocks is simply to improve your general marker defense.
A hard mark should make any kind of break throw a risky proposition at best and a guaranteed turnover at
worst. A hard mark is not much use though unless the defenders are doing their job.
If the thrower always has an easy open side throw, not even the best marker in the world is going to get a hand
block. As a result, hand blocks are as much an effort of the defenders as the marker.
The number one mistake when marking a good player is to mark too close. Marking close is effective against
inexperienced players because they are usually too intimidated to pivot well and get around the force. Most
good players, on the other hand look at a close mark as being a license to break the force. I have found that
standing back about a meter from the thrower has improved my marking a great deal. The distance to stand
back is a personal thing, but it gives you a split second of extra time after the thrower releases the disc. This
allows you to move your arms, and may be the difference between getting the block and having the throw go
over or under your arm. The other reason to stand back is to do with fouls. If you are a meter away and get your
hand on the disc, it is unlikely that the disc is still in the thrower‘s hand. If you are right up close and get your
hand on the disc there is a good chance that it is still in the thrower‘s hand, and you will have a strip or foul
called against you. Standing off a bit reduces the chance of a block being called a foul.
The other things to increase chances of hand blocks are standard things to improve marker defense. Keep your
weight low and between your feet. This improves your balance, and makes it much easier to slide around to
either side to stop a throw. Have your knees bent, and move your whole body and not just your arms when
covering the thrower. It is too easy to keep your feet still and simply reach out with your arms. The further you
try to reach, the less balanced you are and the higher the likelihood that you will not be able to follow the
thrower as effectively when they pivot.
Watch the disc, the eyes of the thrower and their navel. The eyes tell you where the thrower wants to throw. The
navel shows you where the center of mass of the thrower is. They will not be able to pivot without moving it, so it
is better than being faked out by head fakes, body fakes and leg fakes.
The disc should be watched with care. You need to watch the disc to be able to move your hands to get a block,
but you also need to avoid being taken in by disc fakes. Keep your hands low. This is most important for the
hand on the open side. Most break throws on this side go under the hand of the marker. The positioning of the
other hand depends a bit on your knowledge of the thrower. If you think they are likely to throw a hammer or
high backhand, then keeping that hand high is a better idea. Otherwise, keep that hand low also. It tends to take
longer to throw these high throws effectively, so you can always move your hands if the thrower winds up for
one of these.
Finally, if the thrower goes for a hammer, jump for it. Even if it is a fake, it usually takes them almost as much
time to recover as it does for you. Letting a hammer out on the break side is no better for your team than a
forehand or a backhand.
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So, in summary, the main points are:
- Stand back
- Watch disc, eyes, navel
- Keep balanced
- Hands low
- Know your thrower
Above all, remember that marking is an active process, and not a passive one. You are trying to prevent the
thrower from getting an easy pass away - make it hard for him. Keep moving, keep your hands active, but don’t
let them break.[4]
References
[1] Mich’s Guide to Ultimate, http://www.vul.bc.ca/part1.htm
[2] Ultimate Beginner’s Notes, http://www.sunnybrook.utoronto.ca:8080/~liu/ultimate/strategy/stack.html
[3] Jim Parinella, http://www.tiac.net/users/parinell/tip4
[4] Tom Brennan and Jonathan Potts, http://www.afda.com/skills/
[5] Alan Harder, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow/drills/CuttingTips.html
How to Read the Disc
In Ultimate, every position requires catching the disc. Therefore, every Ultimate player needs to be able to judge
where a thrown disc will go. This skill is called „reading the disc“ by people who know how to do it. With the right
technique and lots of practice, you can be one of these attractive, intelligent, and highly successful people! You
can probably already read low, flat throws, but you may have difficulty reading high or curving ones. Here‘s how.
Principles
You cannot outrun a disc, especially near the end of a high throw that tails off to one side.
You don‘t have to run under the disc the whole time.
If you can estimate the disc‘s destination, you can run straight there. Maybe you can even catch it.
Procedure
Look at the disc in the air for a moment.
Is it tilting down to one side? If so, run to that side of the disc.
Is it starting to accelerate to that side? Run even more to that side.
Look at the disc often as you run. Readjust as necessary.
Tips
Never run directly under a curving throw. The disc gains velocity as it curves, and it‘s almost always faster than
you at the end of its flight.
If you’re new at reading, overestimate. Run „too far“ to the side the disc will curve to. Just as it‘s easier for a
38

aseball outfielder to overestimate and run forward for a catch than to underestimate and backpedal, it‘s easier
for you to overestimate and come back to the disc than to underestimate and try to outrun it.
Remember, you want to beat the disc to its destination. If your initial estimate of its path is correct, you’ll run in a
straight line the whole way, giving you a chance to get there first. Also, it‘ll let you position yourself well against
a defender.
Conclusion
It‘s hard to learn to read. You will invariably make a poor estimate and end up in the wrong place. Don‘t worry
about mistakes. Just make your best estimate, then run there with confidence. If you‘re right, you‘ll get a chance
at the disc. If you‘re wrong, you‘ll learn from it. Reading the disc consistently comes only with experience and
repetition.
References
http://www.cwru.edu/orgs/ultimate/tips/read_the_disc.html
Defense
Defense: Player
The simplest approach to defense is player-on-player. At the beginning of a point both teams line up on their
endzone lines. Each player on the team that is pulling will pick an opposing player to mark. With player-onplayer
defense (commonly known – at the risk of being sexist – as a „man“ defense) you stay as close to your
opponent as you can, following them whenever they make a cut, and trying to beat them to the disc. The
problem with this kind of defense is that it is very tiring and there are often „mismatched“ players– for instance, a
tall player being marked by a short one, or a very fast player being marked by a slower player. Introducing some
simple defensive strategies will help your team apply a much more effective player-on-player defense. [1]
Using the Force
The defender marking the player with the disc can limit where the thrower can throw to by positioning
themselves so that they block off one side of the pitch. For instance, if the defender stands on the thrower’s left,
the thrower can then only throw to their right. By doing this, the pitch is effectively divided into two parts: the
„open“ side that the thrower can throw to, and the „closed“ (or „blind“) side which they can’t throw to.
This is called „establishing a force“ on the thrower, because the marker is forcing them to throw in one direction
only. If a good strong force is put on the thrower, the disc should never go to the closed side, so the rest of the
defensive team theoretically now only have half the work to do – they only need to cover their player when he or
she cuts to the open side.
Make sure that you do not get drawn too far towards the open side, as a thrower that is quick at pivoting will turn
and throw around your force before you have time to react. Don’t try to get a block on a pass to the open side,
as they may be faking in order to pull you out of position and break the force.
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Finally, it’s vital that you let your team-mates know which way you are forcing. Call „Home“ or „Away“ when you
start marking the thrower, to indicate the direction in which you are forcing. Your team-mates will then know
which side of the pitch to cover without having to turn and look.
Marking the Receiver
Face Guarding
Face guarding refers to defending by always facing the player you are marking and always trying to stay
between them and the disc. They will usually run directly at you, trying to get you to turn away.
In face-marking, each defender stands about three meters in front of their player, facing them, and slightly to the
forced (open) side. You should try to maintain a position which is in a direct line to where the cutter is trying to
cut. You will need to back-pedal (run backwards) as the cut starts and the offensive player closes the gap
between them.
You should remain facing your player until you hear an „up!“ call, regardless of how many times the cutter
dukes, fakes and baulks. Turning to look away from your player gives them the opportunity to get away from
you. It is also a good idea to focus on the belly-button of the cutter, as this is the center of mass, so that head
fakes and leg fakes can be ignored. You should go for the lay-out block when the disc is thrown.
Side Marking
The problem with face guarding is that a disc can often come close enough to get a block on, but because you
are looking away you miss the chance. Most defenders prefer to watch the disc as well as their player. This has
the advantage that you are more likely to be able to get a block on the disc since you can see when it is thrown,
but the problem is that you are not focussing all of your attention on the player you are marking. This tends to
make it easier for them to get away. There are different levels of this sort of defense, ranging from the
occasional glance toward the disc, to facing the disc and trying to defend by looking over your shoulders.
The most common is side marking, where the defender stands slightly on the open side of their player, the
thrower is almost directly to one side and their player directly on the other side. By turning your head slightly you
can see both the disc and your player. The cutter will usually try and sprint past you on the open side, as this is
the way to make you turn the most. You should be aware of this cut and try and position yourself so that the
cutter has to cut through you to make it.
One of the other possibilities is facing the disc all of the time. This is very difficult to do well, and a good cutter
will usually get free eventually. The aim is to watch the disc, but know where the cutter is all the time. This can
be done by both looking and listening. Without looking at the cutter, it is possible to tell where they are by
listening to footsteps, both rhythm and loudness, as well as breathing and any calls they are making. This
information is combined with other clues, such as shadows (this is easy at night when the ground is lit), where
the thrower is looking, and the occasional glance over the shoulder. If done well this can be very effective,
although it is susceptible to a cut away from the disc, since you may only notice an absence of clues. [2]
Stopping the Flow
No matter how hard you try, your player will sometimes receiver the disc. If this happens your priority is to stop
the flow. The aim of a flow offence is to move the disc quickly down one flank of the pitch. If you were close to
your player when they receive the disc you should be able to quickly get across and block the pass down the
flank, thus forcing them to throw back towards the center of the pitch. It is extremely important not to give up
even if your marker is getting away from you, because you may still be able to stop the flow if you are close
enough.
Bear in mind that if you have stopped the flow by blocking the pass up the line, you have quite possibly also
changed the direction of the force (what was the open side has now become the closed side and vice versa). It’s
important to communicate this to the rest of your team by calling either „home“ or „away“. [1]
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Example 1
Playing player-to-player defense starts with a good force and everyone denying the player that they are
covering to get open on the forced side of the field.
Example 2
Often times when playing person-to-person defense, the disc will begin on the sideline or work its way there. A
team may take advantage of this by forcing the disc up the sideline and allowing one person to play in the
narrow passing lane. This set up is called a sideline trap and is shown below. When a defender sits in the
passing lane guarding no specific player while the other defenders still play person-to-person, this defender is
said to be poaching. [3]
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Advanced Strategy
It is easy to make generalizations about what the defenders should be doing. In reality, it depends a lot on who
they are marking, both in terms of where their receiver is standing and the physical attributes of the receiver.
It should also be kept in mind that ultimate is a team game. Just because you have shut your man down doesn‘t
mean that your team won‘t be scored on. Part of playing good defense is playing good team defense as well.
Defending Short Players
By short here, we mean short as in close to the disc, not vertically challenged!
Generally the best spot to set up is about 3-4m in front of the receiver, slightly towards the open side. The
defender is relying on the marker to stop any throws on the break side, so he allows a small amount of leeway
on that side. It is much more important to make sure the receiver does not get free on the open side. The
receiver will usually run at the defender, fake to throw the defender off, and then run hard in a direction. To
avoid the receiver getting free, the defender needs to be able to stay in front of the receiver, usually by running
backwards so that he can see the receiver. As soon as the defender has to turn around it is much easier for the
receiver to get free.
In Brief:
- Face the receiver
- Try and maintain the distance between you and the receiver as the receiver runs at you
- Avoid turning around
- If the receiver fakes a direction change, follow slightly, but do not commit until you are sure
- You can let the defender get a little further in front on the break side than the open side, as the marker
shouldn‘t be letting the thrower throw that side
Defending Deep Players
Marking deep players is slightly different. To mark the deepest player, the defender should usually stand just
behind the receiver, and on the open side. This is so that if the thrower hucks long, the defender is in a better
position to get the disc, as he is further back. Obviously, it allows the receiver to make easier cuts in for the disc,
but this is much better than having a goal scored.
Disc In The Air
Once the disc is called up, the defenders should glance around to see where the disc is. It is possible that they
could make a play on it. This is more important if the call is „Up long“, as conceivably quite a few players will
have a play on the disc. The defenders need as much time as possible to have a chance to establish good
position early.
Switching
If used correctly, switching is a good method of shutting down a good cut. If used poorly, it is a good way of
leaving a man completely open. Switching requires good timing and understanding. There are two main sorts of
switch.
The first is the lazy switch, where the players are simply switching because the other‘s receiver is closer. As
with all switches, both defenders need to know who their new receiver is. They should also make sure that they
are not causing a defensive mismatch eg a short fast player marking a tall player.
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The second is a switch on to a cutter. The player calling the switch will usually be near the front of the stack and
will see a cutter coming from deep. He should wait as long as possible to call the switch, and at the last minute
change receivers. This allows the other defender time to pick up the free man, without giving the free man too
much time to plan a cut. The switcher needs to talk to the other defender to make sure the free player is picked
up.
Once players have played together for a while, they may be able to switch just by glancing at each other and
nodding, or something similar. Switching is not recommended for beginners, as it teaches bad habits.
Poaching
Poaching is generally looked down upon in ultimate as „a bad thing“, mostly because it is a sign of laziness in
defense. If used wisely and sparingly it can be remarkably effective, but it leaves free men around the field and
can result in large yardage gains for the offensive team if punished. There are a number of different ways of
poaching.
The first is a straight out zone poach, where the poacher takes up a position in the main cutting lane and
basically ignores his own receiver. This is only effective when either the thrower is weak or the receiver is weak,
so that the chance of a pass from one to the other is small.
The second is a temporary switch, where the poacher sees a cutter coming from deep and switches for long
enough to discourage the thrower from throwing to the cutter, before switching back to his own receiver. The
switch can involve actual marking, or just a flaring out into the cutting lane but has the same effect.
A third type of poach is an active attempt to get a block. This involves the poacher seeing somebody else‘s
receiver in a position to receive a pass, but where the pass if thrown could still be intercepted. The poacher
hopes that by not watching the disc, the thrower will think the pass is on, and hence throw it. The poacher has to
guess when the pass will be thrown, and then turn around hoping the disc will be there to intercept. This can be
effective if the timing is right. [2]
Communication
To be a useful team defense, there needs to be more than individuals doing the defending. This is where
communication comes in. There needs to be communication between defenders and markers, between
defenders and other defenders, and between players on the sideline and players on the field.
Defender-marker communication
There are a number of ways defenders and markers can help each other by talking. Already we have seen the
use of „Up“, „Up long“ and „Break“ calls by the marker to let the defender know the disc is in the air or the force
has been broken.
A common call from the defender to the marker is „No out“ or „No break“. This is used when the receiver is open
on the break side and tells the marker to make doubly sure that there is no break of force, even if the open side
throw is much easier. The other one that is often used is the „Strike“ call, which asks the marker to switch the
force for a second or two to shut down an open side cut.
Defender-defender communication
This is most important when switching and poaching, as well as in zone and clam defenses.
Sideline-marker communication
The sideline can see which side cutters are coming in from and where the greatest points of danger are on the
field. They are therefore in the best position to communicate with the marker and tell them what to do. This may
43

include telling them which way to force, not to let the thrower break, to switch the force, to get their hands up or
down, etc. It is better to let the defender call strikes since they are better able to judge when they have been
burnt!
Sideline-defender communication
Often it is hard for the marker to make „Up“ and „Break“ calls loudly and quickly. This can be because they are
out of breath or because they are more easily fooled by fakes. The players who are standing on the sideline can
help the other players by making these calls as well. Also, the sideline has a better perspective on the game
than the players on the field, so they can call to specific players, for example if they can make a play on the
disc, but have their back to it.
This is a very important part of communication, and is one reason the sideline is often called the eighth man.[2]
References
[1] Ian „Scott“ Scotland, Issue 34, November 1996, Page 11 British Ultimate Federation (BUF) Newsletter
Ultimatum
[2] Tom Brennan and Jonathan Potts, http://www.afda.com/skills/
[3] Athan Spiros, http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~spiros/playbook/
Defense: Zone
So what is a zone defense? Zone defenses are characterised by one or more players on the defensive team not
marking a player on the opposing team, but an area. In most cases, there is a „cup“ of chasers near the thrower
at all times.
Zone defenses are mostly used when weather conditions are less favourable for passing, or against an offence
with few strong throwers. A zone usually forces many more passes to gain the same amount of ground and
relies on the offence making a weak or reckless throw in that period.
Instead of trying to block passes altogether, a zone tries to block all of the easy and ground-gaining passing
lanes. The zone allows passes backwards and sometimes sideways because they do little harm to the defense.
The zone also allows throws over the top, because these throws are generally high risk and have a good
chance of being dropped or intercepted.
One advantage a zone brings is that in the event of a turnover the opponents will usually find it difficult to mark
up quickly, and set up for their own defense. This can lead to easy scores, as there will be a number of people
open for throws. [1]
Positions
The Cup (LC (Left Cup) and RC (Right Cup) ), together with TC (Top Cup), form a defensive cup around the
thrower. We refer to the Point who is marking the disc as the strong-side Point, and the other Point as the weakside
Point. In the diagram, the RC is marking the disc and so he is the strong-side Point at this time. If the disc
moves to the other side of the field, the LC will probably mark the thrower and hence will become the strongside
Point.
So one Point (strong-side) will mark the thrower, and the other Point (weak-side) and TC will stand on the force
side trying to prevent any throw forward on that side. In theory, this set up will prevent throws through the cup.
MM (Middle-Middle) marks the area just behind the cup. LM (Left Middle) & RM (Right Middle) mark the areas
on either side of the field. D (Deep) marks anywhere behind that.
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The Points
The job of Point requires a fair amount of fitness and good marking skills, as they are the only defensive players
that should ever be marking the thrower. The cup tends to have to do quite a lot of running. The three players in
the cup (LC, TC & RC) have to decide which way the cup is going to force the thrower. This will often be
towards the middle of the field, although there are instances when always forcing to a particular direction (eg
into a cross-wind), or forcing line is good.
The Axis
TC has the task of coordinating the cup, defending against throws through the cup, and marking any receiver
that runs into the cup (known as a popper). Coordination involves telling the points who will mark a particular
thrower, how wide the cup should be spaced and which way to move. TC should also listen to calls from MM as
to where poppers are. The TC can turn around a lot of the time and cover any man who is near the cup. MM
should usually alert TC to warn them when a man is near the cup by saying „coming in“.
The Middle-Middle
MM covers the area directly behind the cup. This usually involves marking man-to-man on anyone that comes
into this area, until they leave it or they run through the cup. Once a receiver enters the cup, they are the job of
the Points or TC, and should be ignored. The other job of MM is to talk to the cup. If a receiver is coming into
the cup, TC needs to be told to close the cup up on that side. The cup may also need to be told if it is too open
or too close together.
The Wings
Conceptually, the Wings RM & LM have the simplest job on the field. They each have one side of the field to
mark, and the aim is to stop passes up either of the sidelines. Usually, if a throw gets around the edge of the
cup, the thrower will be looking upfield for the next pass. The Wing‘s job is to find and stop any cutters to that
thrower. This may involve going man-to-man for a short while. If the player gets the disc, the wing should drop
back (contain!) and let the points mark the thrower. It is not the Wing‘s job to mark the player with the disc.
The Deep
D has the task of intercepting any long throws put up by the offence. The job is usually not hard since if there is
any wind it is difficult to huck accurately, and thus it is not often that the Deep comes into play. As a result, the
main job of the Deep is to talk to the other players, primarily the Middle and Wings, and tell them where to go
and who to cover.
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Types of Zone
Standard 3 Person Cup
The cup will always chase the disc. Only one of the sides of the cup will mark the disc and call out the stall
count. (Nobody else may do this.) The other people in the cup play exactly ten feet off the disc unless there is
an offensive player within ten feet in which case the defender may follow him/her in. When the disc is swung,
the cup tries to contain passes from getting up the field before tightening up again. The middles look to cover
offensive players in their zone paying special attention to the passing lanes through the cup. The deep watches
people behind the middles.
The zone described here is called a 3-3-1 zone because there‘s 3 people in the cup, then 3 people in the
middle, and finally 1 person deep. Another standard zone is a 3-2-2. I‘ll let you figure out that one.
Note: Communication is very important. The top of the cup talks and directs the other people in the cup. The
middle-middle directs the top of the cup. The deep directs the middles. The players sitting off help the hammers
and warn the deep when someone is behind him/her.
Salmon
Non-Trap Set
- The fish is responsible for forcing the disc towards one side of the field. The fish is the only player that
marks the disc. Depending on the situation, the fish might also want to try to take away a backwards pass.
- The short middle is the most important position. This person has to be aware of all cuts through the center
and at the same time break up any give and go opportunities.
- The short on the strong-side of the field can back up a little bit to sucker the disc towards the sideline which
we want to trap. The short on the other side of the field needs to watch out for any I/0 throws and be ready
to prevent any swings if a dump occurs.
- The middles prevent any hammers and pretty much play man defense for people in their zone.
- The deep does the usual barking and minding of deep threats.
Note: strong-side = same side of the field that the disc is on. weak-side = opposite-side of the field that the disc
is on.
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Trap Set
- Once the disc gets on the sideline the fish will move to deny the dump. The short middle will move to cut off
a swing. The short on that side will move up a bit to prevent an easy pass down the line. These three
players are basically like a cup in a standard zone.
- The weak-side middle (the right middle in the case shown in the figure) must hurry over to protect against
any throws through the cup.
- The strong-side middle (the left middle in the case shown in the figure) backs up down the sideline weary of
any big bending throws down the sideline.
- The weak-side short (the short right shown in the figure) has the most ground to cover. However, since
these are long throws, probably into the wind, this person has a bit of time to get to an ambitious swing or
cross field hammer. Depending on the offensive players‘ set up, the deep might be able to help on that long
cross field hammer, too.
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Variations on the Salmon
The main difference is that the person playing the weak-side position has a lot of flexibility and can either play
up or back depending on the situation and how the other team has been beating you. It also puts a permanent
player in the middle of the field, the middle-middle. This person now becomes responsible for positioning and
communicating with the short middle which is also very important.
The final twist is that the short-middle will mark the disc and take away the dump in the trap set. The fish then
cuts off the swing pass. This has the added advantage of giving the fish a bit of a break and making it easier for
the fish to mark the disc once the other team gets out of the trap situation.
Endzone Set
When the disc gets to close to the endzone, the regular salmon set-up is not necessarily the best, because it
does not collapse very nicely in the short space. However, without to much trouble, the zone can be
reconfigured.
It‘s not really important where everyone lines up in the line of four. The important thing is to have the right (or
weak-side player) take one back corner and the deep take the other. This is done because next to the deep, the
weak-side player should be able to cover the most ground and read plays the best. The line of four listens to the
people behind them for directions. The player on the disc will mark the disc back towards the middle of the field.
When the disc gets moved, the marker and the four defenders in a line will rotate. When leaving the wall to mark
the disc, it is important to approach the disc cautiously, trying not to allow the thrower to throw to the space you
just vacated, because the wall will need a few seconds to adjust.
Rabbit
Communication is very important just as in any zone.
- The middle-middle helps to direct the rabbit.
- The deep helps to direct the mids.
- The same-side mids help to direct the same-side shorts.
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Only the short left or short right will mark the disc. If the disc is on the left-side then the short left will mark the
disc back towards the right. If the disc is on the right-side of the field then the short right will mark the disc back
towards the left-side of the field.
The short that isn‘t marking the disc will drop off to the side. This person should be back a bit but not quite lined
up with the mids. They are far enough back so that a dump and swing is allowed, but not a straight swing. This
position is somewhat flexible and can be adjusted as we see what other teams try doing to move the disc. It is
important for this person to get a quick mark (almost straight up) on the disc when it is swung to break up any
continuation plays.
The weak-side middle can drop a bit because the short on that side should have dropped some. This allows the
deep to cheat a bit towards the strong-side of the field, as well.
4-Person Cup
The standard zone uses a 3 person cup. A competent group of handlers can usually move the 3 person cup
around a lot. In order to give a different look and make the handler passes more difficult a 4 person cup can be
used.
4-Person Cup Preventing the Swing
The cup plays fairly loose. The top of the cup almost plays even with the disc, sometimes even cheats towards
the sideline. This makes for a very small opening through the cup towards the sideline and for the middle on that
side to ignore it and instead cover the zone between the top of the cup and the other top. When the thrower
passes the disc back for a dump, the other side of the cup immediately goes to prevent the swing pass and the
other people in the cup converge on the dump. The middles play the zones in the obvious holes. The deep does
a lot of praying. This is best used for only a few passes. After the offense has lost a bit of yardage one of the top
cup players should drop back and play middle middle as the team changes to the standard or rabbit zone
defense.
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4-Person Cup Preventing the Dump
This cup plays fairly tight and forces the disc to the sidelines. The back cup plays person-on-person with the
dump denying the disc towards the center o the field.
When the disc is on the sideline the cup changes formation into a hard trap as shown on the right. The middles
cover the zones through the obvious holes in the cup. The deep does a lot of praying once again.
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Final Notes
Perhaps the most important thing with a zone defense is good communication. Each line of the zone defense
will talk to the previous line letting them know who is behind them. The players who are not playing can also
help a great deal with communication.
(Note: the left middle and right middle are also called the left hammer or left hammer stopper and the right
hammer or right hammer stopper.)
References
[1] Tom Brennan, http://www.afda.com/newsletters/981206thinkaboutyourzone.htm
[2] Athan Spiros, http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~spiros/playbook/
Offense
Offense: Flow
The simplest form of offensive play in Ultimate is called ‘flow offence’. Flow offense revolves around the stack
and a series of well times cuts which have the disk flowing up the pitch in a succession of throws. Almost all
teams use this as the basis of their offensive style.
Stack
Wherever the disk is being played from on the Ultimate pitch, the offensive team forms a line between that
position and the center of the endzone which they are attacking. The position of the stack will change everytime
there is a breakdown in the flow. The players stand at intervals along this line which is effectively a ‘neutral
zone’. This is where players go to rest or to prepare for a cut.
By forming a stack the sides of the field are free to cut into. If a cut is unsuccessful the player should get back to
the stack before making another cut. At the start of each point, players are given „positions“ which they well play
throughout the point. These positions determine the part of the stack that they will occupy. There are three basic
recognized positions in Ultimate: „handler“, „middle“ and „endzone“ (or „long“). In the flow offence there are
three handlers, two middles and two endzones. Depending on the position your are given your role will vary, as
will the type of cut you should be making.
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Handlers
Handlers are usually the more skillful throwers. They will pick up the disc at the beginning of a point or after a
turnover and make the first (usually the most difficult) pass. In a flow offense, handlers set the flow in motion, as
the first pass will normally be from one handler to another handler as he or she make the „first-cut“. As a first-cut
you should position yourself at the bottom of the stack nearest the thrower and no more than ten meters away.
The timing of the first cut is easy, since you make your cut any time after the thrower has taken possession of
the disc (and before the stall count reaches ten!). You don’t have to worry about being in the right place at the
right time, just your ability to lose your marker.
There is a tendency to think that your fastest player should be first-cut so that they can get free easily for the
first pass. However, they will often be more effective as middles or endzones where speed is a definite
advantage. Also, good defensive teams will match up fast defenders on your fast players, so speed alone will
not make a good handler. Much more important for first-cut is confidence and decisiveness. A good decisive cut
will lose your marker ninety percent of the time, whereas hesitant shuffling is easy to mark. Decide before your
cut what you are going to do (e.g. three steps up-field then a hard cut back towards the thrower – Figure below).
Having got free and caught the disc you have started the flow in motion. You should be able to look up-field and
see a middle cutting out to the side in lots of space for you to make a pass to.
Middles
These players play in the middle of the stack and are usually fast and good catchers. They are sometimes
called second-cuts because they are normally one of the second player to cut from the stack. The middles often
have to receive fast throws or make up a lot of ground to catch a throw as they attempt to gain substantial
yardage up field.
The key to this position is timing. You are a crucial link between the handlers and the endzones and if your
timing is out the flow will come to an unceremonious halt. Your cut should be timed so that when the first-cut
receives the disc and looks upfield you are starting to get free and heading for the sideline. If you go too early
you will be running off the side of the pitch before the first-cut has a chance to get into a throwing position. A
general rule should be „better late“. The earliest that a second-cut should be looking to go is when the first-cut is
just about to catch the disc. Again, it is important to be decisive about your cut, otherwise you will easy to mark.
A middle should also be looking to make substantial ground towards the endzone so you either need to position
yourself towards the top of the stack cutting back down field or in the middle of the stack cutting up field (see
Figure below).
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Endzones
These players are usually fast, agile and athletic. Their work is tireless as they are the players you throw to to
score a point in the endzone. Much like forwards in soccer, you do a lot of running for little reward, except the
glory of scoring the points. This is a highly under-rated position; it takes great skill and timing to play this
position well and a team that does not have a quality endzone player will struggle to score.
Again, this position requires timing – you need to be getting free as the second-cut gets into position to throw to
you („better late“). Don’t just hang around in the endzone hoping someone will pass to you, because they won’t.
Don’t just cut straight out to the side as you’ll be easy to cover. As an endzone player you have to be decisive
and cunning in your cutting as players will mark that much tighter in the endzone.
The simplest cut is to head towards the back corner of the endzone then cut back towards the thrower (see
Figure below).
Don’t worry about catching the disc in the endzone – just catch the disc! Perhaps a better cut is to start by
running towards the thrower and then cutting up the field for the corner of the endzone. This way you are
receiving a leading pass taking you into the endzone.
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Flow Offense
Putting it all together gives you the basic flow offense. So in summary, the flow offense starts when one of the
offensive team’s handlers picks up the disc either from the pull or after a turnover. Even before this has
happened, the rest of the team forms a stack. The handler then makes a pass to the „first-cut“ (who is normally
another handler). The first-cut in turn makes a pass to one of the middles (or second-cut). Finally, the middle
makes a throw into the endzone to one of the endzone players, to score a point. The whole flow will normally be
up one flank of the pitch. The Figure below shows the flow offense.
Adding it up, there are four players involved in the basic flow offense, but this doesn’t mean that the other three
have nothing to do. The other three players are safety players who step in if any part of the flow breaks down.
So if the first-cut can’t get free then the safety handler would take over and become the first-cut. Similarly for the
safety middle and safety endzone.
It’s all so simple, isn’t it! The flow offense often doesn’t (flow) and there are some common mistakes that will
always turn into sticky treacle;
Handlers for some reason often think they have to "help out" when the last thing that is needed is their help. If
handlers do not give time and space for the middles to cut you get an effect called (wind) milling, where all you
get is a succession of short passes going nowhere for a lot of effort. The same will happen if the
seconds can’t nail the timing ("better late"), or if they are indecisive about their cuts. Players not clearing out
(returning to the stack after an unsuccessful cut) will block the passing lanes and cause a return to the dreaded
milling.
Get it right though and your flow will be unstoppable.
References
Scott Scotland World Ultimate Magazine Issue 33, April 1996, Pages 10 and 11,
http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/public/ca/ad943925/bufscot1.htm
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Offense: Player
In ultimate, unlike most other sports, the person with the disc can‘t move. This means that the receivers must
work extra hard to get open for the thrower. The best way to work the disc up the field is to create open space
for the disc to be thrown and for people to run. One way of creating lots of space is for everyone to line up in the
center of the field. This is called a stack and is diagrammed below.
The stack is used to create space for people to run and the disc to be thrown. There should be enough room
between players in the stack so that any one of them can run from the stack without risking having their
defender run into anyone (called a pick). Take note of the areas that are shaded. These are the areas that the
receiver should expect the disc.
This creates two open spaces for the disc to be thrown. People may then leave the stack (ideally, one at a time)
and run to one of the open areas. The best throw to the receiver would be one that curves from the outside and
goes in towards the receiver (see the diagram below).
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The thrower wants to make a throw that allows his/her teammate to run in to the disc while making it hard for the
defender to touch the disc. This leads to putting a certain edge on the disc depending on which way the thrower
is being marked.
If the receiver does not quickly get open, he/she must clear the area by either running long down the sideline
(the usual clearing cut) or going behind the thrower (done less often). The entire cutting process is shown
below.
1. One person will make no more than three moves to try and get open.
2. After the player makes his/her fakes, the player will continue to run in a straight line towards the sideline.
3. Usually, the player will then run down the sideline (still aware that a pass may be thrown to him/her) and join
the back of the stack.
4. Some players (usually handlers) may choose to go behind the thrower in case a dump is needed.
One person will leave the stack and try to get open. If they don‘t get open they must clear the area to give room
for another person to cut.
If the defender doesn‘t follow the receiver (i.e. poaches), the receiver should look to get open from everyone for
an easy immediate pass or a later pass (usually by running down the field, keeping to the sideline). This player
will yell, „poach!“ to let the thrower know that there is a defender sitting in a passing lane and to draw attention
to his/herself. To summarize, the role of the receiver is to:
- Get in the middle of the field to be part of the stack and create open space.
- Cut one at a time (with only a few fakes) to try to get open.
- Quickly clear the area if they don‘t get the disc by running on the sideline to eventually get back in the stack.
- (Off of a pass that is about to be completed) set up their defender for an easy continuing pass (this is called
a mirror cut).
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The key is to keep lots of space clear for the disc to be thrown there and for people to run there. The role of the
thrower is to:
- Be patient; 10 seconds is a long time.
- Pivot and fake to create more angles to throw the disc.
- Throw a throw that you know will get to an open receiver.
- (In the case where a defender is poaching) see if a pass may be made to the open receiver or else look to
an area that is not occupied by the poacher.
- Look to make a short backwards pass dump, when the stall count gets to 6.
Throwing a dump is usually easy because the defense is not concerned if the offense moves the disc
backwards. Dumps take place in the region behind the thrower as diagrammed earlier. Once the thrower
decides to throw a dump, he/she will pivot so that his/her endzone is now to his/her back. He/she will take note
of which side of the receiver the defender is positioned and look to throw the disc to the opposite side. He/she
will then make eye contact with the receiver and throw a short pass to the open side of the receiver allowing the
receiver to run to the disc. In most cases, dumps can be used to break the defense‘s force or to initiate a give
and go cut.
The give and go play is simple but dynamic (see above figure) Usually it is run off of a short pass. The cut
begins with the thrower. Once the disc leaves the thrower‘s hand, the thrower is running. The release of the
throw and the beginning of the run happen instantaneously. Since the thrower knows when he/she is going to
throw the disc (unlike his/her defender), he/she will usually be open after his/her first step. The receiver of the
short throw then looks to throw the disc back to the original thrower. (Note: Running right after you throw is a
good idea no matter what the situation.)
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Three players may try to work the disc up the field by themselves if the other players give them room (see figure
above). So as not to tip the play too early, the four remaining players usually stay stacked and within about 25
yards of the disc, moving back as the disc is advanced.
There are other ways to create space besides using a stack. One way is to have four of the seven players run
down field. This leaves lots of room for the remaining three players to run (see above figure). In essence, you
have isolated three players to move the disc up the field and hence this play is called the iso. The players in the
iso are then free to move the disc anyway they can to at least half field. Usually, many give and goes are used
to move the disc.
References
Athan Spiros, http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~spiros/playbook/
Offense: Zone
When running a zone offense, looking for and creating open space is still necessary, but patience becomes
even more important. There are three different roles for players in the standard zone offense: handler, popper,
and long. The handlers work the disc from side to side creating and looking for holes in the defense. The
poppers move in the middle of the field, timing their cuts off of the swings by the handlers, hoping to receive
passes through the holes in the cup. The longs move along the sidelines. They alternate coming in and going
out as the disc leaves and comes towards the sideline that they are on, respectively. (See the figure) Once the
disc is moved up field, the receiver may quickly look for an easy open pass or (in most cases) be patient and
look to dump the disc (the dump is usually available) and the pattern is repeated. (There are other methods as
well that you may discover on your own.)
The set up of the standard zone offense is shown in the top figure. One way for the offense to move is shown on
the bottom. This movement usually begins when the disc is dumped back. If the swings don‘t happen quickly,
the poppers should be moving (usually one following the other through an area) trying to get passes through the
holes of the cup.
References
Athan Spiros, http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~spiros/playbook/
58

Offense: Endzone
Almost all non-long goals are scored in the ten-yard quarter circle centered at each cone, unless the defense
poaches well there, so end-zone offenses usually concentrate their energies on getting into the corner. A good
endzone offense should:
1. Have several options from a particular stack.
2. Be able to score either from a stoppage of play or from flow.
3. Know which player is going to score.
4. Be able to counter a defensive move.
The offense should have some basic strategies as well as some specific plays. When you‘re designing for your
team, you should determine your basic strategies. Do you have a lot of fast guys who can beat their man to the
cone? Do you have lots of handlers who work the give and go well? Are you an experienced team that works
the timing play well? Pick a strategy that fits your team.
The real key is being organized. If your endzone offense is simply saying that John will have the first option on
every cut in the endzone, you‘re ahead of the game. You can also specify by position. You could label your
deeps „primary“ and „secondary“, and allow the primary deep to have first cut and secondary second, or you
could say primary gets first cut on forehand side and secondary on backhand side. Another way to specify the
goal scorer is to call him out during play. Depending on how well the other team knows you, you can call his
name, his girlfriend‘s name(s), his dog, his company, his hometown, his nickname, his phone number, etc.
Anyway, the responsibility can rotate around from point to point or even within a point, but if the cutter knows it‘s
his cut, that‘s good. End zone failure usually results from no cuts or too many cuts, not from great defense.
Basic plays
Most end zone plays can be categorized as either „isolation“ or as „two-pass“ plays.
Isolation
The simplest isolation play is just to call a player and give that player 7 seconds or so to get open in the end
zone, then have a designated dump if it‘s not open. If the receiver is close enough to the thrower and he‘s being
face-guarded (the defender‘s back is to the thrower) and no poachers are very near by, the thrower can simply
make eye contact with the receiver and then throw it in any direction, and the defender will be able to do
nothing. This also works well with high stall count dumps. Do this as a drill in practice, either as an end zone
play or as a play to avoid high stall count throwaways. It works, even if the receiver is not being face-guarded.
The goal throw doesn‘t have to be this particular throw, by the way, it‘s just an option.
The next easiest isolation play is to have a specific cutter come out of the stack to one side or the other. This
should be in your playbook. As I said before, though, it can be the nth guy in the stack, the primary deep, or
whoever the thrower calls, but have some way of specifying. As defenses pick up on this play, have alternatives
ready.
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One way is to have the whole stack cut at the same time, then have one guy come out and cut the other way.
Another way is to have a decoy cutter go first, then the real cutter cut in his wake. A third option is for the first 2-
4 guys cut hard to either sideline from the stack, then the next player comes straight up the middle. A warning
on this one: if the thrower has a habit of bulleting his forehands, this pass will be dropped an awful lot, and it
won‘t be the receiver‘s fault. A lot of players will disagree with me on this, but it is the THROWER‘S
RESPONSIBILITY to make an easily catchable throw.
Two-pass plays
The disc is on the sideline. First player in the stack fakes up the line, then cuts to the middle for the dump. As he
catches it, the last guy in the stack breaks for the far front cone for the continuation. Almost all two-pass plays
are some variation on this (second guy in the stack comes out, second pass goes back to the original sideline, a
decoy cut to the cone clears open the area ten yards inside the cone, etc.). This is really just your basic offense.
Middles and deeps time their cuts so that the handlers can catch a pass, turn, and throw. Again, specify the
cutter, and be able to have options on which guys cut and to which sides. For example, you could give the first
cutter the option of continuing up the line into the end zone and the second man in the stack would come back
for the dump/swing to the continuation. The other two-pass play is the give-and-go (A throws to B, who throws
back to A). Make sure everyone else knows it, though, and clears out for A, because B‘s pass will often be a
leading pass that floats.
Discussion
Most of what I‘ve mentioned has been for stoppages of play, but the same principles apply for during the flow.
Realize that you‘re near the end zone (call „ENDZONE“, if that‘s what it takes), take a dump pass perhaps to
reset, and then go. That‘s what happens a lot of times, anyway. The games I play in seem to have a lot of picks,
fouls, etc., near the goal line, so we have more opportunities to run set plays, but our basic strategies apply
even if nothing is called.
Conclusions
- Have a plan. Make sure it includes basic ideas as well as specific plays. DON‘T GET TOO COMPLICATED.
- Have some way to call those plays (e.g., saying any word that starts with ‚A‘ means you‘re running end zone
play A (whatever that is).
- Keep it simple, with only a few basic plays and some variations on them as defenses catch up. Be ready to
adjust. Find out what works for you, and make that your basic strategy.
References
Jim Parinella, http://www.upa.org/upa/totw/endzone.html
Offense: Berkeley
Often times the disc will start on the sideline or be moved to the sideline because of the flow. If the defense is
forcing the disc to be thrown on the sideline (i.e. trapping), the offense does not have a lot of room with which to
work. In this case, a special formation is used to get the disc off the sideline and to break the force. This set up
is called a Berkeley. One player, the Berkeley, will initiate his/her cut about ten yards from the disc, even with
the thrower. Usually, the berkeley looks to cut towards the dump side of the thrower. Once the throw is made, a
person from the stack will cut to the break force side of the field. The Berkeley will receive the disc and proceed
to throw the disc to the cutter from the stack. If a Berkeley is called, the berkeley cut must get open and the
number one priority of the thrower is to get the disc to the Berkeley.
The Berkeley is lined up even with the disc to allow the thrower to throw the disc on either side of the mark. The
Berkeley will primarily try to get open for a dump and swing play, but if the sideline is open and so is the
Berkeley, a pass up the line is also good.
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References
Athan Spiros, http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~spiros/playbook/
Set Plays
Set Plays: Standard Play
The idea is that the first person in the stack cuts to the blocked side of the thrower. The person in the back of
the stack cuts to the open side, and get the throw. The second to last person in the stack makes the second cut.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow/drills.html
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Set Plays: Coffee Break
This play is designed to help break the mark when there has been either a pull or a turnover in your own
endzone. Usually, the opposing team will call out to „trap“. This leaves very little open for the handler. To
combat this setup a second „short stack“ across the endzone. This turns the original mark into a straight up
mark for the second stack. All three players along the endzone are handlers. The first player in the onfield stack
is a deep and the last player in the on field stack is any player with a good deep throw in their bag. The play
runs as follows:
The first handler in the short stack makes a checkmark cut that results in getting a dump against the mark. At
the same time this cut is being made the deep in the onfield stack also checks towards the disc and then starts
his/her deep cut.
When the pass is completed to the first handler the final short stack handler is coming out of his/her own
checkmark and receives the disc fully on the broken side of the field.
As the deep roars past the stack the remaining players must keep their defenders occupied by drifting forward.
The last player in the stack should make his cut towards the disc about the time the deep is cutting past and
when the final handler is making his catch. This prevents the last defender from cheating off to help cover the
deep.
Two passes from the score. Or, at the very least the disc has been worked against the mark and is now off the
cone and in the field of play in good position.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow/drills.html
Set Plays: The P Play
The thrower breaks the mark to the first cutter in the stack. The third person cuts to the open side faking the in
cut. 3 then turns and bolts for the endzone. 5 cuts in for flow on the break mark pass and hucks it to 3 in the
endzone. Others on the field should cheat in as play develops to avoid poching.
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References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow/drills.html
Set Plays: The Weave
The Weave is a variation on the standard stack offense that puts give&go cuts as the first look. „Weave“ is a bit
of a misnomer since nothing in the offense specifies a weaving pattern, but the large number of give&go cuts
can give an appearance of weaving up the field.
A handler makes the first cut to receive the disc. In a standard stack offense a mid would cut off the handler. In
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the weave the first look is to a give&go cut. The flow of the play then depends on whether or not that cut is
successful. If the give&go works, a mid then makes a cut. In effect the mid waits one throw longer than usual
before making the cut. The advantage here is that the give&go receiver catches the disc facing downfield and
has a good chance of getting off a quick throw. This is also a good opportunity for the deeps to bust. If the
give&go is unsuccessful then the other handler still in the stack comes into the play. As soon as this player sees
that the give&go isn‘t going to happen, they immediately make a cut for a dump or swing, usually to the side left
open after the give&go cut. After this catch the thrower makes a give&go cut to start it all over. The handler who
wasn‘t open for the first give&go needs to clear quickly and be ready for the bailout cut if the next give&go also
fails.
Once the disc reaches a mid the weave is just like a standard stack offense. The mid turns and looks for a deep
on the continuation cut. When the flow is stopped, the disc returns to a handler to restart the weave. This is also
true if the mid doesn‘t get open for the throw down the line.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow/drills.html
Set Plays: The Looper
Picture the situation when the offense gets the disc near the left sideline and looks down the line for the huck.
To stop this, most defenders on the disc will force middle, and the defenders on the deeps will cheat towards
the line. This sets up a great little play I like to call the Looper (which happens to describe both the cut and the
throw). I will describe the situation for a right handed thrower on the left sideline; everything is reversed for a
lefty or ambidextrous person on the right sideline. If the player busting down the line sees this situation, they
should break hard right and loop back towards the other sideline. All the other players are typically out in the
middle of the field, so this cut will go on the other side of everyone. If the defender was cheating towards the
line, the cut should be quite open. When the thrower sees the looping cut, the throw to make is a high, diving
forehand. Not quite a blade, but at a 45 degree angle or so. This throw is high enough to go over everyone in
the middle of the field, and it is fast. It will also be easy to get off because of the force middle. This play also
works well on the opposite sideline using a hammer.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow/drills.html
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Set Plays: Fast Break
1. breaks long on the turnover.
2. sees if 1 is open. If not, leaves disc and 2 cuts downfield.
3. picks up the disc and hits 2 who has created space having cut down field first. 2 then hits 1.
References
Steve Mooney, World Ultimate Magazine, July 1997, Pages 12-14
Set Plays: The Pull Play
Catch the pull, fake to 2, hit 3 who passes to 4 who sees 5 deep.
Short fill cuts only if 3 or 4 are shut down.
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Long fill only cuts for short fill or if 5 gets disk without scoring. 2 follows the disk as the safety.
References
Steve Mooney, World Ultimate Magazine, July 1997, Pages 12-14
Endzone Plays
Endzone Plays: The Basics
A team should eventually be able to work the disc close to the endzone. However, at this point less space is
available with which to work and the defense usually tries to play a little harder. Therefore, having some special
plays set up for when the disc is within 15 yards of the endzone is a good idea. The basic rules of an endzone
play are:
- Set-up: The stack should have plenty of space between players so that picks can be avoided. (This means
that people may be out of the endzone which is ok.)
- 1 st in Stack: The first player in the stack is the safety person. It will be his/her responsibility to go for a dump
if the play doesn’t work.
- Note: Be sure to note the designated passing lanes for each play and if you are not the designated target
try keeping your check (as well as yourself) out of the area.
- Calling: The play will be bellowed out by the thrower. However, no one will move until the thrower says
„go“.
Endzone Plays: The Mob
Someone will be designated to make the cut Everyone will start running to break the force side of the field. The
designated cutter will quickly cut back to the forced side.
References
Athan Spiros, http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~spiros/playbook/index.html
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Endzone Plays: Jail Break
Next to last person will cut to one of the front corners The last person will immediately cut to the other corner
The thrower will choose between the two cuts.
References
Athan Spiros, http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~spiros/playbook/index.html
Endzone Plays: Foreplay
The second person in the stack will cut to either flat As soon as the thrower releases the disc, he/she makes an
immediate 45 to the endzone. The catcher quickly throws a floater to the original thrower.
References
Athan Spiros, http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~spiros/playbook/index.html
Endzone Plays: Endzone Soup
This play is an option that can be used either against teams that mark the stack cuts very well or in situations
when you want only your handlers to be involved. The premise is that a dump to the forced side is an easy
throw. From this throw a good handler can cut away into the forced area. Since the defender is already on the
non-force side (he was marking after all) the path to the endzone for the handler is rather open. The play starts
by the on disc handler either checking the disc in or making a fake to the stack. The dump handler checks into
his defender and then swings back around for the force side dump. As soon as the dump is thrown the first
handler should break hard to the corner. A quick catch and throw and you score.
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If the dump defender is overly active and prevents this throw then we produce two other possible cuts. Notice
that as the dump handler is cutting the offensive player at the front of the stack cuts out and away. This is to
clear out the first defender (who is usually the defender poaching off into the throwing lanes). When the first
option doesn’t present itself the handler fakes with the disc to signal the second option is in play. At that point
both the second player in the stack and the last player make cuts. Against a weak mark the front cut is a quick
strike possibility. Otherwise, the deep cut from the back of the stack will often succeed. Notice that the
remaining two players drift back and away to try and keep their defenders busy and unable to help out. Soup's
on.
References
Athan Spiros, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow
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Drills
Drills: The Basics
Pivot and Throw
This drill combines the pivoting and throwing motions, and gets the players used to using their correct pivot foot.
Throwing in pairs, have the thrower pivot across before throwing. Repeat 10 times on backhand and forehand
sides.[2]
Piggy in the Middle
This drill practices banked throws. Split into groups of three. Have the thrower and receiver stand at cones 10m
apart with the "piggy" in between them. The aim is to connect passes without the piggy getting the disc. The
players are not allowed to move. The thrower must throw inside-out or outside-in throws by altering the outside
angle of the disc.[2]
No Look Catch
Receiver runs away from the thrower, thrower hucks disc over receiver’s shoulder and floats it for a tasty catch.
Player who just threw the disc runs at the new thrower and turns about 10 yards in front of him/her. New thrower
throws a long pass over receiver’s shoulder then runs to the disc for another iteration.[1]
References
[1] Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow
[2] AFDA, http://www.afda.com
Drills: 3-Player Weave
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This is nearly straight out of basketball, but it works. It requires the players to turn immediately and pick up a
new target for a quick drop pass. It also trains the third handler to time a give& go-style cut without having
thrown the disc. Three players, 1 2 3, left to right across the field, about 5m apart, 3 has the disc. 1 and 3 are a
couple steps downfield of 2. 1 makes a cross-field cut and gets the disc. 2 then makes a cut to the left of 1 and
gets the immediate drop pass. 3 heads straight downfield and now the set up is mirrored. Repeat.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow
Drills: The Square Drill
THIS DRILL USES TWO DISCS.
In the square drill, three players stand on three corners of a square. One and Three hold discs. One Player with
a disc throws to the player without a disc, who receives at the open corner. (Note, no fake this time.) Thrower
immediately cuts for the corner vacated by that receiver... and receives a pass from the third player. Third player
cuts for the open corner immediately, and receives from the other dude. You get the idea. This is a very fast
moving drill. It drills in the idea of running as soon as you have made a pass and looking to receive a pass
straight away (like a give and go). Unlike a give and go you actually receive the disc straight away, from another
player, quicker than a real give'n'go. Note that you will automatically alternate backhand passes and forehand
passes. You always pass to one player and receive from the other. It may look confusing, but if you remember
to always cut for the just-vacated corner then you should get it working straight away.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow
Drills: Box Drill
This drill works with any number of people from 4 up. Divide your team into four groups, and place one group at
each cone. Give one person the disc, and have them stand between their cone ("cone 1") and the next cone
("cone 2"). The first person in line at cone 2 cuts towards cone 3, and the person with the disc throws it to them.
Just before they catch the disc, the first person in line at cone 3 should cut towards cone 4. Then cone 4 cuts to
cone 1, etc. After you throw, go to the back of the line you cut towards. In the direction shown here, all throws
should be forehand -- you can easily run it in the other direction and throw backhands instead. Also, your
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handlers can practice their inside-outs here if they want. There is also another version where the cuts come
from behind the thrower: when the cone 2 to cone 3 person catches the disc, the next cut comes from cone 1 to
cone 2, then from cone 4 to cone 1, and so on.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow
Drills: Breakaway
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Players on a breakaway will sometimes enter the end zone and stop when they ran out of room - ignoring the
80% of unoccupied end zone. This is an attempt to break that. You run 50% towards one side of the end zone
and turn & sprint as hard as you can to the other side. The thrower is supposed to float it out in front of you. You
can mix it up by putting defenders on the thrower & receiver.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow
Drills: Seattle Drill
Just endless repetition of the dump, swing, score passes on alternating sides of the endzone.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow
Drills: Second Huck
Split up into three lines:
(D) Disc line: On the middle of the endzone line facing downfield. The disc starts in this line.
- First cutters: Standard stack facing back towards the disc.
- Second cutters: Extension of the stack behind the first cutters.
Each repetition of this drill involves the first person in each line. (1) cuts to either side and receives the disc from
(D). (2) makes the second cut back towards the disc on the same sideline as (1). (2) catches the disc and hucks
it to the endzone down the same sideline. Meanwhile, (D) sprints the length of the field right after throwing the
disc to (1) and catches the huck in the endzone. (D) runs down the opposite side of the field from the stack cuts,
and then cuts across the field to make the catch.
(D) clears to the second cutter line, (2) clears to the first cutter line, and (1) clears to the disc line. The first
cutters should alternate sides of the field to keep the drill moving quickly and avoid clogging on either side.
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References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow
Drills: Basic Weave
The three people represent the three handlers in the Weave.
One handler cuts and receives the disc. The player who threw the disc immediately makes a give&go cut up the
field. This cut can be parallel (stay on the same side of the disc) or crossing (run in front of the disc to the other
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side of the field). If the give&go throw happens, the process repeats and the new thrower makes a give&go cut.
At some point the thrower should look off the give&go. Now the third handler, who has been backing up with the
play, makes a cut to the side left open after the give&go cut. This can be the completely open side for a parallel
give&go (as shown in the second instance in the animated play), or back to the side the give&go cut came from
(as shown in the first instance in the animation).
The players work the disc up the field using a variety of give&go cuts and regularly looking off the give&go and
throwing to the backup handler cut. The throws should range from low release, rising throws to high releases.
Inside-outs can be useful throwing to a give&go that is parallel or out in front of a crossing cut. A looping
outside-in in useful in throwing to a crossing cut after the person has crossed to the other side. The adventurous
may also work in some hammers and scoobers.
This drill can be expanded to include mids, deeps, and/or defenders.
References
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow
Drills: D Score
Skill Level
- All levels
- As close to 14 players as possible
- Full ultimate field
Skills Taught
Offense - full range of offensive skills, especially consistency
Defense - full range of defensive skills, especially intensity
Background
Defense is the focus of this controlled scrimmage. Defense gets to score, and defense dominates the flow of the
action. This drill usually serves to increase intensity at practice, and should be used prior to a scrimmage to
raise the level of play.
Rules
1. A normal-sized ultimate field should be used, though one of the end-zones will not be needed.
2. Play is 7 v 7. The nature of this exercise makes it counter-productive to substitute players between points.
Try to keep teams to 7 or 8.
3. Play starts with one team pulling to the other and play proceeding as in a normal ultimate game.
4. Every time the offense turns the disc, play stops and the defense gets a point. The O retreats to its goal line
and puts the disc back in play after a check.
5. No points are awarded when the offense scores. It simply becomes the offense's turn to play D. Teams
switch sides and restart after a pull.
6. Games are played to 10 points (or more, depending on skill level). Make sure that at least one of the teams
settles into a groove (offensive or defensive) before the end of the game.
7. If the team that started on defense is the first to 10, the other team is granted one additional defensive
opportunity (this statement may seem confusing, but it will become clear once you play).
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Suggestions
- Create teams of offensive and defensive specialists. Let each squad develop its own strategies for O and D.
- Use this drill to try out new defenses: zones, force-middle, clam, etc. Be patient. Learning a new defense
takes time.
- Practice upwind or downwind offense (both can be tricky) by orienting your field appropriately
Takeaways
- Everyone agrees that achieving tournament-level play at practice is a worthwhile goal. But how can you
make this happen? In my experience, the easiest way to start is to increase the intensity of your defense. By
directly rewarding good D, this drill compells players to work towrd this goal.
- One of the hardest things about ultimate is the mental adjustment necesary to go from offense to defnese,
or vice-versa. This drill can allow you to work on O or D for prolonged periods of time, giving your team the
chance to improve through repitition. Depending on what you think needs most work, alter the drill slightly
so that O or D has an advantage (try 6 on offense versus a 7-man zone, for example).
- This drill can be a bit negative in that one team will usually go into a tailspin and create a bunch of turns in a
row. It is definitely a game of runs. This has two implications for practice:
1. Make sure to do something fun with the entire team afterwards. A scrimmage works well, but you
should mix up the teams so that none of the negativity bleeds over.
2. There is a premium placed on mental toughness. Use this drill to teach your players to rebound from
mistakes.
References
David Young. Has played for over ten years, first at Williams, then UC San Diego, and then with San Diego
Open. Has coached college men, college women, and open men.
Drills: Swank-Drill
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Skill level
- All levels
- 8 or more players
- 1/2 ultimate field or more
Skills taught
Conditioning, throwing, receiving
Background
This drill will allow you to assess and develop consistency in throwing. The repetition involved in this exercise
will allow beginners to practice their throwing motions and learn the feel of a good toss. Intermediate and
advanced players will gain insight into the types of throws that need fine-tuning. Players of all levels will learn to
deal with fatigue.
Rules
1. Set up cones as shown in Figure 1 with a stack of discs at the blue cone (the drill will still work if you don't
have a blue cone).
2. Select one thrower, one player to feed your thrower with discs, and one disc shagger to start the drill. The
rest of your squad should form two even lines at orange cones. Every player will cycle through all positions,
so order does not mater.
3. There are two components to the drill, throwing and receiving. Both components run simultaneously, but I'll
describe them individually.
A) Throwing The disc feeder stands at the blue cone with the thrower at the opposite point of the diamond. The
feeder makes a soft lead pass as the thrower moves left (Figure 2).
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The thrower catches, turns, fires the disc upfield, and immediately runs back to the middle cone (Figure 3).
The next lead pass is sent to the cone on the right (Figure 4), and the cycle repeats (Figure 5, then Figures 2-5
again).
It is the disc feeder's job to keep the thrower moving by continually making lead passes. Meanwhile, the disc
shagger collects discs and places them at the feet of the disc feeder.
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B) Receiving Players in line at the orange cones alternate cuts across the field, timing their runs for discs from
the thrower (Figure 6).
Timing is critical since the thrower will not have time to wait. After each cut, the receiver should return the disc to
the disc shagger and then proceed to the next cone. A suggested order for cuts is shown in Figures 6-8.
Receivers must re-form lines quickly so that the thrower does not stop until the entire team has cycled through
all of its cuts.
Swap positions and repeat until each player has had a chance to throw.
Suggestions
- Pay attention to the throws that give you trouble on a consistent basis, as well as the throws that give you
difficulty when you're tired
- Provide yourself with motivation on the receiving end; run through all of your catches without slowing down,
and then run a sprint to a distant part of the field before rejoining the receiving line
- Vary the length, direction, and angle of cuts to suit your team's developmental needs
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Takeaways
- In the early stages of a season, captains and coaches will find this drill useful in evaluating throwing skills,
both for individual players and for the team as a whole. Use these observations to create training programs.
Later in the season this can serve as a fun conditioning exercise. Use it instead of wind sprints.
- Just because your team considers itself good doesn't mean that it can't benefit from this type of practice.
Many good players lack the ability to make specific throws, instead relying on good decision-making to
avoid turnovers. Good decision-making is a critical skill, but it can handicap your development as a thrower.
Someday, you'll be glad you practiced that upwind, inside-out huck!
Drills: GoTo-Drill
Skill level
- Beginner to Intermediate
- 6 players or more
- 1/4 field
Skills Taught
Receiving, throwing, conditioning
Background
This is a good warm-up drill. The main focus is catching while running. The structure of this exercise presents
the offense with a clear advantage. Defense should only come into play when the O does not "go to."
Rules
1. Set up three cones as displayed in Figure 1. Place a stack of discs at the blue cone.
2. Choose a reliable thrower to stand at the blue cone for the length of the drill. This is not a good place to
develop throws or throwers. If you keep your throws simple and accurate, your team will be better able to
focus on receiving.
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3. Form a line at the yellow cone with the rest of your squad, facing the thrower.
4. The first person in line should jog our toward the thrower, plant, and sprint back to the red cone (Figure 2).
5. When that player touches the red cone, he/she becomes a receiver and the first person in line (yellow cone)
becomes an active defender. Both players sprint toward the thrower (Figure 3).
6. The thrower should make a flat pass to the onrushing receiver. If the receiver runs through the pass, the
defender should have no play. Be sure to adjust the spacing of your cones to make the drill fair: your
defenders should only make blocks when the offense slows appreciably while approaching the disc in flight.
7. After the catch (or drop or D), the defender immediately sprints back to the red cone, touches it, and
becomes a receiver.
8. The drill cycles onward.
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Suggestions
- Order your line so that players are next to teammates of comparable speed
- If your thrower is able to do so reliably, you may want to vary the height and angle of incoming throws. It's
much harder for many players to run through a high or arcing pass.
- On offense, try to use your body to shield the defender from the disc.
- On defense, learn to lay out for the disc (without touching the receiver). You'll be surprised how many drops
you can cause simply by creating a distraction.
References
David Young. Has played for over ten years, first at Williams, then UC San Diego, and then with San Diego
Open. Has coached college men, college women, and open men.
Drills: Big Box
Skill level
- All levels
- 6 players or more
- 1/4 field
Skills Taught
Warm-up, catching, decision-making, defensive intensity, conditioning
Background
This is my favourite warm-up drill. Many teams run short sprints to get 'game-ready,' but I've never found this to
work. An ideal warm-up drill should get the competitive juices flowing without causing fatigue. Try this drill for 10
minutes before a game, or in the middle of practice (for a longer period of time) to work on conditioning.
Whatever you do, don't count on Big Box to teach your team good throwing habits! This drill is all about hustle.
Rules
1. Use four cones to create at 10-yard square. All play occurs inside this square.
2. Divide into two teams of 3. Extra players can rotate in for the guilty party after a turn.
3. Flip for possession. The team with the disc tries to earn a point by completing ten consecutive passes. One
point is awarded per 10 passes.
4. A turnover or out-of-bounds violation resets the pass count to zero and gives the disc to the other team.
Play is continuous (no check or timeout for substitutions) until the end of a gamem which is played to 3.
5. The stall count is 5.
Suggestions
- If you have enough players, run separate drills for short and tall players. Different body types typically have
different ways of playing big box, and you don't want the little guys getting hurt. It's also useful to match up
with players similar to those you'd cover in a tournament.
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- Short, ugly passes are acceptable, and even encouraged in this drill. Force the other team to guard you
tightly and then try to go back-door.
Takeaways
- Although you certainly wouldn't want to base your ultimate team's offense on the throws you learn in this
drill, your defense may stand to learn a thing or two...
References
David Young. Has played for over ten years, first at Williams, then UC San Diego, and then with San Diego
Open. Has coached college men, college women, and open men.
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Advanced
Advanced Throws
Most people put too little spin on their throws. There aren’t many realistic situations where you would want to
minimize spin. Spin is a result of arm speed and wrist flick. By increasing wrist flick you can make your throws a
lot more stable and even add new throws to your repertoire. Practice using more wrist snap on ALL of your
throws.
Quick Release Throws
A by-product of having good wrist-snap is that you will find you are able to release throws with very little arm
motion. The quick release throws are very difficult for a marker to stop.
High Release Throws
Quick release throws and high throws are very similar in technique, basically because you cannot wind up for
high release throws. These allow you to throw over the mark, and often are unblockable because they are
released so far forward.
Outside In (OI) Throw
In the case of a backhand throw, the disc starts to the left and curves to the right. Most OI backhand throws will
be for people cutting from the middle of the field to your left, and you want the disc to curve into them. Also, if
there is a defender halfway between you and your receiver, this is the throw that will get it around that defender.
The disc is released with an inward tilt to achieve the OI curvature. In the forehand case the disc curves from
right to left.
Inside Out (IO) Throw
For a backhand throw, the disc starts to the right and curves to the left. This can be used to throw to the right
side of the field when the marker is trying to force you to the left (i.e. the forced side). Most IO backhand throws
will be for people cutting from the middle of the field to your right (i.e. the break force side). The disc is released
with a downward tilt to achieve the IO curvature. In the forehand case the disc curves from left to right.
Outside In (OI) Huck
When most intermediate players huck they tend to release as an inside-out throw to allow the disc to flatten out
in flight. This is particularly true for forehand hucks. An inside-out is generally a difficult throw to complete
because it needs to be released close to the body (easy to point block) and tends to float at the end of its flight
path.
The outside-in huck, on the other hand has the following advantages:
- Very fast, arcing flight
- Curves around intervening defenders
- Curves in toward the receiver
- Can be released out very wide
- Shorter wind-up
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The outside-in huck requires a lot of upper body energy to be imparted over a short time, it is usually a fairly
stunted motion. It also requires a lot of wrist snap to keep its flight level and counter the natural tendency to turn
over. Accuracy in release is also important because there is little room for error (the disc simply goes to ground
if it misses its mark), and subtle differences in the angle-of-release result in very different flight paths. The only
way to learn is practice!
References
Tom Brennan and Jonathan Potts, http://www.afda.com/skills/
Trick Throws
The Hammer
The grip is essentially the same as for the forehand.
The significant difference is that the hammer throw is released upside-down, so that support underneath the
disc is not as important as for the forehand. A tight grip with the thumb is important, since it is the digit which is
doing the supporting. This makes the power and hybrid grips the better choices for the hammer. The harder the
disc is thrown, or the more wind you throw into, the more vertical the disc should be when released. [2]
Air Bounce
When an airbounce is thrown correctly, the disk leaves your hand, approaches the ground at a point a short
distance in front of you, and then mysteriously rises. When I throw, I keep this in mind. As near as I can figure
one of two things is happening when you make this throw. First, look at it like you are taking a huge trashcan lid
and compressing a whole lot of air, between it and the ground, and this compressed air, then expands, and
propels your disc back upwards.
Second, view your disc as an air plane wing that has it's front edge tipped upwards so that as air passes under
its surface, it has the tendency to get lift and rise.
When you make your throw:
1. Use your thumb to push the rear of the disc down, leaving the front edge slightly higher and allowing for the
airplane wing lift effect. As your arm propels the disc forward, this angle will give it lift.
2. Standing sideways with your Right foot out in front, toward your catcher and maintaining the disc angle with
your thumb, start your (right handed) throw, high up near your left shoulder. Now, using your thumb to keep
the disc angled up, sweep your hand and arm down (diagonal motion) low toward your right knee and out to
an imaginary point about 4 to 7 feet in front of you. (place another disc in front of you as a target if
necessary.) This motion needs to be fast, so that you compress the air, instead of just "fanning" it out of the
way, the way you would fan yourself on a hot day. By moving downward quickly, you will compress the air
you need to get a good "bounce" off it. Hence the term "Air bounce"
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You have been told to push hard with your thumb. You need to push with your thumb to keep the tail of the disc
down as you compress air. I often start with my disc 45 to 65 degrees up from horizontal and often nearing
vertical, This allows me to grab a lot of air and then I flatten out to more like 30 degrees as I release. Your
friends have been trying to tell you to use that thumb to create pressure and air compression as you try to shrink
a square foot column standing air 3 to 4 feet high into a 1' by 1' by 1' layer of air that the Frisbee can ride up on.
A good air bounce can be thrown under a park bench and come out the other side rising. I have heard urban
legends about greats who can put one under a car and have it float back up to catchable height.
Wrist Hammer (Scoober, Scooper)
This throw uses a standard backhand grip. The disc is flipped over so that the dome of the disc is resting on the
wrist and forearm. The throw is from the forehand side. The disc is brought back towards the shoulder and then
thrown forwards at an angle of about 50 degrees. The flight path is the reverse of a normal hammer.
Thumb Hammer (Thumber)
This throw uses a reverse grip. The thumb is inside the lip of the disc, the outside edge of the thumb (the side
away from the fingers) is pushed against the disc and the fingers are supporting the dome, but the grip is fairly
loose. The throw is from the forehand side. The disc is brought back towards the shoulder and then thrown
forwards at an angle of about 50 degrees. There needs to be a good amount of spin to get the disc to fly
properly. The flight path is the reverse of the hammer.
Inverse Thumb Backhand (Snake)
This throw uses a backhand grip with the disc held upside-down. The thumb is inside the disc, with the inside
edge of the thumb (the side closest to the fingers) pushed against the rim, and the fingers are curled against the
dome. The throw is from the backhand side. The disc is brought back towards the shoulder and then thrown
forwards at an angle of about 45 degrees. The flight path is similar to a hammer, although it tends to fly at a low
height, and it will usually fade towards the backhand side at the end of its flight.
Bowler
This throw uses a backhand grip. The throwing motion is similar to bowling a cricket ball. The arm is brought
over the shoulder with the thumb and forefinger leading. The disc is near vertical. A large amount of spin needs
to be given to the disc as it is released, and the throw follows the reverse of a hammer flight path.
Thumb Forehand (Thumber)
There are a couple of different grips for this throw. The disc is the right way up, and the outside edge or pad of
the thumb is against the rim. The palm is facing up and the fingers are curled onto the dome, although one
version has the index finger inside the rim as well. The throw is from the forehand side of the body, and the
action and flight path is identical to that of a forehand. Another variant on this throw starts with the disc held out
in front, fingers facing forwards on top of the dome, and thumb facing forwards underneath. The disc is then
whirled around the thumb (anti-clockwise from top for right-handers) and projected forwards at the right
moment.
Thumb Backhand
The grip for this throw has the pad of the thumb inside the rim and the index finger along the outside edge of the
rim. The throw is from the backhand side of the body. The disc is brought back flat across the chest and then
thrown forwards. Lots of flick is required at the moment of release to get the disc to fly straight.
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This throw can also be thrown from very low, both straight and as an air bounce, and from above shoulder
height. Only the angle of the wrist at release need change.
Overhand Thumb Forehand (Discus)
The grip for this throw has the inside edge of the thumb against the inside of the rim, the index finger along the
outside of the rim, and the remaining fingers flat on the dome of the disc. The throw is from the forehand side,
and is released at or above shoulder height. The disc flies the right way up. The wind-up is again similar to a
bowling action in cricket, with the disc is brought back upside-down at about waist height, the arm looping
around and releasing the disc the right way up above the shoulder. The wrist needs to be cocked in such a way
that the outside edge of the disc stays down, and so that plenty of spin is imparted to the disc on release.
References
Tom Brennan and Jonathan Potts, http://www.afda.com/skills/
Drew Cope, Captain and Webmaster of the 1999 Eastern College Exiles
Pulling The Disc
Trajectory
It may be surprising to see a section on taking the pull, but in a high level game a good pull may be the
difference between the defense shutting down the offence, and the defense getting shredded because it has not
had a chance to set up. This section will look at what styles of throw to use, throwing technique, grips,
positioning of the throw and external factors such as the wind and the sun.
The primary aim of the pull is to have the opposition trapped on their own goal line with the defense already
down there and set up. The key to this is time, either:
- Time that the disc spends in the air
- Time that the opposition has to take to move the disc up to their line
The secondary aim is to have the opposition on a particular side of the field as well, so as to cut down their
options.
For those who do not know, trajectory is the flight path taken by the disc. There are basically three different
trajectories which can achieve the primary aim as stated above, although two do it considerably better than the
third as a rule.
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The three trajectories are shown above:
1. A high throw which slowly descends giving the defense time to get down the field. This is the 'usual' pull, if
such a thing exists. If thrown at the right angle it flies upwards until near the front of the endzone and then
begins to fall slowly. It is easy to catch, but hopefully spends enough time on descent for the defense to get
to the endzone. If the throw is good, there is nothing the offence can do to stop the defense from setting up.
2. A high arcing roller which descends at a speed and angle which makes it very difficult to catch. The idea is
that it lands in the endzone and then rolls out, forcing the offence to walk the disc up to their line before
starting play. This will give the defense plenty of time to set up. The downside is that the throw does not
spend much time in the air, so if the offence is daring, they can either catch the pull or stop it just after it hits
the ground. Then they may be able to start passing before the defense has time to set up.
3. This is a throw which flies fairly low and fast, landing in the back corner of the endzone untouched by the
offence. The drawback is that it is not that hard to catch, and as a result the offence can usually get started
before the defense gets down there. Keep in mind that the offence can start the play from where the disc
lands. This is the weakest of the three trajectories.
The Throw
In general most players cannot throw a forehand anywhere near as well as a backhand, at least where distance
is concerned. The only time when a forehand is definitely the better throw is when you are throwing a roller and
the wind is coming from over your throwing shoulder. In this case the forehand will catch the wind and get
greater airspeed and distance.
Other than this, the backhand is the better throw. It is easier to get distance into the wind because it is easier to
put spin on the disc. It is also less prone to error, as a rule.
Backhand Grip
The only grip to use is the power grip. No other grip gets as much distance. The thumb should be roughly
parallel to the rim of the disc. This loses a little control, but makes sure the thumb does not drag the trailing
edge of the disc on release.
Forehand Grip
Either the power grip or the hybrid grip should be used. The disc should be gripped as tightly as possible to
make sure there is little wobble just before release.
The Run-Up and Release
Most people by instinct have worked out the best way to pull up to this stage. Probably 99% of pulls are
backhand, and most of these are high-flying slow-descending ones, at least as far as people are able. Where
most people lose on distance and power is in the run-up and the release.
There are two different run-ups which will give good distance. The first one, which is easier, is known as the 3-
step run-up. The second is harder, but has the potential to get more distance, and involves a complete 360
degree body turn just before release.
The 3-Step Run Up
The most important element of throwing technique is to forget your arm. Arm strength is not important. A good
throw starts from the legs and hips and moves up your body and down your arm. In ultimate, where you can get
a running start for a pull, the best form involves a full 360 degree spin, but I've never been able to keep my
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alance during the spin, and it's not too useful for disc golf. The trick is to get your body just enough off-balance
that the snap and the disc release pull you back upright.
Start with your right side towards the direction you are pulling. Hold the disc with all four fingers inside the rim
(this is absolutely crucial - do NOT put your forefinger on the rim). Step in that direction with your right leg, then
cross your left leg BEHIND your right leg. This should twist your body so your hips are facing almost directly
AWAY from where you are throwing to. As you bring your right foot forward, start with the disc low and your arm
straight across your chest. Your wrist should be curled and your right shoulder should be as low as is
comfortable. The further you can get the disc behind your body, the more distance you will have to pull on the
disc before it leaves your hand.
As your hips rotate forward (and make sure you lead with your hips), use the muscles in your back and shoulder
to PULL the disc straight across your body. You should really feel this pulling motion and it should be started in
your hips and lower back. The disc should cross your body at approximately constant height (maybe rising
slightly, but not much). The muscles in your arm should be relaxed (except for your grip and your triceps). As
you pull the disc, your arm, which started fully extended, will bend slightly at the elbow until the disc has passed
your body, when your arm will start to straighten out. When your arm has reached its full extension, the disc
should rip itself out of your hand and fly off to the horizon.
The disc should travel in a straight path from start to finish of this motion. Do NOT swing your arm like a
pendulum. Any curvature in the disc path will take distance off of your throw. Your arm should reach its full
extension at precisely the point where that straight line is aimed. The disc should start and be released with an
almost vertical orientation relative to the ground (strong hyzer). If your form was correct, the disc will pull itself
level soon after it leaves your hand. After the release, allow your arm to follow through. It should end up pointing
above and to the right of where you were throwing, in a line with your shoulders.
Start practicing this with a walk through. Even if you develop a running start, you will always end with these
same last three steps. A good throw will feel like all the momentum of your movement got put into the disc and
your body is left at rest. The snap as your arm straightens out is probably the most critical part of the motion, but
using your hips and back is usually more difficult for people to learn.
The motion really starts low and travels up your body. As you are bringing your right foot forward in your last
step, your hips get ahead of your legs and your upper torso. Your right foot should not come down until right
before your arm snaps straight. Well, really, it should come down whenever it is convenient, but you don't want
to slow your forward momentum until the disc leaves your hand. You can practice snapping your arm straight
just standing in place. Start the motion with your hips and butt, and snap your arm out to the right. Your arm
starts straight, curls as it crosses your torso and then snaps straight. Get a good push from your left leg, and
feel your weight shift over to the right during the motion. But most of the push from your left leg should go into
your hip twist and right arm, not your right leg. After the release, your right arm is way up in the air, and your left
big toe is just touching the ground as you drag it forward.
The main points to note are:
- The left foot goes behind the right foot at the start of the run up.
- Your back is facing the target before the arm starts swinging.
- Disc travels in a straight line through the release, not in an arc.
- Disc is pulled across the chest, not the waist. The wrist snap is vital at the time of release. [1]
The 360 Degree Run-Up
What gives distance in your throws, apart from the correct angles in relation to the ground and the wind
direction, is mainly the speed you impart to the disc in the release moment, and the basic idea of this technique
is to add extra speed from the body rotation.
The most common fault people tend to do when going for the 360 is trying to do the spin in four steps, and sort
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of jumping through the last step. This will inevitably leave you out of balance, and far worse, you won't have any
foot in the ground to get a proper kick-off at the moment you initiate the actual throwing swing. As this brief
guide will reveal, there's really only three steps in the pirouette.
The foot placements in this article are valid for a right handed backhand thrower. If you're a lefty, you have to
revert everything. If you use the sidearm throw for distance I'm afraid I can't be of much help. In my 15 years in
the game, I've so far only seen a couple of players who has used a 360 run up for a sidearm throw. It's even
harder than the backhand 360, but of course everything is possible with a lot of practice.
0. Foot positions to start with when beginning the 360 turnaround steps. Keep your upper body straight
forward, and your right hand holding the disc hanging slightly behind your hip, leading edge of the disc
pointing forward. Start here, and do everything slowly. When you feel comfortable with the 360 spin, you
can add speed to the 360. When you've mastered this, try to add some extra speed by taking a few steps
before you start the actual turnaround.
1. The first step of the actual 360 turnaround. Bring your disc arm forward and begin moving your right foot,
turn your right foot almost 90 degrees clockwise before you plant it. Before you plant the foot to the ground
start bringing the arm back to prepare for the swing. At the same time your hips and shoulders should begin
to turn clockwise.
2. Step around with your left foot. The toes should be pointing backwards. At the same time extend your arm
backward (in the same direction as your left toes now are pointing) and raise the arm to about
chest/shoulder level. Your upper body should now be in a position about 90 degrees clockwise from your
initial stance. To further increase the rotation speed to come, your left arm should at this point be slightly
behind your back.
3. Step around with your right foot, but try to keep the hand holding the disc where it is, i.e. extended
backwards. Experiment with different length of the last step. A shorter step will increase the body rotation
speed, a longer step will engage the arm more into the throw. If you have problems with airbounce, i.e. the
disc moves forward with its leading edge higher than its trailing edge, your last step might be too long.
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4. The actual throwing motion is initiated by a push from your left leg. Let the hips lead the body motion, and
follow up with the shoulders and then the throwing arm. At the same time you could help building up rotation
speed by swinging your left arm around with the clockwise turnaround. What gives maximum power and
release speed is when you manage to get all of your body into the throw, not just the right arm.. To time the
arm swing to the turnaround and the body rotation is by far the trickiest part of this distance technique. What
helps is as always a lot of practice. It's also good advice to watch an experienced player perform the
turnaround, and try imitating what he/she does.
5. Practice, Practice, Practice. One thing you could experiment with is the angle of the run up. Most players
come in slightly from the right, some (including me) do their run up almost 80 degrees perpendicular to the
direction you want your throw to go. What you gain by coming in from the right, is the extra power you get
from releasing the disc very late in the throwing motion and still being able to get the throw to go in the
intended direction. [2].
The Forehand Huck
The main problem with using the forehand to pull is that it is very difficult to get the disc to move in a straight line
through the release. Try it and see. Your arm naturally bends one way at the elbow, and this is the right way for
keeping a backhand moving in a straight line, but the wrong way for a forehand. This means the disc will move
in an arc, with the corresponding loss of power and control.
Using some of the ideas from the backhand huck, the most important thing is to get the disc as far behind you
as possible before you throw. For a right-handed forehand huck, the steps are as follows. Set-up sideways with
your left shoulder facing forwards. This allows you to extend your right arm as far back as you are able. For the
throw itself, swing your right arm back shifting your weight to your right foot. Then lead forward with your right
shoulder. This should turn your upper body naturally and start your right arm swinging forwards. Step forward
with your right foot. By this stage your arm should be roughly perpendicular to the direction you are throwing
and your right wrist should be well cocked from the inertia of the disc. Snap your wrist hard to impart good spin
on the disc. To get maximum power, this is the point at which the disc should be released since it is moving in
the direction you want it to go. Try not to let the disc get much in front of your shoulder before release, as this is
where you start to lose control. [1]
References
[1] Tom Brennan and Jonathan Potts, http://www.afda.com/skills/
[2] Peter Henriksson, http://www.algonet.se/~sdgo96/engelska/frisbee/skola/turn.htm
Throwing Speed
You've got your backhand, you've got your forehand, you've got your inside-outs and outside-ins, you've got
your hammer - what more could you want? Well, besides all of those thumb-hammers, scoobers and push
passes, one thing a lot of average to good players are missing is the concept of changing the speed of their
throw.
Imagine the count is on seven, you've just got one cutter and they are heading straight for the sideline with their
defender just two steps behind. What are you going to throw? Basically, you're going to have to drill it, hard. If
you put a soft pass in, either you're going to have to put it so far out in front that they'll be over the sideline by
the time they get it, or they're going to have to slow up and their defender will come through and get the block.
Have you got that throw?
What if the situation is the same, except that the sideline is much further away? The percentage play is to sit the
frisbee up out in front of your cutter and to let them run it down (assuming they are matched for speed with their
defender). That way instead of trying to hit your target in the chest, you are letting your target do the work.
Have you got that throw?
Think about your backhand or forehand. Can you throw it at different speeds? If not, it is something you should
think about to improve your game.
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Backhand
Most people find it easier to throw fast throws than slow throws. The reason for this is probably that people are
brought up on throwing balls, where the main power comes from the arm. To throw a slow throw there is much
more emphasis on the wrist, and much less on the arm.
The trick to throwing a slow throw is the ability to take the arm out of the throwing equation. This is simply a
matter of practice, and of concentrating on using the wrist to provide both the speed (which is minimal) and the
spin. The other thing to remember is that speed provides some of the lift of a frisbee. If you want to throw it
slow, you have to put it a bit higher into the air to compensate for the loss of lift. Usually this means head height
instead of waist or chest height.
There is of course another way of throwing slow backhands, and that is the air bounce. The air bounce is
achieved by dragging the thumb across the back edge of the disc on release. This pushes the back edge down,
the front edge up, and slows the throw a lot while giving it an upward trajectory.
Forehand
If human arms flexed equally both ways, then you could apply the same ideas to throwing slow forehands as to
slow backhands. Unfortunately (unless you are some bizarre case) they don't.
The idea behind the slow forehand is the same as for the slow backhand, but the mechanics are quite different.
The trick is again to be able to take the arm out of the throwing equation. There are at least two different ways of
doing this. One is what I call the "high forehand", and the other is by pulling your arm back just before releasing
the disc.
The high forehand is an unusual but useful throw. The throwing arm is held perpendicularly to the body. By
twisting the throwing shoulder forward, you can start a "ripple" or "wave" down the arm which ends with a sharp
snap of the wrist, releasing the frisbee with plenty of spin but very little speed. The high forehand is particularly
useful for breaking the force, since most defenders do not expect a forehand to be released near shoulder
height.
The other slow forehand involves pulling your arm back just before releasing the disc. The throw starts off
normally, but by pulling your elbow backwards just before letting go you can reduce the speed of the throw
without reducing the spin significantly.
As with the backhands, you have to angle these throws upward slightly to compensate for the loss of lift.
Fast throws
Fast throws tend to magnify throwing mistakes. A slight wobble on release turns into a sharp dive into the
ground, a slight lack of spin causes a rapid turnover. There are two main reasons people have problems with
fast throws - one is spin, and the other is hand angle versus disc angle.
Let's start with spin, since it is the obvious one. Simply put, spin equals stability at high speeds (not necessarily
true at low speeds). The more spin, the better. I've never seen someone throw a high speed throw with too
much spin, and I doubt that it's humanly possible. So concentrate on getting as much spin as possible on both
forehand and backhand. This usually involves cocking your wrist as much as possible before throwing.
The less obvious one is hand angle versus disc angle. Many problems with wobbles result from slight
inconsistency between the angle of the hand and the angle of the disc. At low speed the result is a small
amount of wobble and turnover. At high speed the result is usually a lot of wobble and a vicious outside-in
throw, or even a blade into the ground (particularly on forehand).
The angle your hand is trying to throw the disc at needs to be the same angle that the disc itself is at. There is
no quick fix (that I know of). It is simply a case of adjusting the angle of your wrist, and the way you hold the disc
until you can throw it consistently with no wobble. Slowly work up to longer and longer, and harder and harder
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throws.
References
Tom Brennan and Jonathan Potts, http://www.afda.com/skills/
How to Avoid Choking
Even Michael Jordan makes mistakes. No matter how good an athlete is, "choking" is inevitable. The difference
is that the pros have trained both mentally and physically to reduce its likelihood and to recover from it. Sports
psychologist Robin Vealey of Miami University of Ohio and Daniel Gould of the University of North Carolina at
Greensboro offer some tips:
FOCUS
Choking often occurs when your thoughts are on the past or the future. Focus on the present, and be conscious
of your emotional and physical reactions to a stressful situation.
Practice
Practice in stressful situations in order to get used to physical and mental tension. Mental and muscle memory
interact, and you can train them together to create conditioned responses to tense circumstances.
Relax
Stress makes your mind hurry and your muscles tense up. Use breathing techniques to relax, and consciously
loosen tight muscle groups.
Talk to Yourself
Self-talk can calm, remotivate and remind you of your best technique. Use a "mantra with meaning" - for
example, an ultimate player can remind herself to have "quick feet" so she is moving and ready. And don't
obsess over a mistake; instead replace a negative mental image of yourself with a positive one to bring you
back into the game.
Know Yourself and Your Environment
Perceived pressure from teammates, coaches, and yourself can cause you to freeze up. Remember: it's just a
game. Pick the challenged and competitions you think you can handle.
References
Noami Lubic Scientific American: Building the Elite Athlete
92

The Lazy Person's Guide To Defense
To start with, I have a confession to make: I am extremely lazy! In principle, I have nothing against running
around my marker all day, occasionally getting a chance to make a bid on the disk. However, I much prefer to
think a bit more, and run a little less. So over the years, I've developed a couple of little tricks that I use to try to
create a turnover with the minimum amount of effort on my part. Off-man defense (also know as poaching, or
creative standing) is frequently the easiest way of getting a D; if you read the game well and get yourself into the
right positions the offense will sometimes oblige by passing right to you!
Awareness
The key to any kind of off-man D (including zone defense) is to be aware of the passing lanes - where is the
offense looking to move the disc? This obviously depends on many factors, such as the ability and preferences
of the thrower, the style of offense being played, and the position of the disc on the field. Set plays from the
middle of the pitch with a strict stack set-up can be very vulnerable to poaching and switching defense. To be
alert, for all possibilities you need to keep an eye on the disc, another on the player you're marking, and another
on all the cutters. By my calculations that requires more eyes than the average Ultimate player is endowed with!
Be aware of opportunities to help out your fellow defenders. If someone is cutting from deep when you're at the
front of the stack it can be worthwhile to block out the big gain, even though you may allow an easy short pass
to your former marker. Similarly, is a cutter is free, go with them! There's no point slavishly sticking with your
man whilst the offence gets an easy point. Sounds obvious, but it happens all too often.
Loitering With Intent
A typical situation with poaching possibilities is shown in Figure 1a.
If you're marking a handler who has cut short and not been passed to, don't just jog after them as they amble
away, thinking you're done your job; take advantage of the ideal position you're in for off-man D. A defender
innocently wandering away from the disc can easily be overlooked by the thrower as the next comes in, leading
to the situation in Figure 1b, and easy turnover. It is possible to structure an entire defensive strategy around the
technique of swtiching off the front of the stack onto the incoming cutter. This is most effective against an
unimaginative offense who continually cut in rotation from the stack, but this is the type of offense that many
teams revert to in mid-point when they get tired. Against such a style, switching off the front can be
devastatingly successful, as well as being very energy efficient for the defense.
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Sneak Attacks
Another simple trick that can be suprisingly effective takes advantage of the limited cutting space available in
the endzone. Once the offense are within assisting range the handler is often faces with a chaotic mass of cuts
in all directions. To make life even harder for the poor thrower, I like to hand around towards the middle or back
of the stack, usually on the open side (the side being forced towards), looking to poach on any assists.
Nothing unusual there; the sneaky part is to try and position yourself so that people further forward in the stack
are blocking the line of sight between the thrower and you, as in Figure 2a.
Out of sight, out of mind - with half a dozen defenders to keep track of it is very easy for the thrower to overlook
a cunningly placed defender. So when an offensive play breaks free at the back of the stack you're perfectly
positions to move across and cut the disc off (Figure 2b).
Off-Man D In Action
One particular episode that I remember was marking a handler who was jogging up the middle of the pitch after
passing the disc. As I wandered upfield after him I spotted a second cutter tearing up the sideline free of his
marker. I'd already forgotten the rollocking our captain had given us right before that point about poaching, so I
headed off to try and intercept the line pass I guessed was about to be thrown. Neither thrower nor receiver
noticed me, and the pass duly went airborne - a low, fast sidearm. Angling my run to reach the disc just in front
of its target, I arrived in time to lay out past the receiver's shoulder (admittedly he did crouch down to make this
possible!) and get fingertips on the disc – turnover! Then the bad news: I landed on friction burns earlier in the
week: Followed rapidly by the good news: I'd managed to land within six feet of Dr. Paul Marfleet, the physio
and treatment coach - heaven just a short crawl away!
A cautionary Note
Finally. a word of warning: off-man D can seriously annoy your team-mates! When it goes wrong it tends to go
horribly wrong, and can often result in an easy score or a large gain of ground for the opposition. There's only
one solution when you've poached and the person you were marking is running into the endzone completely
free - shout "switch" and try to blame someone else :-)
References
Jeff Jackson, http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/public/ca/ad943925/bufscot1.htm
94

The Statistics of Dumping
Method
I estimated throwing percentages (with a high stall count) for three categories of thrower (great, average, and
poor) for four different length passes (40,20,10, and -5, with four different rates for the dump), then estimated
scoring rates for three types of teams (great, average, and poor) from 5 different spots on the field (10,20,40,60,
and 70 yards away from scoring). I thus estimated the team's chances of scoring for each choice of throw. I
included a penalty for short turnovers to reflect the fact that the other team will have less ground to cover to
score.
The Percentages
Chance of scoring from the x yard line
Yard Line 70 60 40 20 10
Great 0.5 0.57 0.71 0.86 0.93
Average 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9
Poor 0.07 0.2 0.47 0.73 0.87
Chance of a player completing a y yard pass
Yards 40 20 10 -5 (4 different ones)
Great 0.4 0.75 0.85 0.98,0.95,0.9,0.8
Average 0.3 0.6 0.75 0.98,0.95,0.9,0.8
Poor 0.2 0.45 0.6 0.98,0.95,0.9,0.8
At first glance, these completion rates may appear low. However, they were chosen to reflect the difficulty of
completing a pass at a high stall count, which is when the dump should be used.
Simplifying Assumptions
Scoring rate is 100% at epsilon yards away from the goal line, and decreases linearly with every yard further
away.
Completion rate for a particular throw is independent of location on the field.
Everything is linear.
Other Relevant Data
At Nationals one year, the Open division had a completion rate of 88%, and the Women completed 82.5%. Goal
scoring rate was about 90% once a team crossed the 10, about 35% from their own goal line.
Results
In almost all situations, when the dump completion rate was at least 90%, the better team strategy was to dump.
The primary exception was when the thrower was in a class higher than the team (great thrower on average
team, for example).
A great thrower on a poor team will help the team more by throwing it downfield at 75% or 85% than by taking a
100% dump.
On a great offensive team, even a great thrower will help the team by dumping it. Even if he can complete 85%
of his 10 yard stall 8 throws, which is extremely unlikely, he would only need to complete 95% of his dumps to
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come out ahead. If he is deciding between a 75% 20 yarder and a dump, the break even point is between 91
and 93%.
Poor teams tended to benefit more by dumping near the goal line, and taking the riskier throws away from the
goal line.
Conclusions
Being able to dump will increase a player's value to almost every team. A high percentage dump pass, even
though the team is further away from scoring than before and thus will have a lower likelihood of scoring, is
often the best option available.
In general, if a team is likely to score, a conservative option should be chosen. If a team is unlikely to score, the
higher risk, higher gain pass should be taken.
If you reran the numbers using completion rates at all stall counts, the dump would probably be advantageous
only for poor players on good teams. But this article is looking at the use of the dump as a high stall count
option.
References
Jim Parinella, http://www.upa.org/upa/totw/tip8.html
Playing Deep on Offense and Defense
The deep game should be an important part of any offense, and the defense should consider ways to counter it.
Too many teams misuse it by throwing into crowds or allowing an unfavorable mismatch to occur. Although
there's no substitute for raw talent, you can improve your deep game without getting faster or taller or
developing better throws.
Defensive tip: Poach deep. It is every defensive player's responsibility to prevent the easy long goal. If you are
covering the deepest offensive player on the field, also be aware of any other offensive players cutting deep. If
they are beating their defender, you should drop your man and pick up the long cutter. Additionally, the
defenders near the back of the stack should also be aware, because the "last man back" frequently changes.
Offensive tip: Clear the deep area. A long cut should originate from not more than 20 yards downfield from the
thrower. Every other offensive player has the responsibility to keep their defender from poaching deep.
Obviously, you can't have everybody bunched within 10 yards of the disc. What I mean is that if you are last in
the stack and see a teammate start to cut deep, you should cut in, either away from the disc to get your man out
of the way, or towards the disc to get the open pass as your man poaches deep. In any event, when you are
moving, your defender thinks you are a threat to get the disc and has to pay attention to you, but if you hang out
because it's not your cut, a smart defender will be able to help out his teammate. NYNY always did a
tremendous job with this, at keeping large chunks of the field free from defenders.
Warning: Some of this flies against "conventional wisdom", so do it in moderation. "Switching" is considered evil
in some parts.
Q. Should one yell "switch" on such a deep cut switch play? Is it better to have two people chasing the deep cut
and no one watching the short cut?
A. Well, ideally, it should be automatic. It works best if both defenders are looking for this switch. The "last man
back" also can keep an eye on the disc and can tell whether the long throw is possible and if he needs to
switch. I guess it isn't an automatic switch, then, in that the last man back should determine whether he is
helping the team by preventing the easy goal at the expense of leaving his man temporarily open. At first, then,
he probably should yell "switch". Later, only eye contact will be needed, until eventually everyone is of the same
mind. As I said before, though, many people are vehemently against the idea of switching, because it's
something different and doesn't always work. And yes, it's probably better to have two men deep if it's a viable
throw otherwise, but it's better even still to have the poacher deep and the other defender taking the poacher's
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man. It's a timing thing, and takes a while to develop this skill, so there will be some awkward moments if not
everyone is comfortable with it. But I've caught way too many long goals after running past three defenders who
were stationary in the stack "covering their man".
Q. Should I poach off my man if my man has made an unsuccessful short cut and is now returning to the stack
when I see a second cutter coming near my side of the field (towards the disc, towards me)?
A. This is also a good question. There are two types of poaches, one to prevent a pass and one to make the
defensive play. How you poach depends on your motive.
1. Immediately flare out into his cutting lane, trying to dissuade him from continuing his cut, but with the full
intention of returning to your man after a couple steps. Unless your man might be clearing deep for a huck,
you might want to do this a lot. Guy cuts in, you shut him down, he clears along the sideline, spend a couple
seconds facing the disk while you're backpedaling as he's clearing. It clogs their passing lanes and you
might get an easy block. And, it usually costs you absolutely nothing (but be careful of the deep clear).
2. Wait until the last possible second, face upfield (away from the thrower), then sprint to where you are
anticipating the throw, arriving just before the offensive guy. This is probably more effective against less
experienced throwers, since you learn to avoid throwing into poaches.
Poaching is a timing thing, and it takes practice. It's habit forming, though. In casual games, it's rare when I'm
not covering at least 3 different people over the course of a point (unless, of course, I get a block on the first
pass). It should probably be used in moderation, lest you get labelled "lazy fat ass poacher".
Q. If you poach deep, and the person you're covering has read this, will it still work?
A. If he's read this, he will have cut out of the way as he saw his teammate sprinting deep. If he's a little slow
and forgets that he read this until his man poaches, then he can cut toward the disc on the same side as the
thrower. However, the defender on the long cutter originally has also read this and will be looking to switch to
the poacher's man, or, barring that, a third man on the defense sees the poachee breaking in and takes him,
and someone else takes his guy, who then cuts, is picked up by a different poacher, so on, until stall 10. All this
assumes the thrower hasn't already thrown into a poach or dumped it off because no one is open. A good,
experienced thrower will usually wait an extra second for the receiver to get to the open, unpoachable space.
So, yes, it will still work. The idea behind poaching and switching is that normally, a defender has to chase the
offensive player around the field, but with poaching/switching, the defender has a better chance. You can view a
cut as a race between two players to any spot on the field, but the offensive guy gets to say "go", he determines
where the race is to, and he can change his mind about the location of the finish line for the first half of the race.
Is it any wonder then that it's impossible to cover a good receiver one-on-one? With switching possible, the
defenders can say, "We'll race you, but if you cut to this place, player A will race you. If you cut to that place,
player B will race you. If you cut back there, C will race you." With this option, the defense regains a bit of the
head start. Of course, there are up to 6 races going on simultaneously, so it takes a bit of coordinating to have
an entrant in every important race. As you get more comfortable with the idea of poaching and switching, you
develop a better feel for which races you should jump in and which you should allow your teammate to win or
lose on his own. Some may consider this an individual glory-seeking defense, but I think it's more of a team
defense than any other man on man, requiring timing, cooperation, and heads up play.
Keep in mind, though, that as fun as it may be, poaching every pass probably won't work, and the lazy poach is
just an excuse not to run. But if the proper places are chosen, and you exert the effort, poaching can be
tremendously effective.
References
Jim Parinella, http://www.upa.org/upa/totw/tip1.html
97

The Inner Game of Ultimate
In the last couple years, I have become a big believer in the concepts behind sports psychology, and so, as with
any new convert to anything, I will now preach about why you should become one, too. The best team isn’t
necessarily the one that would win a tabletop or computer simulation based on the statistics, but the one that
emerges at the end of the tournament with their heads held high, trophy in hand, and a comfortable feeling that
they did what they had to do.
The basic premise of The Inner Game is that the self is composed of two parts, the Ego and the Body (named
Self 1 and Self 2, respectively). Self 1 is the overbearing parent that barks out orders all the time to Self 2, which
actually has to perform the task. Unfortunately, Self 1’s orders usually take the form of "Now don’t screw this up,
Jim", or "Make sure you spin this one enough, not like last time, you idiot", or "Don’t think of white elephants
with pink polka dots", and sure enough, what Self 2 thinks of is exactly what it shouldn’t, and it’s unable to
perform. This can easily turn into a vicious cycle of self-doubt and underachievement, and if it’s allowed to
continue, Self 2 will believe that it is incapable of doing anything right. Self 2 has to overcome Self 1’s nagging
to achieve.
I noticed a long time ago that there can be some peculiar phenomena in some games. Often times, one team
will jump out to a large lead, and the other team will come back. It is how these teams view the big lead and the
comeback that determine who is going to win in the end, rather than which team is really the more talented.
Let’s look at a couple of the scenarios.
A. Two relatively equal teams, or two teams that aren’t familiar with each other.
In this game, it is not clear that one of the teams should be winning by a lot, either because prior experience has
shown that the two teams are roughly equal, or because the teams don’t know which one is better, but suddenly
Team A is up by a lot. Team B fights back to tie it late in the game, and how the game ends depends on their
attitudes. The first phenomenon that I observed was that often Team B make a big run to tie the game, but will
then fall apart and lose. This could easily be explained by random chance, but I believe there is another
explanation. Team B decides at 8-2 that they will be satisfied if they can just catch up to A. Once this goal has
been accomplished, they feel no need or desire to win the game, and they don’t. They no longer have the
confidence in their throws or defense, and they begin to believe that their run was just luck, and defeat is
inevitable. The other outcome is that Team B continues their comeback and wins. Here, Team A is the culprit.
They get their lead, then become distracted by thoughts about how talented they are and whether they should
incorporate 50 yard hammers because they are so good, and forget to remain involved in the game. As B
catches up, A becomes aware again, but their only memories are of making mistakes that allow B to score, and
each new mistake reinforces the previous ones, until catching the pull becomes a dangerous task. Team B,
meanwhile, trusts themselves and their judgments, and they aren’t second-guessing whether they should throw
the curving forehand, they are just doing it, and successfully.
B. Superteam vs unknown.
For whatever reason, the Unknown team jumps out to an 8-3 lead, might trade goals a little in the second half,
but then crumbles and loses 15-10. Overall, they certainly shouldn’t be expected to win, but neither should they
expect to be outscored 12-2. What happens here? Well, Unknown is in an uncomfortable position at halftime,
and is afraid to take that risk to be good. It’s much easier on the psyche to be average, where no one expects
anything from you. If Unknown wins, then they might have to be playing in the finals in front of people, will have
to train harder, might have to have tryouts and cuts, and will generally have to become more arrogant to live up
to the status of being an elite team. If they lose, though, there is no such worry, and they can console
themselves while drinking nice cold beer during the finals that it could easily have been them out on the field.
They don’t believe they are good enough, and are looking for an easy way to confirm that. Superteam, on the
other hand, believes that it will win, especially if it’s been in that situation before, and never doubts that it is
possible. Sometimes they can overcome Unknown by sheer force of will, and every crumbling act by Unknown
feeds Superteam’s drive. Certainly, Superteam will crumble sometimes, too, but that defeat is driven by Self 1’s
pushiness. Believe me, it makes for a long winter when your season ends because you were afraid to win when
it counted.
The brain needs to keep out of the way of the body. The individuals need to remove judgment about whether
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something is good or bad, and just be aware of it happening. Trust in yourself, and allow the body to perform
actions that it knows how to do. Remember, you learned how to walk pretty well without needing to make
conscious statements about how straight your leg should be or where to position your arms. After enough
practice, your muscles develop memory of how they should be acting. Equally important, the brain needs to
practice winning. Visualize events before they happen. While practicing your throws, visualize the path the disc
takes, see the label spinning as it releases from your hand, and see it going directly to your target, all of this
happening in your mind before it happens. Then execute the throw exactly as you had envisioned it. Similarly,
picture yourself winning a big game, and catching the winning goal, and then going on to win your next contest
against another team that is supposed to be better than you.
The mind is a great tool in ultimate. Winners are separated from the pack as much by how strong they are in
their heads as in their legs and arms. While not everyone will be playing for the National championship, all of us
can strive to be better.
References
Jim Parinella, http://www.upa.org/upa/totw/tip1.html
Defense
Defense: Player
Positioning is the key to successful coverage. Figure out where the receiver wants to cut, then position yourself
so that his task is more difficult.
Consider an extreme static example where the receiver is far away from the thrower and can only cut back at
the thrower on only one side of the field. In this case, simply keep yourself 5 or 10 yards in front of the receiver
(this is called "fronting" or "face-guarding"), and if he ever cuts in, you cut in also, keeping yourself well ahead of
the receiver.
Next consider another extreme but more realistic example. You are covering someone who is considerably taller
and faster, but can't throw well. What to do then? Simply give him a few yard cushion the other way, so you
have a head start on any deep cuts.
The key to both of these situations is to position yourself between the receiver and where he wants to cut to. In
the second example, you'll be making it easy for the comeback cut, but you've decided the receiver is much less
dangerous near the disc, especially if his throws are relatively weak. Similarly, if you're covering a great thrower
who isn't quite so fast, overplay the cutbacks.
In real life, players' abilities lie somewhere in between, and they have a variety of cuts open, not just one or two,
and the available cuts change over the course of a point. In general, the more cuts a receiver has available, the
less you can play for any particular cut, and the closer you have to position yourself to the receiver. So if the
great long cutter is also a decent thrower, perhaps you should position yourself less than a yard behind him, so
if he cuts back, you'll be close enough to be a factor if it's a bad throw, and at the very least you'll be in position
to mark immediately. You may have noted that some great defenders play as close to their opponents as
possible (and sometimes closer), which is good if you can do it. However, it requires more energy, better
anticipation, and leaves you less aware of your surroundings. On the other hand, it makes harder any cuts that
require a few steps to set up. and if the defender has any bulk to him, makes it difficult to run around him.
Let's consider how to cover the first cut from a stack. If you're covering the next to last guy in the stack, you can
position yourself several yards off him and a little bit to the side that you're forcing. If he cuts to the force side,
you have a several yard head start. If he cuts against the force, you'll be far enough in front so that you can still
cut off the angle on that longer throw. If he doesn't cut after several seconds, you should close the gap and
keep an eye on where the frisbee is. If a pass has been completed upfield to the force side, things have
changed a bit. Now, a deep cut is more of an option, but the position of the disc has eliminated any cuts to the
opposite side, so now maybe you will play a couple yards off the receiver, but more to the force side, almost
even with the receiver. Glance around frequently, so that you are constantly aware of the disc's position, both
relative to you and also relative to the field. You must shift your position relative to the receiver so that his most
likely or most dangerous cut has to go through you.
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Consider instead what happens if you are covering the first person in the stack. Now, you can't play several
yards off, because you are no longer able to cut off the angle on an inside-out pass. Additionally, the thrower
can throw a hammer over you or a curving pass around you to an open area. Therefore, position yourself just in
front of the cutter, facing him, with your weight on your toes. If he's just juking around, bounce with him. Avoid
committing for as long as possible. As soon as you cross your legs over or reach full stride, you've committed
and the cutter may be able to change directions without you being able to follow him. One of my favorite cuts is
to begin running deep until my defender has begun sprinting, then stop and come back for an uncontested
throw.
You must constantly be aware of where the disc is and where it may be going next, especially if your team plays
force middle, where the open side of the field changes with each swing. A good defender constantly repositions
hiself, taking into consideration the flow of the disc, his opponent's strengths, where the open areas are, and
even what the stall count is. He is always reevaluating where his opponent wants to cut, and where he can do
the most damage. In a sense, he's invoking game theory. He might think, "Well, there's a 60% chance that he'll
cut back with the force, 20% he'll go against the force, 10% he go long right away, and 10% he'll just stand there
and cut long on the next pass. If I front him by a foot, I'll stop his comeback cut 70% of the time, his break the
mark cut 60%, but he'll be open deep 40%, but the deep throw is only a 60% throw anyway. I could overplay the
comeback so I'll stop him 90% of the time, but then he'd be open deep 75% of the time, but then again, he's
never cut deep on me in the four years I've played against him. Also, the thrower has really good inside out
throws, so I can't just let him have that cut, but then again our marker has very long arms, so ....". No one
actually consciously goes through that process, but you could model it that way. The point is that you can't stop
everything, so you have to choose where you will focus. If you're beaten four times in a row to the force side,
overplay that particular cut. If the thrower can't throw deep, don't worry about covering that cut. Decide where
the cut will be going, and get there first.
References
Jim Parinella, http://www.upa.org/upa/totw/tip7.html
Defense: The Clam
In Ultimate, as the thrower has up to ten seconds to make a pass, most players develop much more slowly. As
the receivers remain open for a longer period of time, most throwing decisions can be well planned. The Clam
attempts to make the Ultimate field look like a crowded football field. Receivers will break open, but only for a
second, thus forcing the thrower to recognize the situation instantly as to whether to throw to the receiver or not.
Theoretically, the are always six potential receivers. At any given moment only one or two are viable threats.
These threatening receivers have a limited number of specific cuts available. The Clam attempts to
systematically shut down the most likely and most threatening cuts, leaving the low percentage and short
yardage passes open. At the heart of the strategy, is a person to person defense, but which defensive player
covers which offensive player isn’t determined until after the cuts have started.
Particular assignments are only valid as long as the offensive player is the most viable receiver in the defender’s
area. It’s not unusual for one defender in the Clam to cover three different offensive positions during a ten
second stall count. It’s also not unusual for a well-positioned defender to not cover anybody (and still be doing
the job), since players often won’t cut into an area where this is already a defender.
Clam Strategies
Many variations of the Clam exist, but all require teamwork to succeed. Conventional person to person defense
means there are seven offensive players matched against seven defenders. Most teams use either middle,
sideline, forehand, or backhand force against the thrower. This is the first step toward reducing the area in
which each defender has to cover.
With two players of comparable abilities, it is virtually impossible for the defense to prevent the offense from
getting open. A cut is a foot race to a particular spot on the field, except that the offensive player doesn’t tell the
defender which spot he or she is racing toward or when the race starts. The offensive player can change his or
her mind anytime during the race.
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When part of the field is blocked by the marker or the sideline, the defense doesn’t have to worry about covering
the whole field. But there is still a lot of space left to cover. Using the Clam, a group of offensive players is
assigned to a group of defensive players; each defender looks for certain cuts to guard. The defensive players
are positioned so that for almost every race offensive players want to run, there is a defender already there who
has a head start.
The simplest form of the Clam is the "two-person Clam". This is illustrated below.
Offensive players A and B are in the stack waiting to cut, they are covered by defenders 1 and 2 respectively.
Imagine the only cuts available to A and B are hard cuts back to the disc (e.g. the disc is on the goal line, the
offensive player never throws deep, the offensive player always starts the flow with a cut from the stack).
Defenders are on each side of a cutter. As soon as either A or B cuts, (A) is picked up by the nearest defender.
The remaining defender picks up the other offensive player (B) while repositioning to take into account the force.
This concept can include three or more players. Each player is responsible for cuts in a particular direction. It is
important that the defenders are "face-guarding" the offense. This means facing the front of whoever is cutting.
The "Basic Clam"
The "Basic Clam" has four defensive players sandwiching the last four offensive players in the stack. The front
players play a more conventional person to person.
- The marker is called 0 and forces forehand.
- 1 and 2 player person to person, covering the first two players in the stack (usually the handlers
- 3 stands on the forehand side of the offensive player.).
- 5 stand directly in front of the offensive player (3/4/5 form a cup of sorts).
- 6 plays deep and is responsible for all long passes.
Note: that forehand really means for a right-handed person’s forehand; force a left-handed person’s backhand.
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Why Force Forehand?
1. The inside out forehand usually has a greater margin for error.
2. Few people can throw a long forehand well.
3. The forehand is a lower percentage throw, in general, than the backhand.
When to Force Backhand?
1. When the thrower truly has a great hammer and uses it to beat the Clam.
2. When the offensive player who starts cutting is left-handed
True mastery of the Clam requires the ability to stay in the Clam for several passes; for the full point, if
necessary. Players must be extremely comfortable with the concept of switching and playing defense.
In the full field Clam, 0/1/2 always cover the three players closest to the disc, and whoever is the closest to the
disc becomes the marker while the other two cover the handlers. If the receiver cuts away from the disc or cuts
long, then 0/1/2 passes the receiver off to 3 or 4 (depending on which side) and picks up the next available
person. This rotation continues as long as the Clam is being played. The Clam will often shut-down five cuts
during eight seconds of the stall count. The offense will find the open receiver when 3 or 5 get caught out of
position, allowing the offense to score. When this happens the defense must accept that occasionally the Clam
will look foolish and easy goals will be scored.
Shown on the next page is an illustration of what might happen during a typical Clam point. The play begins
during a typical Clam point. The play begins with 3/4/5 close to the stack to hide the defense. Remember, one of
the keys to success is surprise. As players cut from the middle or back of the stack, 3 and 4 flare out to pick
them up, and 5 subtly shifts to whichever side needs covering in case another cut immediately follows. Players
have to decide whether or not to cover that cut and leave the middle open. As passes get completed, players
reposition themselves to take into account the new disc locations.
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B is shut down on a handler cut, E cuts to the forehand side but is picked up by 3, and D has just begun to cut
to the backhand side. Note that 5 has moved slightly to the forehand side.
A has just caught a swing pass, G and 0 begin to clear to the middle, B clears long, E returns to the stack, D
cuts to an open area far from the disk, and C and F move up in the stack. 3 Moves between B and the disk, 6
moves to the near side, 2 and 5 pick up C, and 4 keeps and eye on D and F.
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B and G are making handler cuts and are being covered by 0 and 2. E cuts again to the forehand side and 3
picks him up again. D clears long, 5 moves closer to F as the stall gets high, and 4 gets close to C. There are no
passing lanes open, everything is clogged. Note that in all three frames, 3/4/5 have surrounded the last four
offensive players in the stack.
Steps to Learning the Clam
To use the Clam effectively, the team must be comfortable with the concept of switching. Many players thing
poaching is a sign of laziness, but limited, intelligent switching can have devastating effects. Learn the Clam by
practicing the two person Clam in a drill. Have a marker force forehand; place two offensive players in a stack
about 15 yards away from each other; but two defenders in a Clam, and allow only comeback cuts. This will
help defenders learn to watch more than one move at a time.
Choosing the right players is important to the success of the Clam. Defensive handlers 0/1/2 should be tireless
since they will always be near the disc. When playing the "Clam for 1" the 0 position should be played by an
excellent marker. Strong marking is important because a broken mark will often leave all defenders poorly
positioned, which can result in an easy goal. Veteran poachers who know how the offense cuts and who have
experience in switching and poaching should be positions 3/4/5. The biggest and most agile person who can
cover a lot of ground and sky for the desperation huck, should be the number 6 player.
At first it might be easier to institute the "Clam for 1". Later, add the option to play it for 3 to 5 passes or for the
whole point. Teams can make this decision while on the line, before the point, or while on the sideline, to ensure
they have the appropriate players. Once players decide to use the Clam, they will let players on the sideline
know so that they can shout a code word to remind the team to switch to force forehand. In the event of a bad
pull that does not allow for the defense to set up, the Clam should be called off. If this happens, it is important
for players to know who they are matched against on the opposite side of the field.
References
Jim Parinella, The Mystery of the Clam, World Ultimate Magazine, May 1997, Pages 22-26,
http://www.tiac.net/users/parinell/clam2.htm
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Defense: Changing Your Defensive Set
Mixing up different defensive sets can put teams off their game; Unforced errors follow. If your team tries this
strategy, you may later hear statements from your opponent like "we just didn't play that well against them", "our
O didn't click", "we forced it". Quotes like these come after successful defensive strategies are employed. One
thing to remember is that you can't expect a defense to get blocks every point. Using one defense may simply
be a set-up, making the next defense more effective. Remember, tournaments are long, legs are to be saved.
Junk defense saves legs. Here is a brief description of the defenses:
Player on Player, Force Two Finger
(note: Forget straight-up player... you're giving the thrower both throws, not smart! Even force-middle seems like
a gift to a good offensive team.) Force two finger gives more teams trouble than any other player on player D.
Why? Because most players can't throw a two finger more than 30-40 yards, so you've cut the field way down.
In addition, most teams have tunnel vision when trapped against the sideline, always looking to ram throws
directly down field into the teeth of the defense. Strong marking on the throw is critical.
Player on Player Force Backhand
This D augments the force two finger. Break it out after a team has gotten used to your force flick. The BIG risk
of the force backhand is that you leave the backhand huck wide open (last player back has to be aware).
Clam for 3 Passes
Here's a good D to throw in after you've been playing a lot of force two finger (remember that the clam only
works on a force two-finger mark). Your opponent thinks player D, but you're actually in a match-up zone (when
you stop and think about it, the clam is just a high risk match-up zone). I'm always surprised at how teams panic
when their first cutter, open all game so far, is suddenly shut down. Use the clam once the opponent has
established it's offensive rhythm.
Clam to zone is another good D to follow successive points of player on player. It looks like a player D, kind of,
gives you a few shots at a block early and then settles into a zone.
Note: Clam only works off a stoppage of play, so you have to throw the pull OB. Someone may change the
rules to keep teams from doing this, but until they do??? (I think that an OB pull should be heavily penalized for
this reason, say start the O from the back of the end zone... that would keep the discs inbounds.)
Clam After Any Stoppage of Play
This can be a real surprise. You're playing force two-finger and there's a stoppage of play (foul, pick, travel).
Every one on your team KNOWS that it's clam for three passes starting NOW. If the opponent lasts three
passes you're simply back in the force two finger. Use an audible later to call it off; they think clam, you play
player... perfect!
The use of audibles during all aspects of Ultimate is imperative. Even if what your calling is code for stay in the
same D, it helps your team focus and it makes your opponent think that you have many different sets. Learn to
hide your defenses. Don't be lazy, don't telegraph what you're up to.
The risk with the clam in general is that it wreaks havoc on your defensive match-ups, lots-o-switching going on.
Cribber may very well find himself covered by Lenny... not good!
2-3-2 Zone
This is the oldest zone in the game, but played differently depending on who's teaching. In short, it should be
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match-up for the wings and the deeps while the cup forces certain throws. 'Flexing' this zone during a point can
work as well (take away the dump at high stall counts after your opponent gets dependent on that pass).
Note: 'Flex' defenses will be the thing of the future.
1-3-3 Zone
Here's one D that NEVER works -- well, kind of. Why use it then? Sometimes we're not sure. However, because
this zone has but one marking chase, the O can throw all the sort passes it wants, giving them the sense that
they are zone killers. Next time down, you play a tight 2-3-2, taking the dump away at high counts and bingo
they're putting up hail Mary passes.
The 1-3-3 is also great for transitions into clam for one pass (on a stoppage of some kind) followed by force twofinger.
The opposition thinks easy zone, suddenly you front the close passes and the thrower has nothing as his
down field players are standing in their zone O positions.
The 1-3-3 is a good zone to player for stopping plays off the pull since most of the zone stays relatively deep.
2-3-2 Zone to Player D (for a set number of passes, say 3 or 5)
Oldest transition D in the book, but essential to use against teams with strong plays off the pull. Many times,
teams will turn it over before you even change to player. Risk of this D is bad match-ups and your team has to
be able to count. During the transition from zone to player, you are very weak.
Faceguard
This is a force two-finger player D, but with defenders around the thrower fronting their player, and defenders
down field looking to poach. Sideline must talk, calling out 'last player back' as the position will naturally keep
changing. The concept here is to cut off the short pass, forcing the throw up-field to where others and last player
back can poach. An important part of this D is the switching that should occur as a handler heads down field
while another cutter is streaking in. The defenders can easily switch since, ideally the defender near the disc
sees the incoming cutter (remember he's fronting so he ain't even looking at the thrower) and the defender
down field sees the handler coming (since he's set to poach and therefore looking at the thrower). The risk with
this D is that is can become very loose, with too much switching and poaching, leaving everyone open.
Also, in the endzones use localized side-to-side (two defenders 'share' their assignments: "you got left out of the
stack, I got right"). 90% of all goals are thrown to the corners.
Conclusions
1. All of these defenses work best in combinations. Play force two-finger for a while, then come down in
something that looks like force two-finger, but is zone or clam. Play zone for a while and then come down in
zone-to-man or zone-to-clam. DON'T BE PREDICTABLE. Many opponents see only one or two players
deep, thinking that if you are in a player D around the disc, then it mut be player D all the way. Change it!
2. Don't try to RUN with your opposition -- it exhausts you. Tournaments are long endurance battles, not onegame
championships. If you have the best shut-down player defense, use it at key times to break your
opponent's heart and confidence. Many of the defenses described above involve LESS running than a
straight player D. If your opponent scores in two passes, but the second pass is hotly contested by your
deep-deep, then you have done your job. Next time, make the block.
3. Predictably, offense begins with the short pass. You can't shut it down ALL DAY, but you can dictate when
your opponent will complete this pass easily and when it will be difficult. Don't let the O dictate the flow of
the game. It is surprising how FEW teams have offenses that begin with something other than a short pass
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to a handler lined up at the front of the stack. Since you know this fact, dictate that your opponent MUST try
something else. You will find that if they haven't practiced alternatives, turn-overs will be forthcoming.
4. Your entire team must be on the same page. None of these D's are individual, and they suck when people
aren't working together, focused. Call the D on the line before the pull. Have the transition O be VERY
SIMPLE. Don't risk having too much to remember.
5. Your sideline is a HUGE part of all of these strategies (telling defenders where to cover/look/force). As well
as yelling audibles for changes during a point.
6. Move the defense towards more risk taking. Position your players accordingly, with high flying defenders
down field and stingy shut down defenders around the disc. Get your opponent to put up lower percentage
passes. Hey, no need to block bad throws. Force the O to throw marginal passes into areas where your
team is strongest.
7. Have your O capable of playing a few of these junk defenses. Zone off a turnover often works as your
opponent will likely not have good zone O players in the game. Clam on stoppages of play can also be very
effective since defensive teams don't have as many composed handlers.
8. Whether player or zone, great defense begins with an aggressive mark on the thrower. A solid force one
way or the other will allow down field defenders the luxury of only having to cover half the field (down field
defenders can't totally ignore the weak side, but...).
So what does all this mean? Sometimes the object is not just to make sick blocks (though if you're single this
may be your only hope of finding a date), but to make your opponent's offense have to THINK. Thinking and
playing at the same time is very difficult. By the time the final game rolls around, teams want to use the same
strategy that has gotten them into that game. Thinking, changing, adjusting are all difficult, especially without
real coaches.
But, each defense takes time to learn. Showing up at practice and simply playing games to 21 is not enough.
This stuff has to be drilled, 'cause athletes are notoriously dense.'
References
moonee@aol.com
Offense
Offense: Offensive Thoughts
Structure in an offense can come in several ways. The receiver, the spot to cut to, fakes, and even the timing
and route can be specified. On a complex end zone play, all or at least most of them need to be called out (or,
one player is given an option and the others have no choice after that first player chooses). In a typical set play
off the pull, only the cutters and maybe a side of the field are completely specified. Both methods are useful in
their place.
The purpose of this article is to tie together some loose ends from over the years and explain them in the
context of the underlying structure in a free-flow offense.
Basic Rules
On an extremely simple level, offense can be broken down into five rules:
1. Take what they give you.
2. If you really want something they're not giving you, try to fake them into giving it to you.
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3. If you’re not sure exactly what you want, fake until they give you something, then takeit.
4. Actively get out of the way when someone else is making a better cut.
5. Make smart choices with your throws.
The rest, as they say, is obvious. But since "obvious" is different for different people, I will attempt to specify,
and will attempt to err on the side of "but everybody knows that already".
Let’s suppose I’m the first downfield cutter in a called play, and I’m standing out by myself waiting for the disc to
be walked in. If the defender is 5 yards behind me and I can gain 20+ yards, I will take it and cut in. If the
defender is fronting me by 5 yards and the thrower has the long backhand, I will take it and cut long. If it’s a 2-
or 3-yard cushion in either situation, I might make one hard step right at the defender to get him backpedaling,
then immediately reverse directions. These would all be categorized as #1.
#2 and #3 often appear the same to an onlooker. Sometimes I’ll make several hard steps on a comeback cut,
the defender will overcommit to it and I’ll break deep immediately. Other times, I’ll just juke in and out,
(sometimes a juke will be just one step, and other times it will be three or four). As soon as I see the defender is
off-balance, I’ll make my decision and go. The key I’m looking for is when the defender’s shoulders have
completely turned perpendicular to the direction he is going in. Once he’s there, he can’t stop quickly. If you time
it well, you can have 3 or 4 shots at making the defender err.
#4 is an undervalued skill. Suppose now I’m at the back of the stack as a deep fill and someone is starting a
deep cut. If I stay there, my defender can leave and prevent or intercept the deep pass, so I have to get him out
of there or, failing that, get yardage off the poach. The best way here would be to make what appears to be a
hard cut to the opposite side as soon as I see my teammate breaking deep. If I go too early, I’m simply taking
myself out of the play and possibly cutting off someone’s away cut to that side. It’s important for me to be active
while I’m waiting. I want to prevent the defender from getting comfortable and being able to watch me and the
disc at the same time. Just try to imagine what the defender wants to do to play good defense, and try to
prevent him from doing that. Make him constantly change his position or angle, make him move, whatever.
Anyway, suppose I space for a second and just as I see the break deep, so does my defender. I have to
preempt his poach in this case, and come in on that side (favoring the middle of the field a bit), hopefully forcing
him to react to my motions and come in with me instead of stopping the long play. If I wait, he has the time to
make a decision on what to do, but if I go instantly, then his choice has to be made instantly, too. In general,
during flow, if I’m thinking of making a cut myself, I’ll usually have begun edging toward that side, so I’ll run in
towards the thrower but a little to the sideline so he doesn’t have to throw over me. If I wasn’t preparing to cut,
I’d probably head to the opposite side to avoid the possibility of a pick. Similarly, if someone is cutting in from
behind you in the stack, actively move toward the other side of the field.
#5 should be anticipating which of those things above might happen. The thrower should be aware of the deep
poacher, and if that happens, he should try to find who is now open. If you can see the poacher moving, follow
his trail back to the poachee. Don’t force a pass simply because it’s the play, or because you think the receiver
can outjump two defenders. Be ready to abandon the downfield cutter, turn sideways towards the field, and hit
the dump.
Additional Considerations
Passes accomplish one (or more) of the following items:
1. Gain yards ("yardage cuts").
2. Put the disc in a better position (swing pass, short break mark throws).
3. Maintain possession (most dumps or high stall count throws).
Realize that ANY of these can be useful, and that a 30 yard break pass that sets up the whole flow might be
asking a little too much sometimes.
You should also consider those items from a receiver’s perspective. If you are consistently making cuts but not
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getting thrown to, then you might be cutting to the wrong spot or at a bad angle. Whenever possible, make cuts
that gain yardage, are to the open side of the field, put the disc in a good position on the field, keep the flow
going, and/or prevent a Hail Mary pass at stall 9. Actually, the open/break side is a tricky issue. It’s usually
easier to cut to the break side and you’re more likely to create something big, but it’s a tougher pass to
complete, especially if the mark is competent. I’ll estimate that passes (less than 30 yards) to the force side are
complete 98% of the time (with most of those turnovers coming on poaches), while about 90% of break passes
are complete. A team should be willing to accept this lower completion rate because of the reasons above, plus
any strategist or game theorist will tell you that an assortment of options in a multiple choice game are
necessary. (And, for the record, a long pass completion rate of about 60% (in most games) is enough to make it
a viable choice.)
When you are poached off of, consider it your job to catch or set up an easy goal. Many times it won’t come for
several passes, but it requires an immediate hard cut. Most of the time, you want to head in the opposite northsouth
direction from the poacher. Whether you should head in the same east-west direction depends on the
situation. By these statements, I mean that if he poaches deep, you come in, and if he poaches short, you go
deep. If he poaches on the forehand side, then other things determine whether you should also go to the
forehand side or to the backhand side. The primary factor in this decision is where the field is more open. Do
NOT run towards the defender who is trying to find someone to cover. Even if you think that the thrower can’t
get you the pass, perhaps the next thrower or the one after that will be able to, so move.
Break mark passes should come in to the receiver from the outside or at least straight on. Both players have
control over this. There are two reasons for this. One is that a defender might be able to get the better angle on
a pass coming from the inside. The other is that there is less margin for an errant pass. If it’s completed it can
be quite damaging to the defense, but most of us can’t throw this accurately more than 10 yards, if that. So, the
break mark cut has to start from a position that is not straight downfield from the thrower. (I must point out here,
however, that some very good teams have had great success using this inside out forehand to start the flow.
The throw has to be perfect, but can be devastating if complete.)
Frequently, you can call an audible on the field to make sure the thrower and receiver are on the same page.
What happens is that a thrower or receiver recognizes a special situation and wants to make sure that his
compatriot also recognizes it. At the very least, a team should have code words that indicate a desire to cut
break mark or with the flow, so on a stoppage or even in flow, one word shouted by the thrower tells the receiver
to cut to one area and the rest of the team to stay away from that area. It has been said that the New York New
York team of old would indicate where to cut by calling out one of the bridge names that lead into Manhattan.
Another concept that I think is important to some offenses but that I have rarely seen discussed is temporal
(time) margin vs. spatial margin. A long comeback cut with a defender on the receiver’s tail has lots of temporal
margin but little spatial margin, meaning that the thrower can throw it any time he wants but it has to be on the
proper side of the receiver. A quick break mark cut, in contrast, can work with a poorly placed pass if it’s thrown
at the right time. Most dump cuts, too, have more spatial margin than temporal. (This case is a little different
since the thrower can often direct where and when the cut happens, whereas downfield cuts are almost always
receiver-directed. So, the thrower might have a several second period in which he can throw it, but once that is
decided, the timing relating to the cut and to when the defender reacts are extremely important. A keepaway
game where the defender has to keep his back to the thrower demonstrates this. If the defender knows when
the pass is coming, the temporal margin evaporates.) Another way of looking at it is that some passes are
thrown too late, or that some cuts are made too early. So, there is often a very small time window in which a
pass can be thrown. If it’s thrown in that time, it can be almost anywhere and be caught. If it’s thrown
afterwards, no pass will get there.
On that note, on a swing pass, be prepared to continue the swing immediately, both as a thrower and as a
cutter. If the swing pass gains yardage also, then most likely the next cutter should come from the back of the
stack. If it’s a dump-swing, then most likely the next cutter should be someone from the front of the stack. Even
then, though, the back-cutter should be timing his cut so as to get the next pass after that. Be prepared to throw
when you catch it.
Going back to spatial margins, throw choice can add or subtract. The place this is most often seen is on hard
cutbacks with a defender on the receiver. There is often no margin to miss on the inside, since a defender can
layout or run by for the block (especially if it’s a very fast pass, since the receiver tends to slow down on those to
make it easier to catch, while on a slow pass the receiver can keep on running hard. Wind complicates the
matter, since soft passes are more likely to be adversely affected by the wind.). The simple solution is to throw it
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to the outside edge of the receiver rather than to the center. A better solution is to put more curve on the pass
so that the disc arrives at the receiver from the outside. Curved passes are easier to control and give a better
angle. Pro golfers never hit straight shots deliberately because of this.
Pullers can also achieve better accuracy if they incorporated this idea. The inside-out pull tends to hang longer,
so if there is no significant crosswind that changes this, it’s probably best to throw from the left side of the field
and aim at the right cone (another idea borrowed from golf). Similarly, an outside-in pull should be thrown from
the right side and aimed at the left cone.
I can’t stress enough how big of an advantage it is if you know where the frisbee is and the defender does not.
Defensive positioning is a dynamic process that depends on where the frisbee is, where the stack is, and who
the relevant players are. What is good positioning at the beginning of a point might be an uncontested goal if
there is no adjustment as the point goes on. I try to make the defender watch me all the time. If I see that he
turns to watch the frisbee, I try to move away from him right then. If he reacts to poach, I instantly sprint away.
Mostly I’m watching the frisbee to see where the flow is going, but I am also trying to be aware of what my
defender is doing. Another place this comes into play is on an underthrown pass that goes right by the defender.
Although of course an "UP!" call can alert the defender, the receiver can also let the defender know the pass is
coming by preparing to catch it. Pretending that nothing is happening until the last second can let you prevent a
turnover and also get the defense mad with themselves for not calling "up".
You can also use your eyes to fake. The converse of the above is pretending the disc is in the air so that the
defender turns to block it, only to find that it’s not up and you have run away from him. Most defenders (either
consciously or subconsciously) notice where the receiver is looking and expect that he is looking at the disc.
You can play on this by following some imaginary flow and making it look like you’re setting up to cut past the
defender, all the while you’re watching the real flow out of your peripheral vision. Then, when it’s time to cut, you
first take a step to cut for the imaginary flow, and the (somewhat) alert defender will have anticipated that and
will cut there first to shut you down. Instead, all you do is turn and sprint the other way and you’re open by 5
yards.
Zone O
Take advantage of temporary 2 on 1 or 3 on 2 mismatches. Unless you’re playing against an extremely focused
and practiced defense, you will have many short-lived opportunities to exploit this power play. Anticipation and
immediate reaction, as with man to man offense, are important. It’s a rare defense that will simultaneously have
one player making a bid for a block while another adjusts to cover. For example, if two poppers are on either
side of the middle middle, who bites on a fake left, the other popper is open UNLESS the wing or point adjusts
at the same time. If the offense doesn’t know this, then the defense will be able to recover in time to prevent the
pass. Just about any 2 nearby O players have a potential mismatch situation. The poppers exploit the middle
middle. A popper and a wing work on the side middle. A wing and a deep work on the deep. The off-handler and
a wing or popper split the off-point. A good defense will constantly be making adjustments to prevent someone
from being open for too long, but it takes a great one to make that time window almost non-existent.
I think most downfield O players run too hard when the disc is still in the cup. When the cup gets broken, that is
the time for an all-out fast break. But when the disc is stationary, too much movement merely alerts the
defenders as to their whereabouts.
And use the overhead to spread out the cup and side middles.
Scoring Passes
Most goals (except for long passes) are scored very close to the front cone. A curving pass can really make a
difference, as the defender is more likely to be close to the receiver, since there is no threat that the receiver is
going to stop and cut long. Therefore, the angle that the disc comes in at is more important. If you have a good
fast receiver cutting hard to the cone (especially if he’s big) and he has even a half step, it’s almost impossible
for the defender to make the block, so a soft pass in front of the receiver is a sure goal. Sometimes the away
curving pass is a sure goal, but that pass is tougher to complete in wind or when you’re pumped up and the
adrenaline is flowing.
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Timing cuts from the goal line straight to the cone can be very effective, but they bring with them a significant
potential downside. If done too frequently, then they dissuade players at the back from cutting. Players at the
front who are contemplating the scoring cut should look back to see whether a deeper player is about to cut.
Isolation plays can be great if both players know it’s an isolation play.
Timing cuts (really, any pass that is thrown before or as a cut is being made, rather than after a receiver is
open) can be more effective here, since not much room is needed, the defender has no chance to catch up, and
there is no need to set up the next cut. But I can’t really explain how to know when to make this cut and when to
let the default offense take over. A necessary but not sufficient condition is that both the thrower and receiver
look for it. Other conditions: defender is significantly overplaying the cutback on the force side and/or is not
watching the thrower and/or is extremely anxious to run hard (and can therefore be faked out easily), cutting
area is open, and no one else is close enough to poach.
Hucking
Often a team will specify or encourage the long pass as part of a called play. But if that’s the only time long
passes are thrown, the offense limits itself too much. Smart long passes should be encouraged. Don’t let a good
matchup be the primary reason for a huck. There are three basic situations when a huck in flow can be an easy
goal.
1. If a thrower catches the disc running laterally or downfield (not back to the disc) and his man is behind him,
he is in a "power position" and can catch it and throw it long immediately. Potential deep cutters should be
on the lookout for this anytime there is a leading pass, and should start their long cuts early enough so that
the thrower CAN turn and fire.
2. In an isolation situation (either called or natural) where one side of the field is wide open, the receiver can
make the defender bite on a comeback fake and turn and sprint long. Most throwers don’t have the touch to
throw a long pass straight down the field that goes by the defender but not the receiver, so most of us
should throw it so that it comes in at an angle to the receiver. This can be done by throwing a straight pass
at an angle to the receiver’s path (either the cut or the pass can be made at the angle, so a receiver cutting
from the opposite side of the field from the thrower will provide that angle) or by throwing a curving pass
around the defenders. In either event, a short stack makes it tougher for the defense to provide deep help.
3. A receiver might find himself with his defender several yards away and towards the thrower. There are
actually a few subsets of this. One is when a defender poaches short on a comeback cut. The poachee
must immediately recognize this and cut as the poach is being made. Another is when the disc changes
position and the defender doesn’t realize it (like in #1 above). A third way is by sprinting deep after you
dump it, particularly if the defender makes a bid for a hand block and doesn’t expect you to take off so
quickly.
Closing Thoughts
Set plays and structured offense are good and necessary. Teams should have guidelines about cutting
hierarchy, what types of throws are looked for, what to do when trapped, etc. However, they also need to be
flexible enough to allow players to be able to trust their instincts. If you have enough guidelines, then most
situations will present two (or more!) conflicting guidelines and the player will have to decide which one to follow.
Experienced players can look at two similar situations, recognize the differences, and know how to react to each
of them. Newer players should try to figure out what the general principles are and when they should be applied
and when others are more appropriate, and eventually they’ll become experienced vets who complain about
how fundamentally unsound those young’uns are.
References
Jim Parinella, http://www.tiac.net/users/parinell/disc.htm
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Offense: Rethinking the Stack
The stack is the starting point for most offensive strategies. The prototypical stack begins with a handler 15 to
20 yards away from the disc and spaces the remaining players at five yard intervals, and the order of cuts is
determined by placement in the stack. However, with the proliferation of defenses that do anything but play
straight person to person, more and more teams are finding it in their best interests to shorten their stack length.
The short stack, although requiring a bit more discipline and practice, sets up almost every square foot on the
field as a viable cutting place.
A short stack opens up more options, and a good offense must be able to take what is available. A player 45
yards away at the back of the stop is not a viable threat. If the closest player is still 20 yards away, only
cutbacks are available. If the stack is short, then everybody is starting from about the same point on the field,
and all players are realistic threats. If the stack is long, then the only available cuts are all straight line hard
running cuts with a fake at the beginning, and the offense doesn't really have many options, unless the throwers
are very good and creative and can put the frisbee anywhere on the field with whatever arc is required. My team
Death or Glory uses a short stack, and we are most dangerous when we get a 10-20 yard pass to the sideline,
so that the disc is now even with the stack, so players can go deep easily or come back for another 20 yards if
the deep cut is overplayed (keep in mind that most good deep cuts originate only 10-20 yards from the disc,
since a deeper-starting cut might outrun the throw). Since the disc has moved downfield from its starting point,
the deepest player on the field is now only a few yards further, and there is no defender that is far enough
downfield that can poach deep.
There is even an option to go deep on the first pass, since the last person in the stack is only 20-30 yards away.
If his defender poaches, then the last player moves immediately to the open area and is close enough that the
thrower can get it there right away before the other defenders have time to switch.
If the stack is long and the last defender poaches, then if the poached-off offensive player starts to move to the
open area, the other defenders will have time to see that happening and can react. Now of course this means
that another offensive player is open and can move to the open area, but then maybe someone else is poaching
or else it's no longer clear what the open area is any more or else the thrower has stopped looking for the
yardage pass and is focusing on the dump.
The long stack does have its benefits, though. Because everyone is spread out more, there is less risk of picks
or two people making the same cut at the same time. With a short stack, you need to have a better defined
hierarchy of who cuts first, either by calling a specific play or by having everyone realize that one or two players
are the best cutters and therefore they get to cut first most of the time unless someone else obviously has a
better cut. The other players must be ready to cut if a poach happens or the main cut gets stopped. But if
players are spread out like in a long stack, then typically only one or two players will be in a good position to cut,
and it is easier for each player to determine whether someone else is cutting. If you are in a short stack, then
there are 8 or 10 other players in your immediate peripheral vision, and it's hard to tell what each of them is
doing and whether any are cutting. If there is only one other offensive player and his defender that you can see,
any motion you detect is likely to be a cut.
The long stack is better suited to a rigid or almost rigid sequential offense. Many teams are fairly strict about
having plays go from handler to handler to middle to deep. Also, sometimes teams have "triplets", where a
handler, a middle, and a deep are a unit, and each unit cuts for others in the same unit.
The short stack requires a little more concentration and familiarity and discipline, but is better for an established
team that doesn't change much from year to year. The long stack is easier to learn, it is better for a sequential
offense, and an individual's role is defined pretty much by the position that he is assigned to. In the short stack,
the role for each player depends more on other things like his abilities and the called four person play rather
than where he lines up in the stack.
Experimental section
[short tips relating to beginners, intermediates, and advanced. ]
Beginners
The typical stack with begin with a handler 15-20 yards from the disc, followed by the other handler, the
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middles, and finally the deeps, with everyone four or five yards from the nearest neighbor. Typically, the first
player in the stack cuts first. If this cut is unsuccessful, the second player cuts. If either of these players gets it,
one of the middles cuts to the same side of the field, then the deeps cut from the middle. However, this gets
predictable rapidly, so the beginning team should look at mixing up the order a bit. Try putting the handlers
toward the back of the stack for the first cut. Keep the order in the stack the same, but let a deep or middle
make the first cut, and have a handler cutting away as the second option. Specify a four person play before the
point, and allow the players to set up anywhere that will enable them to get open.
Intermediates
Shorten the stack by placing the first player closer to the disc and by decreasing the space between players.
This opens up the "away" cut from the first player in the disc, either a curving forehand or backhand or a
hammer over the defenders [note to ed: a picture might help here, I could easily make a .gif, put it on my web
page or attach it, or describe it, or fax it. It depends, I guess, on the space available], so the receiver is running
away from the thrower at a 45 degree angle. Specify alternatives to the four person play, so that if a cutter gets
shut down, there is a designated short fill or long fill to continue the flow. Sketch out specific plays designed for
particular players.
Advanced
Experiment with drastically alternative stacks, such as with one player always behind the disc, or two players
even with the disc but to the side. Move the stack toward one side of the field and play one receiver out by
himself and give him plenty of room to maneuver. Introduce the concept of audibles, so that with a simple call by
a player, the play is changed. An example of this would be "two one", which would indicate that the first and
second cutters should exchange roles. Another possible audible would be to have a code word that meant the
cutter should go long.
References
Jim Parinella, http://www.tiac.net/users/parinell/disc.htm
Offense: Throwing in the Presence of a Mark
One of the traits that distinguishes the top players and teams from lesser ones is the ability to throw effectively
in the presence of a mark. Many teams look for a mark-breaking pass as the first option in their stack offense.
Other teams rely on the thrower to be able to put it in the corner regardless of the mark for their endzone
offense. However it is used, the break-the-mark pass should be an important part of any offensive scheme.
When I grew up in this game, breakmark throws were a magical thing, only to be used by the wizards we knew
as handlers. A couple of the guys could throw these wicked backhand airbounces, and one player used a
forehand airbounce almost to the point of throwing nothing else, and a well thrown overhead was a rarity. Now,
breaking passes come in a lot more flavors (scoober, inside out, high release backhand, curving throw around
the mark, step through the marker and call foul, etc.), and a larger percentage of the players can execute them
well. At the club level, being able to throw a ten yard pass against the mark to a wide open receiver should be
considered a basic skill. If a player can’t do this, he is a huge liability on offense, especially against a zone.
How exactly to break the mark depends on what you are comfortable with and what the marker is giving you,
since several options exist. The well-rounded player should be able to use whichever method is most
convenient, but each of us will develop a favorite.
Inside Out (or Invert) Pass
Probably the most popular method is the inside out (or invert) pass, the equivalent of a slice in tennis or golf.
This would be, for example, a forehand throw to the backhand side of the field to a hard cutting receiver when
the force is forehand.
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How to throw it
Good extension is important. Begin by making some sort of fake to get the marker off the forehand (perhaps a
pivot to the backhand side, or a fake overhead, or even a slight lean to the backhand side without actually
stepping will usually open up some room), then step sideways and release the pass flat or with a slight inside
out tilt. You can step forward as long as you make sure that your hand and shoulder goes with you. If it trails
behind, your body is then out of position and a bad throw usually results.
When to throw it
When the marker is close and is really exaggerating the force. When the marker is upright.
Advantages
It’s a quick throw that usually doesn’t require a lot of fakes. It can be thrown under the defender’s arm, or the
thrower can step out and throw it past the defender. It’s a fairly natural throw.
Disadvantages
When thrown to a receiver cutting across the field, this throw has less of a margin of error, since it is usually a
fast moving pass coming from a non-optimal angle. Often, the throw has to go by the defender. When marked
tightly, it is often easier to fake and throw around the mark.
Airbounce or Floating Backhand
It is more difficult to master the technique of throwing around the mark, but once done, this is probably a more
reliable throw than the inside out.
How to throw it
In the above example, this throw would be done by faking the inside out hard so that the marker tries to block it,
then pivoting and stepping around the mark to throw an airbounce or other floating backhand. Again, good
extension is important. On the forehand side, most often you should step backwards a little bit and throw a
curving pass around the marker.
When to throw it
When the marker is playing more straight up. When the marker is very aggressive and bites on the inside out
fake. When the marker is far off (big curving throw required).
Advantages
This throw comes in at a better angle than the inside out. Since it is a floating pass thrown in front of the
receiver, there is more margin on the velocity and placement of the throw. Sometimes a quick release will catch
the marker off guard.
Disadvantages
The throw is often blind, since the marker might be blocking the thrower’s view. The thrower often has to extend
himself a lot, making him off balance. A good marker might not bite on the fakes, making it difficult to get this
throw off. This throw won’t travel very far, so it can be used reliably only for short passes.
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High Release Backhand
The high release backhand is thrown from shoulder or neck height over the market’s shoulder and should travel
flat and float.
How to throw it
1. Set up with a backhand grip with your back to the marker. And the disc in front of you. As the cut is being
made, throw it quickly over the marker’s arm.
2. Face the marker, and then quickly pivot and throw it over the marker while stepping. Extra effort should be
made to put a slight inside out edge to it, to guarantee that the pass doesn’t turn over too much.
When to throw it
When the marker is low, perhaps because of a height mismatch.
Advantages
Difficult to stop, especially for a tall thrower. Great pass on calm days or at altitude since it quickly gets past the
marker and defender.
Disadvantages
Less effective in wind. Hard to throw when the marker plays off the thrower.
The Scoober
The scoober is thrown with the forehand grip over the backhand side shoulder of the marker. It is best used
when on a tight mark to a wide open receiver coming back toward the disc on the break side.
How to throw it
Just throw it out there as flat as possible and let the receiver run to it. Make sure that you turn your shoulder all
the way across your body so that your back is slightly to the marker when you throw.
When to throw it
When the marker is off you. When the most desirable passing lane is directly through the marker and you can’t
get it around him.
Advantages
Cool throw. Quick release, especially for those players who hold the disc with the forehand grip while pivoting.
Disadvantages
Cool throw, so the thrower can easily get infatuated with it and use it too much. Sometimes the disc can stick in
the hand and either go right into the ground or have too much hyzer and not float at all.
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The Hammer
The hammer (normal overhead) can be a great weapon. It is most effective when thrown to a receiver cutting
away from the thrower at a 45 degree angle. Usually, the defender is fronting the cutter, the rest of the defense
is on the force side, and a large area is open. This can be used for anything from a soft 10 yard throw (almost
like pushing a dart) to a huck.
How to throw it
Forehand grip, similar motion to throwing a football. The release point determines the arc of the pass (early
release flies high, late release flies low).
When to throw it
In the zone, to get it over the marker and the cup. When the receiver is cutting away from the disc to the
backhand side.
Advantages
It reaches the receiver quickly, so the defender usually has no chance at it. Since it’s a leading pass, the
receiver will often catch it with his defender several yards behind him and out of the way (if you’re coming back
to the disc and your defender is behind you, he is still in the way of your next throw).
Disadvantages
Often dropped, even if it’s well placed. Less margin for error if the throw never flattens out. Hard for the receiver
to catch in a crowd if it floats. Harder to master.
Conclusion
All of these choices involve either faking the marker out of position or throwing it around a stationary marker.
The latter requires a quick release. Hot box, with its lower stall count and quick short passes, can help a player
develop quicker throws. The former requires believable fakes. A good fake will look like a normal throwing
motion up until the time of release. Indeed, often my "fakes" are just throwing attempts that are aborted because
of good marking. This means that a fake involves more motion than just the arm, that it is done at normal speed,
and that it sets up something else. Faking just for the sake of faking is usually counterproductive. (Often while
faking, some cut might open up suddenly, and the faker will be out of position.) Usually, the fake will be of the
"fake right, throw left" variety. Fake the inside out forehand, the marker steps over to block it, then pivot quickly
to the backhand before the marker can adjust. One way to set up the backhand huck is to throw a quick
backhand fake, step around as if you’re throwing the forehand around the mark, then take the full step across
for the long backhand. Sometimes you might have to do this several times before the throw is open.
Even when you are planning on throwing around the marker, a quick misdirection move will open up the
throwing area more. Before an inside out forehand, sometimes a quick overhead fake will get the marker
standing more upright, so you can then throw under his arm more easily.
Finally, develop confidence in these throws. Feel comfortable enough with these throws so that you know will be
able to get it past any marker that doesn’t tackle you. When you have assembled the full repertoire of these
throws, you know that however the marker chooses to force you, he will not be able to prevent everything.
References
Jim Parinella, http://www.tiac.net/users/parinell/disc.htm
116

Drills: Triple Box
Skill Level
- Intermediate to advanced
- 8 to 14 players
- 1/2 ultimate field or more
Skills Taught
Offense - timing of cuts, breaking the mark, hucking, end zone offense
Defense - holding the mark, switching/sandwiching
Background
This drill is really more of a modified scrimmage than a conventional drill. Use it when you don't quite have
enough players for a 7 v 7 game or when you want to focus on the skills listed above.
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Rules
1. The field of play is shown in the figure below.
2. The game works best 5 v 5. Designate 3 handlers and 2 cutters per team. These designations can change
over the course of a game, but not in the middle of a point. The remaining players act as substitutes,
entering the game after a turn (replacing the guilty thrower or receiver) or score (replacing the charred
defender or marker). Substitutes must enter as handlers or cutters, depending on the player they replace.
3. The field is made up of a single handling zone (shaded yellow) and three socring pods (shaded blue). There
is no out of bounds, and players are not retricted to any part of the field. In order to score, an offensive
handler mist complete a pass from the handling zone to a cutter teammates in one of the three socring
pods.
4. Both teams use the same handling zone and scoring pods, alternating offense and defense on each turn.
After a turn, one pass is required before a scoring throw.
5. The stall count is 5. WIth this single exception, the drill uses standard ultimate rules.
6. Each score is worth one point.
7. Play is continuous until the end of a game (first team to 5).
Suggestions
- Adjust the field to suit the ability level of your group. The distance between the handling zone and scoring
pods is the key variable. I would not recommend increasing the size of the throwing pods. Accuracy should
be the emphasis at all skill levels.
- Try setting up the field so that all scoring throws are upwind.
- Experiment with different forces. Good defense is possible with force-midlle or force-side, but the upfield
defenders will need to adjust.
- Allow each defense to experiement with strict man-to-man and help defenses. In a help situation with 2
defenders and 3 scoring areas, the weak-side defender will need to cover lots of ground.
Takeaways:
This drill is an excellent proxy for endzone offense because:
1. spacing, timing, and hard running are essential to offensive execution
2. cross-field throws are extremely difficult (perhaps you should rethink that cross-field hammer)
Triple box provides a forum for you to work on throws you might not have the courage to try in practice of a
game. In triple box, scoring is difficutl. Once the defense adjusts to the drill, it will take a great deep throw or a
split-second force-break to produce a score. To be a great thrower, you will need to develop the abilitiy and
confidence to make these plays with regularity. But how can you learn these skills? Far too often, 'serious'
ultimate teams and their captains dicourage risk-taking at practice. Nobody wants to lose a scrimmage, and
captains don't want loose cannons on their roster. Triple box was designed to allow players to extend their
offensive talents without instilling bad Ultiamte habits.
References:
David Young. Has played for over ten years, first at Williams, then UC San Diego, and then with San Diego
Open. Has coached college men, college women, and open men.
118

Drills: Uphill Scrimmage
Skill level
- Intermediate to advanced
- 14 or more players
- full ultimate field
Skills Taught
Playing with and against a defensive side force
Background
This controlled scrimmage illustrates the key strategies of the sideline force, both on O and D. By using this
format, your team will learn what makes a force successful and what it takes to beat it. Note that it is not
necessary to explain thes factors prior to the scrimmage. You may want to consider a discussion of 'lessons
learned' after you're done.
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Rules
1. Set up a standard ultimate field with an additional line (painted, if possible) as shown in Fgure 1. The area
between the extra line and the sideline is known as the hilltop.
2. Scrimmage using all standard ultimate rules, with the following exceptions:
- any pass completed to a player on the hiiltop is worth one point (and the offensive player should feel
free to cry out with glee)
- Each team keeps a running total of points for hilltop passes until a goal is scored. The goal-scoring
team is then awarded 5 points for the goal, plus all of its accumulated hilltop points. The other team gets
no points, and both teams reset hilltop points to zero.
- Games are played to 25 points.
Suggestions
- Although you don't need to make this explicit, both teams should employ a defensive force away from the
hilltop.
- It is legal to score points immediately after catching the pull. Do so until the opposing puller makes an
adjustment.
- This drill can be used for zone practice if you run a trap with a strong side force.
- If one team does not even try to complete hilltop passes, ajust your scoring system to de-emphasize goals.
Takeaways
- When playing against a side force, many teams find it helpful to pretned that they are playing on a sloped
field. Uphill is against the mark, and the hilltop is the best lace to be since it allows for easy (downhill)
throws. Anytime a thrower is unmarked (or the mark is weak), he/she should try to complete an uphill pass
in order to place the disc in a better offensive position. Weaker throwers usually complete only downhill
throws. That's OK as long as someone eventually get the disc back uphill.
- Defenses should do everything they can to encourage downhill passes; force in the direction of the wind (to
make the break throw difficult), overplay the mark, and allow short passes to the open side. The defense is
in the strongest position once the offense is pinned against the force sideline.
- To run a successful side force, each player on the defensive side of the disc must:
1. stop the disc; every time the disc moves, the defense must adjust to cut off new angles.
2. hold the mark; this is especially difficult immediately after a catch (see 1), but it also becomes crucial at
high stall when clogging reduces the available number of open-side offensive options
3. trust his/her teammates; a defense is designed to work if the team plays together, with each player
shutting off a limited number of options.
- To be successful against a side force, an offense must:
1. keep open space for cuts (and throws) on both sides of the stack
2. time break-makr cuts to give your throwers an easy option immediately after the catch
3. occasionally break the mark at a high stall count, just to keep the D honest.
References
David Young. Has played for over ten years, first at Williams, then UC San Diego, and then with San Diego
Open. Has coached college men, college women, and open men.
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Drills: Fast Break
Skill level
- Intermediate to advanced
- 7 players or more
- 1/2 field
Skills Taught
Offensive creativity and aggressiveness, help defense, conditioning
Background
For most people, learning to play ultimate means learning to play within a structure. Players move from beginner
to intermediate as they learn to position themselves and time their movements as part of a particular team's
structure. At an advanced stage, players learn to react to opponents and interact with teammates in the
absence of structure. This drill forces players to push their offensive skills into new areas while simultaneously
providing an intense workout.
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Rules
1. Set up a narrow field as shown in Figure 1. Offense will start at the red cones and score in the area
delineated by orange cones.
2. All players will rotate through all positions over the course of the drill. Start with three on offense and four on
defense.
3. Offense starts with the disc and can arrange its players anywhere along the end line between the red
cones. Defense must choose two players to start out of the play, behind the red cones. The other two
defenders can position themselves anywhere on the playing field.
4. When play starts (hand check or disc check) the offense has a 3 v 2 advantage. The defenders behind the
red cone must complete ten push-ups (or sit-ups, or whatever) before joining the action. Offense attempts to
score as quickly as possible to avoid the 3 v 4 situation.
5. Use standard ultimate rules, with play ending and the drill resetting after a turn.
6. Keep individual scores, with each offensive player receiving a point per soce. Rotate players through both
O and D. Play games until someone reaches 10.
Suggestions
- Vary your defensive strategy. Try marking the disc or leaving it systematically unmarked. Try face guarding
to force the huck, or play 'prevent' defense. Experiment with force-middle and force-side.
- Experiment with throws you might not use in regular game situations. Practice throwing to space, rather
than to a man.
Takeaways:
- In ultimate, an offense can cut down on turnovers by making fewer mistakes or by reducting the number of
passes needed for a score. Most teams focus only on the former, forgetting that lack of aggression can lead
to many (indirect) turnovers. If you don't take advantage of a defensive mistake, another opening might not
come along, and your team could eventually be forced into a turnover. This drill simulates a situation where
the offense has a clear advantage. Learn to pounce.
- Although the defense in this drill is on its heels, it is by no means helpless. Look out for things that can buy
you time: positioning, fakes, marks, unpredictability. You should also be able to bait the O into unforced
errors.
References
David Young. Has played for over ten years, first at Williams, then UC San Diego, and then with San Diego
Open. Has coached college men, college women, and open men.
122

History
Where the Frisbee First Flew
The Untold Story of the Flying Disc's Origin 50 Years Ago in SLO
Two men held a circle of plastic over a heater in a San Luis Obispo garage in 1948, trying to mold a lip onto the
disc's down-turned edge. One of those men would be hailed as the inventor of the Frisbee. The other would die
unknown, just as he began to fight for a share of the credit and millions in royalties the Frisbee generated.
The First to Fly
Walter Frederick Morrison came to Warren Franscioni in 1947, looking for work. Both men had been Army Air
Corps pilots in World War II. Maj. Franscioni served with the Air Transport Service in India and China; Lt.
Morrison flew a fighter in 58 missions over Italy before being shot down and held in Stalag 13, Germany's
infamous prison camp.
Franscioni's parents lived in Paso Robles, where his father had been mayor, so he settled after the war in San
Luis Obispo. He founded a butane company as his father had done in Paso. He built a home on Conejo
Avenue, in a neighborhood developing near San Luis High School, and he opened the Franscioni and Davis
Butane Co. Office at 884 Broad St., across Broad from Mission College Prep.
"I first met Fred Morrison in late 1947," Franscioni wrote in a 1973 letter. "He was a struggling World War II
veteran trying to build a home for his family at Baywood Park, a developing residential area just outside San
Luis Obispo, California.
"At that time, I was attempting to establish a bottle gas business with a partner, George Davis, in San Luis
Obispo. We needed someone to assist in the installation of home heating appliances, and Fred went to work for
us."
The bottled gas business moved too slowly in postwar SLO to sustain three men and their families. So
Franscioni and Morrison dreamed up an enterprise on the side.
For decades kids had played catch with metal pie tins. The sport grew in popularity during the Depression, and
soldiers spread it across the country during the war.
The game had a few drawbacks. The tins made a shrill noise, and if you didn't catch them just right, they stung.
After a few crash landings they could crack or develop sharp edges that cut fingers.
Morrison and Franscioni thought of casting them in plastic, a material proliferated by wartime industry. Morrison
took credit for the idea in later interviews, but Franscioni said they thought of it together.
"I do know that when we compared some of our past experiences at sailing things, it came out plastics,"
Franscioni wrote.
It seems like a simple idea today, but Morrison and Franscioni broke new ground. And after 49 years of
improvements, the Frisbee has diverged little from their first plastic interpretation of a pie tin.
"People were throwing paint can lids and paper plates and pie pans throughout history, since they were
invented," said Victor Malafronte, a Frisbee historian in Alameda. "The first plastic disc was that Flyin' Saucer in
1948."
Morrison and Franscioni used a lathe to carve their first model out of Tenite, a hard cellulose material now used
in toothbrush handles and eyeglass frames. That disc confirmed the aerodynamics of the toy, but it shattered on
landing.
"I tackled the job of working up a design that would transform the pie-tin shape into what we believed would be
the best configuration of an injection-molded Flyin' Saucer," Franscioni wrote.
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Franscioni's daughter, Coszette Eneix, remembers her father and Morrison working in the basement of their
Conejo Avenue home.
"I remember one time--I was like 5--I remember standing in the basement downstairs, and I remember over the
water heater they were trying to mold this plastic thing to try to get a lip on it," Eneix said.
Newspapers had coined the term "flying saucer" less than a year earlier when a pilot reported seeing discshaped
objects skipping through the air above the Cascade Mountains in the Pacific Northwest. The Roswell
incident in June 1947 fueled the flying saucer craze. Witnesses in Roswell, N.M., reported seeing the bodies of
aliens at a UFO crash site.
Franscioni and Morrison named the new toy to capitalize on the publicity.
"Hundreds of flying saucers are scheduled to invade San Luis Obispo in the near future," the Telegram-Tribune
reported in 1948. "Two local men, pooling resources after the words 'flying saucers' shocked the world a year
ago, have invented a new, patented plastic toy shaped like the originally reported saucer."
The Saucer Crash
People have purchased more than 200 million Frisbees in the last 50 years, Malafronte estimates, more than
baseballs, footballs, and basketballs combined. Those booming sales, however, began with a whimper. In 1948,
people didn't know what to make of the Flyin' Saucer.
Morrison and Franscioni formed a company called Partners in Plastic, or Pipco, based in SLO. They contracted
with Southern California Plastic Co. in Glendale to manufacture Flyin' Saucers for about 25 cents each. They
sold them for $1 through outlets like Woolworth and Disneyland.
"We soon found the item was a dead issue on the counter," Franscioni wrote, "which prompted our offer to
demonstrate in the store. Woolworth put Fred and me in a cage to protect the customers. It worked, but not for
long. We soon realized the only place to demonstrate was outdoors."
Morrison and his wife traveled to county fairs to hawk the flying disc. Franscioni sometimes joined them, Eneix
said, but he usually remained in SLO, handling national sales and keeping Pipco's books.
The demonstrations won people's attention. They hadn't seen anything fly like the disc, which remained aloft
long after gravity would have pulled a ball back to earth.
Some observers thought the disc followed an invisible wire, and Morrison capitalized on that notion. He offered
the disc for free if customers paid $1 for the invisible wire.
Teaching people how to throw the disc became another challenge. Americans seem born to the art of Frisbee
throwing today, but it required a new skill in 1948.
"By running through the instructions you will see that we repeatedly point out that an easy smooth snap of the
wrist is all that is necessary," Franscioni wrote.
Flyin' Saucers came with directions urging people not to throw the discs too hard or hold them too tight, and to
launch them "in exactly the same manner as sailing your hat onto a hook."
Franscioni and Morrison's early marketing efforts occasionally backfired. A Disneyland employee demonstrating
the Flyin' Saucer accidentally overshot a fence and hit a woman in the head. She sued, and Disney halted its
demonstrations.
Then Morrison and Franscioni struck a deal with Al Capp, who agreed to include the Flyin' Saucer in his "Li'l
Abner" cartoon strip. That strip appeared in national newspapers sometime around 1950. Franscioni and
Morrison printed "Li'l Abner" inserts and packaged them with their Flyin' Saucers to capitalize on the publicity.
The inserts infuriated Capp, who felt they exceeded the terms of their agreement. Capp threatened to sue and
demanded $5,000 in compensation.
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"I was really hurt. How could Li'l Abner do this to my daddy?" Eneix said. "That was a hunk of change that put
them down. That was quite a bit of money back then."
Franscioni and Morrison were already struggling to meet the cost of casting the original dies for the Flyin'
Saucer. The Capp payoff devastated Pipco.
Franscioni borrowed $2,500 from his mother and $2,500 from his mother-in-law, Eneix said, and the demise of
the Flyin' Saucer began. Eneix and her sister went door to door in SLO selling the discs for 25 cents. Today,
collectors will pay $500 for an original Pipco Flyin' Saucer.
The Plot Thickens
The Franscioni and Davis Butane Co. crashed at about the same time as Pipco. In 1950, Walter Franscioni had
to sell the Conejo Avenue home where the Frisbee was born. He moved to Greenville, worked as a trucker, and
applied for reactivation in the Air Force.
"I remember us losing our home and how hard that was," Eneix said. "Korea was happening then, and my father
then applied for being recalled back into the service, but he continued trying to get the Flyin' Saucer thing to go."
The Air Force moved the Franscionis to South Dakota in 1952. Morrison moved to Los Angeles, where he
worked as a building inspector, and the inventors of the Flyin' Saucer drifted apart. Southern California Plastic
Co. continued to produce the discs, and Morrison continued to sell them.
Eneix keeps folders full of yellowing letters and old business records to document what happened next. Some of
those records show that Morrison began manufacturing his own flying disc on the side.
Morrison set up a new company, American Trends, redesigned the disc to make it look more like a flying
saucer, and called it the Pluto Platter. Morrison began selling the Pluto Platter while still accepting sales
commissions on the Flyin' Saucer, according to Ed Kennedy, the president of Southern California Plastic Co.
"We had just found out that Fred Morrison had another die built on the Flyin' Saucer and was merchandising the
product under the name of Pluto's Platter," Kennedy wrote in a 1957 letter to Franscioni. "During the time that
he was having the saucer made, he was also accepting sales commissions from the company here."
Kennedy accused Morrison of trying to steal Flyin' Saucer accounts by offering Pluto Platters at a lower cost.
"In my opinion, Fred acted completely unfairly on this entire thing," Kennedy wrote, "and we certainly will never
do business with him again."
Southern California Plastic Co. severed its relationship with Morrison and contacted a patent attorney. The
question of patent violations never went to court, however, and has never been resolved.
The Wham-O Frisbee
Morrison was demonstrating his Pluto Platter in a Los Angeles parking lot in 1955 when Rich Knerr and Spud
Melin spotted the unusual flying object.
Knerr and Melin had founded their own toy company back in 1948, the year Franscioni and Morrison were
developing the Flyin' Saucer. Knerr and Melin had one product, a wooden slingshot. They named their company
for the sound the slingshot's pellets made on impact--Wham-O.
Morrison signed a contract with Wham-O, and Knerr and Melin sold the Pluto Platter with a marketing expertise
Morrison and Franscioni never showed. Knerr came up with the new name for the disc.
Knerr was visiting East Coast college campuses in the mid-1950s, giving away Pluto Platters to seed market
demand. At Yale he encountered students tossing metal pie tins and yelling "Frisbie!" the way golfers yell
"Fore!"
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Historians have traced that tradition to a Bridgeport, Conn., baker named William Russell Frisbie. In 1871
Frisbie moved to Bridgeport to manage the local branch of the Olds Baking Co. He eventually bought the bakery
and renamed it Frisbie Pie Co.
Frisbee historian Malafronte believes truck drivers for the company were the first to toss Frisbie Pie tins on the
loading docks during idle times. The tins bore the words "Frisbie's Pies" and had six small holes in the center, in
a star pattern, that hummed when the tin flew.
The sport moved to Eastern colleges, where students shouted "Frisbie!" to warn people of incoming pie tins. A
sport developed and took on the name "Frisbie-ing." Knerr took the word home to Wham-O, misspelled it
"Frisbee," and registered it as a trademark. In 1958, Morrison's Pluto Platter became the Wham-O Frisbee.
Southern California Plastic Co. continued to make Flyin' Saucers for Disneyland and a few other outlets. It
handled sales and mailed royalty checks to Franscioni until the mid-1960s, when he headed to Vietnam.
The Bitter Toy
Many American homes have housed a Frisbee, but Coszette Eneix's home is not among them.
"Every time I see a Frisbee I just want to cringe," she said. "I get angry inside. It shouldn't be called Frisbee. It
isn't Frisbee. How come they're calling it Frisbee? That's not right. It's Flyin' Saucer."
Eneix hasn't decided whether to use her files of yellowing papers in a lawsuit or in a book, but she wants justice
for her father.
"I want it in the history books, as it comes down, that my father was there, not Fred Morrison alone," she said.
"When you read about the history of the Frisbee, you always hear Fred Morrison. Fred Morrison did this. Fred
Morrison did that. Bullshit. Excuse my language. Bullshit. It was Warren Franscioni and Fred Morrison. It was a
partnership. I think they should have equal billing."
The International Frisbee Hall of Fame in Lake Linden, Mich., reserves its primary listing for Morrison.
"Fred Morrison, Inventor of the Frisbee," it says. "Walter F. (Fred) Morrison has provided pleasure to millions of
people throughout the world. He was the first person to envision the creation of a plastic disc to be used as a
substitute for a ball in a game of catch."
Wham-O went on to market the Hula-Hoop, the Super Ball, the Water Wiggle, and other toys, but Frisbee
remained its most profitable product. In 1977, 20 years after Wham-O began selling Frisbees, it generated up to
50 percent of the company's annual sales. At the time, Wham-O estimated it had sold 100 million flying discs.
Morrison told the Los Angeles Times in 1977 he had made about $1 million in royalties.
Nearly all written histories of the Frisbee attribute its invention to Morrison. Stancil E.D. Johnson, a Pacific
Grove psychiatrist, may have been the first to mention Warren Franscioni in a footnote in his 1975 book,
"Frisbee."
Johnson heard about Franscioni from Ed Kennedy, the president of the Southern California Plastic Co. In 1973,
Johnson contacted Franscioni, who was then an Air Force colonel stationed in Oslo, Norway. He asked
Franscioni to write down his memories of the flying disc's origin.
Franscioni sent Johnson one letter in August 1973.
"I have had time to evaluate my initial concern about whether your book might interfere in any future legal
proceedings about the subject," Franscioni wrote. "I have come to the conclusion that your book, if based upon
the facts, would not."
Franscioni argues that he designed the first Flyin' Saucer, not Morrison, that he paid for the initial mold with his
own money, and that the two men jointly developed the idea of casting it in plastic.
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Franscioni began a second letter to Johnson in 1974, but he never completed it. He died of a heart attack at age
57.
"Fred Morrison never wanted to admit this," Johnson said. "Franscioni died and never was able to come back
and get his share of the profits."
Franscioni might have acted earlier. Ed Kennedy urged him to take legal action against Morrison as early as
1957.
"Other people were asking my father to do something--stop him, sue him, stop him," Eneix said, "but we were in
South Dakota. My father was getting his career going again as an officer in the Air Force, and that was taking a
lot of his time. And I think my mom was leery of putting more money into this thing."
In 1957, the Frisbee had not yet made its millions. The rights to the toy hardly seemed worth the cost of a
lawsuit.
"There was a lot of disappointment in the '50s, and they were hurt, really hurt," Eneix said.
"So we all started quieting down and not talking about it. That's what we do in my family. We don't talk about it.
Then we didn't fly the Flyin' Saucer much anymore on picnics. It was too painful to keep remembering it
because we were losing it."
The Silent Inventor
Morrison, 77, now calls himself "Walt" and lives near Monroe, Utah, a town of 1,700 people in the Sevier River
valley. He owned a motel there and operated it with his third wife until he retired three years ago. Morrison has
an old pickup truck, but he rarely drives it into town.
"He lives in a house in the country and seems to enjoy life," said Mark Fullenbaugh, publisher of the Richfield
Reaper. "I haven't seen him in person in about six months. You don't see him out much, so I can't tell you much
more than that about him."
Morrison declined to be interviewed for this story.
"Well, I'd like to be a nice guy and say yes, but I'm so tired of this shit," Morrison said.
"It's been done so many times, so many ways, that I just don't do it anymore. I'm an old man now and I just
haven't got time for this. I want to just sit back in my chair and sleep."
Morrison has always been "cagey" about the facts of the Frisbee's birth, according to Malafronte, who met
Morrison at Frisbee tournaments.
"I had asked Fred about his partner, and he owns up to it," Malafronte said. "The problem is, I think Fred has a
lot of stuff he can lose and nothing to gain by talking."
Meanwhile, Mattel Corp. is celebrating the 40th anniversary of the Frisbee this year, even though the plastic
flying disc turns 50 next year.
Mattel, the world's largest toy company, bought Wham-O in 1994. It dates the Frisbee's official birth as 1957,
when Wham-O first marketed Morrison's Pluto Platter.
Mattel has no knowledge of plastic flying discs that may have existed before 1957, said Mattel spokeswoman
Sara Rosales, nor of their inventors.
References
Jeff McMAHON
127

The History of Ultimate
David Leiwant stood in the Columbia High School parking lot watching the younger players throw, chase, and
catch the disc under the bright white lights and the cover of a summer night. "If you squint your eyes, it’s almost
like 25 years ago," said the 42-year-old Leiwant, a 1973 alumnus of Columbia, located in Maplewood, N.J. "Just
a rag-tag bunch of guys running around with a Frisbee."
Leiwant was a 13-year-old seventh-grader in 1968, a tumultuous year for America and the world. Martin Luther
King, Jr., and then Bobby Kennedy were assassinated, a war raged in Vietnam and the country was coming to
grips with the civil rights and women’s rights revolutions. But, in one corner of the country, in Maplewood, things
were changing for the better. That year, staff members of the school’s newspaper, The Colombian, and its
Student Council developed an entirely new sport as a gag and an activity for their high school nights. Led by
Joel Silver — the willful, if somewhat arrogant, member of the Council and the newspaper — the students
adapted the rules of Frisbee Football and ultimately invented the fast-moving team sport we know today. The
sport of Ultimate.
"Joel Silver said it was the ‘ultimate sports experience,’" Leiwant said. "He said, ‘Someday people all over the
world will be playing this game,’ and we all said, ‘Yeah, Joel, right.’
Thirty years after Silver’s prophetic words, Ultimate is played in 42 countries, with programs in Sweden, Norway,
and Japan receiving government funding. It is estimated that at least 100,000 people play the sport worldwide,
about half in the United States. Ultimate will be a medal sport in the 2001 World Games in Japan.
Silver, who is now the head of Hollywood’s Silver Pictures and was unavailable for comment because he was
working on the filming of Lethal Weapon 4, had played Frisbee Football at a camp in Mount Hermon,
Massachusetts in the summer of 1967. When he returned home to Maplewood, he continued to throw with his
friends, including Bernard "Buzzy" Hellring, the editor of The Colombian, and Jonny Hines, the newspaper’s
sports editor. Although Frisbee was not quite as big a fad as the hula hoop in the 1950s and ’60s, discs were
beginning to seep into the American consciousness.
"I started throwing a Frisbee in 1961 with my two sisters," said Ed Summers, who graduated Columbia High in
1972. "It was a big fad. We threw mostly backhands. The other big throw was the overhand wrist flip."
A Brave New World
In the fall of 1967, Silver proposed that the Student Council form a Frisbee team. Suggested as a joke, the
motion was seconded and then passed. Discussion of Frisbee continued in the Council throughout the year and
into the spring, but it remained tongue-in-cheek.
"It was not a serious thing at all, it was a lark of Council," Silver later said. Yet by the end of the school year,
Silver and other members of the Council began to organize a game during their lunch period. Members of The
Colombian had already been tossing a disc -- a black 150-gram Wham-O, Master Tournament Model -- during
lunch on the east lawn of the school. That spring, members of both the newspaper and the Council began to
play Frisbee Football. The first games were played on a small field that was later torn up and replaced with the
school’s B-wing.
"It was a chance for The Colombian core -- the intelligentsia (sic) and non-athletes of the school -- to play a
sport," Silver has said. Many of the original players were in the upper ranks of the school academically, future
Ivy Leaguers who weren’t exactly your Bo Jacksons and Kobe Bryants. "The core of us were largely among the
better students," Summers said. "There were also some druggie types. We were about evenly split between the
better students and the half who smoked dope."
The game was freeform early on, with no limits as to how many players should be on each side. As many as 20
to 30 players were allowed per team. The original game allowed running with the disc and included lines of
scrimmage and a series of downs, but as they played, Silver, Hellring, and Hines began to modify the rules.
Conceptualizing basketball, hockey, and soccer, they experimented, gradually eliminating running with the disc
and the system of downs, and establishing rules for the defense. Unable to satisfactorily define a foul, one
player came up with the phrase that a foul constituted "any action sufficient to arouse the ire of your opponent."
There was no specific provision made for what is today called "Spirit of the Game" because it was viewed by
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those at Columbia as a "gentleman’s sport, a collegial game,’’ said Hines, who went on to found the Princeton
team and is now a New York City-based attorney. "Even my Princeton jock-ringers of the time (football recruits
from Texas and Missouri) were gentlemen, relatively speaking, on the Frisbee field. Hines, the most athletic of
the trio of founding fathers, said the players liked the game’s athleticism. "There was very graceful running and
jumping," he said. Graceful by some, not so graceful by others. "There was a mix of athletes and some
uncoordinated, overweight people playing," he said. "The former could run and jump like gazelles; the latter
evoked other analogies." Some players came in sneakers and sweats, others in stiff jeans and walking shoes.
"If there weren’t enough people, you’d grab somebody, some kid going by," Leiwant said. "Originally we would
play as long as we felt like it -- till the sun went down, till people got tired and had to leave."
In 1968 Hellring decided to turn The Colombian from a weekly into a daily, but needed more articles to justify
the change. When Frisbee play during lunch grew, he figured it would give him something to write about. When
Silver was ejected from the newspaper’s staff, a mock rivalry developed between The Colombian and the
Council. The newspaper had also been critical of the Council, which fed the rivalry.
In the fall of 1968, the newspaper challenged the Council to a game of Frisbee to settle their differences. In a
matchup, that featured two large co-ed teams, The Colombian won the first game in front of the high school,11-7.
My Girlfriend is a Frisbee
By the summer of 1969, the now famous Columbia parking lot had been built. Down the hill from the school, the
lot is bounded on the east by a 12-foot drop that descends into the Rahway River and on the west by a railroad
embankment. Because the lot was lit by mercury vapor lights, the students could play there at night, after the
day’s activities. Games at the parking lot included teams of 20 or more per side, but that was eventually whittled
to seven because "that was the most you could fit in the parking lot," Leiwant said. Soon, it became known that
a regular game could be found on the "field" almost every weekend night and during vacations. "I used to spend
so many weekend nights at the Frisbee field during my junior and senior high school years that my parents
would kid and lament that my ‘only girlfriend was a Frisbee’ or that I would ‘marry a Frisbee,’" Hines said.
The sport was first publicized in a June 1969 Newark Evening News article, written by Silver, entitled "Frisbee
Flippers Form Teams" and appearing above a story called "John and Yoko Croon Again." On the first day of
school that fall, the Frisbee squad played its first game on the school’s new parking lot.
As the weeks and months passed, everything was not rosy in the lot, however. Local toughs and troublemakers
would sometimes drive through the lot at high speeds — hassling the players and forcing them to scatter.
Summers recalled one night when a "real big bruiser" — about 6-foot-2, 240-pounds — and a smaller guy got
out of their car and attacked the No. 2 student in the class. "He was a very gentle, unassuming guy who
wouldn’t have hurt a fly," Summers said. "I went over to them and the smaller guy took a swing at me. I knew I
could’ve decked him, but the big guy was standing right there." (It is believed by some that the attackers went
on to found Ultimate in North Carolina.)
Despite receiving abuse for their anti-establishment, countercultural game, the Frisbee players carried on. In
February, 1970, the players adopted the name The Columbia High School Varsity Frisbee Squad, a tongue-incheek
reference because the team had no official connection with the school. One player designed "CHS
Varsity Frisbee" sweatshirts, Silver’s mother paid to have them made up and the players proudly wore them in
the first team photo. In the picture of the "Original Ultimate squad," a school custodian appeared as "Head
Coach," the school security director was the "General Manager" and a fictitious player, Arnold Tzoltic, was listed
as a member.
According to Hellring’s sister, Heidi, Hellring got Wham-O to send the team a box of Frisbees because the discs
kept cracking in the 15-25 degree Fahrenheit air; one green 120-gram "moonlighter" was lost in the brook by the
lot, The Colombian reported. Silver and Hellring also took the International Frisbee Association’s test, passing it
as masters. The IFA was then the sport’s governing body.
Hellring continued to write tongue-in-cheek Frisbee stories and place ads for the team in the paper. In one, the
paper reported that "the rise of Frisbee in Columbia high school is merely indicative of a world-wide trend,
according to major national periodicals." The story went on to cite a Time magazine article which recommended
that the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. take their cue and henceforth "settle all disputes between the two with Frisbees
instead of missiles."
129

Ultimate Grows Up
Before going off to college in 1970, Silver, Hellring, and Hines decided to print the rules and bring them up to
date. Though many of the original rules are still in place today, some have changed dramatically. The only limit
to the size of the field was that "The two goal lines must be parallel and should be somewhere between 40 and
60 yards apart, depending on the number of players." Games continued to be played with as many as 20 or 30
players per side. And the end zones were unlimited. A player standing a foot from the goal line could score with
a fifty yard bomb. The booklet was entitled "Official Rules of Ultimate Frisbee" and cost 10 cents.
In the summer of 1970, a group of younger Columbia students – including Summers, Larry Schindel, Irv Kalb,
and others known as the Richmond Avenue Gang or RAG – challenged the CHS team to a game. RAG lost 47-
28 but played with the varsity for the rest of the summer, and Kalb was selected as new varsity captain when
the original players went on to college. An annual Thanksgiving match between the Columbia team and the
alumnus was established – a tradition that still exists today.
The RAG members sent the rules to many other high schools in northern New Jersey, asking them to form
Ultimate Frisbee teams. Millburn High School responded and on Nov. 7, 1970, the first interscholastic game
pitted Millburn against the more experienced Columbia varsity. CHS won 43-10 in the Columbia parking lot. The
game was covered by the Newark Evening News, and copies of the rules were subsequently requested by other
schools. When the New Jersey Frisbee Conference was formed in the spring of 1971, it had five teams:
Columbia, Dumont, Millburn, Mountain (now West Orange), and Nutley. "We wanted to spread it throughout the
world," said Summers, who recalled a 24-hour road trip to the International Frisbee Tournament in Upper
Peninsula, Mich. "We were really spreading the gospel." Summers and his cohorts were the forerunners to
generations of high school and college kids who load up for road trips – poor, smelly, and hungover – every
weekend.
Meanwhile, Columbia graduates were organizing teams at their colleges and universities. In addition to Hines’
efforts at Princeton, Leiwant co-founded the Yale squad, and Summers the Tufts team. Hellring died in a tragic
car accident during his freshman year, 1971, at Princeton.
Twenty-five people showed up for the first practice at Rutgers University, seven of them former New Jersey high
school players. The first intercollegiate competition was held between Rutgers and Princeton on Nov. 6, 1972,
the 103rd anniversary of the first intercollegiate football game, and at the same site on the Rutgers New
Brunswick campus. That game and the rematch a year later were the only two intercollegiate games Hines
played his entire career.
Hines arranged for the game to be videotaped by a national network and for former Yankees pitcher and sports
commentator Jim Bouton to cover it. "It was a thrill and a half," Hines said. "I felt nervous and dead serious
about winning. It was an incredibly close game, from beginning to end, and Bouton was very surprised at what a
good game Ultimate was."
CHS Varsity Frisbee Squad: (Top row from left to right) Captain Joel Silver, Head Coach Cono Pavone, Bob
Mittlesdorf, Jonny Hines, Buzzy Hellring, Arnold Tzoltic, Joe Staker, Paul Brenner, Tom Carr, Mark Epstein,
General Manager Alexander Osinski, (Second row) Tom Corwin, Frisbee (Pro Model), David Medinets, David
Leiwant, (Third row) Fred Appelgate, Howard Straubing, Steve German, Vincent, (Laying down) Steve
Schwartz, Frisbee (Master Model).
Note: Eric Halpern’s research contributed greatly to the writing of this article.
130

The Original Rules of Ultimate
1. Under equipment, the founding fathers wrote that "individual players may wear almost any aids they wish,
including hats, helmets, or gloves as long as they do not endanger the safety of another player." Also, no
player was allowed to "carry any sort of stick, bat or racket."
2. Because the game was developed in a parking lot, the playing field was said to have "no lateral boundaries;
however it is best to choose a field with natural boundaries created by a hill, a river or a wall."
3. Despite the perception that Ultimate was created as an anti-authoritarian alternative to mainstream
70sports, the first set of rules stated that "a referee or referees may officiate, and if so their decision must be
final.
4. In the section on "Scoring," they wrote, "A team is awarded one point for each goal legally scored, and there
is no other way to gain points."
5. "A Note on Team Size" suggested that while "7 is the optimum number for each team, this sport can be
played with as many as 20 or 30 for each team."
6. The founding fathers also suggested that "As proficiency with Ultimate Frisbee increases, a ’one-hand only’
version of the game can be tried." Any player who used two hands to catch or trap the Frisbee would
"forfeit" possession to the opposing team.
References
Adam Zagoria. All Photos by Ed Summers, http://www.upa.org/upa/30anniv/30.html
131

Official Rules
Table of Contents
• About this Document
• Preface
• I. Introduction
UPA Rules of Ultimate, Ninth Edition
Incorporating 1991, 1992, and 1995 Clarifications and Amendments
Copyright 1970 CHS
Copyright 1982, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1995 The Ultimate Players Association
Online version of 4 Mar 1996
No set of rules can replace player's respect for one another and for good spirit.
• II. Clarifying Statements
• III. Field of Play
• IV. Equipment
• V. Length of Game
• VI. Time-Outs
• VII. Substitutions
• VIII. Starting and Restarting Play
• IX. Out-of-Bounds
• X. Endzones
• XI. Scoring
• XII. Turnovers
• XIII. The Thrower
• XIV. The Marker
• XV. The Receiver
• XVI. Fouls
• XVII. Violations
• XVIII. Positioning
• XIX. Clarifying Statements on Fouls, Violations and Picks
• A. Observers
• B. Etiquette
• C. Historical Record of Clarifications and Amendments ([1995], [1992])
132

About this Document
This document reflects the current rules of Ultimate. Passages whose meaning has changed over the years are
marked with a link indicating the year of the change, as in ``[1992]''. Follow the link to see the wording of the
change, the prior wording, and additional commentary that explains the rationale of the change (when
available).
Thanks to Eric Simon, Kathy Pufahl, Scott Gurst, Frank Revi, Mark Licata, Scott Gurst, Troy Frever, and Juha
Jalovaara for compiling the amendments and changes.
Originally posted by Eric Simon, , 10 Jun 1991.
Subsequently edited and re-formatted by Joseph A. Barcio II, . This included
addition of the 1991 Amendments and Changes after Section XIV.
Complete 1991 Amendments and Changes added by George Ferguson, . 1992
Amendments and Changes added by George Ferguson with the help of Troy Frever,
.
HTML version by George Ferguson, 3 Dec 1993.
1995 Clarifications and Amendments by Eric Simon. Added to HTML document by George Ferguson, 8-11 Sep
1995. Contributions by Hilarie Orman , 18 Sep 1995.
Preface
The purpose of the rules of Ultimate is to provide a guideline which describes the way the game is played. It
assumed that no Ultimate player will intentionally violate the rules; thus there are no harsh penalties for
inadvertent infractions, but rather a method for resuming play in a manner which simulates what would most
likely have occurred had there been no infraction.
In Ultimate, an intentional foul would be considered cheating and a gross offense against the spirit of
sportsmanship. Often a player is in a position where it is clearly to the player's advantage to foul or commit
some violation, but that player is morally bound to abide by the rules. The integrity of Ultimate depends on each
player's responsibility to uphold the spirit of the game, and this responsibility should not be taken lightly.
I. Introduction
1. Description Ultimate is a non-contact sport played by two seven player teams. The object of the game
is to score goals. The disc may only be moved by passing as the thrower is not allowed to take any
steps. Any time a pass is incomplete, intercepted, knocked-down, or contacts an out-of-bounds area, a
turnover occurs, resulting in an immediate change of possession of the disc. A goal is scored when a
player successfully passes the disc to a teammate in the endzone which that team is attacking.
2. Spirit of the Game Ultimate has traditionally relied upon a spirit of sportsmanship which places the
responsibility for fair play on the player. Highly competitive play is encouraged, but never at the expense
of the bond of mutual respect between players, adherence to the agreed upon rules of the game, or the
basic joy of play. Protection of these vital elements serves to eliminate adverse conduct from the
Ultimate field. Such actions as taunting of opposing players, dangerous aggression, intentional fouling,
or other "win-at-all-costs" behavior are contrary to the spirit of the game and must be avoided by all
players.
3. Captain's Clause A game may be played under any variations of the rules agreed upon by the captains
of the two teams. In tournament play, such variations are subject to the approval of the tournament
director. Such things as length of game, dimensions of the field, and stalling count can easily be altered
to suit the level of play.
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II. Clarifying Statements
1. Phrases:
A. A player is any of the fourteen (14) persons who are actually participating in the game at any
one time.
B. To put the disc into play means that the thrower establishes a pivot foot and is ready to throw.
To put the disc into play at a particular point on the field means to place the pivot foot at that
point on the field. [1992]
C. Where the disc stops refers to the location where the disc is caught, comes to rest naturally,
or where it is stopped from rolling or sliding.
D. Throw-off position is the particular arrangement of positions (which end zone each team is
defending) and possession (which team is to throw-off) in effect before a throw-off. [1992]
E. Ground Contact: All player contact with the ground directly related to a specific event or
maneuver, including landing or recovery after being off-balance, e.g., jumping, diving, leaning,
or falling. [1995]
F. Possession of the disc: Sustained contact with, and control of, the non-spinning disc. [1995]
a. To catch a pass is equivalent to establishing possession of that pass.
b. Loss of control due to ground contact related to a pass reception negates that
receiver's possession up to that point.
2. There are no scrimmage lines or off-sides (except on throw-offs) in Ultimate.
3. The disc may be passed in any direction.
4. A rolling or sliding disc may be stopped by any player, but it may not be purposefully advanced in any
direction. Possession is gained where the disc stops.
5. No defensive player may ever pick up the disc.
III. Field of Play
1. The field of play is a rectangular area with dimensions as shown on the accompanying diagram.
+-------+---------------+---------------+-------+
^ | | | |
| | | | |
| |Endzone| Playing Field |Endzone|
40yds| /Goal | . Proper . | /Goal |
| | Area | | Area |
| | | | |
v | | | |
+-------+---------------+---------------+-------+
The period (.) marks the Brick Rule Mark, 10 yds from Goal line. The plus sign (+) indicates the location
of cones to be placed ON the boundary lines.
A variation of this basic structure may be used to accomodate special competitions, number of players,
age of players, available space, etc. Lined fields are not necessary for the purposes of practice or other
non-formal games of Ultimate.
2. The playing field may have any surface (although well trimmed grass is suggested) which is essentially
flat, free of obstructions and holes, and affords reasonable player safety.
3. The playing field proper is the playing field excluding the endzones.
134

4. The goal lines are the lines which separate the playing field proper from the endzones and are part of
the playing field proper.
5. The perimeter lines (sidelines and endlines) are not part of the playing fields.
6. The corners of the playing field proper and the endzones are marked by cones made of a brightly
colored, flexible material.
7. An additional restraining line is established five (5) meters away from the entire field to ensure that the
sidelines remain clear during play.
8. All lines are marked with a non-caustic material and are between two and four inches wide (2"-4").
IV. Equipment
1. Any flying disc may be used as long as it is acceptable to both team captains. If the captains cannot
agree, the current Official Disc of the Ultimate Players Association shall be used.
2. Individual players may wear any soft protective clothing as long as it does not endanger the safety of
any other player.
3. Cleats which have any metal exposed are not allowed.
4. Each player must wear a uniform or other clothing that distinguishes that player from the players on the
other team.
V. Length of Game
1. Time
2. Points
A. Each half lasts for twenty-four (24) minutes of stopped time.
B. Each overtime period lasts for five (5) minutes of stopped time.
C. The clock starts when:
1. An offensive player gains possession of a throw-off and establishes a pivot foot;
2. The marker touches the disc after a check;
3. The thrower puts the disc into play after it has been out of bounds.
D. The clock stops:
1. After a goal;
2. At the end of a period of play;
3. For time-outs;
4. For injuries;
5. For fouls and violations;
6. When the disc contacts an out-of-bounds area.
A. A goal is worth one (1) point.
B. A game to points lasts until one team scores twenty-one (21) goals with a margin of victory of at
least two (2) goals.
135

C. A game with a score of twenty-to-twenty (20-20) goes into overtime, and play continues until a
two-goal margin is achieved or one team scores twenty-five (25) goals.
D. Halftime occurs when one team reaches eleven (11) goals.
3. Halftime lasts for ten (10) minutes.
4. At the end of the game, the team with the most goals is declared the winner.
VI. Time-Outs
1. Time-Out
A. Each team is permitted two (2) time-outs per half in games to 17 or less, and three (3) time-outs
per half in games to 18 or more. Each team is permitted exactly one (1) time-out in overtime.
Overtime occurs when the score is tied at one point less than the number of points for which the
game was originally scheduled. (Example: In a game to 19 points, overtime occurs when the
score reaches 18-18.)
B. Each time-out lasts up to two (2) minutes.
C. The player calling the time-out must form a "T" with his/her hands and call "time-out" loudly.
D. A time-out may be called by either team after a goal and before the ensuing accepted throw-off.
E. During play, only a player who has established a pivot foot and who has possession of the disc
can call a time-out. [1995]
F. When play resumes after a time-out: [1995]
1. The player who had possession puts the disc into play.
2. The disc is put into play at the location where the disc was when the time-out was
called.
3. Play is resumed through the use of a check and all other players may set up in any
position on the field.
G. It is a turnover if a player calls a time-out when his/her team no time-outs remaining. There is a
check on the disc.
2. Injury Time-Out
A. Injury time-out can be called by any member of the injured player's team. The time-out call is in
effect at the time of the injury. In other words, the call is retroactive to the time that the injury
occurred. If the disc is in the air during the time-out call, the play is completed.
B. Injury time-out results in a team time-out if the injured player does not leave the game. A "spirit
of the game" exception is made when the injury is caused by an opposing player.
C. When play resumes after an injury time-out:
1. The player who had possession of the disc when the injury occurred puts the disc into
play. If that player leaves the field due to injury, the replacing player puts the disc into
play.
2. If the disc was in the air at the time of the injury, play continues until the disc is caught
or it contacts the ground. If the disc is caught, the player who caught the disc puts the
disc into play after the injury time-out.
3. The disc is put into play at the location where the disc was when play was stopped.
136

4. The play is resumed through the use of a check and all players must assume their
respective positions on the field when the time-out was called. Players may not set up
when restarting play after an injury time-out, unless it is also a team time-out.
VII. Substitutions
1. Substitutions can be made only:
A. After a goal and before the ensuing accepted throw-off.
B. Before the beginning of a period of play;
C. To replace an injured player(s).
2. If a team replaces an injured player(s), the opposing team has the option of substituting a like number
of, or fewer players.
3. Substitutions other than injury substitutions cannot be made during a time-out taken during play.
VIII. Starting and Restarting Play
1. Before a game starts, each team designates one captain to represent that team in disagreements and
arbitration.
2. Start of periods of play:
3. Throw Off
A. Representatives of the two teams each flip a disc. The representative of one team calls "same"
or "different" while the discs are in the air. The team winning the flip has the choice of:
1. Receiving or throwing the initial throw-off; or
2. Selecting which goal they wish to defend initially.
B. The team losing the flip is given the remaining choice. [1992]
C. The second half begins with an automatic reversal of the initial throw-off position. [1992]
D. In a game to time, if overtime periods are needed, the disc flipping procedure is repeated for the
first overtime period. The initial throw-off position of subsequent overtime periods is the reverse
of the throw-off position that started the previous overtime period. [1992]
A. Play starts at the beginning of each period of play and after each goal with a throw-off.
B. Each time a goal is scored, the teams switch the direction of their attack and the team which
scored throws off.
C. Positioning prior to the throw-off:
1. The players on the throwing team are free to move anywhere in their defending
endzone, but may not cross the goal line until the disc is released.
2. The players on the receiving team must stand with one foot on their defending goal line
without changing position relative to one another.
D. The throw-off may be made only after the thrower and a player on the receiving team raise a
hand to signal that team's readiness to begin play.
E. The throw-off consists of one player on the throwing team throwing the disc toward the opposite
goal line to begin play.
137

4. The Check
F. As soon as the disc is released, all players may move in any direction.
G. No player on the throwing team may touch the throw-off in the air before it is touched by a
member of the receiving team.
H. If a member of the receiving team catches the throw-off on the playing field proper, that player
must put the disc into play from the spot. If the throw-off is caught in either endzone, the player
takes possession at that point, and puts the disc in play as described in Section X
(ENDZONES). If the throw-off is caught out-of-bounds, it is put into play as described in Section
IX.7 (OUT-OF-BOUNDS). [1995]
I. If a member of the receiving team touches the disc during flight of the throw-off (whether in- or
out-of-bounds) and the receiving team fails to catch it, the team which threw-off gains
possession of the disc at the nearest point on the playing field proper. If a player drops the disc
while carrying it to the point where the disc will be put into play, the team which threw-off gains
possession of the disc at the nearest point on the playing field proper.
J. If the receiving team allows the throw-off to fall untouched to the ground, and the disc initially
lands in-bounds, the receiving team gains possession of the disc where it stops. If the disc
initially lands in-bounds, then goes out-of-bounds, the receiving team gains possession at the
point on the playing field proper nearest to where the disc first went out-of-bounds.
K. If the throw-off lands out-of-bounds, the receiving team, before touching the disc, makes a
choice of:
1. Putting the disc into play at the nearest point on the playing field proper to where the
disc crossed the perimeter line.
2. Requesting a re-throw. To request a re-throw, any member of the receiving team must
fully extend one hand above the head and call "Over." Once this re-throw signal is
given, that throw-off can no longer be put into play.
3. Invoking the Middle/Brick Rule. If the throw-off lands outside the field of play, the
receiving team may choose to put the disc into play at the halfway between the two
sidelines either at the point where the disc went out-of-bounds or at a point 10 yards
upfield from the goal line they are defending. To invoke the "middle/brick rule," the
member of the receiving team who is going to receive the throw-off shall fully extend
one hand above his/her head and call "middle" or "brick". The player must let the disc
hit the ground. On such a call, the offensive player may use a "self check," meaning
he/she picks up the disc and the nearest defensive player says "in play." If the nearest
player does not immediately say "in play," the offensive player may touch the disc to the
ground and yell "disc in play." [1992]
A. When play stops, the player who was in possession retains possession.
B. All players must come to a stop as quickly as possible when play is halted, and remain in their
respective locations until play is restarted.
C. The marker restarts play by touching the disc in possession of the thrower. If the thrower
attempts a pass before the marker touches the disc, the pass does not count regardless of
whether it is complete or incomplete, and possession reverts back to the thrower.
IX. Out-of-Bounds
1. Any area not on the playing field is out-of-bounds. The perimeter lines themselves are out-of-bounds.
2. A disc is out-of-bounds when it first contacts an out-of-bounds area or contacts anything out-of-bounds.
3. The disc may fly outside a perimeter line and return to the playing field, and defensive players may go
out-of-bounds in order to make a play on the disc.
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4. A player is out-of-bounds when s/he is contacting an out-of-bounds area. When a player is in the air,
his/her in or out-of-bounds is determined by where the ground was last contacted by the player.
5. For a receiver to be considered in bounds after gaining possession of the disc, the first point of contact
with the ground must be completely in-bounds. If any portion of the first point of contact is out-ofbounds,
the player is considered out-of-bounds.
6. Should the momentum of a player carry him/her out-of-bounds after making a catch and landing inbounds,
the player is considered in-bounds. The player carries the disc to the point where s/he went
out-of-bounds and puts the disc into play at that point.
7. To start or restart play after the disc has gone out-of-bounds, a member of the team gaining possession
of the disc must carry the disc to the point of the playing field proper nearest where the disc last crossed
the perimeter line, and put the disc into play at that point. [1995]
8. The thrower may pivot in- and out-of-bounds, providing that some part of the pivot foot contacts the
playing field.
9. If a pass does not come in bounds the opposing team gains possession of the disc where it left the field
of play only if the defense did not contact the disc. If the defense contacted the disc, the disc must be
put into play at the point on the playing field proper closest to where the contact occurred.
X. Endzones
1. If a team gains possession in the endzone which it is defending:
A. The player taking possession must make the immediate decision to either:
1. Put the disc into play from that spot, or
2. Carry it directly to the closest point on the goal line and put it into play from there. If this
option is chosen, the player taking possession commits the player to put the disc into
play at that point.
B. To fake or pause after gaining possession commits the player to put the disc into play at that
point.
2. If, as a result of a pass from a teammate, a player receives the disc in the endzone which they are
defending, that player does not have a choice of advancing the disc to the goal line.
3. If a team gains possession in the endzone which it is attacking, the player taking possession must carry
the disc directly to the closest point on the goal line and put the disc into play from there.
XI. Scoring
1. A goal is scored when an offensive player completes a pass to a teammate in the endzone which
his/her team is attacking.
2. In order for the receiver to be considered in the endzone after gaining possession of the disc, his/her
first point of contact with the ground must be completely in the endzone.
3. A player cannot score by running into the endzone with the disc. Should a receiver's momentum carry
him/her into the endzone after gaining possession, the receiver must carry the disc back to the closest
point on the goal line and put the disc into play from there.
4. A player must be completely in the endzone and acknowledge that s/he has scored a goal. If that player
plays the disc unknowingly into a turnover, then no goal is awarded.
139

XII. Turnovers
1. An incomplete, intercepted, knocked down, or out-of-bounds pass results in a loss of possession.
2. A pass is considered intercepted if a defensive player catches a pass. If a defensive player catches a
pass and accidentally loses possession of it before or during ground contact related to that catch
(II.1.F.b), the defender is considered to have blocked rather than intercepted the pass. [1995]
3. The following actions result in a loss of possession and a check:
A. If the marker's count reaches the maximum number;
B. If the disc is handed from player to player;
C. If the thrower intentionally deflects a pass to him/herself off another player;
D. If the thrower catches his/her own throw. However, if the disc is touched by another player
during its flight it is considered a complete pass and is not a turnover.
XIII. The Thrower
1. The thrower is the offensive player in possession of the disc, or the player who has just released the
disc.
2. If the disc is on the ground, whether in- or out-of-bounds, any member of the team becoming offense
may take possession of the disc. Once an offensive player has picked up the disc, that player is
required to put the disc into play.
3. The thrower must establish a pivot foot and may not change that pivot foot until the throw is released
except in the case where the thrower has just received a pass and is throwing before the third ground
contact in accordance with XV.5. [1995]
4. The thrower has the right to pivot in any direction. However, once the marker has established a legal
defensive position, the thrower may not pivot into the marker.
5. If the disc is dropped by the thrower without defensive interference, it is considered an incomplete pass.
6. The thrower may throw the disc in any way s/he wishes.
7. A defensive player who establishes possession of the disc becomes the thrower, but may not throw the
disc before s/he establishes a legal pivot foot. To do so is a travelling violation. [1995]
XIV. The Marker
1. Only one defensive player may guard the thrower at any one time; that player is the marker.
2. The marker may not straddle (i.e., place his/her foot on either side of) the pivot foot of the thrower.
3. There must be at least one disc's diameter between the upper bodies of the thrower and the marker at
all times. It is the mutual responsibility of both players to respect each other's position and not encroach
into this area once it is established.
4. The marker cannot position his/her arms in such a manner as to restrict the thrower from pivoting.
5. Stalling:
A. A defensive player within three (3) meters of the pivot foot of the thrower may initiate a stall
count. If an offensive player moving into the throwing position "stands over the disc" (i.e., within
three meters) without putting the disc into play, the marker may issue a "Delay of Game"
warning. If the disc is not picked up, the marker may initiate a stall count.
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B. The count consists of the marker calling "Stalling" or "Counting" and counting at one second
intervals from one to ten (1, 10) loudly enough for the thrower to hear.
C. If the thrower has not released the disc at the first utterance of the word "ten" ("10"), a turnover
and a check result.
D. If the defense decides to switch markers; and if the new marker wishes to initiate a stalling
count, s/he must start again from "one" ("1").
E. In the event of a stall, the once marker, now offensive player, does not have to take the disc
after the check. The once thrower, now marker, checks the disc to the new thrower, if s/he does
not want the disc, the marker "checks" the disc by placing it on the ground and calling "in play."
F. The thrower may contest a stall call if s/he feels that s/he had released the disc before the first
utterance of the word "ten".
1. In the event of a contested stall, if the pass is completed, play stops, and possession
reverts back to the thrower. After a check, the marker starts the stall count at eight (8).
2. In the event of a contested stall, if the pass is incomplete, it is a turnover, and play
continues without interruption.
XV. The Receiver
1. The receiver is any offensive player either in the act of catching the disc, or not in possession of the
disc.
2. Bobbling to gain control of the disc is permitted, but purposeful, controlled bobbling to oneself (i.e.,
tipping, delaying, guiding, or brushing) in order to advance the disc is considered travelling and is not
allowed.
3. There is NO rule XV.3! (With apologies to Monty Python, it was deleted in 1995.) [1995]
4. After catching a pass, the receiver is only allowed the fewest number of steps required to come to a
stop and establish a pivot foot.
5. If the receiver is running or jumping as s/he catches the disc, the receiver may throw a pass before the
third ground contact after catching the disc without coming to a complete stop; however, change in
direction or increase in speed while in possession of the disc is a travelling violation. [1995]
6. If the disc is caught simultaneously by offensive and defensive players, the offense retains possession.
7. If a pass arrives in such a manner that it is unclear whether a catch was made before the disc contacted
the ground (grass is considered part of the ground), the player(s) with the best perspective makes the
call (usually the receiver).
8. If it is ever unclear where a receiver was in- or out-of-bounds at the point of making a catch, the
player(s) with the best perspective makes the call.
9. Force-Out Foul: If an airborne receiver catches the disc, and is contacted by a defensive player before
landing, and that contact caused the receiver to land out-of-bounds instead of landing in-bounds, the
receiver must either call him/herself out-of-bounds, or call a force-out foul on the defensive player. If this
foul occurs in the end zone and it is uncontested, a goal is awarded.
10. There is NO rule XV.10 either! (It was also deleted in 1995.) [1995]
XVI. Fouls
1. Fouls are the result of physical contact between opposing players. A foul can only be called by the
player who has been fouled and must be announced by calling out the word "Foul!" loudly immediately
after the foul has occurred.
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2. The player initiating contact is guilty of a foul.
3. Throwing Fouls:
A. A throwing foul may be called when there is contact between the thrower and the marker.
B. Contact occurring during the follow through (after the disc has been released) is not sufficient
grounds for a foul, but should still be avoided whenever possible.
C. When a foul is committed by a thrower or the marker, play stops and possession reverts back to
the thrower after a check.
D. If the thrower is fouled in the act of throwing and the pass is completed, the foul is automatically
declined and play continues without interruption.
E. If the marker is fouled in the act of throwing and the pass is not completed, play continues
without interruption.
4. Catching Fouls:
A. A catching foul may be called when there is contact between opposing players in the process of
attempting a catch, interception, or knock down. A certain amount of incidental contact during or
immediately after the catching attempt is often unavoidable and is not a foul.
B. If a player contacts an opponent before the disc arrives and thereby interferes with that
opponent's attempt to make a play on the disc, that player has committed a foul.
C. If a player's attempt to make a play on the disc causes significant impact with a legitimately
positioned stationary opponent, before or after the disc arrives, it is considered "harmful
endangerment" and is a foul.
D. Dangerous, aggressive behavior or reckless disregard for the safety of fellow players is always
a foul.
E. If a catching foul occurs and is uncontested, the player fouled gains possession at the point of
the infraction. If the call is disputed, the disc goes back to the thrower. If an uncontested foul
(with the exception of a force-out foul [XV.9]) occurs in the end zone, the player fouled gains
possession at the closest point on the goal line to the infraction.
XVII. Violations
1. A violation occurs when a player violates the rules in a manner which does not result in physical
contact. (e.g. illegal guarding position by the marker, not establishing a pivot foot on the sideline after
carrying the disc in from out-of-bounds, etc.)
2. A violation may be called by any player who recognizes that a violation has occurred. The player must
immediately call "violation" or the name of the specific violation loudly.
3. Travelling:
A. The thrower must keep all or part of the pivot foot in contact with a single spot on the field.
Should the thrower lose contact with that spot, the thrower has traveled.
B. If the receiver obviously takes more steps than are required to stop after catching a pass, that
player has traveled.
C. If a receiver, after receiving a pass on the run, releases a pass after the third ground contact
and before coming to a complete stop, that receiver has traveled.
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4. Strip:
A. No defensive player may touch the disc while it is in possession of the thrower or receiver. If a
defensive player does so, the player in possession calls "Strip."
B. The player in possession then picks up the disc and play continues unhalted from the point
where s/he regained possession.
C. If a count was in progress as the disc was stripped, the count is halted, and when the player in
possession regains possession, the count restarts at zero (0).
D. A contested strip of the receiver is treated the same as a contested foul; an uncontested strip in
the end zone is a goal.
5. Double-Team:
A. Only one marker is permitted to guard the thrower.
B. No other defensive player may establish a position within three(3) meters of the pivot foot of the
thrower, unless s/he is guarding another offensive player in that area.
C. Should the thrower recognize a double-team situation, s/he first calls "Double-Team" as a
warning. On the first "Double-Team" call, the marker must subtract 2 from the stall count. If
"double-team" is called again within the same 10 seconds, play stops and is resumed after a
check with the count reset to zero (0).
XVIII. Positioning
1. It is the responsibility of all players to avoid contact in any way possible. Violent impact with legitimately
positioned opponents constitutes harmful endangerment, a foul, and must be strictly avoided.
2. Every player (excluding the thrower) is entitled to occupy any position on the field not occupied by any
opposing player, provided that s/he does not cause personal contact in taking such a position.
3. Picks:
A. No player may establish a position, or move in such a manner, so as to obstruct the movement
of any player on the opposing team; to do so is a "pick".
B. In the event of a pick, the obstructed player must immediately call "Pick" loudly; play stops and
is resumed after a check, unless the continuation rule [XIX.2] applies.
4. When the disc is in the air, players must play the disc, not the opponent.
5. The Principle of Verticality: All players have the right to the space immediately above them. Thus, a
player cannot prevent an opponent from making an attempt on a pass by placing his/her arms above an
opponent. Should contact occur, the player restricting the vertical area is responsible.
6. A player who jumped is entitled to land at the same spot without hindrance by opponents. S/he may
also land at the another spot provided the landing spot was not already occupied at the time of take-off
and that the direct path between the take-off and landing spot was not already occupied.
XIX. Clarifying Statements on Fouls, Violations and Picks
1. Cardinal Rule:
Whenever an infringement of the rules or a time out occur, play is halted and the disc is put back into
play at the point of the last possession before play was stopped. (Note exceptions under Turnovers
(XII.4) and Catching Fouls (XVI.4).
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2. Continuation Rule:
A. Disc In the Air
1. If a foul, violation, or pick is called while the disc is in the air, the play is always
completed.
2. If the team which called the foul, violation, or pick gains possession as a result of that
pass (e.g., an incomplete pass following a travelling violation, or offensive foul), play
continues unhalted. In this situation, players should call "play on."
3. If the pass is completed, but the defensive effort on the pass was affected by the
violation (e.g. picks), the pass does not count and possession reverts back to the
thrower.
B. Disc Not in the Air
1. If a foul, violation, or pick is called while the disc is not in the air, and a player attempts
a pass before play has stopped, and the pass is incomplete, it is a turnover.
2. If a foul, violation, or pick is called while the disc is not in the air, and a player attempts
a pass before play has stopped, and the pass is completed, the pass does not count,
and possession reverts back to the original thrower.
C. It is the responsibility of the player who made the call to call out "Play on" to indicate that this
rule has been invoked.
3. If there is ever a failure to come to an agreement over any call, the disc reverts back to the thrower after
a check.
4. If offsetting catching fouls are called by offensive and defensive players on the same play, the disc
reverts back to the thrower after a check.
5. Any time the marker's count is interrupted by the call of a foul, violation, pick, or time-out, the count is
resumed as follows:
Defensive Foul Uncontested . . . 0
Defensive Foul Contested . . . . same or 5 if over 5
Offensive Foul . . . . . . . . . same
Travel or Pick . . . . . . . . . same or 5 if over 5
Strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
Fast Count / Double Team
- First Call . . . . . . . . . subtract 2; no check
- Second Call . . . . . . . . . 0
Time Out . . . . . . . . . . . . same
Contested Stall. . . . . . . . . 8
6. When play resumes after a time-out, the stall count is continued from where it was when time-out was
called. The marker must initiate the count by calling "Stalling" or "Counting".
7. If the marker counts too fast, the thrower may call "fast count."
A. The first "fast count" call is a warning. On the first "fast count" call, the marker must subtract 2
from the stall count.
B. If "fast count" is called again within the same 10 seconds, play stops and is resumed after a
check with the count reset to zero (0).
C. The continuation rule [XIX.2] applies to fast counts.
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D. If the fast count occurs in such a manner that the thrower does not have a reasonable
opportunity to call "fast count" before the utterance of the word "ten," the play is treated the
same as a contested stall [XIV.5(F)].
8. Should a foul or violation result in possession reverting to a thrower who was airborne while releasing
the disc, play shall be restarted at the point on the playing field proper closest to the location from which
the throw was made. [1995]
A. Observers
1. Before the game, the captains may decide to select up to six (6) experienced non-players to act as
Observers. In this role, their job is to carefully watch the action of the game. They do not actively call
any fouls, violations, picks, or line calls.
2. When a dispute arises concerning a foul, violation, pick, line call, or an interpretation of the rules which
cannot be resolved by the captains to make the call,
A. The observer with the best view of the play makes the call. If the observers so choose, they
may discuss the play among themselves before rendering a decision.
B. By calling in the observers, the teams agree to abide by the observers decision.
B. Etiquette
1. If a foul is committed and not called, the player who commits the foul should inform the infracted player
of the foul.
2. It is the responsibility of both teams to minimize the time taken between each goal and the ensuing
throw-off.
3. If the receiving team wishes to have an out-of-bounds throw-off re-thrown, they should give the re-throw
signal as soon as possible.
4. It is a violation against the spirit of the game for a defensive player to call for a pass from the thrower.
5. Should a dispute or confusion arise on the field, it should be common practice to stop play, and resume
play with a check when the matter is resolved.
6. In the case where a novice player commits a violation out of sincere ignorance of rules, it is common
practice to stop play and explain the violation.
C. Historical Record of Clarifications and Amendments
This section describes the various Clarifications and Amendments that have been made to the rules over the
years. Note that these changes have already been included in the rules as presented in this document. They
are listed here together with clarifying commentary for those who are interested in how and why the rules have
changed. Additions are shown in bold, deletions are marked with [square brackets], and clarifying comments
are in italics. Follow the [GO] link to jump to the affected rule.
1995 Clarifications and Amendments
II. CLARIFYING STATEMENTS
1. Phrases:
E. Ground Contact: All player contact with the ground directly related to a specific event or
maneuver, including landing or recovery after being off-balance, e.g., jumping, diving,
leaning,or falling. [GO]
F. Possession of the disc: Sustained contact with, and control of, the non-spinning disc.
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a. To catch a pass is equivalent to establishing possession of that pass
b. Loss of control due to ground contact related to a pass reception negates that
receiver's possession up to that point. [GO]
(These added definitions add a great deal of clarity within the rules, much of which will be explained below.
Among other things, it enables us to get rid of XV.10, see below. It also defines a "catch" for the first time, and
makes that definition (by adding the worlds "and control of") closer to the ordinary usage of the word. Without
this clause, a person on the ground who is unaware of the disc resting on his/her back, to cite an extreme
example, would be in possession of the disc. No longer.)
VI. TIME-OUTS
1. Time-out
E. During play, only [the person with] a player who has established a pivot foot and who has
possession of the disc can call a time-out. [GO]
(This makes it clear that a person executing "the greatest," i.e., a person who jumps up catches the disc, and
throws it before s/he lands, can not call a time out while in mid-air.)
F. When play resumes after a time-out:
1. The player who had possession puts the disc into play.
2. The disc is put into play at the location where the disc was when the time-out was
called. [If the disc was out-of-bounds when the time-out was called, the disc is put into
play at the point on the playing field proper nearest to where the disc went out-ofbounds.
If the disc was in the end zone when the time-out was called, the disc is put
into play at the point in the end zone where the time out was called.] [GO]
(Between the new clarification that you need a new pivot foot to put the disc into play, and a clarification in
section XIX, this rule is not needed. In any event, a player now needs to have a pivot foot when s/he calls a
time-out, and so it can not be called from out of bounds.)
VIII. STARTING AND RESTARTING PLAY
3. Throw-offs:
H. If a member of the receiving team catches the throw-off on the playing field proper, that player
must put the disc into play from that spot. If the throw-off is caught in either endzone, the
player takes possession at that point, and puts the disc in play as described in section X
(ENDZONES). If the throw-off is caught out-of-bounds, it is put into play as described in
section IX.7 (OUT-OF-BOUNDS). [GO]
(The rules do not currently state what happens when a player, who is not standing on the playing field proper,
catches the throw-off. This addition codifies the way we all already play.)
IX. OUT-OF-BOUNDS
7. To start or restart play after the disc has gone out-of-bounds, a member of the team gaining
possession of the disc must carry the disc to the point on the playing field proper nearest where the
disc [went out of bounds] last crossed the perimeter line, and put the disc into play at that point. [GO]
(This amendment is technical in nature, and makes the wording more accurate as to how the game is currently
played.)
XII. TURNOVERS
2. A pass is considered intercepted if a defensive player catches a pass. If a defensive player
catches a pass and accidentally loses possession of it before or during ground contact related
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to that catch (II.1.F.b), the defender is considered to have blocked rather than intercepted the
pass. [GO]
(This change clarifies what happens when a player intercepts the disc and accidentally drops it when (or before)
s/he hits the ground. In such an instance, the disc goes to the defender's team, and the play is considered as
though it were a block. This is the way we already play, although the rules were not clear. The definitions added
in section II also come into play here.)
XIII. THE THROWER
3. The thrower must establish a pivot foot and may not change that pivot foot until the throw is released,
except in the case where the thrower has just received a pass and is throwing before the third
ground contact in accordance with XV.5. [GO]
(This FINALLY clears up the long standing contradiction between XV.5 -- the third ground contact rule -- and the
fact that this rule requires a pivot foot in order to throw. We simply make an explicit exception in that case. It
also makes clear that "the greatest" is legal.)
7. A defensive player who establishes possession of the disc becomes the thrower, but may not
throw the disc before s/he establishes a legal pivot foot. To do so is a travelling violation. [GO]
(And this section finally defines when a defensive person becomes an offensive person. It also makes clear that
the "third ground contact rule" does not apply to a defensive person--s/he must have a pivot foot. Additionally, a
"defensive greatest" would be a travelling violation.)
XV. THE RECEIVER
3. [The receiver gains possession by demonstrating sustained contact with a non-spinning disc.] [GO]
(This section is not needed anymore, because of our new definitions in section II.)
5. If the receiver is running or jumping as s/he catches the disc, the receiver may throw a pass before the
third ground contact after catching the disc without coming to a complete stop; however, change in
direction or increase in speed while in possession of the disc is a travelling violation. [GO]
(This makes more clear the conditions under which an offensive player does not have to establish a pivot foot
without travelling, and also makes it clear that "the greatest" is a legal play.)
10. [First ground contact determines possession. The ground can cause an incomplete pass, resulting in a
turnover.] [GO]
(We have finally deleted what is probably the worst written rule in Ultimate. The problem is not only that no one
plays that way, but the two sentences themselves contradict each other. Suppose a receiver lays out in the
endzone, catches the disc, smashes to the ground, and drops it. Everyone plays that as a turnover. And, in fact,
the second sentence in this clause says it's a turnover, but the first sentence above says that receiver has
possession. Not only that, but the first sentence contradicts the old XV.3 rule which says that possession is
determined by sustained contact with a non-spinning disc. With our new definitions in section II, we can get rid
of this.)
XIX. CLARIFYING STATEMENTS ON FOULS, VIOLATIONS AND PICKS
8. Should a foul or violation result in possession reverting to a thrower who was airborne while
releasing the disc, play shall be restarted at the point on the playing field proper closest to the
location from which the throw was made. [GO]
(This answers the question of where to start play when a player making "the greatest", leaps out of bounds, and
because of a foul, gets the disc back and must restart play.)
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1992 Amendments and Changes
II. CLARIFYING STATEMENTS
1. Phrases:
B. To "put the disc into play" means that the thrower establishes a pivot foot and is ready to throw.
To put the disc into play at a particular point on the field means to place the pivot foot at
that point on the field. [GO]
D. "Throw-off position" is the particular arrangement of positions (which end zone each
team is defending) and possession (which team is to throw-off) in effect before a throwoff.
[GO]
VIII. Starting and Restarting Play
2. Start of periods of play:
3. Throw Off
A. Representatives of the two teams each flip a disc. The representative of one team calls
"same" or "different" while the discs are in the air. The team winning the flip has the choice of:
[GO]
C. The second half begins with an automatic reversal of the initial throw-off position. [GO]
D. In a game to time, if overtime periods are needed, the disc flipping procedure is repeated for the
first overtime period. The initial throw-off position of subsequent overtime periods is the
reverse of the throw-off position that started the previous overtime period. [GO]
K. If the throw-off lands out-of-bounds, the receiving team, before touching the disc, makes a
choice of:
3. Invoking the Middle/Brick Rule. If the throw-off lands outside the field of play, the
receiving team may choose to put the disc into play at the halfway between the two
sidelines either at the point where the disc went out-of-bounds or at a point 10
yards upfield from the goal line they are defending. To invoke the "middle/brick
rule," the member of the receiving team who is going to receive the throw-off shall fully
extend one hand above his/her head and call "middle" or "brick". The player must let
the disc hit the ground. On such a call, the offensive player may use a "self check,"
meaning he/she picks up the disc and the nearest defensive player says "in play." If the
nearest player does not immediately say "in play," the offensive player may touch the
disc to the ground and yell "disc in play." [GO]
George Ferguson, http://www.cs.rochester.edu/u/ferguson/
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WFDF Ultimate Rules for play beginning April 1, 2000
ARTICLE IV - ULTIMATE
Comment: Ultimate is a team sport in which the team with the higher point total at the end of the game wins. It is
played with two teams of seven players on a rectangular field with an endzone at each end. A goal, worth 1
point, is scored when a player/thrower passes the disc to a teammate and it is successfully caught within the
confines of the endzone his or her team is attacking. The disc may be advanced solely by passing the disc from
one player to another. A player may not run while in possession of the disc. While the team in possession of the
disc seeks to advance the disc toward the endzone it is attacking, the opposing team seeks to thwart
advancement and obtain possession by forcing a turnover. A turnover results whenever a pass is incomplete,
caught or knocked down by an opposing player, touches the ground at any point or is caught by a player out-ofbounds.
No overt contact or tackling is allowed. The sport is played on a self-officiated basis, with no referees.
All line violation, possession and foul calls are made by the players on the playing field.
Outline of contents
• 401 Spirit of the Game
• 402 Field of Play
o 402.01 Dimensions
o 402.02 Surface
o 402.03 Goal Lines
o 402.04 Perimeter Lines
o 402.05 Markers
o 402.06 Restraining Line
o 402.07 Line Markings
• 403 Equipment
o 403.01 Disc
o 403.02 Protective Clothing
o 403.03 Uniform
o 403.04 Cleats
• 404 Rules of Play
o 404.01 Rule Variations
o 404.02 Length of Game
o 404.03 Time-outs
• A. Non-Injury
• B. Injury Time -out
o 404.04 Substitution of Players
• A. Goals
• B. Time-outs
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• C. Injury
o 404.05 Starting and Restarting Play
• A. Captain
• B. Determining Possession
• C. Start of Second Half
• D. Throw-off
• E. The Check
o 404.06 Out-Of-Bounds
• A. Definition - Disc
• B. Defensive Players
• C. Receiving Players
• D. Definition - Players
• E. Momentum
• F. Resumption of Play When Disc Goes Out-Of-Bounds
• G. Thrower Out-Of-Bounds
o 404.07 Endzone Possession
• A. Defending Endzone
• B. Endzone of Attack
o 404.08 Scoring
o 404.09 Turnovers
o 404.10 The Thrower
o 404.11 The Marker
• A. Guarding
• B. Stalling
• C. Resumption of Count After Foul
• D. Resumption of Count After Time- out
• E. Fast Count
• F. Contested Stall
o 404.12 The Receiver
• A. Possession
• B. Bobbling
• C. Traveling
• D. Simultaneous Catch
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• E. Interception
• F. Judging
• G. Force-Out Foul
o 404.13 Fouls
• A. Definition
• B. Responsibility
• C. Throwing Fouls
• D. Catching Fouls
• E. Aggressive Behavior
• F. Player Positioning
o 404.14 Positioning
• A. Right to Position
• B. Avoiding Contact
• C. Picks
• D. Principal of Verticality
• E. Playing the Disc
• F. Rights of Players Off the Ground
o 404.15 Officials
• A. Definition
• B. Time-keeper
• C. Score-keeper
• D. Observers
• E. Sanctioned Events
o 404.16 Violations
• A. General
• B. Calling the Violation
• C. Traveling
• D. Strip
o 404.17 Stoppage of Play
• A. General
• B. Play Continuation Rule
• C. Disputes
• D. Offsetting Fouls
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o 404.18 Etiquette
• A. Uncalled Fouls
• B. Time Between Goals and Pulls
• B. Rethrow Signal
• C. Disputes
• D. Novice Consideration
• 405 Glossary
• 401 Spirit of the Game: Ultimate has traditionally relied upon a spirit of sportsmanship which places the
responsibility for fair play on the individual player himself. Highly competitive play is encouraged but
never at the expense of mutual respect between players, adherence to the agreed-upon rules of the
game or the basic joy of play. The purpose of the rules of ultimate is to provide a guideline which
describes the way the game is played. It is assumed that no ultimate player will intentionally violate the
rules; there are no harsh penalties for inadvertent infractions but, rather, a method for resuming play in
a manner which simulates what would most likely have occurred had there been no infraction.
• 402 Field of Play
o 402.01 Dimensions: The field of play consists of a 70 yd by 40 yd rectangle (approximately 64
m x 37 m) called the playing field, with a 25 yd by 40 yd rectangle (approximately 23 m x 37 m)
called an endzone aligned along each of the 40 yd (37 m) sides. See figure 4.1.
o 402.02 Surface: The playing field may have any surface, although well trimmed grass is
suggested, which is essentially flat, free of obstructions and holes, and affords reasonable
player safety.
o 402.03 Goal Lines: Goal lines are lines which separate the playing field proper from the
endzones and are part of the playing field proper.
o 402.04 Perimeter Lines: Perimeter lines (sidelines and endlines) are lines separating the
playing field from the out-of-bounds area and are not part of the playing field.
o 402.05 Markers: The corners of the playing field proper and the endzones are marked by cones
made of a brightly colored, flexible material.
o 402.06 Restraining Line: A restraining line shall be established 5 m from the playing field to
ensure that the sidelines remain clear during play.
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o 402.07 Line Markings: All lines shall be marked with a non-caustic material and shall be
between 2 in and 4 in (approximately 5 cm and 10 cm) wide.
• 403 Equipment
o 403.01 Disc: Any flying disc may be used as long as it is acceptable to both team captains and
meets the requirements set forth in Article I of the WFDF rules. If the captains cannot agree, a
disc designated by the WFDF Ultimate Committee as an official disc for the event shall be used.
If no such disc has been designated, any disc designated by the WFDF Ultimate Committee as
an approved disc for ultimate play shall be used. If the teams cannot agree upon a specific
approved disc for play, two options are available:
1. each team shall supply the approved disc(s) for one half of the game using the disc
flipping method (104.03) to determine the order of use; or;
2. if that solution is not acceptable to both teams they shall resolve the disagreement
through the disc flipping method. The team winning the flip shall then supply the
approved disc(s) for the entire game.
3. Additional spare discs (approved in accordance with this section) may be held by any
officials to be used by the offense to replace an out-of-bounds or damaged disc at the
offense's discretion. This rule is limited to the following situations: out-of-bounds pull
receptions, between points, during time-outs, or during stoppages of play due to fouls
or violations.
o 403.02 Protective Clothing: Players may wear any soft protective clothing so long as it does not
endanger the safety of any other player.
o 403.03 Uniform: The players of each team shall wear a uniform or other clothing that
distinguishes them from the players of the other team.
o 403.04 Cleats: Cleats are permitted; however, players may not use any cleats which have any
metal exposed.
• 404 Rules of Play
o 404.01 Rule Variations: Any of these rules may be changed by mutual agreement of the
captains of the two teams, subject to the approval of the tournament director.
o 404.02 Length of Game: A full-length game lasts until one team reaches a score of at least 19
goals with a lead of at least two goals, or until a team scores 21 goals. There is to be a 10-
minute halftime when one team reaches 10 goals. When tournament schedules or other
circumstances make it necessary, games can be shorter. Guidelines on shorter game formats
and how to cap games constricted by time can be found in the Tournament Directors' Manual
published by the WFDF Ultimate Committee.
o 404.03 Time Outs:
• A. Non-Injury: Each team is permitted two non-injury time-outs per half in games to 17
or less, and three non-injury time outs per half in games to 18 or more. Each team is
permitted exactly one time-out in overtime. Overtime occurs when the score is tied at
one point less than the number of points for which the game was originally scheduled.
1. Time to Call: A time-out may be called by either team, after a goal and prior to
the ensuing throw-off, or may be called by the player in possession of the disc
during play.
2. Duration: Time-outs shall not exceed 2 minutes in length.
3. Signal: A player or captain calling time-out must form a "T" with his or her
hands and call, "Time-out," loudly enough to permit the other players to hear
the request.
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4. Resumption of Play: When play resumes after a time-out, the player who had
possession prior to the time-out puts the disc into play. If the player who had
possession is no longer on the field, the player replacing him puts the disc into
play. If the disc was out-of-bounds when the time-out was called, the disc is put
into play at the point on the playing field proper nearest to where the disc went
out-of-bounds. Play shall be resumed through the use of a check and all other
players may set up in any position on the field.
5. When a timekeeper is available, the 2-minute time limit for time-outs shall be
enforced in the following manner:
• (a) Between points: Each time-out between points extends the time
between goals by 2 minutes. Play is restarted as described in
404.05.D. However, when a time-out between points has occurred, the
timekeeper gives an additional warning signal 30 seconds before the
offense must be ready to receive the throw-off.
• (b) During points: The timekeeper shall signal when thirty (30) seconds
are remaining and when fifteen (15) seconds are remaining. At the end
of 2 minutes all offensive players must have established stationary
positions and the thrower must signal readiness. If the offense is not
ready at the end of 2 minutes then the timekeeper shall signal that the
time-out has expired and the marker may initiate or resume the stall
count immediately. Otherwise, the defense has an additional fifteen
(15) seconds to establish positions, during which time the offense must
remain stationary. The timekeeper shall give a final signal when these
15 seconds have elapsed at which time the offense may begin play
immediately. If both teams are ready at any time before the final signal
is given then play is restarted with a check as in 404.03.A.4 and all
remaining timekeeper signals are dispensed with.
o B. Injury Time-out: An injury time-out may be called by any player, and shall not count as one of
the time outs allotted in section 404.03(A). An injury time-out results in a team time-out if the
injured player does not leave the game unless the injury is the result of a foul.
1. Disc in Play: If the disc was in the air at the time an injury occurred and a time-out is
called, play continues until possession of the disc is gained by a player.
2. Resumption of Play: When play resumes after an injury time-out, the player who had
possession when the time-out came into effect puts the disc into play through the use of
a check at the same location the disc was when play stopped. All other players must
assume their respective positions on the field when play was stopped. Players may not
set up when restarting play after an injury time-out, unless it is also a team time-out.
3. Bleeding wounds: If any player has an open or bleeding wound, that player shall take
an immediate injury substitution and may not rejoin the game until the wound is treated
and sealed.
• 404.04 Substitution of Players:
o A. Goals: Substitution of players may be made only after a goal and before the ensuing throwoff,
before the beginning of a period of play, or to replace an injured player.
o B. Time-Outs: Substitutions may not be made during a time-out taken during play other than for
an injury.
o C. Injury: If a team substitutes a player or players for an injured player or players, the opposing
team may also make an equal or lesser number of substitutions at that time.
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• 404.05 Starting and Restarting Play:
o A. Captain: Before a game starts, each team designates one captain to represent that team in
disagreements and arbitration.
o B. Determining Possession: To determine possession at the start, the disc-flipping method shall
be used. The captains of the two teams each flip a disc. The captain of the team so designated
calls "Same," or "Different," while the discs are in the air. The winner of the flip shall choose to
throw or receive the initial throw-off or select a goal to defend. The loser shall be given the
remaining choice.
o C. Start of Second Half: The first point of the second half shall begin with a reversal of the first
point of the first half. Each team shall defend the goal they attacked, and the team that received
should pull and vice versa.
o D. Throw-off: Play starts at the beginning of each half or overtime period and after each goal
with a throw-off.
1. Each time a goal is scored, the team switches the direction of their attack and the team
which scored throws-off.
2. Positioning Prior to the Throw-off:
• (a) Throwing Team - The players on the throwing team shall remain inside the
endzone they are defending prior to the disc being released on the throw-off,
but may move anywhere within said endzone.
• (b) Receiving Team - The players on the receiving team must, prior to the
release of the disc, stand with one foot on the goal line adjoining the endzone
they are defending, and may not change position relative to one another.
3. Signal: The throw-off shall be made only after the thrower and a player on the receiving
team raise a hand to signal their team's readiness to begin play.
4. Commencement of Play: As soon as the disc is released by the thrower, all players
may move in any direction.
5. Interference: No player on the throwing team may touch the throw-off in the air before it
is touched by a member of the receiving team.
6. Reception Within the Playing Field: Whenever a member of the receiving team gains
possession of the throw-off within the playing field (including the endzone), that player
must put the disc into play from the point at which he or she gained possession.
7. Failure to Catch After Touching: Whenever a member of the receiving team touches the
disc during its flight (whether in or out-of bounds) and the receiving team subsequently
fails to catch the disc prior to its touching the ground, the team throwing-off regains
possession of the disc where it stops.
8. Landing Untouched: Whenever the receiving team permits the disc to fall untouched to
the ground and the disc lands and remains in-bounds, the receiving team gains
possession of the disc where it stops. If the disc lands in-bounds and subsequently
touches an out-of-bounds area, the receiving team gains possession in the playing field
proper nearest where the disc first went out-of-bounds.
9. Out-of-Bounds: If the throw-off is caught out-of-bounds, the receiver must carry the disc
to the point on the playing field proper nearest where the disc last crossed the
perimeter line and put the disc into play at that point. Whenever an untouched throw-off
lands out-of-bounds, the receiving team may make the choice of putting the disc into
play at the at the nearest point on the playing field proper to where the disc crossed the
perimeter line, requesting a rethrow, invoking the "middle rule", or invoking the "brick
rule".
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• (a) Rethrow: To request a rethrow, any member of the receiving team shall fully
extend one hand above his or her head and call, "Over." Once the rethrow
signal is given, the original throw-off can no longer be put into play.
• (b) Middle Rule: The receiving team may choose to put the disc in play halfway
between the two side lines perpendicular to the point on the perimeter line
where the disc went out-of-bounds. The receiver of the pull must indicate this
by extending one hand over his or her head and calling "Middle," before picking
the disc up. The player may then carry the disc to the appropriate place, touch
it to the ground, call "Disc in play," and put the disc in play. If the disc crossed
the perimeter line of the endzone that the receiving team is defending, the
player invoking the "middle rule" must put the disc into play on the goal line.
• (c) Brick Rule: The receiving team may choose to put the disc in play halfway
between the two side lines at a point 20 yd (approximately 18 m) upfield from
the goal line which they are defending. The receiver of the pull must indicate
this by extending one hand over his or her head and calling "Brick," before
picking the disc up. The player may then carry the disc to the appropriate place,
touch it to the ground, call, "Disc in play,", and put the disc in play.
10. The time limit between the scoring of a goal and the ensuing throw-off is sixty (60)
seconds for the receiving team, and seventy-five (75) seconds for the throwing team.
When a timekeeper is available, the following rules for enforcing these limits shall also
apply:
• (a) As soon as a goal is scored (in the event of a discussion, as soon as the
goal is acknowledged by the defending team), the timekeeper starts a clock.
After forty-five (45) seconds, the timekeeper signals the receiving team that it
has fifteen seconds before the minute runs out.
• (b) If after sixty seconds the receiving team has acknowledged that it is ready,
the timekeeper signals the throwing team that it has fifteen seconds before the
seventy-five seconds run out.
• (c) If the receiving team does not acknowledge that it is ready before the sixtysecond
signal, that team loses a time-out if it has any time-outs remaining. The
timekeeper then signals that a time-out has been assessed, and a regular timeout
for that team takes place. If the receiving team has no time-outs remaining
then a time-out does not occur, there is no pull, and the receiving team takes
possession of the disc 15 yards behind their own goal line, midway between
the two sidelines. Play is restarted with a check.
• (d) If the throwing team does not throw before the seventy-five second signal,
that team loses a time-out if it has any time-outs remaining. The timekeeper
then signals that a time-out has been assessed, and a regular time-out for that
team takes place. If the throwing team has no time-outs remaining then a timeout
does not occur, there is no pull, and the receiving team takes possession of
the disc at the brick mark nearest the goal it is attacking. Play is restarted with
a check.
• (e) The receiving team must signal its readiness in accordance with rule
404.05.D.3. Note that players must establish and hold their positions in
accordance with rule 404.05.D.2.b prior to signaling readiness.
• (f) The rules in this section (404.05.D.11) shall also apply at the beginning of
each half of play, except that the timekeeper shall give warning signals at 30
seconds before the receiving team must acknowledge readiness, 15 seconds
before the receiving team must acknowledge readiness, and 15 seconds before
the throwing team must throw.
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o E. The Check:
• 404.06 Out-of-Bounds:
• (g) The preferred method of signaling by a timekeeper shall be the use of a
whistle, following procedures outlined in the WFDF Tournament Director's
Guide.
1. Stopped Play: Whenever play stops, other than by the scoring of a goal, play shall
resume with the marker touching the disc held by the thrower. If the thrower attempts a
pass before the marker touches the disc, the pass does not count regardless of
whether it is complete or incomplete, and possession reverts back to the thrower.
2. Player's Movement to Stop: Whenever play is halted other than after a goal or at the
end of a period of play, the movement of all players must quickly stop so that the
relative positions of the players at the time of the stoppage is preserved as closely as
possible. The players shall remain in their respective locations until the marker restarts
play by touching the disc held by the thrower. During the check, the players shall
ascertain the proper positioning of all the players and the players' readiness to
continue.
o A. Definition - Disc: A disc is out-of-bounds when it first contacts an out-of-bounds area or
contacts anything which is out-of-bounds. The disc in flight may pass over an out-of-bounds
area and return to the playing field without being declared out-of-bounds so long as it does not
contact an out-of-bounds area or anything which is out-of-bounds.
o B. Defensive Players: Defensive players may go out-of-bounds to make a play on the disc.
o C. Receiving Players: Receiving players may not go out-of-bounds to make a play on the disc.
For a receiver to be considered in-bounds at the time of gaining possession of the disc, the
player's first point of contact with the ground must be completely in-bounds. If any portion of the
first point of contact is out-of-bounds, the player is considered out-of-bounds.
o D. Definition - Player: A player is out-of-bounds whenever he or she is contacting an out-ofbounds
area. When a player is in the air, whether he or she is in or out-of-bounds is determined
by where he or she last contacted the ground.
o E. Momentum: In the event the momentum of a player carries him out-of-bounds after making
an in-bounds reception, the player is considered in-bounds. The player shall resume play at the
point he or she went out-of-bounds.
o F. Resumption of Play When Disc Goes Out-of-Bounds: To restart play after the disc has gone
out-of-bounds, a player of the team gaining possession of the disc shall carry the disc to the
point on the playing field proper closest to the point where the disc went over the perimeter line,
and establish a pivot foot at that point, not within the perimeter line, before putting the disc into
play. The opposing team gains possession of the disc where it left the field of play only if the
defense did not subsequently contact the disc. If the defense contacted the disc, the disc must
be put into play at the point on the playing field proper closest to where the contact occurred.
o G. Thrower Out-of-Bounds: The thrower may pivot in and out-of bounds without being declared
out-of-bounds, providing that some point of his or her pivot foot is in contact with the playing
field.
• 404.07 Endzone Possession:
o A. Defending Endzone: If a team obtains possession in the endzone which it is defending, the
player taking possession must make the immediate decision to either put the disc into play from
the point he or she took possession or carry it directly to the closest point on the goal line from
the point he or she took possession and put it into play from there. If the latter option is chosen,
the player taking possession may not throw a pass until he or she is at the proper point at the
goal line.
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1. Faking or Pausing: If a player fakes or pauses after gaining possession within his or her
endzone, said fake or pause shall be a commitment by the player that he or she will be
putting the disc into play at the point he or she initially received possession.
2. Pass From Teammate: If, as a result of a pass from a teammate, a player receives a
disc in the endzone which his or her team is defending, that player may not carry the
disc to the goal line, but shall put the disc into play from the point of possession.
o B. Endzone of Attack: If a team gains possession by interception in the endzone which it is
attacking, the player taking possession shall carry the disc directly to the closest point on the
goal line, from the point of possession, and put the disc into play from there.
• 404.08 Scoring:
o A. Requirement: A goal is scored when a thrower completes a pass to a receiver while the
receiver is within the endzone which his or her team is attacking.
o B. In order for the receiver to be considered in the endzone at the time he or she gains
possession, his or her first point of contact with the ground after the catch must be completely in
the endzone.
o C. In the event a receiver's momentum carries him into the endzone after establishing
possession in the playing field proper, he or she shall carry the disc back to the closest point on
the goal line from the initial point of possession, and put the disc into play from that point.
o D. A player must be completely in the endzone and acknowledge that he or she has scored a
goal. If that player plays the disc unknowingly into a turnover, then no goal is awarded.
• 404.09 Turnovers:
o A. A change of possession shall result whenever a turnover occurs.
o B. A change of possession with a check shall occur; whenever the marker's stalling count
reaches the maximum number, as set forth in section 404.11(B) herein, the disc is handed from
player to player, a thrower intentionally deflects a pass to himself off another player, a thrower
catches his or her own throw, or a player calls time out when his or her team has no time outs
left. However, the thrower catching his or her own throw shall not result in a turnover if the disc
is touched by another player during its flight.
• 404.10 The Thrower:
o A. A player may become "the thrower" by fielding a pull, receiving the disc from a teammate,
intercepting a pass from an opponent, or by picking up the disc after a turnover. Whenever the
disc is on the ground following a turnover, whether in or out-of-bounds, any player becoming
offense may take possession of the disc and become the thrower. A defensive player who
establishes possession of the disc becomes the thrower, but may not throw the disc before he
or she establishes a legal pivot foot. To do so is a travelling violation.
o B. Prior to releasing a throw, the thrower must establish a pivot foot and may not change that
pivot foot until the throw is released except in the case of an offensive player who has just
received a pass and is throwing before the third ground contact in accordance with 404.12(C).
The thrower has the right to pivot off the pivot foot in any direction. However, once the marker
has established a legal position, the thrower may not pivot into him. The thrower may throw the
disc in any manner and in any direction he or she chooses.
o C. In the event the disc is dropped by the thrower without defensive interference, it is
considered an incomplete pass.
• 404.11 The Marker:
o A. Guarding: At any time, only one defensive player may guard the thrower. A player is said to
be guarding the thrower if he or she is within 3 m of the thrower's pivot foot and is not within 3 m
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of any other member of the offensive team. A thrower guarded by more than one defender shall
call, "Double team." The first time this occurs during any one count, the marker should
immediately subtract 2 seconds from the count and continue without interruption. The second
time this occurs is a foul and the count shall be reset to zero with a check.
1. When guarding the thrower, the marker may not straddle the pivot foot of the thrower.
2. When guarding the thrower, the upper body of the marker must be at least one disc's
diameter from the upper body of the thrower at all times. It is the mutual responsibility of
both players to respect each other's position and not encroach into the other's area
once it is established.
3. When guarding the thrower, the marker cannot position his or her arms in such a
manner as to restrict the thrower from pivoting.
o B. Stalling: Once a marker is within 3 m of the thrower, he or she may initiate a count. This
consists of the marker calling, "Stalling," and then counting at one second intervals to ten. If the
thrower has not released the disc by the first sound of the word "ten," then a change of
possession with a check shall result. If during the stall count, the defense switches markers, the
new marker must begin a new count at zero. In the event of a stall, the once-marker, now
offensive player, does not have to take the disc after the check. The once-thrower, now marker,
checks the disc to the new thrower. If he or she does not want the disc, the marker "checks" the
disc by placing it on the ground and calling "In play."
o C. Resumption of Count After Foul: If a marker's stalling count is interrupted by a call being
made, after the call is resolved the stalling count shall be resumed in the following manner:
1. If the call was against the defense, the count shall be reset to zero, unless contested
and over five, in which case it resumes at five ("Stalling, six...").
2. If the call was against the offense, the count continues from the point of interruption.
o D. Resumption of Count After Time-out: When play resumes after a time-out, the stall count
shall continue from the point of interruption
o E. Fast Count: If the marker counts too fast, the thrower may call, "Fast count." The first time
this occurs during any one count, the marker should immediately subtract two seconds from the
count and continue without interruption. The second time this occurs is a foul and the count
shall reset to zero with a check.
o F. Contested Stall: The thrower may contest a stall call if he or she believes that he or she had
released the disc before the first utterance of the word "ten."
• 404.12 The Receiver:
1. In the event of a contested stall, if the pass is completed, play stops and possession
reverts back to the thrower. After a check, the marker starts the stall count at eight.
2. In the event of a contested stall, if the pass is incomplete, it is a turnover and play
continues without interruption.
o A. Possession: A receiver gains possession by demonstrating sustained contact and control of
a non-spinning disc while the receiver is on the ground and in-bounds. Loss of control due to
ground contact related to a pass reception negates that receiver1s possession up to that point.
o B. Bobbling: Bobbling to gain control of the disc is permitted, but purposeful, controlled bobbling
to oneself in order to advance the disc is considered traveling and is not allowed. For purposes
of this section, bobbling shall include tipping, delaying, guiding or brushing the disc.
o C. Traveling: If the receiver is moving when he or she catches a pass, he or she shall be
permitted the fewest number of steps required to come to a stop and establish a pivot foot.
Further, a receiver who catches the disc while running or jumping may continue to run and
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throw a pass so long as the throw is released prior to the receiver making three contacts with
the ground and that he or she makes no change in direction or increase in speed during his or
her tenure of possession. Violation of this section shall constitute traveling (see 404.16(C)).
o D. Simultaneous Catch: If the disc is caught simultaneously by offensive and defensive players,
the offense retains possession.
o E. Interception: A pass is considered intercepted if a defensive player catches a pass. If a
defensive player catches a pass and accidentally loses possession of it before or during ground
contact related to that catch, the defender is considered to have blocked rather than intercepted
the pass.
o F. Judging: If a pass arrives in such a manner that it is unclear whether a catch was made
before the disc made contact with the ground (grass is considered part of the ground), the
player with the best perspective shall decide whether a good catch was made. Further, if it is
unclear whether a receiver was in or out-of-bounds at the point of making a catch, the player or
players with the best perspective makes the call.
o G. Force-Out Foul: If a receiver is airborne at the time he or she takes possession of the disc,
and prior to landing is contacted by a defensive player, and said contact causes the receiver to
land out-of-bounds, the receiver shall either call himself out-of-bounds or call a force-out foul on
the defensive player. If this foul occurs in the end zone and it is uncontested, a goal is awarded.
• 404.13 Fouls:
o A. Definition: Fouls are the result of physical contact between opposing players. A foul may be
called by the player who has been fouled and must be announced by calling out the word, "foul"
loudly and immediately after the foul has occurred.
o B. Responsibility: The player initiating contact shall be the player guilty of the foul.
o C. Throwing Fouls: A throwing foul may be called when there is contact between the thrower
and the marker, prior to the release of the disc by the thrower. Contact occurring during the
thrower's follow through is not sufficient grounds for a foul, but should still be avoided whenever
possible.
1. When a foul is committed by the thrower or the marker, play stops and possession
reverts back to the thrower, after a check.
2. If the thrower is fouled in the act of throwing and the pass is completed, the foul is
automatically declined and play continues without interruption.
3. If the marker is fouled during the thrower's act of throwing and the pass is not
completed, play continues without interruption. If the pass is completed, the disc is
returned to the thrower after a check and the stall count is resumed from the point of
interruption.
4. Should a foul or violation result in possession reverting to a thrower who was airborne
while releasing the disc, play shall be restarted at the point on the playing field proper
closest to the location from which the throw was made.
o D. Catching Fouls: A catching foul may be called when there is contact between opposing
players in the process of attempting a catch, interception or knock down. A certain amount of
incidental contact during or immediately after the catching attempt is often unavoidable and
shall not constitute a foul.
1. Interference: If a player makes contact with an opponent before the disc arrives and
therefore interferes with that opponent's attempt to make a play on the disc, that player
has committed a foul.
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2. If a player's attempt to make a play on the disc causes contact with a legitimatelypositioned,
stationary opponent, either before or after the disc arrives, that player has
committed a foul.
3. If a catching foul occurs and is uncontested, the player fouled gains possession at the
point of the infraction. If the call is disputed, possession of the disc reverts back to the
thrower. If an uncontested foul, with the exception of a force-out foul (see 404.12 (F)),
occurs in the end zone the offensive team is attacking, the player fouled gains
possession at the closest point on the goal line to the infraction.
o E. Aggressive Behavior: Dangerously aggressive behavior or reckless disregard for the safety
of fellow players shall constitute a foul.
o F. Player Positioning: After a foul is called, all players shall remain in the position they held at
the time of the foul until play is resumed.
• 404.14 Positioning:
o A. Right to Position: Every player, with the exception of the thrower as set forth in section
404.10(B), is entitled to occupy any position on the field not occupied by any opposing player,
provided that he or she does not cause personal contact in taking such a position.
o B. Avoiding Contact: It is always the responsibility of all players to avoid contact in any way
possible. Violent impact with legitimately-positioned opponents constitutes harmful
endangerment, is a foul and must be strictly avoided.
o C. Picks: No player may establish a position, or move in such a manner, so as to obstruct the
movement of any player on the opposing team. In the event of a pick, the obstructed player
shall immediately call "Pick," loudly. Play shall then be stopped and be resumed only after a
check, with the stall count resuming from the point of interruption or to five if the count is over
five.
o D. Principal of Verticality: All players shall have the right to the space immediately above them.
Accordingly, a player cannot prevent an opponent from attempting to catch a pass by placing
his or her arms above an opponent. If a player so places his or her arms, and contact occurs, a
foul may be called.
o E. Playing the Disc: Whenever the disc is in the air, all players shall play the disc in lieu of the
opponent.
o F. Rights of Players Off the Ground: A player who has jumped is entitled to land at the same
point without hindrance by opponents. He or she may also land at another point provided the
landing point was not already occupied at the time of his or her takeoff and if the direct path
between the takeoff and landing point was not already occupied at the time of takeoff.
• 404.15 Officials
o (A) Definition: A number of non-playing officials may be involved in a game of ultimate. Such
officials include time-keepers, score-keepers and observers. Their role is to assist the teams,
not to enforce the rules. A single person may perform multiple official duties.
o (B) Time-keeper. A single time-keeper may be appointed to signal time elapsed between points,
during time-outs and to signal the start or end of a playing period.
o (C) Score-keeper. A single score-keeper may be appointed to keep score and indicate to the
captains the completion of a half, the game, the number of time-outs used or remaining, or the
fact that the game has gone into overtime.
o (D) Observers.
1. At their discretion, the captains may agree upon up to six experienced individuals, who
are not participating in the game, to act as observers. The duty of the observer is to
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carefully watch the action of the game for the sole purpose of rendering a decision in
the event of a dispute that cannot be resolved. Observers shall remain passive and
shall not make any calls on their own initiative.
2. When a dispute arises which cannot be resolved by the players involved or their
captains, the observers may be called upon by the captains to make the call. The
observer with the best view of the play makes the call. If the observers so choose, they
may discuss the play among themselves before rendering a decision.
3. By calling in the observers, the teams agree to abide by the observers' decision.
o (E) Sanctioned Events: Score-keepers and time-keepers shall be mandatory at all WFDFsanctioned
events.
• 404.16 Violations:
o A. General: A violation occurs when a player violates any of the rules in this article, other than
the rules relating to physical contact, in any manner.
o B. Calling the Violation: A violation may be called by any player who recognizes that a violation
has occurred. The player should immediately call, "Violation," or the name of the specific
violation, loudly.
o C. Traveling: Any journey by a player while in possession of the disc which is in violation of
these rules constitutes a travel and is not permitted.
1. At all times a thrower must keep all or part of the pivot foot in contact with the single
point on the field established as the pivot point. Whenever the thrower loses contact
with that point, he or she has traveled.
2. Whenever a receiver takes more steps than he or she requires to stop after catching a
pass, that receiver has traveled.
3. If a receiver, after receiving a pass on the run, releases a pass after making three
ground contacts and before coming to a complete stop, that receiver has traveled.
4. If a stall count is in progress and traveling is called, the stall count shall resume from
the point of interruption or at "five" ("Stall, six..."), whichever is lower.
5. If the thrower releases a pass after being called for traveling and the pass is
incomplete, the pass counts and results in a turnover.
o D. Strip: No defensive player may touch the disc while it is in the possession of the thrower or
receiver. If a defensive player does so, causing the thrower or receiver to drop the disc, the
player who was in possession of the disc calls, "Strip."
• 404.17 Stoppage of Play:
1. The player formerly in possession of the disc regains possession at the point where the
strip occurred and play shall resume via a check.
2. If a stall count was in progress as the disc was stripped, the count is reset to zero.
3. A contested strip of the receiver is treated the same as a contested catching foul; an
uncontested strip in the end zone is a goal.
o A. General: Whenever an infringement of the rules or a time-out occurs, play is halted and the
disc is put back into play with a check at the point of the last possession before play was
stopped, except as otherwise provided by these rules.
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o B. Play Continuation Rule:
1. If a foul, violation or pick is called while the disc is in the air, play continues until
possession of the disc is gained.
2. If the team who would receive the benefit of the call gains possession as a result of a
pass committed prior or during the time the call was made, play shall continue unhalted.
It is the responsibility of the player who made the call to call out, "Play on," to indicate
that this rule has been invoked.
3. If the pass is completed and the foul, violation or pick was called against the offense,
the pass does not count and possession reverts back to the thrower, except as
provided in 404.13 D (3). However, if the violation did not affect the defensive effort on
the pass (e.g. a pick unrelated to the play), the defense should acknowledge this and
play is resumed with a check where the pass was caught.
o C. Disputes:
1. Principle: Whenever there is a failure to come to an agreement over any call, the disc
shall be returned to the last thrower prior to the dispute via a check.
2. Time-limit: After a dispute has gone on for thirty seconds, the official (if available) shall
instruct the players involved to resolve the issue as rapidly as possible or return the
disc to the last thrower, according to 404.17 C (1).
o D. Offsetting Fouls: If offsetting catching fouls are called by offensive and defensive players on
the same play, the disc shall be returned to the last thrower at his or her point of possession via
a check.
• 404.18 Etiquette:
o A. Uncalled Foul: If a foul is committed and not called, the player who commits the foul should
inform the infracted player of the foul.
o B. Time Between Goals and Pulls: It is the responsibility of both teams to minimize the time
used between each goal and the ensuing throw off.
o C. Rethrow Signal: If the receiving team wishes to have a throw off which traveled out-ofbounds
rethrown, said team should give the rethrow signal as soon as possible.
o D. Disputes: In the event a dispute or confusion arises on the field, play should be stopped and
subsequently resumed via a check after the matter is resolved.
o E. Novice Consideration: In non-tournament play, where a novice player commits a violation
due to ignorance of the rules, it shall be common practice to stop play and explain the violation
and the rule to the player.
• 405 Glossary
o Check: Temporary possession of the disc by the marker, immediately prior to resumption of
play to insure proper positioning and readiness of the players.
o Contact: The touching of players on opposite teams with a degree of force.
o Defensive Team: Team without possession.
o Endzone: Area of the playing field where scores are made.
o Goal Line: The line separating the playing field proper from the endzone and not part of the
endzone.
o Marker: Defensive player guarding the thrower.
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o Offensive Team: Team with possession.
o Out-of-Bounds: Any area not on the playing field, including the perimeter lines.
o Perimeter Lines: Lines separating playing field proper or endzone from out-of-bounds area and
not part of the playing field.
o Pick: A player using his or her body or movements in such a manner so as to obstruct the
movement of a player on the opposing team.
o Pivot Foot: The foot used by a player to establish position on the field after gaining possession
of the disc.
o Player: One of the 14 persons who are actually participating in the game at any one time.
o Playing Field Proper: Playing field exclusive of the endzones.
o Point of Contact: Location on playing field where player contact was made.
o Put the Disc in Play: Occurs when the thrower establishes a pivot foot and is ready to throw, or
in throw-off situations has given the legal signal to throw-off.
o Receivers: All offensive players other than the thrower.
o Thrower: An offensive player in possession of the disc or who has just released the disc.
o Throw-off: Procedure used to start play or resume play after a goal is scored. The throw-off is
accomplished by a player on the team relinquishing possession by throwing the disc from the
goal line his or her team shall be defending to a player on the receiving team.
o Where the Disc Stops: Refers to the location where a disc is caught, comes to rest naturally, or
where it is stopped from rolling or sliding.
The World Flying Disc Federation (WFDF) has full copyright to this rulebook. Copies of the book are sold to
cover the cost of producing it. Member associations of WFDF are allowed to translate the rules into their own
language and to add national supplements as long as the WFDF rules are not altered or contradicted. The
WFDF board must be notified of all such translations and receive a copy afterward.
164

Callahan Rules To College Ultimate
Version 3.0
11/7/99
Introduction
[Version 1.0 of the UPA Experimental Rules were based on version 2.5 of the Callahan Rules. Version 3.0 of
the Callahan Rules returns the favor and is based on version 1.0 of the UPA Experimental Rules. CR 3.0
changes the following X-Rules 1.0:
1.4 Observer can explicitly provide additional time to replace, or for a player to retrieve, a disc
2.1 Times before the pull have been modified [experimental for the CCC]
2.1, 2.3 & 2.6 Observer countdowns notifying teams of the time remaining have been updated to reflect current
practice
2.3 Clarification that teams receive only one time out after the time cap goes into effect
2.5 Points per game have been changed to 15, win by 2, with a hard cap at 17
2.7 "Quick time out" time for team to match up changed from 30 seconds to 20 seconds
4.2 Team Misconduct Fouls: Observer has the option to remove a player for the remainder of the half
5.1 Clarification to set up times and pull on a re-pull.
6.4 Return of the "interception in the endzone is a goal" rule
The Callahan Rules are a series of modifications and additions to the current rules of ultimate. The Callahan
Rules build upon the current rules, the 9th Edition with Clarifications (1995) and are an attempt to speed up play
and to make ultimate even more fun for players to play and spectators to watch.
Wherever possible, the Callahan Rules adhere to ultimate's underlying principle of assuming players will never
deliberately foul and to recreate what would have happened had a foul not taken place. However, since many of
the suggested rule changes involve "dead disc" fouls where there is no situation to recreate, or situations where
a player has clearly overstepped the bounds of good sportsmanship, penalties in the form of inferior field
position and/or the awarding of additional time-outs are included. Finally, the Callahan Rules include
mechanisms (sections 4.1 Game Misconduct Foul, 4.2 Team Misconduct Foul and 4.3 Automatic Ejection for
Fighting) that allow for the removal of players from a half, game or tournament.
Under the Callahan Rules, virtually all foul calls remain in the hands of the players, however, select calls (for
example, time violations, misconduct penalties, line calls) are made by a neutral Observer or Linesman. In
addition, the Observer makes an immediate ruling on all fouls calls that cannot be immediately resolved by the
players.
This document is divided into 7 sections:
• The Observer and Linesmen
• Time violations
• Contested calls
• Misconduct fouls
• The pull
• Miscellaneous changes and additions
• Appendix
The Callahan Rules are based on the 9th Edition rules to ultimate with clarifications (1995). Except where
superseded by the rules outlined below, the 9th Edition rules remain the controlling document.
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1.0 The Observer And Linesmen
1.1 Observer Responsibilities
Under the Callahan Rules, each game will have one neutral observer ("the Observer") that will be charged with
the following duties:
• Make sure games start on time
• Assess penalties for various time violations (time before the pull, time outs, turnovers)
• Rule on contested calls
• Assess and track Game and Team Misconduct fouls for unsportsmanlike conduct
• Keep score
• Remind players at the beginning of the game of various key rules and concepts
• Make rulings on line calls (in the event the game is played without Linesmen, and the players involved
disagree)
• Determine if players are off-sides on the pull (in the event the game is played without Linesmen)
• Resolve disputes on whether a caught disc was "up or down"
• Announce the time cap (except in situations where the time cap is determined by the tournament
director)
• Provide game discs when required
• Notes the name of any player displaying exceptionally good sportsmanship
The players on the field make all foul calls, with the exception of those listed above, however the Observer will
rule in the case of a contested foul. In addition to the one Observer, it is strongly recommended that each game
have two Linesmen to make active line calls and to assist the Observer on contested foul calls.
1.2 Line Calls
In games using Linesmen, the Linesmen will make all calls regarding whether a receiver is in or out of the
playing field proper or end zones after catching the disc. Should an offensive player have perspective, and
realize the Linesmen has erroneously called a player in-bounds, or in the endzone, they are expected to
overrule the call. Conversely, should a defensive player have perspective, and realize that the Linesmen has
erroneously called the offensive player out of bounds, or out of the endzone, the defender is expected to
overrule the call.
For games without Linesmen, the player with the best perspective (i.e. closest to the line in question and with a
simultaneous view of the receiver and the playing field boundary) will determine whether the receiver was in or
out of bounds. If the players involved cannot quickly make a call, only then is the Observer asked to make a call.
If the Linesmen or Observer can't determine whether a player is in-bounds, the call is made in favor of the
defense.
1.3 Disc Up or Down
The Observer rules on whether a disc has been caught or is a "up or down" should there be a controversy
between the players. The Observer makes this call only if the players disagree - this is not an active call. In the
situation where an Observer is unable to make a call, the call is made in favor of the defense.
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1.4 Warped Disc or Unable to Retrieve Disc
The Observer will carry or have ready access to, a spare disc that can be substituted for a game disc that has
become warped or is difficult to retrieve (for example, in a crowd of spectators) in under 20 seconds (see 2.2). In
either of these situations, the Observer will supply a new disc only if the team on offense requests one.
Should the Offense request a disc from the Observer, time required for the Observer to provide a spare disc
does not count against the above time limits. Any initiated stall count will resume where it was halted when the
request was made.
If an offensive player does not request a disc from the observer, an offensive player must retrieve the game disc
from OB
1.5 Rule Review
At the beginning of each game, the Observer will read a brief summary of select rules to the players. This
summary will begin with a reminder that ultimate is unique in that it holds players to a higher level of
sportsmanship than other sports and that it is a player's responsibility to maintain composure during play.
Additionally, players will be reminded that deliberate fouls are, by definition, bad sportsmanship and are subject
to a Team Misconduct penalty. Players should also be reminded that dangerous play is to be avoided at all
costs. Finally, players will listen to a brief review regarding specific rules:
• Throwing before three ground contacts is not necessarily a travel
• Loud swearing will result in a misconduct foul against a team and that a third (or more) misconduct foul
results in a penalty against your team (see section 4.4)
• That the line is out
• Not to cross the line before the pull
• That the Observer will make best efforts to do his or her job and that excessively arguing with the
Observer can result in a misconduct foul
• Other reminders as needed
1.6 Observers Are Treated As Neutral Players
In order to get the best possible view of any possible fouls, the Observer will typically be on the field of play.
Should a thrown disc strike the Observer during play, the disc remains live until it touches the ground or an out
of bounds obstacle.
An offensive player cannot call a pick, or blocking foul on the Observer. However, a defensive player can call a
pick due to interference by the Observer.
1.7 Observer and Time Cap
If a tournament director is keeping track of a time cap for individual rounds, the time cap warning can be
provided by the director, not the Observer.
2.0 Time Issues & Violations
In an effort to speed up the game, the Observer uses a stopwatch or hand counts to time various dead disc
situations and makes sure play restarts in a reasonable time.
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Whenever the disc must be put into play within a certain time limit using a check, failure by either team to meet
the time limit supersedes the check, and allows the other team to immediately initiate play, as described in
sections 2.2 and 2.3.
2.1 Time Before Pull
The receiving team must have 7 players on the line within 70 seconds. The pulling team then receives 20
seconds for final match-ups. The Observer will notify each team before they must be ready ("20 seconds", "10
seconds", "5 seconds", "Play"). Failure to have be set in the allotted time results in the following penalties:
• Receiving team fails to have 7 players set on the line within 70 seconds: Receiving team puts the disc in
play with a check at the "endzone" mark within 20 seconds
• Pulling team fails to have 7 players set on the line and pull within 90 seconds: Receiving team puts the
disc in play with a check at the "mid-field" mark within 20 seconds
See the Appendix for revised field layout with the following center-of-field markers: 15 yards in to each end zone
(the "end zone" mark, 20 yards out from each endzone (the "brick mark") and at 35 yards from the endzone
("mid-field" mark).
Play can begin before the full 90 seconds has elapsed. After a minimum of 40 seconds has elapsed since the
previous score, either team may give a signal (traditionally a raised hand) indicating that they are ready. If the
receiving team gives the initial signal, the pulling team then has 20 seconds to match up and pull the disc. If the
pulling team initially signals that it is ready to begin play the receiving team has 20 seconds to get 7 players on
the line and indicate that they are ready. Following the ready signal from the receiving team, the pulling team
then has an additional 20 seconds to match up and pull.
To avoid a delay penalty on the pull, a team that intends to play a point with fewer than 7 players must notify the
Observer before the pull.
2.2 Time Between Turnovers
If the disc remains on the playing field proper after a turnover (not out of bounds and not in the endzone), the
offense gets 10 seconds to put the disc in play. If the disc lands outside the playing field proper, or is dropped
on the pull, the offense gets 20 seconds to put the disc in play. A disc that rolls or skips out of bounds, or into
the endzone, is considered to have landed outside the playing field proper, and the offense gets up to 20
seconds to put it back in play.
The Observer will provide a warning at 5 seconds (and in the case of a disc that has gone out of bounds, 10
seconds) before the disc has to be put in play. Should the offense fail to begin play (by establishing a pivot foot)
within the allotted time, the defense can begin the stall count.
However, if an offensive player is standing within two meters of the disc or if the thrower is in possession of the
disc and standing near the location the disc will be put into play, the marker may issue a delay of game warning,
initiate a stall count, and continue regardless of the offense's actions.
2.3 Time and Number of Time-outs
Each team gets 2 time-outs per half and each team is permitted exactly one (1) time-out in overtime (i.e. 14-14
in a game to 15) or after the time cap has gone into effect. Time-outs will be 70 seconds in length and the
Observer will provide warnings ("20 seconds", "10 seconds", "5 seconds", "Play"). After 70 seconds, the offense
must have established stationary positions. The defense then has 20 seconds to match up. Should the offense
fail to set up within 70 seconds, the defense may begin the stall count. Should the defense fail to put the disc in
play within 20 seconds after the offense is set, the observer will announce "play" and the offense can
immediately put the disc into play.
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Play can resume before the full 90 seconds has expired. If the team taking the time-out has established
stationary positions and announces they are ready to resume play, the defense has 20 seconds to check the
disc.
In the situation where an Observer (for example, in the situation of a Team Misconduct foul) has awarded a
time-out to a team, the time-out is reduced from 70 seconds to 30 seconds.
2.4 Assessing Points for Late Arrival
Should one (or both) teams fail to have players on the line ready to begin play at the scheduled start time, the
Observer will automatically assess a point for every 2 minutes of delay. The first point will be assessed 2
minutes after the scheduled start time.
2.5 Points Per Game
Under the Callahan Rules, all games will be played to 15 points, win by 2, with a hard cap at 17 points. There is
a time cap at two hours and if the time cap is reached the hard cap is reduced to 2 points above the current high
score, or 17 whichever is lower. If, at the discretion of the tournament director, games are capped before two
hours, they are still played to 15 points.
2.6 Half-time
In games with a two-hour cap, each team is given 10 minutes for half time .If, at the discretion of the tournament
director, games are capped before two hours, halftime is reduced to five minutes. The Observer will announce
warnings with 20, 10 and 5 seconds remaining before the beginning of the second half. The offense must have
7 players on the line with 20 seconds remaining. The defensive team then receives 20 seconds for final matchups.
Failure to have 7 players on the line within the time limits results in the same penalties as in 2.1 Time
Before Pull.
To give the Observer, Linesmen and spectators a brief break, the full time allotted to half-time must be taken,
there are no short half-times
2.7 Time-out During the Pull
After a score, either team may take a time out at any point before the pull. However, the total time allowed
before the pull is capped at 2 and a half minutes. After a time-out, the receiving team must have 7 on the line
ready to receive the pull in no more than 2 minutes and 10 seconds, with the pulling team getting an additional
20 seconds to match up.
The team taking a time-out before the pull can still take an abbreviated time-out by indicating they are ready to
resume play, giving the other team 20 seconds to get ready. This 20 second "get ready" time does not extend
the cap maximum.
In the event that multiple time-outs are taken before a pull, the pull cap maximum of 2 and a half minutes is
extended by 30 seconds for each additional time-out.
2.8 Observer Hand Signals
To assist in communicating to players the amount of time remaining (before a pull, near the end of halftime,
time-outs, etc.) before play is to resume, Observers will both verbally announce the remaining time and use a
series of hand signals. When indicating the time remaining, Observers can use a closed fist to indicate
increments of 10 seconds and an open hand for 5 second increments.
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For example, in the case of time before the pull, an Observer can raise a closed fist twice in rapid succession to
indicate 20 seconds remaining before the pull. Once to indicate 20 seconds remain, etc.
It is up to the players on the field to keep track of the time before play is to resume. The Observer's hand signals
are intended as a convenience for players and spectators - failure by the Observer to display a hand signal does
not absolve a team from being assessed a penalty.
3.0 Contested Calls
3.1 Observer Decides Contested Calls
Should a discussion arise over a contested call, the Observer will ask if the players can resolve the dispute. If
the initial call and contest can't be quickly resolved by player agreement, the Observer has the following options:
• Agree with the original call
• Agree with the contest
• If the situation warrants such a call, the observer can indicate the disc goes back to the thrower
• Announce they didn't see the play and declare the disc goes back to the thrower
An Observer may, at his or her discretion, ask a Linesman's opinion on a call, or even let the Linesman make
the call. However, this is on a case by case basis and is up to the Observer - the Observer is the controlling
authority.
Upon resolution of the contested call, the Observer may elect to assess a Team Misconduct foul if they feel the
initial foul was a deliberate violation of the rules, or if the player making the foul call or contest showed bad
sportsmanship.
4.0 Misconduct Fouls
4.1 Game Misconduct Foul
At the end of a game the Observer will record on the score sheet the names of up to 3 players from each team
named by the opposing captains as deserving of game misconduct fouls. Any players listed that the Observer
also feels should be awarded a Game Misconduct foul will be ejected from the tournament.
In the case of a fight, this foul is automatic - the Observer must assess a Game Misconduct foul against the
player they feel initiated the fight.
Observers and captains should reserve assessment of a Game Misconduct penalty to those players that initiate
fights, repeatedly commit flagrant fouls (even after warnings), repeatedly are involved in dangerous play, swear
at or otherwise repeatedly engage spectators in a negative fashion, etc. In short, this foul should be assessed
only in the situation where, for the good of the sport, a player must be removed from play.
4.2 Team Misconduct
A Team Misconduct foul is assessed by the Observer during the game. The first two Team Misconduct fouls
issued by the Observer are warnings ("Misconduct Warnings") and are noted on the score card by the
Observer. Upon assessing a third (or more) Team Misconduct foul(s) the following penalties ("Misconduct
Penalties") are enforced:
• Misconduct Penalty assessed on defense: offense gets a free 30 second time-out and the disc at the
"brick" mark closest to the endzone they are attempting to score in. If the offense has possession of the
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disc closer to the endzone than the "brick" mark, they receive a free 30 second time-out and the disc is
placed at center-line at the point of possession.
• Misconduct Penalty assessed on offense: offense keeps possession of the disc, but has to start at the
"endzone" mark of the end zone they are defending. If the infraction occurs when the disc is deeper in
the endzone than 15 yards, play restarts from the current location of the disc.
Under no circumstance can a team's field position be improved due to a Misconduct Penalty. Upon the calling of
a Team Misconduct foul, play stops for 5 seconds while the player and team are warned and the Observer
notes the infraction on a score card.
If a Team Misconduct Penalty is assessed after a score, but before the next pull, the penalty is assessed
immediately - there is no pull. However, both teams are allowed to substitute players and the offensive team
receives the same amount of time to set up as they would under section 2.1 Time Before Pull. This rule also
applies to a Team Misconduct incurred during half-time, or before the game begins.
Two examples: (1) after a score, the offensive player taunts the defender and then spikes the disc at the
defender's feet. If this results in a Team Misconduct Penalty (as opposed to a warning), there is no pull. After
substitutions, the team now on offense gets the disc at the brick mark closest to the endzone they are attacking.
They receive 70 seconds to line-up, with the defense receiving 20 seconds for final match ups. (2) a defender
calls a "travel violation" on a throw that results in a score. If the call is contested and the Observer overrules the
foul call and then assesses a Team Misconduct Penalty, there is no pull. Instead, after substitutions, the team
now on offense automatically starts with the disc 15 yards deep in their own endzone.
Should both teams simultaneously receive misconduct penalties, the fouls offset and play continues after the
offending players and teams receive warnings.
A Team Misconduct foul is to be assessed against a team for unsportsmanlike conduct by one of its players.
Unsportsmanlike conduct includes actions such as deliberate fouls, dangerous play, taunting, fighting, swearing,
repeated marking fouls, unwarranted and unsportsman-like fouls or contest calls, etc.
In the event of severe violations, the observer may at his discretion, eject a player for the remainder of the half
or the remainder of the game when issuing any Team Misconduct Foul regardless of whether it results in a
Warning or Penalty.
4.3 Automatic Ejection for Fighting
Should a player intentionally strike another player, the Observer must immediately eject that player from the
game. If the other player retaliates, both players are ejected. At the end of the game, a Game Misconduct foul is
automatically awarded by the Observer against the player he or she deems to be the aggressor in the
altercation.
4.4 Swearing
At the discretion of the Observer, swearing, especially if directed at a player, coach, or spectator, can be
assessed with a Team Misconduct foul.
4.5 Taunting
A player aggressively taunting another player (spiking the disc at an opponent's feet, etc.) will result in a Team
Misconduct foul and will be treated in the same fashion as swearing.
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4.6 Poor Sportsmanship
Should a player make bad foul calls or contests, or in some other manner not live up the high level of
sportsmanship expected of ultimate players, the Observer, may at his or her discretion, assess a Team
Misconduct foul against the team of the player exhibiting poor sportsmanship.
5.0 The Pull
5.1 Offsides on the Pull
If an offense or defense player crosses the goal line on the pull before the disc has left the thrower's hand, that
player's team is offsides. Each team receives one offsides warning each game with the warning resulting in a repull.
Upon the second or more offsides call, the following penalties apply:
• Penalty on the receiving team: receiving team starts with the disc at the spot 15 yards deep in the
endzone within 20 seconds. The pulling team checks the disc in before play begins.
• Penalty on the pulling team: receiving team starts with the disc at mid-field within 20 seconds. The
pulling team checks the disc in before play begins.
• Simultaneous penalties on both teams: re-pull.
The Linesmen actively make the offsides call. In games without Linesmen, the Observer makes the call. An
offsides call cannot be contested. On any re-pull, the receiving team has 20 seconds to get set, with the pulling
team receiving an additional 20 seconds to match up. With the exception of any injury, no substitutions can be
made before a re-pull.
5.2 Starting play after the pull
The brick marks are located in the middle of the field, 20 yards from each endzone. If the pull is allowed to land
(i.e. not caught) it is played as follows:
• If the pull lands out-of-bounds, the receiving team has the option of putting the disc into play: - at the
brick mark; or, - at the point on the playing field proper nearest where the disc went out-of-bounds; or, -
halfway between the two sidelines at the point on the playing field proper nearest where the disc went
out-of-bounds.
• If the pull lands in-bounds, then rolls out-of-bounds, the disc is put into play at the point on the playing
field proper nearest where the disc went out-of-bounds.
• If the pull lands in-bounds and does not roll out-of-bounds, the disc must be put into play at the point
where the disc comes to rest. (Note: existing rules allowing players to stop a rolling disc still apply.)
If the pull is caught, the disc must be put into play at the point on the playing field nearest where the disc was
caught. Regardless of how the offense decides to handle a pull that ends up out-of-bounds they have a
maximum of 20 seconds to establish a pivot foot and begin play.
5.3 Dropped Pull
A dropped pull is a change in possession with the pulling team (now the offense) starting with the disc at brick
mark (the 20-yard line) nearest the endzone the offense is attacking. The pull does not have to be dropped in
the endzone - a pull dropped outside of the endzone, but between the brick mark and the goal line, is brought
out to the brick mark. A player from the team now on offense has 20 seconds to establish a pivot foot and put
the disc back in play.
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A pull that is dropped more than 20 yards outside the goal the receiving team is defending is played under the
current 9th Edition rules.
6.0 Miscellaneous Changes and Additions
6.1 Player Can Throw Before Third Ground Contact
Under current 9th Edition rules, it is ambiguous as to what happens should a player make three ground contacts
but could have stopped earlier and established a pivot foot before throwing. Under the Callahan Rules, the rules
governing traveling remain the same as the 9 th Edition rules (three ground contacts, player must attempt to slow
down, no change in direction), however, players will be reminded before the game that a receiver can throw the
disc before the third ground contact.
A spurious traveling call made by a defender, that in the eyes of the Observer was made to stop a "give-and-go"
run by the offense, is, by definition, bad sportsmanship and is subject to a Team Misconduct foul.
Under the Callahan Rules, a receiver / thrower can contest a travel, allowing an Observer to make a ruling.
6.2 Blocking Thrower's Line Of Sight
Deliberately blocking a thrower's eyes is a violation on the marker.
6.3 Equipment Time-Outs
Equipment time-outs aren't explicitly included in the 9th Edition Rules but are a convention adhered to by many
players. Under the Callahan Rules, equipment time-outs will only be recognized for a dangerous condition (lost
contact lens, broken glasses, etc.) or a damaged (or warped) disc. Two specific situations will no longer be
recognized as valid reasons for an equipment time-out: untied shoes or mud on the disc.
6.4 Pass Intercepted in Defensive Endzone
A pass intercepted by the defense in the endzone they are attempting to score in (if they were on offense) is a
score. To count as a score, a player’s first point of contact with the ground after intercepting the disc must be in
the endzone.
Appendix
Revised Field
A Callahan Rules field has the same dimensions as the current field 40 x 70 yards with 25 yard deep endzones,
but includes center-line field marks at the following yardage marks: "mid-field" (35 yard line), "brick" (20 yards
from each endzone), and "endzone" (15 yards deep in each endzone). These marks are used to identify where
play resumes after various situations (dropped pull, failure to line up 7 offensive or defensive players in the
allotted time, bricks, etc.)
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[Callahan Field Layout]
Observers
At the beginning of each game Observers should have the following items
• Whistle
• Backup Disc
• Clipboard with Callahan score sheet
• Stopwatch
Observer Tracking Sheet
• Each Observer has a form for tracking the following events:
• Number of offside fouls assessed against each team
• Number of Team Misconduct fouls assessed against each team
• Score for each team
• Time-outs used by each team
• Final score and running time
• Game Misconduct penalties assessed against players by the Observer and captains
• Sportsmanship citation for one player on each team
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Captains
How To Start A Team
No matter what your situation is, there are some things that are pretty much universal about starting a new
team, where there was no team before.
You will have to be an ultimate frisbee fanatic. The easiest way to get people interested in playing ultimate
(listening to what you have to say) is for you to come across as being extremely enthusiastic. Enthusiasm is
infectious. You will discuss ultimate in just about every friendly conversation you have. It will permeate your very
existence, at least as long as it takes you to recruit enough people for consistently attended practices. People
look up to someone who is enthusiastic about what they do, ultimate is no different.
Be positive. You will have to be positive in every aspect of recruiting, practicing, and teaching. Be absolutely
sure to point out the good points in everyone's skills. People don't like to feel inadequate. Every single person,
from the first time they come out, have at least one trait that can be seen as positive. That can be harder to
determine with some people, but there is always SOMETHING that you can compliment a person about. Follow
any improvement, and try to remark about these improvements often.
Ultimate is as much a social outing as it is a physical fitness outing. Always try and meet somewhere after
practice on a regular basis. You will find that some people who can't always make ultimate due to schedule
conflicts, will often show up to the social outings afterwards as long as there is some regularity to the outings.
Ultimate people, are COOL to hang out with, whether at a pub or a BBQ, just do it. You will find that once you
have recruited people, the social aspect of the sport will keep people coming out to practice as much as the
sport itself.
Along those lines, Scrimmage another beginners or intermediate team as soon as possible. Call your Regional
Coordinator to locate the closest team. It may even be a Juniors Team, but they are always keen to play and
help promote the sport. This means that they will meet others like them, and will feel less intimidated. It also
adds a certain degree of legitimacy to the sport. If it is an intermediate team, mix the teams up for the
scrimmage, and ask for help in sharing teaching the fundamentals to the beginners.
And further, Get your team to a beginners or fun tournament as EARLY as possible. Nothing lights a fire under a
beginner's butt like traveling to a tournament and playing an intense match against other people just like them.
Most new players come back from tournaments enlightened as to the true extent of the possibilities of being a
member of the ultimate community.
BE ORGANIZED. The more organized you are, the more comfortable people are and the more likely they are to
join, and the less they think it's just some rogue sport that isn't played anywhere. Have a typewritten description
of the game to hand out in your possession at all times during recruitment. Have a phone list/contact sheet
drawn up immediately and passed out to the members. Pass out strategy sheets as time passes and
experience levels improve. You will notice that particularly after tournaments, teams will be hungry for such
information.
Advice to the Captain
Be prepared to be the only person willing to take ANY responsibility.
At least early on. Be willing to delegate responsibility and workload (phone calls, posting notices, etc.) to anyone
who offers to help, or even to someone who you think holds promise in this area, otherwise you will end up
doing it all yourself, forever.
You WILL get frustrated!!
Don't ever let your team see it. You would be surprised how quickly a bad attitude can spread around a team,
and how quickly it will run people off.
Be prepared to lose up to 1/2 of your team to the transition from indoor ultimate to outdoor ultimate.
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The weather (wind, rain, mud) can totally ruin the confidence built up by beginners indoors. Try to stay in touch
with players who stop coming out, and get them to come to at least 3 outdoor practices to try and build their
confidence up. Invite them outside for a throw around on off days.
Don't Expect to Win a Game in your first season.
There have been teams that don't even score a point in their first season. This shouldn't be the case, as there
are always a multitude of beginners teams to play against, but make sure your team is mentally prepared.
Remind your team that Everyone is a beginner.
Remember to let them know that there is no reason to be intimidated because everyone is in the exact same
position. Also let them know that within about 6 weeks of practice, they will be completing the forehand throw (if
they continue to practice) up to 15 meters with accuracy (especially indoors).
Emphasize the greater importance of Judgment as compared to Skill.
It isn't too difficult to convince a beginner that they can contribute to the game if they just play within their ability.
While this is true of any player, for most beginners, it is crucial, for them to be able to contribute. At this stage of
their playing career, they lack the knowledge of the sport to make up for it in other areas. Few beginners are
capable of throwing full pitch hammers for the score. A player who repeatedly tries this in a game situation when
they still can't even throw it in warm up is exercising BAD judgment!
References
Sue Wallace and Eric Simon, ftp://ftp.upa.org/pub/ultimate/articles/start.html
Aaron's Tips on Starting or Improving Ultimate Teams,
http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/public/ca/ad943925/ultimbg.htm#start
Playing In Tournaments
Tournaments are the best way for your team to develop its style of play and character and to improve.
Practice is of course useful, but playing at tournaments is the best way to help your team grow. During
practices, especially weekday practices, time is short and players are not far enough removed from the rest of
their lives to relax, enjoy, and concentrate on the game. Weekday practices should probably have a minimum of
instruction and drills and instead should be mostly playing and conditioning. Longer weekend practices can
focus a little more on strategy and philosophy and situational offense and defense. For example, to practice
zone defense, have the zone D pull ten times in a row, and the offense gets one chance to score.
Tournaments, however, are where you learn the game and get accustomed to your teammates. Even if you only
have 8 or 9 players at a tournament, it's worth your while to go (most of the time).
First off, you'll play as many as 6 or 7 games at a tournament. That's a lot of practice time. Second, you learn to
work with the same players game after game. In practice, teams are mixed up, and continuity is lost. Third, you
can work on things, get immediate feedback, and adjust the next game (or at halftime). In practice, there's not
enough time for that. There is no opportunity for strategizing (or resting, even), unless you have 20 people on
your team. Fourth, you get a realistic appraisal of your team's ability, and you know what you have to do. Even if
you get spanked at a tournament, you can see neat little things other teams do, as well as trying out your own
things and seeing how teams react.
And last, but not least, tournaments are fun. You bond, you learn your teammates' idiosyncrasies, you meet
your opponents, and all that stuff. Decide one game that no matter what happens, you're going to play zone. In
another game, have the first cut come from the back of the stack, or try a different type of stack. Look to huck
more frequently one game. Treat the tournament as a learning experience in addition to its value as a
competition. If you go to more tournaments, then each one isn't quite as crucial, so your whole roster will be
able to play all the time, instead of "having to win this one". In the long run, it's a winning strategy.
References
Jim Parinella, http://www.tiac.net/users/parinell/tip3
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Tournament Organization
Introduction
Ultimate Frisbee as a small amateur sport means that organising usually gets done by the players themselves,
often with little professional experience at organising a biggish occasion. Thankfully, Ultimate tournaments don't
require as many external people, facilities or other crap as professional sports (we don't even need referees! All
right!)...BUT...Do not underestimate the job at hand! If you hold a crappy tournament then you'll need a good
reason why people should come back. A smooth, well-oiled weekend will put everyone in a happy-joy-joy mood,
and this is the best and biggest thing you will get out of all the hard work you put in - just hearing someone say
"Hey, thanks for the tournament, I had a great time", is payment enough.
The prime directive is to start EARLY and enlist help. Delegate specific jobs such as trophy making to friends -
there is just too much work for one or two people to do by themselves.
Each sub-heading below is in order of priority. Time frame in brackets after heading is the maximum/minimum
time you should aim to tackle the job before the tournament. Obviously, the further in advance things are
planned the better.
Mostly, this is written for a weekend tournament, but much of it applies to both shorter and longer tournaments
as well.
(1) Money (Start of the year)
(2) Fields/Venues (6 months to 1 month)
(3) Party (6 months to 1 month)
(4) Massage (3 months to 2 weeks)
(5) First Aid (3 months to 2 weeks)
(6) Media (6 months to 1 month)
(7) Flyers and other handouts (6 months to 1 week)
(8) Trophies (6 months to 2 weeks)
(9) Music/PA system (1 month to 1 week)
(10) Marquee/Shelter (1 month to 1 week)
(11) Helpers (1 month to 1 week)
(12) Food/Drink/Eskies with ice (1 week to the night before)
(13) Cameras / Publicity (1 month to 1 week)
(14) Table/Chairs/Cones/etc
1. $$$$$$$$
Start of the financial year or at the AGM.
- Make sure you have enough capital from your association or rich uncle to meet the costs. What are the
consequences of a financial loss?
- When collecting fees, try to keep party money separate from the rest, and hand out tickets.
- Charge more than you think you will need to. It is always easier to give people more than their money's
worth AFTER the fact. Free food and drink is easy to supply. You will almost always get less people than
you expected.
- It is much easier to charge on a team basis than on an individual basis. You are far more likely to get all of
your fees this way, and the responsibility of registration is delegated.
- During the tournament, try and keep team/player fees separate from food and drink money separate from
sales of discs and t-shirts. This is a bit harder to do during the tournament, but it makes doing financial
statements a lot easier after the fact.
- Since Nationals 1997, I have tried to go through and put rough prices on all of the items. Obviously these
are only approximate, but it should help anyone who has never organised a tournament before. The links to
the Tournament Costs page are marked in the relevant sections by $$$$$
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2. Fields/Venues
6 months to 1 month $$$$$
- Have an idea how many teams you are catering for. This may take some ringing around. Don't GUESS.
Often there will be less participants than you optimistically (and even sometimes pessimistically) planned
for. A good delegation move is to ring league organisers and/or team captains and get them to organise
teams. Make them feel guilty.
- Look for fields well in advance, particularly for the Saturday of a two day tourney. Cricket, soccer and rugby
can easily stuff up the best plans.
- Make sure you have a contingency plan for extreme weather. Will your shelter and rego table blow away in
the wind? Will everyone cook in the sun without any shelter? Will they close the fields on you if it starts
sprinkling?
- Check fields out visually. Make sure you know exactly what areas you are getting, and when.
- Some sort of permanent shelter and change-rooms at the fields is desirable. If this is not possible, then a
marquee is essential. Toilets are a must.
- Get lines marked, if it's possible and cheap.
- A venue with a grandstand is a great idea for the final.
3. Party
6 months to 1 month $$$$$
- Organise well beforehand. Venues are not always easy to get.
- Collect money separately and issue tickets. This makes sure that the tournament does not subsidise the
party. Of course, you can always choose to make the party part of the tournament fee. Even if this is the
case, you should still issue tickets for most parties.
- Bring CDs, tapes of any music you want played.
4. Massage
3 months to 2 weeks $$$$$
- This may take a number of phone calls, so allow time.
- A good karma item. Problem is that masseur(s) will often be sitting around for a while during games,
and get overwhelmed between games. This is not such a problem at tournaments such as Nationals
where games are staggered.
- Best to hit friends in the business first, then look to physio students. The Australian Massage Therapists
Association is also worth talking to. If this falls through, contact private masseurs.
- The actual number of masseurs required is unpredictable, depending on weather, alignment of planets,
etc., but for a ten team tourney you should try getting three at least.
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5. First Aid
3 months to 2 weeks $$$$$
- Ring St John Ambulance or Red Cross - this should only take one or two phone calls, but should still be
done early - then you can forget about it (although a final check ensures peace of mind).
- They will usually send someone to sporting tournaments, however they will expect lunch and drinks,
and a donation box on the rego table is karmic. It may even be worth adding a bit into the tournament
fee to donate to them.
- Make sure you have the answers to the following questions before you phone:
o Location of tournament
o Times that they are required
o Dates of the tournament
o Number of competitors (approx)
o The contact details of the organisation running the event
o Is a covered area or tent available? (Yes/No)
o Is power available? (Yes/No)
o Are you making refreshments/meals available to the officers? (Yes/No)
o The contact details of at least two of the people running the event, including both home and work phone
numbers
- Make sure plenty of ice is always available on the days of the tournament.
6. Media
6 months to 1 months $$$$$
- Don't send the letters until 1-2 weeks away.
- This is actually a big job if you don't already have contact addresses and a press release stored on
someone's computer. Jonathan Potts has all the media conatacts for Sydney, while John Greenfield has a
general press release on the game and its history.
- Send out press releases early in the week, and earlier for TV. Apparently Thursday or Friday is not
enough notice. Chances are that only the local rag will come, but you never know.
- Remember you will probably need to send out scores and a summary of the tourney so access to a fax is
needed.
7. Flyers and other handouts
6 months to 1 week $$$$$
- This is the reason everything else should be organised early. Generally you will need two flyers - one to
hand out to everyone (flyer), and one to hand out to participants (program).
- Flyer should include:
o Cost
o Friday night info - Pub and golf
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o Saturday - Field location and time (at least an hour earlier than when the games are scheduled to
begin)
o Saturday - Party location and cost
o Sunday - Field location and time
o FREE fruit
o Emphasis that EVERYONE can participate, not just experienced players.
- Program should include a copy of the flyer plus:
o Map of field locations and party spots.
o Food info
o Golf links map and score sheets
o Registration sheets
8. Trophies
6 months to 2 weeks $$$$$
This may or may not be a big deal, depending on how much effort you want to put in and whether there is
already a perpetual trophy or not. An example of the types of awards are:
- Tournament winners (perpetual trophy plus small individual trophies)
- Player of the final
- Male and female rookie of the tournament
- Spirit of the game
- Square disc award
- Disc Golf
9. Music/P.A.
1 month to 1 week $$$$$
- Hiring or borrowing a P.A. for the weekend is a good move. Play your own funky music to the games,
and plug in a mike to make announcements.
- Don't make the music too loud! Also, some tapes sound like distorted mud no matter how much fiddling
with the E.Q. you do. Get someone on the field to help you mix the sound. The style of chosen music
will affect how you play. Funk, blues and acoustic rhythms seem to go down well (techno makes me
play like a robot!). Turning off the music at the end of each game is also nice so that you can think of a
cheer with a clear head!
- The P.A. also has the advantage of being able to be used for the party on Saturday night.
10. Marquee/Shelter
1 month to 1 week $$$$$
- Get one if possible. It gives you somewhere to store food, have massages, etc. out of the sun.
- Make sure it is well pegged and staked. Wind can play havoc with poorly pitched marquees.
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11. Helpers
1 month to 1 week $$$$$
You will need at least one person to be permanently at the rego table and who is not playing. Remember, they
have to handle late arrivals, media, photos, recording scores, time caps, defusing bombs, delivering babies, not
to mention drinking all the beer in the eskies. Basically it's a full time job.
12. Food/Drink/Eskies with ice
1 week to night before.
Food
Try to make sure there is always food and drink available. Don't budget on it being a money spinner either. We
mostly sold on an honour system, and even allowing liberal quantities for helpers, lost about $290. Well, actually
we lost $130 when we should have made a profit of $160. Luckily we had overbudgeted elsewhere!
Making rolls takes a long time, but is good karma. A possible alternative is to supply all the ingredients, but let
people put together their own. The rolls cost about $120 for 120 rolls, about $1 per roll, and we sold them at
$1.50 each. They would have sold better if we had had a lunch break. The rolls had cheese, carrot, lettuce,
tomato, mayonnaise, and optional slice of meat (ham or chicken) and mustard.
The most recent fad has been to try and include as much as possible in the cost of the tournament. As a result,
we've taken to buying trays of rolls from Subway and supplying them 'free'. This makes life easier for the
players, as they don't have to find extra money for lunch, it's served up to them almost on a plate, and it makes
life easier for the organisers as we don't have to make 200 rolls, or find people to sell them!
Chocolate bars (Mars, Snickers, Milky Way, etc) will sell as well. They are hard to find in bulk - possibly try
Campbells Cash and Carry if you can get a Campbells card. They cost about 70c-80c each and sell for $1. We
had:
- 42 Mars Bars
- 18 Snickers
- 24 Picnic
- 30 Kit Kat
That's only just over 1 per person per 2 days. We could have sold more, particularly Mars Bars. Another 20 or
30 chockies would have gone, I think.
Fruit
Ideally buy fruit on Friday arvo or Saturday morning. Go to a smaller fruit shop on Wednesday or Thursday and
tell them what you need - they can give you a good deal on bulk fruit which the supermarket can't, and they will
have it ripe and ready to pick up on Friday afternoon or even Saturday morning.
Even better, for large tournaments make a trip to the local markets. The prices are less (sometimes half as
much), and you can bargain all you like. You can also pick your quality. In Sydney, remember that the
Flemington markets tend to start packing up at 9am, and are mostly deserted by 10am. Also remember that 20
cases of bananas usually requires a trailer!
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With regard to quantities, it depends a lot on the tournament (how long, how many games a day etc), but for 100
people, we went through:
- 5 boxes of bananas
- 1.5 boxes of oranges
- 1 box of mixed apples
The total cost for fruit was around $150, or 75c per person per day from a local fruit shop. For 200 people and a
4-day tournament we spent $250 at the markets, or around 30c per person per day. At that price you can
sometimes afford to splurge and buy some exotic stuff like watermelon, pineapples and even mangoes.
Saturday Night Party
We had a sort of party on Saturday Night at the field. We provided beer and pizza (and some soft drink, for the
non-beer drinkers), and told people where to meet later on in the evening if they wanted to keep partying.
Seemed to work well.
We supplied 40 large Pizza Hut pizzas and 8 cases of beer (4 VB, 2 Tooheys Red, 1 Carlton Cold, 1 Reschs),
total cost about $500 for 100 people. Actual cost was a little more because of soft drinks. We probably should
have ordered another 5 or so pizzas, but numbers worked out pretty well.
As a general rule, 1 pizza between 2 results in very few complaints. Just make sure you get the right distribution
(vege, Supreme, hawaiian, BBQ chicken, meat lovers). BBQ chicken always seems to be popular, but no-one
seems to like hawaiian.
BBQ
Usually rolls, fruit and chocky bars are fine filling food for the first day, but a BBQ on the Sunday is a good idea.
Here's a grocery list for a BBQ to feed 80 hungry mouths:
- 2L Tomato Sauce
- 2L BBQ Sauce
- 30 eggs
- 95 small choc bars
- 10 plastic knives
- 100 paper plates
- 1 kg plain flour
- 160 cheese slices
- 4 kg tomatoes
- 5 lettuces
- 1 kg margarine
- 124 burger buns
- 3 pineapples
- 3 watermelons
- 60 thin sausages
- 26 chicken kebabs
- 10 kg mince
- 40 onions
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Don't forget big knives, tongs, trays, turners etc. This should come to around $200 (Oct '95 prices). Charging
$3/head should cover costs and is very reasonable.
If you've got the time, make up a big batch of vegetable patty mix the night before - I don't think you can buy
vege patties in bulk.
This time round we tried the same thing. For the same stuff for 120 people, we paid $185 (Apr '96 prices).
Things didn't go quite as smoothly at the other end however. Problems with the BBQ meant big difficulties
preparing the food. The burgers in particular took quite a while to cook, and a fair bit of space on the grill. They
also took time to get on the grill, even though the mixture was pre-made. Likewise, the onions also took too long
to cook.
Next time, I propose:
- Ditching the burgers and doing all sausages.
- Par-boiling the sausages and pre-cooking the onions. This means we will only need to brown and
reheat the sausages and the onions
- If we really want burgers, maybe use No Frills self-greasing patties which cook real quick and nasty!
- Have salad and coleslaw available
- Not sure what to do about vege burgers
- Have more rolls/bread - we ran out too quickly.
For a big tournament, hire a pro. That way, there's no organising, no mess, no fuss. It costs a bit more, but
when all your volunteers are elsewhere it's a blessing.
Drink
Buy drinks early in the week and ice on the way to the tourney. If you look around, you can usually get cans for
under 60c. Get name brand cola and orange drinks(Coke, Pepsi, Fanta, Sunkist) but cheaper lemon squash
and lemonade will usually sell just as well. Lemon drinks are generally more popular than the others. Sports
drinks are now also very popular. We never really had enough of them. Get the cheapest ones - they all sell
equally well. We had :
- 97 * Lemon Solo
- 24 * Lemon/Lime Solo
- 72 * Coke
- 34 * Sprite
- 24 * Pepsi/Mountain Dew/7-Up
- 24 * Sunkist
- ...and 98 Sports Drinks
Sports drinks cost about $1.30 each and sell for $2. We could have sold 150 to 200 of them, I think. The other
drinks averaged about 75c to buy and sold for $1. We could have had 2-3 cases more lemon drinks, and a case
less of Coke/Pepsi.
For big tournaments, talk to the local distributor of your favourite soft drink. At $14 a case for soft drinks and
sports drinks, you can probably save a bit. And it's much easier to buy by the case than at the supermarket.
Eskies With Ice
Getting enough eskies (coolers, chilly bins, whatever else you call them) is always a problem. One solution -
buy large cheap recycling bins from your local council, tape up the holes in the bottom and fill them with ice. Our
council sells them for $5 each. Maybe you can even get something cheaper/better from your hardware or Big W
183

store. The big styrofoam fruit boxes also work well. You can never have too many of them. Beer, soft drinks,
sports drinks, chockies, BBQ stuff all needs to be kept cool.
Ice is a must. Don't expect St John's to have any. Having ice with the drinks plus a separate esky with ice only is
desirable, the latter for injuries (throw in some plastic bags) and to replace melted ice in the drinks esky.
Remember to pick up ice each day on the way to the tourney.
For big tournies, consider hiring a refrigerator trailer. We went through about $400 and a lot of hassle with ice
one year. The next year we spent $200 and hardly any hassle on the trailer. When you can walk inside, keep 50
cases of drinks cold at a time, and you're not elbow deep in ice cold water fishing around in bins for the last can
of Coke, you've got to be a bit happy! Plus it doubles as overnight storage since you can lock it.
13. Cameras / Publicity
1 month to 1 week $$$$$
- A video camera and B&W photos are not essential but are a nice touch.
- You may also need to send out photos to lazy journalists who didn't make it to the tourney but want to
do a story. Photos provide a good break for the helpers, but a video camera requires an extra hand.
14. Table/Chairs/Cones/etc
Things to brings $$$$$
- Rego table
- Chairs
- Cones
- Hooter - to start and finish the games
- Bins - to keep drinks in
- A sealable money container, preferably something better than an ice-cream container.
- Whiteboard or blackboard
- Whiteboard pens or chalk
- Banners
References
http://www.afda.com/
184

Hot Stuff
Ten Commandments
These Commandments were first published in Flying Disc World Vol II No. 1 in February, 1975. Although put
together by Stork, Gary and Flash, the concepts were so universal, the article was by-lined as being written by
"everyone who plays". The article was reprinted in the July 1976 issue of Frisbee World magazine and then
picked up later in some glossy publication (Esquire, Forbes - Stork isn't sure which one). Anyway, here is the
original - and, even though the sport has changed over the years, I think you will all agree that these original
Ten Commandments still hold true today.
Gary Seubert – WCFM #60086
THE TEN COMMANDMENTS OF THE DISC
By everyone who plays
There are those who claim that the flying disc represents not a game, but rather a way of life. Below are the
rules by which that life is controlled. Together they form a concept of prediscentation upon which the
Frisbyterian religion is based.
The rules have been widely recognized for many years but only now have they been codefied. We have listed
them so that we might better understand the forces that control our play. Hopefully, it will allow players to quickly
identify situations in which they are inexorably in- volved and communicate that fact to other players through the
use of rule numbers only. A shout of "rule four!" floating across the playing field should now be sufficient to
produce an empathetic reaction from all players within earshot. Is it not true that:
1. The most powerful force in the world is that of a disc straining to land directly under a car, just beyond
reach. (This force is technically termed "car suck")
2. The higher the quality of a catch or the comment it receives the greater the probability of a crummy rethrow.
(good catch - bad throw)
3. One must never precede any maneuver by a comment more predictive than, "watch this!" (Keep 'em
guessing)
4. The higher the costs of hitting any object, the greater the certainty it will be struck. (Remember - the disc
is positive - both cops and old ladies are clearly negative)
5. The best catches are never seen. (Did you see that? – See what?)
6. The greatest single aid to distance is for the disc to be going in a direction you did not want. (Goes the
wrong way - goes a long way)
7. The most powerful hex words in the sport are - "I really have this down - watch." (Know it? Blow it!)
8. In any crowd of spectators at least one will suggest that razor blades could be attached to the disc.
("You could maim and kill with that thing.")
9. The greater your need to make a good catch the greater the probability your partner will deliver his
worst throw. (If you can't touch it, you can't trick it)
10. The single most difficult move with a disc is to put it down. (Just one more)
185

Top Ten Rule Changes I Would Like to See in Summer League.
Thomas Taylor, Marc Vandra, Mark McKay, Eric Gingold, Daniel Spicer, John Vassalo, Tim Bonn, Christian
Hoyt, Amy Mendelsohn, and me.
(1) Handicap fast players by forcing them to carry slow players.
(2) Each player is allowed one bounce pass per half as long as he/she yells 'skipsies' before throwing.
(3) Allow women to carry BB pistols to get the attention of male teammates who repeatedly look them off.
(4) During lightning storms one player per team will be picked at random to wear a large metal antenna on
his head so that the rest of the players can continue playing without fear.
(5) To get the games started by 7 PM schedule the games for 4 PM.
(6) Beer relays @ Halftime.
(7) The team that is late getting 7 on the line must surrender their beer to the team that's been waiting to
start.
(8) Strip" Ultimate is allowed.
(9) To help get the games started on time, hire a bunch of sheep dogs to herd people.
(10) Sheep dogs who do the best job get free bagels
References
Mark Mittins Mildly Amusing Home Page, http://members.aol.com/mittin/index.html
Top Ten Reasons Why Ultimate is Better Than Sex
(1) When playing ultimate you are expected to finish up in under ten seconds.
(2) You can wear a skirt when you play ultimate and nobody thinks your a pervert.
(3) You don't get slapped for saying, "What a beautiful stack!"
(4) Much tougher to get a sexually transmitted disease keeping a disc's distance from your defender!
(hopefully)
(5) It's OK to play a few points and rest until YOU feel ready to go again!
(6) Unlike sex, ONE Powerbar is usually enough to get through an Ultimate game!
(7) You drink the beer AFTER performing!
(8) The deeper you go, the less likely you are to be looked off.
(9) Grass stains beat rug burns.
(10) Ultimate is to 15; herpes is forever.
References
http://mm.isu.edu/pipermail/ultimate/2000-March/000194.html
Snap Krackle Pop - No Frisbee
I'm sitting here wondering how to get over my fear of laying out. I don't know, maybe I should let the bones knit
first. I had a hard time explaining to the doctors in the emergency room how I broke my color bone catching a
Frisbee. The only doctor that asked a sensible question was my cousin Rich. "Did you catch it?" I told him I was
open for an easy flick. The guy threw the flick but the wind caught it. It was coming down like a blade 4 feet out
of bounds, the only way to catch it was to lay out with my feet in bounds. I laid out, got my hands on it as I hit
the ground, it popped up, I extended a few inches further to grab it, that's when I heard my color bone snap like
a chicken bone.
That was Sunday at the beach. I went down to Edgley Monday Night to tell my summer league team I was out
for the season. My captain, Dave Dillon, was the second person to ask me if I caught the disk. I cheered our
team on from the sideline. When the game was over I jumped up, out of habit, to congratulate the other team
on a good game. I sat back down, I hadn't played.
References
http://members.aol.com/mittin/ultidx.htm
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Disc Drive
Forbes Magazine, Dec 13/1999
By Ann Marsh
ULTIMATE FRISBEE HAS BEEN VERY VERY GOOD to Steve T. Jurvetson. In 1995 Jurvetson, then a 28-
year-old partner in the Palo Alto venture capital firm of Draper Fisher Jurvetson, was wondering whether to fund
a small e-mail directory outfit called Four11.com. It turned out that Jurvetson and two of Four11's founders
shared a passion for ultimate frisbee, or "disc."
That's what devotees call the game of ultimate frisbee, and these fans are a devoted bunch indeed. If you plan
to make your fortune in the dot.com world but you don't know a scoober from a blade, you'd better learn.
Ultimate is the high-tech community's version of golf, but with a lot more heart-attack potential.
Jurvetson liked Four11's business plan just fine, but more important, he liked the style Michael Santullo and
Larry Drebes displayed during the lunchtime pickup games the three played regularly. It wasn't just their skill, it
was also their teamwork and the code of honor that count for as much as athleticism in the sport's New Agey
ethos. Vince Lombardi has left the building.
Says Jurvetson, "If someone cheats or constantly criticizes, they may not be someone you want to hire."
After a particularly sweaty ultimate frisbee face-off, the Four11 founders and the Draper Fisher Jurvetson
partners signed paperwork for $825,000 in seed funding on the hood of a car. Two years later Yahoo acquired
Four11. Today DFJ's investment is worth around $345 million in Yahoo stock. As they say in discland, that's hot!
Ultimate hasn't quite reached golf's critical mass--yet. It's pretty hard to count noses, but supposedly there are
at least 100,000 people nationwide who play it regularly. In the Bay Area are some of the country's busiest
ultimate leagues--teams have names like Spastic Plastic, Saucy Jack and Feral Cows--but most of Silicon
Valley can't commit to a regularly scheduled anything. Games tend to get arranged ad hoc, say, when everyone
finishes inventing the latest Web browser. Browse over to www.upa.org for pickup game listings worldwide.
"Without sounding melodramatic, this is a game that mirrors a lot of the values of the Valley," says Peter Nieh,
33, a venture capitalist with Weiss, Peck & Greer in San Francisco. Nieh recently invested in Clip2.com after a
referral from an angel investor he met on the field (if you happen to run into him there, just call him "Nee"). "It's
fast-paced, intense, very dynamic. You never have time to set up. Unlike football, it just goes and goes and
goes."
In fact, ultimate frisbee came about as an antidote to the oppressive, hierarchical vibes in sports like football.
The first game was played in 1968 in Maplewood, N.J. Among the inventors: Joel Silver, who went on to
produce such humongous Hollywood hits as the Die Hard and Lethal Weapon series and The Matrix. "I moved
in the student council that we investigate getting frisbee onto the high school curriculum," recalls Silver. Silver
and his friends spent the next two years in the high school parking lot--the grass field was a later refinement--
devising the rules. "At the end of my obit, they'll say, 'He also invented ultimate frisbee,'" Silver predicts proudly.
"Without sounding melodramatic, this is a game that mirrors a lot of the values of the Valley."
Today's game is played on a football-length field with two teams of seven players each. Players throw the disc
past defenders to a teammate who scores by catching it in one of two end-zones at either end of the field. There
are no "downs" or requirements for yardage gains, as in football. The team on offense keeps advancing until the
defending team can wrest possession of the frisbee by knocking down or intercepting a pass. Play continues
nonstop.
Players can score by throwing short, crisp passes up the field or by heaving long, dramatic "hucks" that are far
more difficult to catch because of the frisbee's varying flight patterns in changing winds. The result is intense
sprinting, leaping and volleyball-like "lay outs" for the disc. It's taxing, to put it mildly.
Just as important to its partisans is how ultimate departs from the underlying spirit of football, which is probably
the reigning corporate sports metaphor. Unlike football, ultimate is the ideal flat-management sport. There are
no fixed positions, no highly-specialized roles; everyone is a quarterback and everyone is a receiver. There are
no men in gray flannel shoulder pads on an ultimate field.
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The founding nerds also enshrined the spirit of tolerance for spazzes and other athletically challenged players.
They had felt the sting of rejection often enough themselves. Silver recalls, "The jocks were a clique. In ultimate,
everybody played. It was a nonpolarizing game that didn't hold to caste lines."
It's not unusual to attend a pickup game where talented athletes share the field with first-timers dropping the
disc right and left. Sarah Anderson, 33, the new vice president of marketing at Egreetings.com in San
Francisco, just started playing the sport this past summer. You can see her running around Golden Gate Park
like a maniac on Saturdays with husband Dante Anderson, 37, a former captain of the Canadian national
ultimate team.
Turnabout is fair play. In October Dante got a job as director of Web content at Everdream.com, which gives
away free PCs while charging steep monthly service fees to technophobes. He went into his Everdream
interview expecting to talk about his résumé. "They said, 'Yeah, yeah, but tell me more about frisbee,'" he
recalls.
"Ultimate embraces the idea of people being many things instead of being a specialized cog in some
moneymaking machine," says William (Willie) Herndon, a schoolteacher from Venice, Calif. who's been playing
ultimate frisbee almost as long as Joel Silver has. Herndon recently finished his own worshipful documentary on
the sport, called Spirit of the Game, which gets shown privately in ultimate circles.
Spirit of the Game takes its title from the game's revered code of sportsmanship, painstakingly written by the
frisbee founding fathers in the early 1970s. This is a hallowed document; laugh only if don't give a hoot whether
or not your startup gets funding.
According to Spirit "Highly competitive play is encouraged, but never at the expense of the bond of mutual
respect between players. And never with an intention to abuse the agreed-upon rules of the game or destroy
the pure joy of play." Bill Gates, you are hereby sentenced to remedial gym class.
Players resolve foul calls themselves on the field according to agreed-upon protocols and, ideally, they
acknowledge their own transgressions. The sport is set to make its debut at the World Games in Japan in 2001.
Without referees.
More Than a Simple Fling: Ultimate Frisbee
New York Times, November 20, 1998
By JERRY BEILINSON
My wife doesn't stroke my ego the way she did before we were married. I told her I was going to play ultimate
Frisbee, for the first time since college 10 years ago. She said, "Wait, I wanna buy more life insurance first."
Then she felt bad and offered to help me find my moldy old cleats, which hadn't been worn in more than a
decade. "I don't need cleats," I said. "This is a mellow game. They even said beginners are welcome." Fran
looked at me with what I'm pretty sure was pity and told me to drink plenty of water.
Two hours later, I'm in Prospect Park in Brooklyn. I'm not quite wheezing yet but my legs feel like lead and my
man is running away from me with ease. He crosses into the end zone and catches the disk with the relaxed air
of Michael Jordan shooting over, say, a boiled chicken. This guy I'm failing to guard is named John, I think. And
I'm not sure, but there may be two Johns here. Either that or all this panting is making me see double.
Ultimate is sometimes called Frisbee football, but it's really more like soccer, especially from a cardiovascular
perspective. It was invented by some New Jersey high-school students in 1968 and went on to spread through
the country and to some extent through the world.
Official games have seven players on each side on a field that is 40 by 70 yards, not counting two end zones
that are each 25 yards deep. The teams line up on opposite goal lines and one throws off to the other, as with
the kickoff in football.
But there the similarity to that game ends. Action is continuous. You can't run while holding the Frisbee, but you
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do run around like crazy trying to get open so your teammate can throw it to you. If you catch a pass, you stop
short, pivot on your heel and pass the Frisbee in turn to another player, one who is preferably further up the
field.
Drop the disk (slang for Frisbee) or throw an interception and the game continues in reverse: while the other
team goes on the attack you switch to defense. To score, a team has to pass the Frisbee across the goal line.
Then finally play stops, and the teams return to opposite ends of the field to start another point. This is usually a
good time for the paramedics to come in and tidy up the likes of me.
Like other team athletes, ultimate players scream. In Prospect Park, one guy is shouting: "Stack! Stack! Stack!"
Then, it's: "Force home! Force is home!" and other jargon I don't understand. But when my side is on offense, I
cut straight at the defender, pivot and run full speed back at my teammate holding the disk. He gets off a pass
and I snag it. Someone calls, "Good cut!"
My defender is a few inches from me, shouting the stall count: "Stall one! Stall two! Stall three!" If I don't get a
pass off by the time he reaches 10, the Frisbee turns over. I fake right, pass left and bury the disk in the grass.
"Don't air bounce!" someone screams. I was trying to throw under the arm of the defender and then make the
disk curve sharply up into the hands of my teammate. It used to work in college. Back then, in the days when
my friends and I ruled intramural ultimate at our Midwest university. Out on the meadow in front of the old
library, we'd spend afternoons tossing the disk around. It was translucent, and it traced long arcs in the sky,
pure as mathematics, or blistering straight lines. No football or javelin ever had the beauty in flight of a 175-gram
ultimate Frisbee.
There were a lot of ponytail and earring wearers, late sleepers and guitar players in that group. On game day
we'd show up late, warm up with cigarettes and maybe a beer, and win. And we took pleasure in beating the
likes of the football fraternity. That team would arrive wearing identical white T-shirts and prepare with lock-step
calisthenics. It was skill over strength, physics over physicality, the triumph of the soul over mere substance.
But the fit inherit the world. In Prospect Park, my head feels as heavy as my legs and I've retreated to the grass
under a shade tree to drink water and watch the game. This is a pretty spot. The field is called the Nethermead,
and it's a short walk from the Third Street entrance on Prospect Park West. The lawn is thick and trees are
scattered idyllically around the edges. If I do go back in the game and the worst does occur, this might do nicely
as my final resting place.
After a couple of hours about 30 players have shown up. The game has been going on every Saturday morning,
rain, shine or snow, for years. They even played in the big blizzard of 1996, says Scott Bolden, who is not only
tireless on the field but also has a sort of world-culture cool going on. He's wearing a striped soccerlike jersey,
green shorts and wraparound sunglasses. While this is a pickup game – beginners welcome and all that – he
explains to me that many of these players also compete on club teams.
Competitive ultimate is governed by a somewhat anarchic group called the Ultimate Players Association. There
are men's and women's divisions, with a recently begun coed division. College and club leagues are separate;
the clubs are better. There's no professional play in ultimate and neither sponsorships nor any officiating. Just a
lot of players who can't kick the habit. This is what I love about the game: its classic sporting attitude. Baseball
was maybe this cool in the 1880s.
Sean Castellino, chatting on the sidelines, tells me that a couple of Prospect Park regulars have been on
national championship teams. His own club, F Train, is a "scrub Brooklyn team," he says. I saw the team earlier
in the day practicing on another field. It's a hefty notch below New York's best team, the name of which seems
to morph from year to year. Right now, it's called the Westchester Summer League All-Stars.
I go back into the game. The problem with my regular have-another-doughnut conditioning program is that I can
really only play one point before I get too tired to run very hard. After that, I resort to a lazy sort of ultimateplaying
defense off my man, mainly staying far from the disk on offense. I retreat to the sidelines again after
three points.
On the other end of the spectrum is Irina Konvickova, who plays hard for 90 straight minutes, it seems to me,
before reluctantly taking a break and letting someone else go in for her. A native of what is now the Czech
Republic, she hadn't played the game before moving to the United States. The sport was played only in Prague
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and she had spent her time competing at the national level in judo. Now, at 28, she has been playing three
years. She happens to be the only woman playing on the field today.
She lives in Manhattan and used to play at a long-running pickup game in Central Park, but gave it up in favor
of the games at Prospect Park. She says she finds the level of play lower in Central Park, and because more
people would show up she didn't get to play as much. "I don't like to sit down," she says. "I like to play the whole
time." A lower level of play? Less time on the field? I'm there.
The next afternoon, Sunday, I'm in Central Park on a field aptly called the Dust Bowl, on the Fifth Avenue side
just north of 97th Street. So far, the regeneration of the lawn in Central Park has missed this spot. Instead of
being the worst player on the field here I'm just in the bottom 30 percent.
Enough players have shown up to make three six-person teams. It works like the pool table at a bar: you win,
you keep the field, except that one team never plays more than two games in a row. I play better than I did in
Prospect Park. I get in on a couple of plays on offense. And on defense, I manage to stay close enough to the
player I'm guarding to preserve my dignity. Once I even jump over him in the end zone to swat away the Frisbee
and prevent a score. There's some question as to whether the play is broken up by me or some low-hanging
branches, but heck, we get the disc.
For me, Central Park will do nicely for now. Still, there's got to be a game out there where I can excel. If not, I'm
going to start my own pickup game. Maybe I'll recruit my daughter's friends. They're all in nursery school and
some of them are really short.
It's a week after Central Park and I'm checking out a higher level of play, but this time there's not a chance I'll
get in a game. I've come to the regional club championships of the Ultimate Players Association held at the
State University College at Purchase, N.Y.
The Westchester All-Stars are playing today; eventually the team will place fourth nationally. So is D.O.G. (for
Death or Glory), the Boston team that has won the national championship for four years running, and will go on
to do it again this year. They rose to the pinnacle of the game after the breakup of a New York dynasty team,
New York, New York, which had won five years in a row. Lady Godiva, the best women's team in the region and
the eventual winner at the nationals, is here, too, and steamrollering the competition.
A lot of players and some spectators have come to Purchase. A lot of dogs are running around, too, chasing
Frisbees and one another. I sort of feel as if I'm at a Grateful Dead concert: the mood is welcoming and
unpretentious. This makes sense because a critical part of ultimate is the spirit of the game. Players make their
own calls, and they do it honestly. Picks and body contact are not only illegal but also rare and genuinely
accidental.
If these guys had played us in college, they would have won easily. Yet no matter how loud the players scream,
how hard they train or how often they make bruising diving catches it's still recognizably the same game I
played back on the meadow all those years ago. In those days, it seemed as if grace was at my fingertips. I
launched the disk into space, and there it was: glory.
Out on the field in Purchase someone from D.O.G. throws a long bomb into the end zone and the players sprint
toward it. On the sidelines, we all watch as the disk floats for long seconds against the sky. It's beautiful.
Ultimate Frisbee Tests Character, Fitness
By Alexandra Robbins Special for USA TODAY. April 2, 1999
When Ultimate Frisbee makes its debut as a medal sport in the 2001 World Games in Japan, it's a safe bet that
not one referee's call will be disputed. There won't be any refs. As the only self-officiated team sport in the
Games, ultimate frisbee is quickly becoming a popular option for less traditional-minded athletes. Ultimate
attracts "an eclectic bunch," says Michael Guiietz, Ultimate Players Association (UPA) managing director. "The
people are different a little bit alternative, but they really are athletes."
Many ultimate players are drawn to the sport because of its underlying principle: the "spirit of the game," which
players use to refer to the fact that they must call their own fouls and boundaries, even in national and
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international competition. If a player accused of a foul disagrees with the call, the team with possession keeps it.
If players cannot resolve a dispute, occasionally they ask an observer to make the call. "There's a saying that
ultimate doesn't build character; it reveals character," says Jim Parinella, a five-time open national champion
with his Boston based team DoG. "It gives individuals the opportunity to display their personalities on the field,
whether they're going to be fair in their dealings with people or weasel their way out of things."During the 1995
World Ultimate Club Championships in England, the DoG squad was losing 19-18 when the opposing, San-
Francisco -based team passed into the end zone. When Parinella dived for a block, the receiver cried foul. "The
other team asked me if I had blocked the pass, but I couldn't say for sure," Parinelia recalls. "So I said I didn't
the other team scored and won the game 20-18. If I had said I had blocked the shot, my team would have
gotten possession instead."
The players' responsibility to govern their own actions leads to fewer physical altercations than in other sports,
says Kate Coyne, a member of four-time defending national women's champions Lady Godiva. "You're not
policed; you police yourselves," she said. "In sports with refs, people try to get away with as much as they can.
In ultimate you're accountable to everyone."
Guiietz estimates that about 150,000 Americans participate in ultimate, which has counted former and current
NFL players Shannon and Sterling Sharpe and Olympians Picabo Street and Eric Heiden among its club
players. Ultimate, a high-endurance sport with few basic rules, combines the nonstop movement of soccer, the
defensive strategies of basketball and the passing of football, former US. masters team captain Andy Borinstein
says. The sport revolves around passing a plastic disc. On a rectangular area shaped similarly to a football field,
seven-player squads must complete a pass in the opposite end zone to score. To advance the disc, the player
with possession has 10 seconds to pass in any direction. Athletes may not move with the disc or initiate physical
contact with another player.
Despite its lack of publicity, ultimate is quickly gaining popularity with high school students, says Amherst
(Mass.) Regional High School coach Tiina Booth, who oversees one of only a few boys varsity ultimate teams in
the country "One of my players made a good analogy. You know when someone shoots a jumper and there's a
crackle in the net? He said every time you throw or catch the disc you get that crisp snap, and that's why he
found it so addictive," Booth says. Because of the simple rules and the low cost of the sport ultimate requires
only a disc and cones or other boundary markers - AmeriCorps, the Boy Scouts and the Boys and Girls clubs of
America have incorporated it into their programs, "Ultimate is a team-building exercise we can teach elementary
and middle school kids easily without a lot of rules," says Karen Labat of AmeriCorps. "It's something that is
low-cost, no-contact, builds self-esteem and encourages physical fitness."
Ultimate Frisbee Gets Down and Dirty, And Some Cry Foul ---- Shouting,
Spitting, Spiking And Swearing Bring Calls For Referees With Teeth
By Ross Kerber - Staff Reporter of The Wall Street Journal
After a score by the Port City Slickers in a big ultimate-frisbee game against the Seattle Sockeye team two
seasons ago, an exultant Slicker spiked the disk, prompting angry protests from Sockeye defender Ed Avery.
What happened then made frisbee history. After players including Slickers veteran Mike Gerics joined the
argument, Mr. Avery emerged from the crowd wiping his forehead.
"He spit on me!" a disbelieving Mr. Avery shouted, putting the finger on Mr. Gerics. Mr. Gerics later received a
one-year suspension that began last summer. It was the first such ban, and to many of the sport's devotees, a
disturbing sign of the times.
ATHLETICISM OF YORE
"In the old days, teams . . . would just throw it deep and beat you with their athleticism," says Kevin Givens, an
organizer at the University of California at Santa Cruz. "Now, they'll intentionally foul you, cussing the other
players. That's not in the spirit of the game."
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Mike O'Dowd, a veteran of San Francisco's powerful Double Happiness team, says he may retire rather than
play with new teammates who fight and talk trash. "The team I started with was a kinder, gentler team," says Mr.
O'Dowd. These days, he says, "any big game becomes a matter of ill will."
Founded in the antiauthoritarian 1960s, ultimate frisbee is having an identity crisis. Once played by a few
iconoclasts at New Jersey high schools, the disk-hurling game patterned loosely after touch football has grown
into a sport of about 65,000 competitors, with amateur leagues, a national tournament and a governing body --
the Ultimate Players Association -- that dreams of TV contracts and Olympic recognition.
But to purists, the growth has attracted too many people who cheat, argue and hack, leading to proposals for
something the sport has never had -- full-fledged referees. Until now, officiating has generally been limited to top
tournament games -- and only when both sides agree to it. Even then, the officials usually have no power to
intervene on their own and can make calls only when asked by a player. It's time to stop "sociopathic behavior"
on the playing field, says Jim Parinella, who plays for the national-champion Death or Glory team in Boston and
who leads the call for more referee power. Full-on refereeing faces an uphill battle in a sport where breaks for
beer are still common and teams favor names like We Smoke Weed, Lady Godiva and Bovine Intervention. The
ultimate mainstream isn't ready for prime time -- and proud of it. Most people who play the game can't even
bring themselves to use the word "referee." They prefer "observer."
The antiref crowd also notes that the level of bad behavior is still far from that in sports where players choke
coaches and bite off bits of ear. They also worry that more officiating would destroy the game's tradition of
sportsmanship, which includes a strong honor code whereby players are encouraged to rat on themselves, and
a rule book that officially decries a "win at all cost" mentality.
But self-regulation doesn't always work. At last year's world-championship tournament in Vancouver, Canada,
Kenny Dobyns of the Westchester County (N.Y.) Summer League All-Stars body-slammed Sockeye star Jon
Gewirtz -- supposedly in retaliation for obscene taunts. With Mr. Gewirtz pinned, Mr. Dobyns whispered in his
ear, "Don't let this get out of hand."
At the women's national championship in Sarasota, Fla., last October, two players were benched by their
captains to curtail their cursing and pushing. A year earlier, as coach for East Carolina University at the
Women's Collegiate Championships, Mr. Gerics, the spitter, alleged that Sarah Savage, coach of the University
of California team, was instructing her players to make illegal throws. Ms. Savage says that Mr. Gerics circled
her team's huddle, hurling obscenities.
"He says, `No wonder you only have eight players, you're a hag and you chase everyone away,'" recalls Ms.
Savage. She also says the ECU players were abusive on the field. "The women were literally screaming, blood
vessels rupturing in their faces," Ms. Savage says. Mr. Gerics denies he used obscenities or behaved
inappropriately.
'INTENT TO MAIM?'
UPA head observer Vic Kahmi says more-powerful judges also might deter recklessness. Mr. Kahmi says he
recently witnessed a game in Princeton, N.J., where a North Carolina college player dived for a flying disk he
had no chance of catching and crashed into the intended receiver, dislocating the poor fellow's shoulder. "Was
there intent to maim? I don't think so, but he wasn't playing under control," says Mr. Kahmi.
When played as designed, ultimate frisbee combines speed, grace and powerful hurling with a grueling pace.
Seven-player teams try to pass the frisbee down the 70-yard field and across the opponent's goal line.
Possession switches when the disk is intercepted, thrown out of bounds or touches the ground. Tackling,
running with the disk or stripping it away aren't allowed during matches, which typically are played to a score of
15 or 21 and last about 90 minutes. Receivers try to break free for the overhand toss known as the "hammer" or
the Hail Mary bomb called the "huck." Hurlers must pass the disk within 10 seconds according to a "stall count"
called out loud by defenders.
Leagues are springing up in such places as Denver and Los Angeles, adding to established groups in Silicon
Valley, Washington, D.C., Boston and elsewhere. With so many talented athletes, top tournaments like one in
Fredericksburg, Va., earlier this month include more pirouetting throws than a season at Shea Stadium.
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But the lack of referees also slows games. A match between a Carnegie Mellon University alumni team and the
We Smoke Weed squad from New York featured as much negotiation as scoring. A typical pause came when
Carnegie Mellon's Calvin Lin stopped a stall count to suggest that a defender had stepped on his foot.
BUD BREAK
Another delay came when New York's Mr. Dobyns, now playing for the Weed team, called timeout to pass
around cans of Budweiser to his teammates. Some also shared a joint the size of a small flashlight. Afterward,
the alumni team pulled away to prevail 12-5. "We're too stoned to argue!" yelled one Weed player after an
opponent called a hacking foul.
Some ultimate graybeards trace the rise of aggressive behavior to Mr. Gerics, who as an undergraduate at the
University of North Carolina at Wilmington and later at East Carolina, helped bowl over and heckle opponents
en route to collegiate ultimate titles in 1993, 1994 and 1995. The tactics toppled Ivy League frisbee dynasties
because, as Mr. Gerics puts it, "most ultimate players were kind of geeky intellectuals. East Carolina, it's not the
hardest school. We're bad---, we're rednecks."
After graduating, Mr. Gerics joined the Port City Slickers in Wilmington, for whom he played in the infamous
spitting game. Mr. Gerics, who wouldn't admit his infractions at first, now apologizes. "I'm pretty embarrassed
about it," he says.
But while serving out his suspension, he has found a new love-ultimate officiating at local college tournaments
in North Carolina. Players, he says, rarely dispute his calls because "I wouldn't try to get in an argument with
me."
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Stretching
Warming Up
Why Warm Up?
Although there are many benefits to warming up, most recreational athletes spend little or no time getting ready
for exercise. As the name implies, warming up raises body temperature. This temperature elevation reduces the
potential of muscle and connective tissue injuries. In addition, blood flow to the muscles aids in the delivery of
fuels required for muscle performance.
Light jogging and easy calisthenics reduce muscle tightness which limits mechanical efficiency and muscle
power. Earlier onset of sweating promotes evaporative heat loss and as a result decreases the amount of heat
stored by the body. This helps prevent body temperature from rising to dangerously high levels during more
strenuous exercise. Warming up properly also prepares the cardiovascular and muscular systems for the
upcoming physical activity and provides a transition from rest to strenuous exercise. This may reduce the
likelihood of excessive muscular soreness from strenuous activity.
Studies have also shown that warming up increases the speed of nerve impulses to muscles, enabling athletes
to achieve faster reaction times. This is one reason professional athletes spend more time warming up
compared to many recreational athletes -- they know it will prevent injuries and help them compete better.
There is no secret to a good warm-up. Begin by exercising slowly for 3-5 minutes or until a light sweat starts.
Then slowly stretch the muscles you will be using. Each stretch should be held for 15-30 seconds without
bouncing. [1]
Stretching Tips
A key to avoiding athletic injuries
"No pain, no gain" has been a credo of some coaches and athletes regarding warm-up stretches. Here are
better words to keep in mind while you stretch: "No pain, no pain."
You can do a disservice to yourself when you stretch past the point of pain. You should never hold a painful
stretch. You should back off just to where it's not painful, and that's what you want to hold during the duration of
the stretch."
The goal of routine stretching exercises is to improve flexibility. Flexibility, aerobic conditioning and strength
training are the three broad objectives to focus on as you maintain your body for the rigors and enjoyment of
sports. Proper stretching actually lengthens the muscle tissue, making it less "tight" and therefore less prone to
trauma and tears. A stretching routine also feels good and can be a relaxing period of your day.
Don't stretch these rules ...
Everybody's different — We all aren't gymnasts. Focus on maintaining adequate flexibility for your sports and
activity level.
Be sport-specific — Different sports emphasize different muscle groups. Concentrate on the range of motions
and the muscle groups that you're likely to use in your sport.
Start slowly — Example: A ballet dancer begins slowly, with one hand on the bar, before beginning high kicks
out on the floor.
Hold your stretch — It takes time to lengthen tissue safely. Hold your stretches at least 30 seconds — and up to
a minute with a particularly tight muscle or problem area.
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Stretch 'heated' muscles —Stretching a cold muscle can strain and irritate the tissue. Warm up first. Walk before
you jog, jog before you run, etc. It's most beneficial to stretch after you exercise, when the muscle is heated by
blood flow and is more accommodating of a stretch.
Do not bounce! — Bouncing can cause microtrauma in the muscle, which must heal itself with scar tissue. The
scar tissue tightens the muscle, making you less flexible — and more prone to pain.
Think equality — Strive for balance in flexibility on each side of your body. For example, if one hamstring is
tighter than the other, you may be more prone to injury.
Don't be afraid to ask — A sports medicine specialist, athletic trainer, physical therapist, or health-club advisor
may help improve your stretching technique. [2]
References
[1] Brian Meitner, ATC Meriter Sports Medicine, http://www.meriter.com/living/library/sports/warmup.htm
[2] Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, http://www.mayohealth.org/home?id=HQ01448
Basic Stretching
Legs, Feet & Ankles
Backs, Shoulders & Arms
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For Your Back
Lower Back, Hips, Groin & Hamstring
Active Isolated Stretching
The earliest form of stretching, called "ballistic stretching," was abandoned several decades ago. Athletes who
tried it found that the rapid bouncing into and out of positions caused muscle soreness and sometimes even
muscle tears.
After ballistic stretching came "static" stretching, which soon reached mass popularity through numerous books,
articles and poster charts. In static stretching, the runner eases into a position and then holds that position for
30 to 60 seconds. Because there are no rapid movements, proponents argued, static stretching shouldn't
produce soreness. Instead, it should promote flexibility through gradual adaptation to the stretch.
Many runners had considerable success with static stretching and similar yogalike postures. Others found that
the stretches still caused soreness and didn't resolve their injury problems. A recently published paper in the
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport also raised questions about the benefits of static stretching.
Researchers asked one group of college-aged men to perform a series of 17 stretches ballistically while another
group performed the same stretches statically. The results showed that static stretching produced more
soreness and higher levels of creatine kinase, an enzyme associated with muscle-tissue injury, than ballistic
stretching.
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Why? For a possible explanation, we need look no farther than basic muscle physiology. All muscles have an
inherent "stretch reflex" that's activated after a strong, rapid movement or after two seconds in a stretched
position. The stretch reflex causes the muscle to begin a slow contraction. If you continue stretching while your
muscle is trying to contract . . . well, it's like a tug-of-war. In this case, a tug-of-war that invites muscle damage.
Enter AI stretching. In AI stretching, you hold each position for only 1½ to 2 seconds. Then you return to the
starting position and relax. After resting for 2 seconds, you ease into the stretch again.
Beyond the 2-second limitation, AI stretching differs from static stretching in another important respect: AI
stretches are "assisted" in two ways. First, you contract the opposing muscle group to help move the stretched
area into position. Second, while continuing the contraction, you use a rope or your own hands to gently
enhance the stretch.
Don't tug, however. The cardinal rule of stretching remains unchanged: Don't ever force yourself beyond the
point of light irritation. Stretching is never an instant solution to an injury problem, so take your time. The best
results come from consistent, gentle stretching.
THE STRETCHES
Follow these steps in performing each stretch:
1. Contract the muscle group opposite the area you're stretching.
2. Bring each stretch to the point of light irritation.
3. Hold for 2 seconds.
4. Return to your starting position and relax for 2 seconds.
5. Repeat the stretch.
For best results, build up to two sets of 8 to 12 repetitions of each of the stretches, and perform them in the
order shown. Exhale during the stretch phase, and inhale during the relaxation phase. Perform AI stretching
before and after a run. If time is limited, just do one set of stretches after your run, with fewer repetitions; but
even when you shorten the routine, always keep in mind good form, and do the stretches in the correct order.
Twist and Stretch
Sometimes you can stretch the daylights out of your calves or hamstrings, yet they still feel tight when you run.
Could be time to try something new. Call it stretching with a twist. Here's how it works with four important
runner's stretches. Do them after your run or after a 5- to 10-minute warmup.
Calf Stretch
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Stand with one foot about 2 feet in front of the other and rest your palms against a wall. Slowly lean your body
forward while pressing the heel of your rear foot into the ground. Keep your toes pointed forward and your back
knee straight.
The Twist: Curl your toes and accentuate your arch as if trying to grab the floor. At the same time, shift your
weight to the outside of your rear foot. Slowly shift your weight back and forth between this position and the
starting position for 30 to 60 seconds.
Deep Calf Stretch
In the same position as the calf stretch, shift your weight farther onto your back leg and bend your back knee
until you feel your heel wanting to raise off the floor. (Keep your heel on the floor, though.) You should feel the
stretch in your Achilles tendon.
The Twist: Same as the calf stretch.
Hip Stretch
From a standing position, put one foot on a chair or step. Lean forward into a lunge position until you feel a
stretch along the front of your rear thigh. Keep your back knee straight, with your foot pointed forward.
The Twist: Slowly rotate your body from side to side for 30 to 60 seconds.
Hamstring Stretch
From a standing position, put one foot on a chair. While keeping this foot flat, slowly straighten this knee until
you feel a stretch. To increase the stretch, slowly lean forward from the waist while keeping your back straight
and chest out.
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The twist: Slowly rotate your upper body from side to side for 30 to 60 seconds.
References
http://www.runnersworld.com
The Mobility Program
Why do mobility exercises?
The objective of mobility training is to improve the range of stretch of the antagonistic muscles.
What are the benefits?
Mobility plays an important part in the preparation of athletes by developing a range of movement to allow
technical development and assisting in the prevention of injury.
How will I know if I am stretching properly?
When you perform a stretch correctly you will feel mild discomfort in the antagonistic muscles. If you feel pain or
a stabbing sensation you must STOP
What do I need to consider before conducting mobility exercises?
The body responds best to a stretching programme when it is warm and the muscles and joints have been
exercised through their current range of movement.
What types of mobility exercises are there?
The various techniques of stretching may be grouped as Static, Ballistic and Assisted. In both Static and
Ballistic exercises the athlete is in control of the movements. In Assisted the movement is controlled by an
external force which is usually a partner.
Static Stretching
Static stretching involves gradually easing into the stretch position and holding the position. The amount of time
a static stretch is held may be anything from 6 seconds to 2 minutes. Often in static stretching you are advised
to move further into the stretch position as the stretch sensation subsides.
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Ballistic Stretching
Ballistic stretching involves some form of rapid movement into the required stretch position. Where the event
requires a ballistic movement then it is appropriate and perhaps necessary to conduct ballistic stretching
exercises. Start off with the movement at half speed for a couple of repetitions and then gradually work up to full
speed. Appropriate preparatory static stretching exercises should be conducted before any ballistic exercises
are carried out.
Assisted Stretching
Assisted stretching involves the assistance of a partner who must fully understand what their role is otherwise
the risk of injury is high. A partner can be employed to assist with Partner stretches and Propreceptive
Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) techniques.
Partner Stretches
Your partner assists you to maintain the stretch position or help you ease into the stretch position as the
sensation of stretch subsides. You should aim to be full relaxed and breath easily throughout the exercise.
Partner assisted stretches are best used as developmental exercises, with each stretch being held for thirty
seconds.
PNF Technique
1. You move into the stretch position so that you feel the stretch sensation
2. Your partner holds the limb in this stretched position
3. You then push against your partner by contracting the antagonistic muscles for 6 to 10 seconds and then
relax. During the contraction your partner aims to resist any movement of the limb.
4. Your partner then moves the limb further into the stretch until you feel the stretch sensation
5. Go back to 2. (repeat this procedure 3 or 4 times before the stretch is released.)
Which method is best?
Static methods produce far fewer instances of muscle soreness, injury and damage to connective tissues than
ballistic methods. Static methods are simple to carry out and may be conducted virtually anywhere. For
maximum gains in flexibility in the shortest possible time PNF technique is the most appropriate. Where the
technique requires ballistic movement then ballistic stretches should be employed.
What order should the mobility methods be used?
When conducting mobility exercises it is recommended to perform them in the following order - Static, assisted
and then dynamic.
When should they be performed?
Mobility exercises could be part of:
1. The warm up program
2. A stand alone unit of work
It is considered beneficial to conduct mobility exercises as part of the warm down program but should not
include ballistic exercises as the muscles are fatigued and more prone to injury.
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The Exercises
Shoulder Circles
Stand tall with good posture. Raise your right shoulder towards your right ear, take it backwards, down and then
up again with a smooth rhythm. Perform this shoulder circling movement eight times, then repeat with the other
shoulder. Breathe easily throughout.
Arm Circles
Stand tall with good posture. Lift one arm forward then take it backwards in a continuous circling motion,
keeping your spine long throughout. Avoid the tendency to arch your spin whilst carrying out the circling
movement. Perform this arm circling movement eight times, before repeating with the other arm. Breathe easily
throughout.
Side Bends
Stand tall with good posture, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent, hands resting on
hips. Lift your trunk up and away from your hips and bend smoothly first to one side, then the other, avoiding the
tendency to lean either forwards or backwards. Repeat the whole sequence sixteen times with a slow rhythm,
breathing out as you bend to the side, and in as you return to the centre
Trunk Twists
Stand tall with good posture. Have your feet slightly wider than hip-width apart, knees slightly bent, hands
resting on hips. Keeping your spine long and your hips facing forward, turn smoothly and slowly round to one
side, then the other. Repeat the sequence sixteen times, breathing easily throughout the movement.
Upper Back Stretch
Stand or sit tall with good posture. If standing, bend your knees slightly and tilt your pelvis under. Interlock your
fingers and push your hands as far away from your chest as possible, allowing your upper back to relax, whilst
at the same time looking down. You will feel the stretch between your shoulder blades. Hold the stretch for 10
seconds and repeat the exercise three times, breathing easily throughout.
Chest Stretch
Standing, bend your knees slightly and tilt your pelvis under. Place your hands, loosely clasped, on the small of
your back and keep your spine long and shoulders back and away from your ears. Without arching your spine,
ease your elbows towards each other as far as possible, feeling the stretch in the front of the chest. Hold the
stretch for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times, breathing easily throughout.
Standing Side Bend
Make sure that you have a good stable base by placing your feet approximately a metre apart, toes facing
forward. Bend your knees slightly and keep your hips facing forward, too. Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and
repeat the exercise three times, breathing easily throughout. Repeat on the other side Sideways.
Neck Stretch
Stand or sit tall with good posture, keeping your spine and neck long and your shoulders down away from your
ears. Keeping your neck long, tilt your head to the side. Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise
three times, breathing easily throughout. Repeat on the other side .
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Front of Shoulder Stretch
Sit on a stool or stand tall with good posture, bend your knees slightly and tilt your pelvis under. Place your
hands behind you, interlock your fingers and then straighten your arms and try and lift them upwards and
backwards as far as possible. Keep your spine long throughout and make sure that your shoulders are back and
down away from your ears. You will feel the stretch in the front of the chest. Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and
repeat the exercise three times, breathing easily throughout.
Shoulder and Side Stretch
Sit on a stool or stand tall with good posture, bend your knees slightly and tilt your pelvis under. Place both
hands above your head and then place your right hand behind your head, easing the left arm closer towards
your head - taking the elbow behind the head if possible. Keep your spine long and your shoulders down away
from your ears throughout the exercise. You will feel the stretch along the side of the trunk and shoulder. Hold
the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times, breathing easily throughout. Repeat on the
opposite side.
Half Squat
Stand tall with good posture holding your hands out in front of you for balance. Now bend at the knees until your
thighs are parallel with the floor. Keep your back long throughout the movement, and look straight ahead. Make
sure that your knees always point in the same direction as your toes. Once at your lowest point, fully straighten
your legs to return to your starting position. Repeat the exercise sixteen times with a smooth, controlled rhythm.
Breath in as you descend, and out as you rise.
Standing Calf Stretch
Stand tall with one leg in front of the other, hands flat and at shoulder height against a wall or suitable
immovable object. Ease your back leg further away from the wall, keeping it straight and press the heel firmly
into the floor. Keep your hips facing the wall. You will feel the stretch in the calf of the rear leg. Hold the stretch
for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times . Repeat on the other side, breathing easily throughout.
Calf Stretch
Position yourself as for the standing calf stretch exercise. This time, however, flex the knee of the rear leg,
whilst still keeping the heel pressed firmly on to the floor. The sensation of stretch should now be experienced
lower down in the calf. Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times . Repeat on the
other side, breathing easily throughout.
Standing Hip and Thigh Stretch
Stand tall with good posture in front of a firm chair or stool. Raise one foot up on to the chair back easing your
body towards this foot so that chest and thigh come closer together. Rest your hands loosely on the raised knee
and keep your spine and back leg straight and your shoulders down away from your ears. Ease as far forward
as possible and hold your position. You will feel the stretch along the front of the thigh of the extended leg, and
along the back of the thigh of the raised leg. Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times
Repeat on the other side, breathing easily throughout.
Seated Groin Stretch
Sit tall with good posture. Ease your legs up towards your body and place the soles of your feet together,
allowing your knees to ease out down towards the floor. Make sure that your back stays long and that your
shoulders are down away from your ears. Rest your hands on your lower legs or ankles, or keep them by your
sides for support. You will feel the stretch along the inside of your thighs and groin. If you wish to stretch the
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hamstrings and hip extensors at the same time, from the position above ease forward by hinging at the hip, still
keeping the spine long (see lower picture). Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times,
breathing easily throughout.
Kneeling Hip Flexor
Stretch Kneel on a mat or towel with one leg flexed in front of you as illustrated - your weight should be evenly
distributed so that your position is stable, although you can use your hands at either side of your body for extra
support. Note that the knee at the front leg is positioned directly over the front foot. From this position and
keeping your spine long and shoulders down, push your hips forward. You may find that you have to take your
rear knee further back before you can feel the stretch along the front of this thigh. Hold the stretch for 10
seconds and repeat the exercise three times, breathing easily throughout. Repeat on the other leg.
Lying Hip Abductor
Stretch Lie flat on the floor with both legs flexed at the knee. Now cross your legs and use the weight of the top
leg to bring the lower leg down towards the floor. Keep your back, shoulders and the foot of the lower leg in
contact with the floor throughout the movement. You will feel the stretch along the outside of the hip and thigh.
Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times, breathing easily throughout. Repeat with
the other leg.
Front of Trunk Stretch
Lie down on the floor, fully outstretched. Slide your arms to the sides of your body for support, and ease your
chest off the floor, keeping your spine long and your hips firmly pressed into the ground. You will feel the stretch
in the front of the trunk Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times, breathing easily
throughout
Seated Trunk Twist
Sit tall with good posture, legs stretched out in front of you, spine long, shoulders down away from your ears.
Place your right leg over your left leg as illustrated and rotate your trunk, using your left arm against your right
knee to help ease you further round. Use your right arm on the floor for support. You will feel the stretch along
the length of the spine as well as in the muscles around the right hip. Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat
the exercise three times, breathing easily throughout. Repeat on the opposite side.
Seated Groin and Hamstring Stretch
Sit tall with both legs fully outstretched. Flex your right knee so that the right foot rests comfortably along your
left inner thigh, with the right knee as close as possible to the floor. Keeping your spine long and your shoulders
down away from your ears, hinge forwards from the hips to reach towards your flexed left foot. Go as far forward
as possible, then relax your spine to reach even further forward, holding this stretch position. You will feel the
stretch along the back of the outstretched leg, and along the inside and rear of the flexed leg. Hold the stretch
for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times Repeat with the other leg, breathing easily throughout.
Lying Quadriceps Stretch
Lie face down on the floor, resting your fore-head on your right hand. Press your hips firmly into the floor and
bring your left foot up towards your buttocks, easing it closer to them with your right hand. You will feel the
stretch along the front of the thigh. Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat the exercise three times Repeat
on the other side, breathing easily throughout the exercise.
Lying Hamstring Stretch Lie flat on the floor with your knees flexed to approximately ninety degrees. Raise your
left leg, grasping it loosely behind the thigh with both hands. Now ease this leg as close to your chest as
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possible. You will feel the stretch along the back of the flexed thigh. Hold the stretch for 10 seconds and repeat
the exercise three times Repeat with the other leg, breathing easily throughout the exercise.
References
BAF Senior Coach Coaching Theory Manual - Unit C Mobility Training - N Brook - ISBN 0-85134-079-2
Peak Performance - Issue 46, 47, 53 58 and 102
The complete book of stretching - T Lycholat - ISBN 1-85223-395-8
Peak Performance - Issue 108 page 6
ACL - Knee Deep in Ligaments
If you've ever thrown out your knee, you may have more in common with your pro sports heroes. An anterior
cruciate ligament tear could mean surgery and months of physical therapy. There aren't any absolutes in
avoiding ACL problems, but awareness is the key.
The ACL is the smallest of the four main ligaments of the knee, but it is the primary stabilizer. Injuries have a
tendency to occur when the foot is firmly planted and the knee is twisted. Any sport that requires acceleration,
change of direction and deceleration can increase the chances of suffering an ACL tear.
"The majority [of ACL patients] are injured in a competitive sport, and need surgery," says William Levine, M.D.,
director of sports medicine at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center in New York. To help prevent future
instability in the knee, surgeons use arthroscopic techniques to replace the torn ACL with a graft of the patellar
tendon.
As with all injuries, the best way to handle ACL strains is not to get them. Stretching will keep the muslces and
tendons flexible so they can help absorb shock. For strength and endurance, a combination of stretching and
weight training targeting the quadricepts and hamstrings is essential. Muscles should be warmed up gradually
before excertion and stretched thoroughly after your workout. Don't bounce while stretching and always exhale
as you go into the stretch. Hold each stretch for 30 seconds to the point of mild discomfort.
By concentrating on effective quad and hamstring excercises, you'll keep on sprinting instead of ending up in an
MRI tube with your orthopedic surgeon by your side.
Sitting Hamstring Stretch
Sit on the floor with both legs straight. Press your chest to your thighs and hold. Keep your eyes focused on
your feet.
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Reaching Hamstring Stretch
Sit with one leg extended straight in front of you and the other leg bent with the knee flat on the floor. Lean
forward over the extended leg until you feel tension in the hamstring. Keep your eyes focused on your feet,
reaching your hands towards your toes.
Quadriceps Stretch
Hold on to a wall for balance, grasp one leg above the ankle, and pull the leg up and back. Move slowly and
smoothly. Repeat with the other leg.
Lying Leg Flex
Lie face down on the floor with your arms under your chin. Flex one leg toward your buttocks and lower slowly.
Do three sets of 10 to 15 repetitions with each leg. This exercise can also be done standing; add ankle weights
for extra resistance. Or use the leg-curl machine, standing with one set of 10 to 15 reps
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One-Legged Squat
Standing six to 10 inches away from a chair or bench with your back to it, rest one foot on the seat, sole up.
Balancing on the other leg, squat slowly. When your thigh is nearly parallel to the floor, push up. Repeat eight to
15 times, then switch legs. Standing squats and lunges can also be performed to increase quadriceps strength.
Wall Sit
Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and your back against a smooth wall (1). Slowly slide down the wall as
though you're lowering yourself into a chair (2). Stop before you reach 90-degree mark. Hold for 30 to 60
seconds, then push back up to a standing position. Perform 5 to 10 reps.
References
Shari Rosenblum Men's Fitness, June 2000
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Stretching - Yoga and Athleticism
All athletes, no matter their skill level, can benefit from the consistent practice of basic yoga postures.
Unfortunately, athletes often have misconceptions about this powerful conditioning tool. They may be misled by
watching some types of yoga on television or by participating in yoga classes where the emphasis is on mild
stretching, rather than on disciplined practice of the classical yoga poses.
How can yoga help athletes? In short: learning and practicing yoga can facilitate and support training and
increase athletic capacity. Yoga helps athletes because they often have damaging movement patterns. By
focusing on the simple movements of the basic yoga poses and building to more complex movements, athletes
can correct old, damaging habits and dramatically increase athletic capacity.
Everyone comes to yoga with physical imbalances. For example, endurance athletes -- like long-distance
runners or bikers -- may have relative ease of movement in one hip or shoulder and restricted movement in the
other. With high repetitions of the same movement, this small difference is magnified, often causing back or
knee problems.
Similarly, some sports lead to tightness in the front of the hips and shoulders, a condition which may lead to
various painful back and rotator cuff problems. Because traditional yoga movements are balanced in every
direction and require a full range of motion, they immediately reveal imbalances. By building a symmetrical form,
yoga postures permit the intensity of repetition required by athletic activity and help prevent injuries that often
occur with training.
Athletes can get into trouble while training by compensating for limitations in their range of motion by using
momentum and rotation to complete a movement. In the long run, this strategy is counterproductive because
the result is either injury or less than optimal performance. Yoga practice demands that one come face to face
with one’s present capabilities and learn how to work effectively with those conditions.
Yoga uncovers places in the body where, despite strength, there is either instability (loose joints) or lack of
suppleness. Suppleness is not flexibility, but rather strong, fluid movement through the full range of the joint.
Yoga develops strength, suppleness, awareness and alignment. It is not about stretching.
Yoga can help you acknowledge your current capacity, accept it and work to improve it. A good introductory
yoga class will provide instruction that enables you to practice the basic, classical poses and to observe your
movement patterns with awareness. This process reveals unhealthy and inefficient habits and shows you how
to correct them. As an athlete, the purpose is to move in the direction of the poses, not to do them perfectly.
Even a modest, regular practice of "imperfect" basic poses will enhance your athletic performance.
References
[1] Meriter Sports Medicine, http://www.meriter.com/living/library/sports/yoga.htm
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Nutrition
Top 10 Most Powerful Foods
1. Beans
They have little fat but heaps of several key nutrients, including the B vitamin folic acid, copper, zinc,
magnesium and potassium. They also make a great source of protein (usually found in higher-fat foods), fiber
and complex carbohydrates for energy that's much more stable than what you'd get from more sugary foods.
Two servings a day of your favorite bean can lower blood cholesterol as much as 27 percent.
2. Brown Rice
Like white rice, it's almost a pure complex carbohydrate, but it packs in the fiber, too. It's also a rich non-meat
source of zinc and contains all the minerals white rice lacks. You'll even get protein--five grams per cup.
3. Garlic
It contains lots of antioxidants, fights bacteria and maybe viruses and helps lower cholesterol and blood
pressure. It may even help prevent cancer. A couple of cloves or four Kyolic garlic gel caps a day should make
for a healthful dose.
4. Papaya
One of the most nutrient-dense fruits you can find, calorie-for-calorie it beats oranges and apples. One papaya
provides 30 percent more than the RDA for vitamin A and 300 times the RDA for vitamin C. It teems with
allergy- and disease-fighting phytochemicals, too.
5. Egg Whites
With all the essential amino acids, they're about the most perfect protein you can eat. And without the yolk,
which contains about 300 milligrams of cholesterol (close to your daily limit), egg whites are the rare no-fat,
high-protein food.
6. Chicken
Aside from being easy to cook and incredibly versatile, it's the meat for the active guy. White meat has just 370
calories and 18 grams of fat per six ounces (dark meat has 450 calories, 26 grams of fat). It's high in iron,
protein, niacin and zinc. Leave the skin on until the bird's cooked to keep in the juices; it'll come off easier when
it's cooked, too, taking most of the fat with it.
7. Broccoli
Vitamin C, beta-carotene and fiber figure highly in broccoli's nutritional profile. But it's broccoli's high content of the
phytochemical sulforaphane that has been making headlines lately because of its powerful anti-cancer effect.
8. Soy
Soy is now available in various tasty forms, from soy milk to veggie burgers to fake bacon to tofu (tastes great
fried, then mopped off with a paper towel, and in miso soup). It features high-quality protein, is low in saturated
fat and contains the heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids most people only get from fish. It might even reduce
cancer risk, lower cholesterol and help prevent heart disease.
9. Sweet Potatoes
We love these in part because they're so delicious and easy to cook. Each potato also has a whomping 8,285
IU of vitamin A (one-and-a-half times your RDA), 50 percent of the RDA of vitamin C, and decent amounts of
three essential minerals: calcium, magnesium and potassium.
10. Water
Hey, don't scoff. You're probably not drinking enough; few people do. Eight eight-ounce glasses a day are the
bare minimum. If you're active, you can sweat away two pounds of water surprisingly fast. All your organ
systems need the stuff in order to function. You also need the crucial minerals water provides, including sodium,
potassium, calcium and phosphorus. A healthy water intake will help prevent kidney stones (which afflict men
way more than women) and keep your urinary and gastrointestinal tracts functioning better.
References
Men's Fitness, http://www.mensfitness.com/
208

Fluid Intake
Running during these scorching summer months can leave you parched as a lizard in the Mojave Desert. And,
yes, you probably know you need to drink a lot of liquid during these times, but you may not realize just how
vital it is. Taking in too little fluid can be disastrous for your running and your health. Drink the right amount of
the right beverages, and you'll feel great and run fast.
Here's a look at how water works to keep your body running
smoothly, with some tips on when, how much and what kinds of
fluids to drink. Plus, I've provided a rundown of many of the sports
beverages on the market.
You're All Wet
On average, the human body is more than 50 percent water.
Runners and other endurance athletes average around 60 percent.
This equals about 120 soda cans' worth of water in a 160-pound
runner! A runner's watery physique results from physiological
adaptations brought about by running. For one, running builds lean
muscle tissue and reduces body fat; lean tissue contains more
water than fat tissue does. (Fat tissue contains the least water of all
body tissues, even less than bones.)
Another reason for your waterlogged state is your expanded blood
volume. This occurs as you become physically fit and serves to
improve oxygen and nutrient delivery to working muscles. The extra
blood also helps remove wastes produced by muscles during
exercise.
Sweat It
During running, muscles generate heat--lots of it. A typical 5-mile
run burns about 500 calories, and 70 percent of this heat must exit
the body to keep muscle tissue from literally cooking. The body
stays cool by producing sweat, the evaporation of which rids your
body of unwanted heat--roughly 600 calories of heat for every quart
of sweat that evaporates. And during an hour of running, you can
easily lose more than 2 quarts of sweat.
How much you sweat depends upon several factors. Warm weather
and high humidity both increase sweat production. And the faster
you run, the more heat you generate, so the more you sweat. Sweat
rate is also influenced by your fitness level: the sweat glands in a fit
body enlarge and increase in number, so you sweat more. All these
bodily adjustments create more efficient cooling while you run.
Running Dry
Charting a Fluid Course
When mapping out your training
program, include a sports drink in the
mix. Here are some to choose from:
Brand Calories Carbos
(grams)
All Sport 70 19
Body Fuel
750
Break
Through
70 17
80 20
CytoMax 83 19
Endura 60 15
Everlast 60 15
Exceed 70 17
Excel 71 18
Gatorade 50 14
Hydra Fuel 66 16
Icopro 80 21
Innergize 70 17
Isostar 70 16
PowerAde 70 19
Power Surge 75 18
PR Fuel 60 15
Pure Power 80 20
Q.E.M. 45 11
Recharge 72 18
Sporta Lyte 70 16
So sweating keeps you cool, but losing all that fluid lessens the
efficiency of the internal operations of your body. Most runners fall
10-K 60 15
short on fluid replacement and only manage to replace about half their sweat losses. If you don't take in fluids
as you sweat, your blood actually thickens. This makes your heart pump harder and slows oxygen and nutrient
delivery to exercising muscles. Result: Your body suffers.
As you dehydrate and your pace slows, you may become dizzy, weak or nauseated. Eventually you may cramp
up, get chills or even hallucinate. Some of these same symptoms may even occur at the office or at home, as
your unmet fluid need doesn't always conveniently show up on your run.
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Drink Up
The old rule that you need eight glasses of water or fluid daily is just that--old. Your fluid needs depend on many
factors, including body size, fitness level, training schedule and dietary factors such as caffeine and alcohol
consumption, both of which increase fluid loss from the body. So how much fluid you need is an individual
matter.
Your best bet is to monitor urine color and frequency of urination. Pale yellow urine is a good sign that plenty of
fluid is on board for waste excretion. (But don't judge your urine color within a few hours after taking vitamin
supplements, since the unused vitamins, particularly the B vitamin riboflavin, turn your urine a bright yellow.)
Frequent urination is another good sign that you're getting enough fluid.
Spread out your fluid intake over the day to keep body water levels steady and to ward off the threat of
dehydration. And remember to drink past the feeling of thirst, since that sensation shuts off quickly once you
begin drinking. In fact, it actually turns off before you've replenished lost fluids.
Water Your Options?
Choices, choices. The beverage aisle in any grocery store overflows with drinks: bottled waters (spring, mineral
and sparkling), bottled teas, juices and many other concoctions. And there's always . . . plain tap water. So
what's best? Tap water is fine, and it's cheap. Plus, local municipal water supplies must follow strict safety
regulations, so if the water out of your faucet tastes okay, by all means drink it.
Many consumers opt for bottled water, which generally tastes better than tap water because bottlers use ozone
as a disinfectant instead of chlorine. And though the general perception is that bottled water is better for you
than tap water, the fact is, safety regulations are higher for municipal water than bottled.
Some bottled water may offer minerals such as calcium and magnesium, but if you live in an area that has hard
water, your local water probably has more minerals than bottled does. For instance, a quart of tap water from
my hometown supplies about 10 percent of my magnesium needs. (If you're not sure if you have hard water,
just check your water faucets for mineral deposits.)
Bottled teas and juices are tasty, thirst-quenching options, but watch for caffeine, which can increase body
water loss by increasing urine production. And you may be taking in unwanted calories, as many of these
beverages have a high content of sugar or corn syrup.
Fluid On The Run
During exercise, your body needs fluid--fast. And during longer runs, a supply of carbohydrates also becomes
crucial for maintaining energy levels. As you run, both fat and carbohydrates are burned for energy, but
glycogen, which is the form that carbohydrate takes when stored in the muscles, runs low after about 90
minutes of running. When this happens, you'll weaken and your pace may turn sluggish.
The solution is quite simple: drink a sports beverage. These are formulated to supply a steady stream of
energizing carbohydrates and to maximize fluid absorption.
Sodas and juices don't work as well as fluid-replacement solutions during exercise because their relatively high
carbohydrate concentrations of 10 to 14 percent slow fluid absorption in the intestinal tract. Most sports drinks
contain half the carbohydrate content of these other beverages, or about 50 to 80 calories per 8 ounces. Small
amounts of electrolytes (sodium) added to many sports drinks also boost fluid absorption.
Since your fluid losses amount to over a quart an hour, drink about 1/2 to 1 cup of sports drink every 15
minutes. In other words, aim for around 100 calories of carbohydrates every 30 minutes, which is ideal for
keeping you energized. Even on runs lasting less than an hour, drinking helps prevent overheating, especially
during tough, warm-weather workouts. If you haven't yet, give a sports drink a try during your next training
session.
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Sports Drinks Aplenty
Sports drinks have become a billion-dollar-a-year industry. Several new products have appeared on the market
over the last few years, and they're filling the shelves in supermarkets and convenience stores, even popping
out of soda machines. But what's best to buy? That's pretty much determined by your personal preference, but
do select one that contains around 50 to 80 calories per 8-ounce serving; any more and the carbohydrate
concentration will inhibit fluid absorption.
Test different brands during training, particularly on long runs, and see what works best for you. Some are
slightly carbonated, which is fine if that's your preference. Whatever you choose, a sports beverage can be a
valuable part of your refueling and rehydrating regimen. [1]
Suggested Guidelines
During activity, you can lose up to two cups (one pound) of sweat for every 300 calories burned, depending on
the weather conditions. Again, stay ahead of the game by drinking fluids before, during and after your workouts.
Suggested guidelines for fluid consumption are:
- Drink two to three cups two hours before the activity
- Drink one to two cups 10 to 20 minutes before the activity
- Drink 1/2 to 3/4 cups (four to six ounces) every 15 minutes during the activity
- Drink two or more cups within one to two hours after the activity
- Continue drinking fluid after exercising until urine is clear
To measure fluid loss, weigh yourself before and after a workout. Replace each pound lost with two cups of
fluid. Water is best, but sport drinks may be helpful for activities lasting longer than 60 to 90 minutes. The most
important point is to drink fluid, whether it’s water or a sports drink. [2]
References
http://www.runnersworld.com
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The Role of Meat
KEY POINTS
1. In the typical Western diet, meats such as beef, lamb, pork, veal, poultry, and fish are the predominant
sources of protein, B vitamins, iron, and zinc.
2. Iron and zinc are the two nutrients most often deficient in vegetarian or modified-vegetarian diets. Also, iron
and zinc are the most cited nutrients that may be deficient in the diet of athletes.
3. Athletes who choose to exclude meat from their diets must carefully plan diets to enhance nutrient availability,
particularly for iron and zinc.
INTRODUCTION
Generations of athletes have consumed a diet centered around meat. In the 6th century B.C., a famous Greek
athlete, Milo of Crotona, was the wrestling victor in five Olympian games and in many other sacred festivals. In
what is probably an apocryphal account, he applied progressive resistance training by lifting a growing calf daily.
When the calf was four years old, he carried her the length of the Olympian stadium, killed, roasted, and ate her.
It was reported that Milo's normal daily intake of meat was about 20 pounds (Ryan, 1981).
Times have changed. As scientific evidence has solidified the link between high-fat, meat-based diets and
increased risks of chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease, more people are turning to a vegetarian
style of eating for health reasons, rather than moral or ethical reasons. Almost seven percent of the American
public, or about 12.4 million people, consider themselves vegetarians (Havala, 1994). Athletes, too, are
becoming attracted to a more plant-based style of eating. Although most athletes do not eliminate all animal
foods from the diet, increasing numbers of athletes avoid beef and other red meats on a fairly regular basis.
(Snyder et al., 1989; Raben et al., 1992; Lyle et al., 1992). A survey of nationally competitive female runners
showed that more than 40 percent avoided red meat for "health reasons" (Clark et al., 1988). Other reasons for
avoiding meat include fat content, calorie content, and financial cost (Steen, 1991). In some cases athletes limit
animal foods based on misconceptions, such as the erroneous association of milk with fluid retention (Kleiner et
al., 1994).
Can an athlete achieve peak performance on a meatless diet? Can plant foods supply the right nutrients in
adequate amounts to replace nutrients depleted during intense physical activity? The purpose of this review is
to summarize the factors that influence the adequacy of a meatless diet for athletes and to provide practical
guidelines to assist with the healthy planning of such diets.
THE ROLE OF MEAT IN THE DIET
Typical Western diets are made up of the following food groupings:
• Vegetables; Fruits; Breads, cereals, rice, and pasta;
• Milk, yogurt, and cheese;
• Meats, poultry, fish, dry beans and peas, eggs, nuts, and seeds;
• Fats, oils, and sweets.
In the typical Western diet, meats (including beef, lamb, pork, veal, poultry, and fish) are the primary staple
around which meals are designed, and are the predominant sources of protein, B vitamins, iron, and zinc.
Just as no single vegetable or fruit can provide all of the critical nutrients common to its food group, no single
type of meat can provide all of the protein, B vitamins, iron, and zinc necessary for a healthy and well-balanced
diet. It is the variety of types and cuts of meats that provide the total array of nutrients necessary for an
adequate diet.
For example, beef is only an average source of niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, and vitamin B6 (1 serving provides
1024 percent of the RDA for adults and children over 4 years of age). But most cuts of beef are excellent
sources of zinc (1 serving provides 40 percent of the RDA for adults and children over 4 years of age). Likewise,
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pork is an excellent source of thiamin and iron, a good source of niacin (1 serving provides 25-39 percent of the
RDA for adults and children over 4 years of age), and only an average source of riboflavin, vitamin B6, and zinc.
Because vitamin B12 is a byproduct of animal metabolism, virtually all types of meats are good or excellent
sources of vitamin B12 (USDA, 1990).
Generally speaking, red meats like beef and the dark meat of poultry are better sources of iron and zinc than
are white meats like fish and light meat of poultry. However, there are some exceptions. Pork is an excellent
source of iron, as are clams and oysters. Oysters are also an excellent source of zinc (USDA, 1990).
The elimination of some or all meats from the diet does not mean that a wellbalanced and adequate diet is
impossible. Dry beans and peas (legumes) and nuts are somewhat similar to meats in providing protein and
most vitamins and minerals. But there are some significant nutritional differences between plant and animal food
sources of proteins.
Protein
The quantity of protein in the diets of athletes is rarely a concern, regardless of whether they are meat eaters or
nonmeat eaters. For example, an average of 21-25% percent of the energy in legumes comes from protein
calories (Geil & Anderson, 1994), and protein constitutes 34% of the energy in soybeans. There is, however, a
limitation to the quality of the protein from most legumes. With the exception of soybeans, legumes do not
contain a full complement of the essential amino acids required for the efficient manufacture of protein by the
human body. Wellprocessed soybean protein is equal in quality to animal protein (Young, 1991).
Previous vegetarian dietary guidelines recommended that a variety of plant protein sources (such as grains and
beans) be combined simultaneously at one meal to complement each other and provide a complete protein
source. Current research supports the notion that by eating a variety of legumes, as well as all other food
groups throughout the day, one can obtain the full array of essential amino acids required for efficient protein
metabolism.
According to World Health Organization (1985) recommendations, protein digestibility is reduced by about 10%
in a vegetable-based diet due to the high fiber content of the diet. Accordingly, it is suggested that those who
eat such diets should consume 110% of the calculated protein requirement to ensure adequate protein intakes
(WHO, 1985).
B Vitamins
In spite of the fact that meats are a major source of B vitamins in the Western diet, whole and enriched grain
products, eggs, legumes, nuts, seeds, fruits, vegetables, and dairy products are good and reliable sources of B
vitamins and can fully supply the dietary requirements for B vitamins.
An exception to this rule is vitamin B12, which is available only from animal products. A B12 supplement must
be used if animal products are completely eliminated from the diet.
Iron
In absolute amounts, it is surprising to note that most meats are only average sources of iron when compared to
many grains and legumes. However, the bioavailability of iron from meat versus vegetable foods makes a
significant difference in the value of meat as a source of iron in the diet.
There are two forms of dietary iron, heme iron (from animal tissue) and nonheme iron. Heme iron is absorbed
with the iron still contained within hemoglobin or myoglobin molecules. Absorption of heme iron is affected by
the body's stores of iron, but it is not affected by intestinal factors or by meal composition. However, absorption
of nonheme iron is very dependent on iron stores, intestinal factors and meal composition. Furthermore, heme
and nonheme iron are absorbed from the intestine at differing rates. In the ironreplete individual, as little as 15%
of heme iron that reaches the intestine is absorbed, whereas up to 35% may be absorbed in an individual with
little or no iron stored in the body. Absorption of nonheme iron can range from 2% in the iron-replete individual
consuming a meal of low iron availability to 20% in the person with minimal stores of iron who consumes a meal
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that contains highly bioavailable nonheme iron (Monsen & Balintfy, 1982). Intestinal factors and meal
composition factors that affect absorption of nonheme iron are discussed later under "Practical Considerations."
Zinc
Meats, particularly red meats and oysters, are good or excellent sources of zinc and are the major sources of
zinc in the Western diet. The bioavailability of zinc varies with the food source; some foods contain factors that
inhibit zinc absorption. Factors that inhibit zinc absorption include fiber, phytic acid, oxalic acid, ethanol, tannins,
iron, calcium, and tin. These constituents are found in varying amounts in soy protein, whole wheat, tea, coffee,
celery, milk, cheese, corn tortillas, and beans (Shils & Young, 1984). Zinc from animal sources is generally
regarded as more bioavailable than zinc from vegetable sources (Mares-Perlman et al., 1995).
INCIDENCE OF DIETARY DEFICIENCIES AMONG ATHLETES
Potential iron and zinc deficiencies are the two most noted drawbacks of vegetarian or modified-vegetarian
diets, and are the most common dietary deficiencies among athletes (Dallongeville et al., 1989; Lamanca &
Haymes, 1992; Nutter, 1991; Pate et al., 1993; Snyder et al., 1989; Telford et al., 1992, 1993; Williford et al.,
1993).
Iron
Iron is an essential trace element required for the formation of hemoglobin, myoglobin, the cytochromes, and
iron-containing enzymes critical in immune function (Haymes, 1987). Numerous recent studies have
documented a prevalence of iron deficient conditions in both male and female athletes, but more commonly
among women (Dallongeville et al., 1989; Lamanca & Haymes, 1992; Nutter, 1991; Pate et al., 1993; Snyder et
al., 1989; Telford et al., 1992, 1993; Williford et al., 1993).
Iron depletion, the first stage of iron deficiency, is the most common iron deficiency condition documented
among athletes, and is indicated by low serum ferritin values (

Iron Depletion and Performance
Although it is certain that iron-deficient erythropoiesis and iron-deficiency anemia will impair physical
performance, whether or not iron depletion affects performance is uncertain. Most studies (Dallongeville et al.,
1989; Dressendorfer & Sockolov, 1980; Dressendorfer et al., 1982; Haralambie, 1981; Janelle & Barr, 1995;
Lyle et al., 1992; Pate et al., 1993; Singh et al., 1990; Snyder et al., 1989; Williford et al., 1993;) have shown no
negative performance effects due to decreased iron stores; however, Telford and colleagues (1992) showed
that improving low plasma ferritin levels (

cholesterol. It is therefore recommended that zinc supplementation not exceed 15 mg/d. (Clarkson & Haymes,
1994).
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Whether to include or exclude meat in the diet of an athlete is obviously a matter of personal choice; however, if
the choice is made to decrease the amount of meat in the diet, then careful dietary planning is necessary to
enhance nutrient availability, particularly for iron and zinc.
Diets that Increase Iron and Zinc Absorption
Include heme iron sources in the diet. All types of meat contain this more-easily-absorbed form of iron. If only
red meat has been eliminated from the diet, heme iron is still available from poultry and fish.
The "MFP Factor": Meat, fish, and poultry also contain a special quality called the "MFP Factor" that helps the
body absorb more nonheme iron. When meat and vegetables are eaten together at the same meal, more
nonheme iron is absorbed from the vegetables than if the vegetables had been eaten alone.
Include vitamin C sources: Fruits, vegetables and other foods that contain vitamin C help the body absorb
nonheme iron. For example, if citrus fruits are eaten along with an ironfortified cereal, more iron will be absorbed
from the cereal than if it had been eaten alone.
Avoid constituents that block iron and zinc absorption: Some food constituents, e.g., tannins, polyphenols,
phytates, and oxalates, can block the absorption of iron and zinc by the intestine. Coffee and tea (regular and
decaffeinated), whole grains, bran, legumes, spinach, and a high fiber intake in general, are a few examples of
foods that contain iron and zinc absorption blockers. These foods are best eaten with heme iron sources and/or
vitamin C sources to help the body absorb more iron.
Include Good Sources Of Iron And Zinc In The Diet
There are good meatless sources of iron and zinc, as shown in the table on the following page. Because iron
and zinc intake may be low or marginal in a completely plant-based diet, an extra effort must be made to include
these sources in the diet on a daily basis.
Iron and Zinc Supplementation
Due to the rigorous demands of athletic participation, those who choose to completely eliminate meat from the
diet may find it difficult to plan, prepare, or consume the quality and quantity of food required to meet
recommended guidelines. Despite the fact that dietary supplements do not entirely replace food, when key
nutrients are insufficient in the diet it is wise to use a supplement rather than face a potential nutrient deficiency.
Daily supplementation of iron and zinc at the level of 100% of the RDA is a safe method of ensuring adequate
intake of these nutrients.
CONCLUSION
As vegetarian styles of eating become more popular among athletes, the risk of poorly planned diets leading to
nutrient insufficiencies and deficiencies increases. Suboptimal dietary intakes of iron and zinc resulting in
decreased nutritional status have been observed in athletes who have eliminated meat. Marginal iron or zinc
status may negatively affect exercise performance. Full-blown iron or zinc deficiency will definitely have a
negative effect upon exercise performance.
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It is possible to obtain all essential nutrients by eating a completely plantbased diet. However, the planning and
execution of the diet is critical to both the health and performance of an athlete. Practically speaking, because
vegan diets are also typically high in fiber, it may be difficult for an athlete to consume enough food to satisfy
nutrient and energy needs without feeling so full that exercise performance is inhibited. Athletes must learn that
it is not sufficient to merely cut meats out of the diet; these foods contain essential nutrients that must be
carefully replaced by adding other foods to the diet. If the decision to consume a meatless diet is not based
upon moral or ethical principles, it may be more practical to encourage the athlete to include some meat in their
diet. It is also important that athletes base their dietary decisions on scientific evidence, rather than on myths
and misconceptions.
References
Susan M. Kleiner, Ph.D., R.D. High Performance Nutrition
Vegetable Matter
Many runners tell me they'd like to try a vegetarian diet, but they think it's hard to do. Vegetarian food costs
more, it takes longer to prepare, you need to use specialty cookbooks, you're always worried about getting
complete proteins, and so on. At least, that's the perception. None of these drawbacks is necessarily true,
however. Fact is, you can fix simple, great-tasting vegetarian meals in minutes. Do it right, and they'll be loaded
with protein, too, not to mention energizing carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. Which is good news, as we've
known for years that vegetarians live longer than meat eaters. This has something to do with lifestyle, of course,
as vegetarians are more likely to exercise and less likely to smoke and abuse alcohol than non-vegetarians.
Nevertheless, your typical vegetarian fare also happens to be high in fiber, low in fat and chockful of
antioxidants and phytochemicals-a diet that will lower your risk of heart disease, cancer and other chronic
ailments.
A Day in the Vegetarian Life
Here's a nutrition-packed, one-day vegetarian menu. Preparation time for each meal: under 10 minutes.
Breakfast
• 1 cup quick oatmeal, topped with
• 1 cup fat-free vanilla yogurt and
• 2 tbsp raisins
• 2 slices hearty grain bread with
• 1 tbsp peanut butter
• 8 oz orange juice
Lunch
• 1 garden burger on a whole
• grain bun, with sliced tomato and onion
• 1/2 cup pasta and bean salad
• Handful of baby carrots dipped in yogurt salad dressing
Snack
• 1 cup calcium
• fortified soy milk
• 1 soft pretzel
Dinner
• 1 cup black bean chili, over top of
• 1 cup cooked Aztec rice and corn mix
• Dark green salad with 1 tbsp low-fat dressing
• 1 cup frozen yogurt with
• 1/2cup fresh or frozen strawberries
The day's tally:
2,660 calories; 100 g protein; 400 g carb; 74 g fat; 40 g fiber.
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So take it from me: If you've contemplated becoming a vegetarian - or if you simply want to add more vegetarian
dishes to your repertoire - it isn't difficult. Here are some tips for getting started.
Vegetarianism 101
All of us require approximately 40 different nutrients. When you go meatless, you must make up for the nutrients
you normally would've gotten from meat. Most can be obtained easily enough, but the one you really need to
keep track of is protein. If you continue to eat dairy products and eggs, getting adequate protein won't be a
problem. These animal sources provide all the essential amino acids (the building blocks of protein) you need to
make new proteins for the body. However, vegetable sources of protein do not contain all the essential amino
acids. That's where combining proteins comes in. The easiest way to do this is to combine grains such as
wheat, barley or rice with legumes such as chickpeas, black beans, pinto beans or lentils. It is not necessary to
create these combinations at each meal. As long as you do so each day, and as long as you also get between
60 to 100 total grams of protein daily (depending on your body size), you'll be fine. To put this in perspective,
the standard 3-ounce serving of lean beef or chicken contains about 21 grams of protein. The vegetable
equivalent of this would be a generous cup of cooked beans along with a cup of cooked grain. That is, you'll get
those 20-plus grams of protein with a cup of curried chickpeas over a cup of saffron-flavored rice.
The Joy of Soy
Now that I've said you should combine grains and beans for complete protein, I'm going to make one exception:
soybeans. Technically a legume, soybeans are in a class of their own. Ounce for ounce, soybean protein is just
as good as milk or meat when it comes to both protein quality and amino-acid profile. In other words, no
combining required; soybeans offer complete protein. There's another big reason to start making soybeans a
regular part of your eating plan. Several recent studies have shown that soybeans help protect against agerelated
diseases such as cancer and heart disease. (They even curtail certain menopausal symptoms.) Many of
these chronic ailments aren't nearly as prevalent in Asian countries as they are here, and many experts believe
the soybean-rich Asian diet is the reason why. Researchers believe the phytochemicals in soybeans (especially
one called genistein) act as antioxidants. As such, they may slow the progression of certain age-related
processes in the body.
Vegetarianism 102
Although protein is the main nutrient to monitor, vegetarians need to be vigilant about several others that are
harder to come by in a meatless diet: iron, zinc, calcium and vitamin B12. Meats contain a more absorbable
form (and a greater quantity) of iron than vegetables do. Still, you can get a good dose of iron from lentils, kale,
collard greens, dried fruit and fortified breakfast cereals.
Hint: Include a vitamin C source when you eat these foods, as this improves iron absorption. As for zinc, good
vegetable sources include wheat germ, beans (miso is especially good), nuts and fortified cereals. Calcium
won't be any problem if you consume dairy products. (Two to three servings of milk or low-fat yogurt daily will do
the trick.) If you don't eat dairy foods, you'll have to work a little harder to meet your calcium needs. Consider
calcium-fortified soy milk (one more way to get this "superfood") and use it the same way you would milk.
Calcium- fortified soy products normally contain about 30 percent of the RDA for calcium. More options: bok
choy, broccoli and other leafy greens. If you eat no animal products-no meat, milk or eggs-you may have trouble
getting enough vitamin B12. This essential vitamin keeps blood cells healthy and maintains the covering around
nerve fibers. Fermented vegetable products, such as miso and tempeh, contain some B12 because of the
fermenting bacteria. Still, they probably don't provide enough of this vitamin. My recommendation to strict
vegetarians ("vegans") is to get in the habit of eating fortified breakfast cereals or taking a vitamin supplement.
Time to Shop
Putting together nutritionally balanced meatless meals is a relatively simple matter once you get the hang of it.
Especially with all the new, ready-to-eat vegetarian products available at the grocery store. Also, check out the
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local health food store or food co-op for the easy- to-prepare items they might have. Here are some foods to
look for: Frozen foods: This may be the best (read: easiest) place to start if you're just getting into vegetarian
eating. In any grocery store's frozen food section, you'll find the old standards (cheese lasagna and vegetable
pot pie), as well as new ethnic treats such as Moroccan bulgur wheat and lentils or Thai-style curried chickpeas
and rice. If you're looking for meat substitutes, try soy hot dogs, veggie pepperoni (for pizza), or garden burgers.
Five minutes in the microwave with any of these, and you've got a good start on a no-fuss meal.
Canned foods
With all the canned beans available-chickpeas, black beans, navy beans, pinto beans-long soaking and boiling
simply aren't necessary anymore. You can also get "meals in a can" such as vegetarian chili, which comes with
14 grams of protein and 14 grams of fiber in a totally nonfat, 1-cup serving. Canned vegetable soups are good,
too, as long as you get the low-sodium varieties. (My favorites are split pea, lentil and vegetable minestrone.)
Packaged mixes: Keep an eye out for a line of products called Tofu Classics. I call them the "hamburger helper"
of the tofu world, as all you do is add tofu. These dishes are tasty, low-fat, and loaded with protein and fiber.
Then there are the just-add-water products (again, beware of sodium). Put them in a saucepan, add hot water
and presto: couscous with lentils, bean curry, even fettucini. Take them to work for a light lunch or afternoon
snack. Or try packaged, stove-top risotto, couscous, or wild rice pilaf served with cooked beans or with an
entrée from the frozen foods section. Okay, now you have no excuses. If you've been thinking about "the
vegetarian thing," maybe it's time to try it out. Jot down some of the items I mentioned so you can look for them
the next time you go to the grocery store. See how it goes for a week or two. If eating vegetarian seems like it's
going to take too much time and effort, you'll at least have learned about some new, tasty, low-fat dishes.
References
Liz Applegate, Ph.D., is the Nutrition Editor for Runner's World. She is a member of The National Triathlon
Training Camp Elite Team, and teaches at the University of California at Davis.
Nutritional Program
40-30-30: The Nutritional Program That May Dramatically Improve Your Athletic Performance
For more than two decades, athletes have diligently followed a high-carbohydrate, low-fat dietary regimen. And
why not? It has been recommended by an infinite number of coaches, trainers and sports nutritionists for years.
But things are changing. The typical diet-which consisted of 60 to 70 percent carbohydrate, 15 to 25 percent
rotein and 10 to 15 percent fat has come face-to-face with a more balanced ratio of 40 percent carbohydrate, 30
percent protein and 30 percent fat.
That's right. Thirty percent fat. If you are a high-carb advocate who is ready to skip this story, hold on. Sit back
and read this with an open mind. Scientific reasoning definitely plays a role, but common sense is a major factor
in understanding why the 40/30/30 ratio may dramatically improve your athletic performance.
An Athlete's Nightmare
Have you ever felt mentally or physically tired in the middle of the day for no apparent reason? Welcome to the
not-so-wonderful world of hypoglycemia, which, as you may know, can really put a damper on your training.
What is Hypoglycemia?
It is a condition that occurs when your blood glucose (sugar) concentrations fall to abnormally low levels.
Symptoms include fatigue, restlessness, and unclear thought and hunger cravings.
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The hormone insulin is the culprit behind hypoglycemia. Secreted from the pancreas, insulin's job is to regulate
blood glucose levels. When the levels rise, insulin is needed to transport excess glucose into various parts of
our bodies.
Ideally, a meal will produce a mild rise in blood glucose. Insulin is secreted and either redirects glucose into our
body's cells for immediate energy or stores it as glycogen (future energy) in the liver and muscle tissue.
In an unfavorable situation, a meal produces a surge of blood glucose and the pancreas counters by secreting
extra insulin. With more of the hormone in circulation, blood glucose concentrations are effectively lowered-but
too rapidly. Energy levels plummet, leaving you listless and suffering from a classic case of hypoglycemia.
Furthermore, when insulin needs to quickly react in compensation for excess blood glucose, it converts a high
percentage of the glucose into fat. Insulin is very proficient at doing this-to the point that it can make you fat.
As an athlete, you do not want to be hypoglycemic, and you definitely do not want to be fat. Based on the
information above, it is obvious that meals stimulating an overwhelming amount of insulin should be avoided.
Ironically, the very same high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet followed by millions of athletes induces the hormone in
abundance.
To Enhance Performance
To enhance athletic performance, you must properly manage insulin and control your blood glucose level. To do
this, you'll need to have an awareness of the glycemic index.
The glycemic index is a measure of how fast carbohydrates break down into blood glucose. High-glycemic
carbohydrates, such as rice cakes and bread, spike blood glucose levels and rapidly induce insulin secretion.
Low-glycemic carbohydrates, such as most fruits and vegetables, break down much slower and require less
insulin. Furthermore, the addition of protein and fat to your meals lowers the overall glycemic response. This is
optimal for sustaining energy levels and avoiding insulin's fat storage effect.
Better yet, when carbohydrates are moderated, your body will utilize a higher percentage of body fat for energy.
This is especially good because glycogen storage is limited. The average individual can only store 1,200-2,000
calories in the form of glycogen.
Body fat, on the other hand, can supply even the leanest athlete with a minimum of 10,000 calories. Those on a
high-carbohydrate diet will burn a much lower percentage of body fat because increased concentrations of
insulin will block the secretion of glucagon.
Working adversely to insulin, glucagon is a mobilizing hormone that is stimulated by protein. One of its functions
is to release stored fat (in the form of fatty acids) into the bloodstream where it is made available to muscle cells
for energy.
Let's now take a closer look at the 40/30/30 nutritional program.
The 40/30/30 Diet
Carbohydrates: 40 Percent
Carbohydrates are still an important part of the 40/30/30 ratio, but quality takes a back seat to quantity. The bulk
of your carbohydrate consumption should come from those with a low-glycemic index. This includes most fruits,
vegetables and legumes.
High-glycemic carbohydrates such as breads, cereals and pastas should be eaten sparingly. Besides, they are
so processed they virtually have no nutrients. Even minimally processed "whole grains" must be fortified and
enriched to replace nutrients that have been stripped out. Because of their weakened structures, these types of
carbohydrates digest very quickly and spur on insulin secretion.
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Protein: 30 Percent
With the popularity of the high-carb, low-fat diet, many athletes are not getting enough protein. Many are getting
90 percent of their calories from carbohydrates!
You must understand that carbohydrates are utilized chiefly as an energy source and cannot be converted into
essential amino acids. Supplied by protein, amino acids are hugely responsible for the making of a complete
athlete. Not only do they aid in the building and repair of muscle tissue, but they are the foundations of our
organs, hormones, enzymes and immune system.
The best sources of protein are derived from chicken, fish, eggs, low-fat dairy products and lean cuts of beef.
For those of you who are strict vegetarians, invest in a high-quality protein powder. It's difficult to consume
enough protein on a vegan diet (especially while training), because proteins from vegetable sources are not
utilized as efficiently as those from dairy or animal products. The main reason for this difficulty is that grains and
vegetables are primarily carbohydrates, while nuts and seeds are essentially fats. Some of these foods may
contain a significant amount of protein, but their fiber content inhibits proper bodily absorption.
Fat: 30 Percent
No longer to be avoided like the plague, fat should be included in a balanced athletic diet. Aside from being a
superior source of energy, fats provide bodily insulation and act as a shock absorber for internal organs and
skeletal joints. Moreover without an appropriate fat intake, the body is ineffective at transporting the fat-soluble
vitamins A, D, E and K.
One of the biggest deficiencies that you face on a low-to-no-fat diet is getting an adequate intake of essential
fatty acids. The body can synthesize (produce) many types of fats, but is unable to produce linoleic or linolenic
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Linoleic acid is from the omega-6 family and is found primarily in vegetable oils, nuts and seeds. Linolenic acid
is a member of the omega-3 family and is found in fish and flaxseed oil. These essential fatty acids are
necessary for the manufacture of a series of hormones called Prostaglandins. Controlling virtually every cell of
the body, Prostaglandins promote injury recovery, immune defense and regulate inflammation.
Choice fats are found in cold-water fish (salmon), cold-pressed vegetable oils (canola and olive), nuts, seeds
and avocados. Keep saturated fats to no more than 10 percent of total fat intake and avoid hydrogenated oils.
These are chemically processed fats found in food items such as commercial baked goods, chips and
margarine. Hydrogenated oils contain highly unfavorable trans-fatty acids, which our bodies metabolize with
extreme difficulty and can block your arteries.
Base Your Meals on Protein
The key to putting together a 40/30/30 meal is to base it around a protein source. Using grams as a
measurement, carbohydrates should be approximately 1.33 times greater than the total protein. Fat can be
determined by multiplying total protein grams in the meal by four (calories per gram of protein). This sum divided
by nine (calories per gram of fat) is equivalent to the number of fat grams that should be present in your meal.
Following is an example of a balanced dinner, which has 47 grams of carbohydrate, 36 grams of protein and 16
grams of fat: 4.5 ounces baked or broiled chicken breast, 1/2 baked red potato, one cup broccoli, one large
dinner salad, and two teaspoons of olive oil.
The Key Word is Balance
In just about everything we do, balance is the key. So why should our nutritional habits be any
different?Consuming a diet with 60 percent plus carbohydrates is hardly a balance. The secret to this program,
which does not require expensive sports supplements, is the 40/30/30 macronutritional balance.
So if you follow a high-carb, low-fat diet, compromise on the carbohydrates and add more protein and dietary
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fat. You'll find that is a simple and effective way to avoid low-energy levels, maintain a favorable body
composition, and improve your overall health and athletic performance.
References
Philip N. LeClair, C.N., CFT, staff nutritionist at Biofoods, Inc., the makers of Balance nutritional products. He is
also the editor of The In Balance Health and Fitness Newsletter.
For Women Only
The lament comes from my friend Shelly, but it could've come from thousands of other women: "I know my diet
isn't perfect," says Shelly. "But between my family (including a newborn), my work and my running, I just feel
tired a lot. I don't know, maybe there's something missing in my diet that would give me the energy I used to
have."
Busy women like Shelly often find themselves skipping meals, eating "empty" snacks, skimping on vitamins and
overstuffing with fat-free foods. Women also have to realize that what works for men may not work for them. We
have different nutritional requirements.
To help you meet those requirements, here are eight nutrition tips. Follow them, and your stamina and
performance should improve, plus you'll be getting the nutrients you need to fight the chronic diseases that are
of increasing concern to women.
Eat Often
Take it from me, eating frequently during the day is good for you. Research shows that women who keep their
weight steady are usually those who eat at least four times a day and who don't skip meals. This "grazing" may
improve your work performance, too, as one study of men and women showed that eating a snack of a few
hundred calories in the afternoon improved memory and cognitive skills later in the day.
On the other hand, skipping meals can leave you feeling drained, unable to concentrate and lackluster about
your evening workout. Also, missing meals earlier in the day often leads to overeating in the afternoon and
evening. At that point, you'll be more likely to select foods that are high in fat, sugar and calories.
Try to eat around five times a day—that's three meals and two snacks. If you have a busy schedule, you'll need
to plan ahead. Get in the habit of stowing snacks in your workout bag, or bring healthful munchies to work for
midmorning and midafternoon snacking. Dried fruit, energy bars, canned vegetable juice and small boxes of
ready-to-eat breakfast cereal are all good choices that are high in carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins and minerals.
Boost Your B2
Vitamin B2, or riboflavin, assists in the breakdown of carbohydrates and fats for energy for working muscles. It's
no surprise, therefore, that this vitamin plays a crucial role during endurance exercise. Because research on
women shows that 30 minutes of daily exercise lowers riboflavin levels in the body, you should try to get at least
the RDA (1.3 milligrams for women). You might want to talk to your doctor about whether or not you need more
than the RDA, especially if you do high-mileage training.
Most dairy products are good sources of riboflavin. Go for 1 percent or skim milk, nonfat yogurt or other low-fat
dairy foods. Breads, cereals and other grain products are also good sources.
Bone Up On Calcium
Getting enough calcium and protein is particularly crucial for women, who are susceptible to osteoporosis.
Though activities such as running and weight training help build stronger bones, if you are amenorrheic (you
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frequently miss your menstrual period), you can lose bone mass despite regular exercise. That's because
amenorrheic women have lower levels of estrogen, a hormone that plays a key role in building and maintaining
bone calcium.
An estimated 25 percent of women runners become amenorrheic at some point. Some are helped only by
estrogen-replacement therapy. In other cases, a simple dietary change does the trick--especially if you've been
skimping on calcium and protein.
Research suggests that the calcium RDA of 800 milligrams for women over the age of 24 is insufficient,
particularly for amenorrheic athletes. Around 1,200 milligrams, the equivalent of four servings of milk, looks to
be more appropriate. As for protein, women vegetarians should know that a low intake may put them at higher
risk for amenorrhea.
So be sure you get regular servings of dairy products, calcium-rich tofu and greens, and calcium-fortified orange
juice. Also, eat lean meat and/or high-quality protein combinations such as pinto beans and rice. Avoid fiber
supplements: these bind calcium and other minerals in the intestinal tract, thus decreasing the absorption of
essential nutrients.
Vegetarians, Watch Your Vitamins
Many women have found that being a vegetarian is a good way to reduce fat intake, boost carbohydrate intake
and improve health. Further, research shows that vegetarians are generally healthier than meat-eaters, that
they have a lower incidence of cancer and heart disease and that they have leaner bodies.
But being a vegetarian doesn't guarantee improved health. A recent study of vegetarian women showed that
compared to nonvegetarians, they took in less calcium, zinc and vitamin B12. Those in the study ate less than
half the RDA for B12, a vitamin crucial for healthy red blood cells and nerve fibers. Since B12 is found only in
animal products (red meat, fish, shellfish, eggs and milk are good sources) strict vegetarians (or "vegans") must
look for foods, such as soy milk, that are fortified with this vitamin.
Zinc, which is needed for a strong immune system, is found almost exclusively in meat (oysters are an
especially rich source). An exception is whole grains (once they get refined they lose their zinc content). Wheat
germ is one of the best zinc sources; add a tablespoon or two to hot cereals, casseroles, soups or blender
drinks.
Eat Greens
Green, leafy vegetables such as broccoli, kale and certain dark-green lettuces are loaded with folate, another B
vitamin. Most women don't get enough of this vitamin, and the deficiency is linked to severe neural-tube defects
in newborns. This connection is so strong that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration now recommend that women take in 400 micrograms of folate daily, which is
more than twice the current RDA. There's also talk by the FDA of fortifying grains with folate (as is already done
with the B vitamins thiamine, riboflavin and niacin). Adding folate to breads and pastas would boost folate intake
by an estimated 30 to 70 percent.
Until this happens, try to eat good sources of folate daily. In addition to leafy greens, citrus fruits are also high in
this vitamin. A 6-ounce glass of orange juice contains 120 micrograms of folate.
Add Soybeans To Your Routine
One of every two women will die of cardiovascular disease. And although women on average are a decade
older than men when the disease first strikes, it kills as many women as it does men. (Ten times more women
die of heart disease than die of breast cancer each year.)
Fortunately, research has shown that people who eat regular servings of soybean products such as tofu and
miso are at a lower risk of heart disease. Soybeans contain substances called phytoestrogens, which research
has shown can significantly lower "bad" LDL cholesterol and raise "good" HDL cholesterol.
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Add soybeans to soups and casseroles as you would other dried beans. Tofu works well in salads, pasta dishes
and sandwiches. And though soybeans are somewhat higher in fat than other beans, that fat is primarily the
cholesterol-lowering monounsaturated and polyunsaturated types.
Pump That Iron
Studies show that more than 50 percent of all women runners are deficient in iron. Sagging iron levels result in
fatigue and poor endurance, since the blood is unable to carry oxygen as efficiently to working muscles. Feeling
chilled or cold may be another sign that iron is low. Though losses of this important mineral occur during
menstruation and in a few other small ways, lack of iron in the diet is the most likely cause of deficiency, as
studies show that women distance runners usually get less than the RDA of 15 milligrams.
The solution is simple: eat more iron-rich foods. Lean red meat and dark poultry are two of the best sources, in
part because the form of iron they contain is easy to absorb. Women often shy away from red meat due to its fat
content, but by choosing lean cuts you can get your iron while still maintaining a low-fat diet. Two good nonmeat
sources are lentils and iron-fortified breakfast cereals. Another point to remember: the tannins that are in coffee
and tea block iron uptake from food, so drink these beverages between meals, not with them.
Before turning to supplementation as your source, check with your doctor. Too much iron has its drawbacks: it
can limit the absorption of zinc and may also cause constipation. Better to increase your iron intake with 2 to 4
ounces of lean meat a day.
Count Calories When Cutting Fat
Thousands of fat-free and reduced-fat products have hit the market in recent years. But this fat-free frenzy has a
downside. Many people think that because a food is fat-free they can eat as much of it as they want. Not true.
Fat-free doesn't mean calorie-free. Many of these foods are loaded with sugar and calories, so gorging on them
will cause weight gain.
Loading up on fat-free goodies may also starve you of important vitamins and minerals, since many fat-free
products are refined and therefore low in key nutrients. Many are also lower in fat-soluble nutrients such as
vitamin E, an antioxidant that protects against age-related diseases. Research shows that women who switch to
a low-fat diet (less than 30 percent fat calories) often fall below their requirement for vitamin E.
To beat the fat-free nutrition blues, make sure you're getting several servings of fresh fruits and vegetables a
day. To get your vitamin E, eat plenty of whole grains, and try to use small amounts of vitamin E-rich oils, such
as corn oil or walnut oil, for cooking or on salads. Check food labels for calorie amounts even when you're
buying fat-free foods. And remember, if it's weight loss you're after, you simply need to take in fewer calories
than you burn.
References
Liz Applegate, Ph.D., is the Nutrition Editor for Runner's World. Member of The National Triathlon Training
Camp Elite Team, teaches at UC Davis.
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Brain Drain
Feeling bushed at the end of a hard run is perfectly normal. In fact, it's inevitable. After all, we're not machines,
and fatigue is your body's way of telling you enough is enough. But if fatigue has been hampering you lately,
maybe there's more to it than physical exhaustion. Could be you're experiencing "brain fatigue," and certain
foods can help you fight back.
Researchers have long pondered the origin of exercise fatigue, and they now agree that several factors
contribute to it, including spent stores of muscle glycogen, overuse of specific muscle groups through repeated
contractions, and lactic acid buildup. These are what exercise physiologists call peripheral fatigue mechanisms.
That is, they originate in the muscles themselves.
However, recent research shows that exercise fatigue is also caused by mechanisms in the brain. Specifically,
scientists are looking at neurotransmitters--brain chemicals responsible for (among other things) mood and
alertness. According to the "brain theory," levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin rise during exercise and
cause fatigue. Further research indicates that eating certain foods may inhibit this mechanism. But first, let's
look more closely at brain fatigue. It's All In Your HeadThe brain theory, or "central fatigue hypothesis," of
exercise exhaustion was developed by Oxford University biochemist Eric Newsholme, Ph.D. It begins like this:
When you run for long periods, you drain your muscles of glycogen, which is the form that carbohydrates take
when stored in muscle tissue. When glycogen stores run low, fatty acids (released from fat cells) become a
primary energy source.
Now it gets tricky. Fatty acids require a special carrier to take them through the bloodstream. The problem is
that there's another substance that rides this same carrier. That other substance is called tryptophan, an amino
acid that the brain converts to serotonin. What happens is that during endurance exercise, increasing numbers
of fatty acids bump tryptophan off its carrier. The free-floating tryptophan enters the brain (it has a biochemical
"preference" to do this), where it converts to serotonin. The result? Serotonin levels increase, and you feel tired.
This fatty acid-tryptophan-serotonin chain of events isn't the only mechanism responsible for brain fatigue.
There's a second biochemical interaction that brings on fatigue. It involves substances called branch chain
amino acids (BCAAs), which compete with tryptophan for entry into the brain.
During a long bout of exercise such as a marathon, your muscles use BCAAs for fuel. This lowers the amount of
circulating BCAAs, which means that more tryptophan can get into the brain, as it doesn't have to compete with
as many BCAAs to do so. The result: more serotonin is produced, and fatigue sets in. Theoretically, if you could
maintain higher levels of BCAAs in your blood during exercise, more BCAAs and less tryptophan would get into
the brain, and this would help fight fatigue.
Food For Thought
The key to fighting brain fatigue is to prevent tryptophan from getting into the brain. Certain foods can help
accomplish this--in particular, carbohydrates.
When you take in carbohydrates just before or during exercise, as with a sports drink, your muscles use the
carbohydrates as fuel, and a signal is sent to fat cells to slow the release of free fatty acids. When fatty acid
release slows, this decreases the amount of tryptophan going to the brain.
To examine this carbohydrate/brain connection, University of South Carolina exercise physiologist Mark Davis,
Ph.D., put trained cyclists to the test. Two groups of cyclists were asked to pedal on a stationary bike at twothirds
of their maximum effort until exhaustion. While cycling, they drank a cup of fluid every 30 minutes. The
first group drank a placebo beverage that contained no carbohydrates, while the second group drank a
carbohydrate sports drink.
The cyclists who drank the placebo stopped pedaling after about 3 hours. The carbohydrate drinkers lasted a
full 45 minutes longer. Furthermore, researchers discovered that the levels of free fatty acids and tryptophan
climbed over 500 percent of normal in the placebo group and were highest at the time of exhaustion. Those who
took in carbohydrates had far lower levels of both.
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"The carbohydrate beverages clearly boosted performance in these cyclists," says Davis. "And while some of
the improvement may be from increased fuel for the muscles, our results show that carbohydrates also play a
role in delaying fatigue through central mechanisms." In other words, carbohydrates do this by holding down
levels of fatty acids and tryptophan.
The Chain Gang
And what about the branch chain amino acids? Can we take a dose of BCAAs while running, so that less
tryptophan reaches the brain for serotonin production? The theory sounds plausible, but studies have been
inconclusive. According to Davis, the amount of BCAAs needed to lessen the amount of tryptophan entering the
brain would be poorly tolerated and perhaps even dangerous. BCAA beverages taste awful, for one, and they
slow fluid absorption, which increases risk of dehydration. Heavy doses could possibly even bring about toxic
levels of ammonia in the body.
Yet, inevitably, sports drinks containing BCAAs have hit the market. While testimonials from endurance runners
suggest that these beverages ward off fatigue, the amount of BCAAs in these products--less than 1 gram per
serving--is small and would have negligible effect. Until we learn more about BCAAs and fatigue, you should
avoid taking supplements containing these amino acids because of their potentially harmful side effects.
Brain Pleasers
To help fight brain fatigue, here are several tips for before and during your workouts and races:
• About 2 to 3 hours before a long run, eat high-carbohydrate foods such as cereal, bread, low-fat muffins or
fruit. The carbohydrates will be released into your bloodstream during your run. They'll serve as fuel for
exercising muscles and help stave off brain fatigue.
• Avoid fasting. Skipping meals shortly before a workout or race not only can leave you short on fuel but can
lead to brain fatigue. What happens is that glycogen stores become depleted, so the body compensates by
increasing the circulation of fatty acids for fuel. As fatty acid levels go up, so does your level of tryptophan,
and, well, you know the rest.
• Keep away from high-fat foods before your workouts. Doughnuts, fatty meats or high-fat dairy products may
cause early fatigue by increasing the levels of circulating fatty acids.
• During a long run, eat foods that have a high glycemic index (GI). The GI is a measure of how quickly a
carbohydrate food is processed, releasing sugar into the bloodstream. High-glycemic foods are exactly what
you need to fuel muscles and keep fatty acid levels from climbing. Good high-glycemic choices include
sports drinks, raisins, bread, potatoes and cookies sweetened with molasses
• Be sure to get adequate rest. Early fatigue during workouts or races may simply be a sign that you're not
getting adequate rest and recovery. If you do high mileage on a daily basis, make sure to get plenty of
sleep. Also, schedule a day off or light cross-training activity once a week or so to give your muscles--and
mind--a break from hard training.
References
Liz Applegate, Ph.D., is the Nutrition Editor for Runner's World. She is a member of The National Triathlon
Training Camp Elite Team, and teaches at the University of California at Davis.
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Game Day
Heat
Heat can be a serious problem especially during August practices and during the first several weeks of the
season. If you listen to your body you can prevent most problems with heat. If you fail to listen, you can have
serious problems. The first step in avoiding heat problems is to drink plenty of liquids. The three major problems
that heat can cause are: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. If you get in trouble, stop exercise, get
out of the sun, get fluids, and cool off.
Heat related problems
• Heat cramps. These occur in the voluntary muscles and are usually the first sign of trouble. If you get heat
cramps, quit exercise and get out of the sun. Message usually helps as does drinking water or sports drink.
• Heat exhaustion. This is brought on by fluid loss and partly by the fact that the body's cooling system has
sent so much of its blood supply to the skin. This reduces blood flow to the brain and can produce confusion
and even unconsciousness. A person with heat exhaustion has a wet skin. If you get heat exhaustion stop
at once, get out of the sun, lie down, raise your feet, and cool off. Drink plenty of fluids.
• Heat stroke. Heat stroke is life threatening. In heat stroke the body temperature is extremely high and the
skin is usually (though not always) hot and dry. Other symptoms are dizziness, vomiting, diarrhea, and
confusion. Immediate medical attention is required. The body temperature must be reduced at once with
cool water, rubbing alcohol, or by putting the victim into a tub of cold water.
Listen to your body. When you start to feel overheated stop exercising. If you are in the middle of a game, drop
to the ground to let the referee know that you need to come out of the game. As soon as you get of the field,
pour water on your head, get out of the sun, and drink plenty of fluids. You can prevent most heat related
problems by drinking plenty of fluids before, during, and after exercise or a game.
Hydration
Failure to drink adequate fluids leads to dehydration. Dehydration can lead to fatigue, headaches, and even
muscle cramps. Even if you don't have any of these symptoms, you still need to be sure that you get adequate
fluids. This is especially important during the August practices and the early games in the season.
This year the American College of sports Medicine (ACM) released advise on fluid intake for health and
performance.
The day before practice or a game, eat well and drink plenty of fluids Drink more fluids than you think you need.
Thirst is not a good indication of needing fluids. Drink fluids before practice or a game. During practice or during
a game, drink plenty of fluids. Be sure to drink at least one glass of water or sports drink at half time. Remember
to drink at half time even if you are not thirsty. Thirst is NOT a good indication of need for fluids. Keep your
beverage cool. Studies show that cooled beverages are more palatable and that you will tend to drink more.
Try to drink a sports drink during games--especially the first game of the day. Studies show that if exercise lasts
over an hour (a soccer game is90 minutes for U18), a drink with electrolytes and carbohydrates is better than
plain water. For shorter periods of exercise, water is just as good as sports drink. Avoid drinks that are too high
in electrolytes or carbohydrates.
Consume carbohydrates at the rate of 120 to 240 calories per hour during exercise lasting over an hour. This
will delay fatigue. Drink 5 to 12 ounces of a typical sports drink every 15 to 20 minutes during a game to meet
both fluid and carbohydrate needs.
Sports drinks with some sodium are recommended for exercise lasting over an hour.
If you suffer from cramps, drink several glasses of sports drink the day before a game or practice.
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Sports Medicine Rumor Control
From the NCAA Sports Sciences Education Newsletter (Fall 1996). The article is from the Sports Medicine
meeting May 29 - June 1 in Cincinnati.
Eating before endurance exercise greatly improves lasting power. A British study suggests that eating 1.1
grams carbohydrate/ lb. of body weight (700 calories/150 lbs.) three hours before, plus consuming a sports drink
during an endurance run significantly extends running time to exhaustion. The subjects ran 147 minutes with the
prerun meal and sports drink; 125 minutes with no breakfast and only sports drink; and 115 minutes with no
calories before or during the run.
Sports drinks improve not only endurance but also performance of high intensity exercise that lasts less than an
hour. When 19 trained cyclists consumed a sports drink (about 240 calories per hour) during a time trial, they
improved their performance by 2.3%. This knocked more than one minute off their approximately one-hour
event.
Exercise induced muscle cramps are thought to be caused by dehydration and loss of sodium and potassium,
but that may not be true. Runners who suffered muscle cramps after a 35 mile race had similar serum sodium,
potassium and glucose levels as well as similar hydration status compared to a runner with no cramps. But the
runners with cramps had a higher EMG (electromyograph) activity, suggesting that the cause may be
malfunctioning nerves.
Drinking alcohol after exercise results in reduced muscle glycogen storage when athletes displace carbohydrate
calories with alcohol (that is, they drink beer, but don't eat enough food). If you are going to drink alcohol, be
sure to eat a high carbohydrate diet.
Recovery carbohydrates are important not only for endurance athletes, but also for those who train for strength.
When eight healthy men (age 22) consumed .5 carbohydrates/ lb. body weight immediately after performing
heavy resistance exercise and then again one hour later, they had significantly less muscle protein breakdown
than when they ate nothing.
For all you Breathe Rite fans, three researchers reported no performance benefits with using these nasal strips.
This demonstrates yet another example of how we should not believe every ad we see in popular sports
magazines.
What to do about cramps?
Leg cramps can bring even the best player to the ground in pain. There are several suggestions for avoiding
cramps. The most common suggestions are:
Drink plenty of fluids before exercise.
Eat high potassium foods such as bananas.
Recent research in South Africa suggests that the best way to avoid cramps is to spend 15 minutes stretching
before competition with emphasis on the problem area. Although everyone stretches before competition, most
don't spend 15 minutes. The South African researchers reported that cramp-prone athletes can greatly reduce
the chances of cramps with a stretching program.
References
http://www.gaia-ultimate.com
228

Training
Strength Training
Weight Training
Better performances can be the product of a number of factors. This product is primarily the outcome of efficient
technique, the progression of speed and the maturing competitive attitude on a sound basis of general
endurance, all round strength and general mobility. The development of all round strength is best achieved via
circuit training and then progressing this through strength training. Weight training is the most widely used and
popular method of increasing strength.
How do we get stronger?
A muscle will only strengthen when forced to operate beyond its customary intensity (overload). Overload can
be progressed by increasing the:
• resistance e.g. adding 10kg to the barbell .
• number of repetitions with a particular weight.
• number of sets of the exercise
• intensity, i.e. reducing the recovery periods.
Which weight training exercises?
The exercise must be specific to the type of strength required, and is therefore related to the particular demands
of the event (specificity). The coach should have knowledge of the predominant types of muscular activity
associated with the particular event, the movement pattern involved and the type of strength required. Exercises
should be identified that will produce the desired development. Although specificity is important, it is necessary
in every schedule to include exercises of a general nature - e.g.
• Power Clean
• Bench Press
• Back Squats
• Sit Ups
• Shoulder Press
• Chest Press
• Lat Pull downs
• Lower Back Extensions
• Tricep Press
• Calf Raise
• Bicep Curls
• Leg Curls
• Leg Extension
These general exercises give a balanced development, and provide a strong base upon which highly specific
exercise can be built.
How Much?
The amount of weight to be used should be based on a percentage of the maximum amount of weight that can
be lifted one time, generally referred to as one repetition maximum (1RM). The maximum number of repetitions
performed before fatigue prohibits the completion of an additional repetition is a function of the weight used,
referred to as repetition maximum (RM), and reflects the intensity of the exercise. A weight load that produces
fatigue on the third repetition is termed a three repetition maximum (3RM) and corresponds to approximately
85% of the weight that could be lifted for 1RM.
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How Many?
The number of repetitions performed to fatigue is an important consideration in designing a strength training
programme. The greatest strength gains appear to result from working with 4-6RM. Increasing this to 12-20RM
favours the increase in muscle endurance and mass.
Three sets of 8-12RM performed 3 days a week is a typical strength training programme. The optimal number of
sets of an exercise to develop muscle strength remains controversial. In a number of studies comparing multiple
set programmes to produce greater strength gains than a single set, the majority of studies indicate that there is
not a significant difference.
Handling heavy weights in the pursuit of strength will require a recovery of 3-5 minutes between sets, but only
minimum recovery should be taken if strength endurance is the aim. The majority of athletic events are fast and
dynamic, and therefore this quality must be reflected in the athlete's strength work.
How often?
This is really linked with recovery since the body must be allowed to recover from the strenuous demands of
strength training. As a 'rule of thumb' 48 hours should elapse between sessions. If training strenuously, any
athlete will find it extremely difficult to maintain the same level of lifting at each session, and the total poundage
lifted in each session would be better to be varied (e.g. a high, low and medium volume session) each week.
What sort of weight lifting equipment?
There are variable resistance machines and free weights. Variable resistance machines are effective tools for
building strength and muscle tone and are designed to work the target muscle in isolation, without the
assistance of the surrounding muscles. Free weights (barbells, dumbbells and machines that provide the same
equal resistance to a muscle) allow you not only to target a particular muscle group but to engage other muscles
that assist in the work. Once they are conditioned, these assisting muscles help you to increase the weight you
use in training the target muscles in order to stimulate the most growth in muscle fibers. The assisting muscles
help stabilize the body, support limbs and maintain posture during a lift. Lifting free weights improves your coordination
by improving the neuromuscular pathways that connect your muscles to the central nervous system.
Training Systems
Simple Sets: e.g. 3 x 8 with 70% - meaning three sets of eight repetitions with a weight of 70% of maximum for
one repetition. This is the system that all novice lifters should work on, because the high number of repetitions
enables the lifter to learn correct technique, and thereby reduce the risk of injury.
Pyramid System: Here the load is increased and the repetitions are reduced (e.g. 100kg x10, 120kg x 5, 130kg
x 4, 140kg x 3, 150kg x 2, 160kg x 1). Pyramid lifting is only for experienced lifters who have an established
good technique.
Super Setting: This consists of performing two or three exercises continuously, without rest in between sets,
until all exercises have been performed. The normal 'between sets' rest is taken before the next circuit of
exercises is commenced.
Training Programmes
Use the above notes to assist you in the preparation of a general weight training programme, to develop your
general strength, and a specific weight training programme to develop your specific strength to meet to the
demands of your event/sport.
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Safety in the Weight Room
Strength training is safe when properly supervised and controlled. Every weight room should have a set of of
rues and regulations pertaining to safety and they should be on public display. Rules may vary from one weight
room to another but some very basic rules apply to them all:
• Train only when a qualified coach is present
• Follow your training schedule
• Work in pairs - one lifting the other spotting
• No horseplay
• Wear the correct clothing and shoes
• No eating, drinking or smoking
• No personal stereos with headphones
• Help and respect other athletes
• Only athletes who are working out should be in the weight room
• Make sure you and your athletes are fully aware of the safety rules applying to the weight training
room(s) you use.
Remember: Weight training requires supervision to ensure sound technique in pursuit of safety and efficiency.
Conditioning
One of the misconceptions in the sports world is that a sportsperson gets in shape by just playing or taking part
in his/her chosen sport. If a stationary level of performance, consistent ability in executing a few limited skills, is
your goal then engaging only in your sport will keep you there.
However, if you want the utmost efficiency, consistent improvement, and balanced abilities sportsmen and
women must participate in year round conditioning programmes. The bottom line in sports conditioning and
fitness training is stress. Not mental stress, but adaptive body stress. Sportsmen and women must put their
bodies under a certain amount of stress to increase physical capabilities.
Exercise scientists have identified nine elements that comprise the definition of fitness. The following lists each
of the nine elements and an example of how they are used:
• Strength - the extent to which muscles can exert force by contracting against resistance (holding or
restraining an object or person)
• Power - the ability to exert maximum muscular contraction instantly in an explosive burst of movements
(lumping or sprint starting)
• Agility - the ability to perform a series of explosive power movements in rapid succession in opposing
directions (ZigZag running or cutting movements.
• Balance - the ability to control the body's position, either stationary (e.g. a handstand) or while moving
(e.g. a gymnastics stunt)
• Flexibility - the ability to achieve an extended range of motion without being impeded by excess tissue,
i.e. fat or muscle (Executing a leg split)
• Local Muscle Endurance - a single muscle's ability to perform sustained work (Rowing or cycling)
• Cardiovascular Endurance - the heart's ability to deliver blood to working muscles and their ability to
use it (Running long distances)
• Strength Endurance - a muscle's ability to perform a maximum contracture time after time (Continuous
explosive rebounding through an entire basketball game)
• Co-ordination - the ability to integrate the above listed components so that effective movements are
achieved.
Of all the nine elements of fitness, strength and cardiac respiratory qualities are the most important to develop
because they enhance all the other components of the conditioning equation.
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Plyometrics
Speed and strength are integral components of fitness found in varying degrees in virtually all athletic
movements. Simply put the combination of speed and strength is power. For many years coaches and athletes
have sought to improve power in order to enhance performance. Throughout this century and no doubt long
before, jumping, bounding and hopping exercises have been used in various ways to enhance athletic
performance. In recent years this distinct method of training for power or explosiveness has been termed
plyometrics. Whatever the origins of the word the term is used to describe the method of training which seeks to
enhance the explosive reaction of the individual through powerful muscular contractions as a result of rapid
eccentric contractions.
Muscle Mechanism
The maximum force that a muscle can develop is attained during a rapid eccentric contraction. However, it
should be realized that muscles seldom perform one type of contraction in isolation during athletic movements.
When a concentric contraction occurs (muscle shortens) immediately following an eccentric contraction (muscle
lengthens) then the force generated can be dramatically increased. If a muscle is stretched, much of the energy
required to stretch it is lost as heat, but some of this energy can be stored by the elastic components of the
muscle. This stored energy is available to the muscle only during a subsequent contraction. It is important to
realize that this energy boost is lost if the eccentric contraction is not followed immediately by a concentric effort.
To express this greater force the muscle must contract within the shortest time possible. This whole process is
frequently called the stretch shortening cycle and is the underlying mechanism of plyometric training.
Choose the method to fit the sport
The golden rule of any conditioning programme is specificity. This means that the movement you perform in
training should match, as closely as possible, the movements encountered during competition. If you are rugby
player practicing for the line-out or a volleyball player interested in increasing vertical jump height, then drop
jumping or box jumping may be the right exercise. However if you are a javelin thrower aiming for a more
explosive launch, then upper body plyometrics is far more appropriate.
Circuit Training
Circuit training is an excellent way to simultaneously improve mobility and build strength and stamina. The
circuit training format utilizes a group of 6 to 10 strength exercises that are completed one exercise after
another. Each exercise is performed for a specified number of repetitions or for a prescribed time period before
moving on to the next exercise. The exercises within each circuit are separated by brief, timed rest intervals,
and each circuit is separated by a longer rest period. The total number of circuits performed during a training
session may vary from two to six depending on your training level (beginner, intermediate, or advanced), your
period of training (preparation or competition) and your training objective.
Improving Your Vertical Leap
Here is an 8-week program for improving your vertical leap!
Use the calendar to find when you will be training and a what intensity. Refer to the Drills Chart to find what drills
you will need to do. Always do drills at maximal speed! Always warm-up before doing drills.
Warning! Plyometrics can be very stressful on joints and ligaments
Use a padded surface like carpet or use padded insoles in your shoes to help absorb stress on body
232

Training Calendar
Day Sun Mom Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
. . . . . . . .
Week . . . . . . .
1 .
Easy
Easy
. .
plyos
plyos
. .
2 .
Easy
Easy
Easy
.
.
plyos
plyos
plyos
.
3 .
4 .
5 .
6 .
7 .
8 .
Easy
plyos
Med
plyos
Med
plyos
Med
plyos
Hard
plyos
Hard
plyos
.
. .
.
.
.
.
Easy
plyos
Med
plyos
Med
plyos
Hard
plyos
Hard
plyos
.
Med
plyos
.
.
.
.
Med
plyos
.
. .
Med
plyos
Hard
plyos
Hard
plyos
Hard
plyos
.
.
.
.
Drill Intensity
ntensity -> Easy Medium Hard .
No Arm Hop 0 1 2 Sets
0 10 10 Reps
Laundry Jump 1 2 3 Sets
15 15 15 Reps
Split Leg Hop 0 1 1 Sets
0 30 yd 30 yd Reps
Double Leg Hop 2 0 0 Sets
15 0 0 Reps
Single Leg Bounding 1 1 2 Sets
30 yd 30 yd 30 yd Reps
Power Skip 1 2 2 Sets
30 yd 30 yd 30 yd Reps
Rim Jump 2 1 0 Sets
10 10 0 Reps
Ankle Hop 3 0 0 Sets
20 0 0 Reps
Accelerations 1 2 3 Sets
5 5 5 Reps
Backward Throw 1 2 3 Sets
10 10 10 Reps
233

The Drills
No Arm Hops
A very intense series of hops. No arm hops help to increase explosiveness within calf and hip flexor muscles.
Description:
1. Place hands on head
2. Begin by jumping up and lifting legs upward
3. Lift legs up until they touch chest, explode legs downwards until legs touch the ground.
Laundry Jump
Enhances the explosiveness of lateral movements, especially cutting ability and high velocity change of
directions.
Description:
1. Begin by using a cone, paper bag, or some other break-away object at and elevated level 8 to 24 inches
high
2. Jump laterally over object
3. Strive to jump as high and far as you can back and forth over object
234

Split Leg Hop
Helps to improve single leg explosiveness. Split leg hops use an exaggerated jumping / running motion in order
to work most of the lower body's muscles explosively.
Description:
• Split leg hop is a simple bounding exercise that uses an exaggerated motion
• When landing have leg in near 90 degree angle
• Strive for maximum distance and height
Double Leg Hop
Similar to single leg hop but less stress is placed upon body.
Description:
• Use illustrations for reference on how to do double leg hop
• Strive for maximum distance when doing this exercise
235

Single-Leg Bounding
Somewhat similar to the split leg hop, but emphasizes horizontal jumping / acceleration to a greater extent.
Description:
• Simply an exercise that consists of multiple long jumps
• Strive for maximum distance and explosiveness
Power Skip
Good low impact introductory plyo. Works hip flexor and calf muscles explosively. Similar to a single leg take off
needed to dunk on the run.
Description:
• To power skip use an exaggerated skipping motion
• Bring leg up to chest when skipping
• Both arms swing upwards when leg is brought up
• Alternate legs
236

Rim Jump
Introductory low intensity plyo. Works the muscles needed for vertical jumping explosively.
Description:
• Rim jump is a simple jumping exercise utilizing a backboard or other high object
• Begin by jumping up in a maximal static jump reaching for the highest point with one hand
• Alternate hands
Ankle Hop
Perhaps the simplest and safest of all plyometric exercises. Ankle hops emphasize the calf muscles exclusively.
Description:
• Jump upwards using calf muscles only
• Use full upward range of motion
237

Accelerations
Accelerations consist of running at ¾ of maximum sprint speed then accelerating to max speed and then back
to ¾ speed
Description:
• Begin by sprinting at ¾ maximum speed, accelerate to full speed
• As soon as full speed is hit slow to ¾ speed and repeat
• Each time full speed is hit equals 1 rep
Backward Throw
Emphasizes explosiveness in deltoids. Backward throw helps to improve upward arm speed that is turned to
thrust when jumping.
Description:
1. Grasp plyo ball, fill old basketball with water(5lbs) or use sandbag (5lbs), grasp with both hands
2. Begin by squatting over, use a short counter movement before initiating throw
3. Throw ball upwards and or backwards
References
[1] VerticalJump.com, http://www.verticaljump.com/html/trial.html
238

Injuries
Ankle Advice
By Dana Lynn Varon, Seattle WA
Ultimate First Aid (http://www.discnw.org/firstaid/index.htm)
It doesn't take a survey to know that sprained ankles are the most common injury in Ultimate. Attend one night
of league play and watch the players hit the potholes and drop like flies.
On-Field Management
When an ankle injury occurs, the player should stop immediately. The player should not try to walk or limp on
the ankle until it has been evaluated. The sock and shoe on each foot should be removed so swelling, color,
and temperature can be assessed and compared to the uninjured foot. If severe swelling occurs immediately,
the ankle is unstable, the area below the ankle is pale or bluish, cold or numb, or the ankle appears deformed or
bent the wrong way, the player should immediately be helped to the nearest medical facility. Every care should
be taken that the player avoids putting weight on the affected ankle.
If compromised circulation or an obvious break is not suspected, and the player is not in too severe pain to have
the ankle touched, an ACE bandage should be applied. Wrap the ACE two times around the ankle, apply an ice
pack to the bandage, and continue to wrap the ankle and ice pack. The ACE should be wrapped upward, in the
direction of the heart, to encourage return circulation.
The ACE bandage should be snug, but not tight. You should be able to easily fit two fingers under the ACE
wrap. Be careful to reassess the wrap frequently to make sure ankle swelling doesn't cause the bandage to be
too tight.
After the ankle has been wrapped with the ACE and ice, the ankle should be elevated and the player should be
offered some water and either ibuprofen or acetaminophen (Tylenol). Aspirin should be avoided immediately
following an injury as it can lead to increased bleeding. Keep in mind that the player may be dazed or confused,
and make sure to ask directly if he/she has ever had an allergic reaction to the medication you are offering.
If there is swelling, the player should remain with the ice in place and the ankle elevated for ½ an hour. Then the
player should attempt to stand and shift weight slowly onto the ankle. If absolutely no weight-bearing can be
tolerated, the player should be assisted off the field. If able to tolerate weight-bearing, the player should remain
out of play for the rest of the game and begin home care measures. (See home care for ankle injuries).
If there is no swelling and the player can bear weight without pain, the player can slowly begin testing the ankle
to decide if the ankle is stable enough to return to play. The player should try hopping up and down on the
affected ankle. If this does not cause pain, the next test is to try jumping from side to side, then running and
cutting. If none of this produces pain, the player can return to regular play. If, however, any discomfort is noted,
the player should leave the game, and home care measures initiated, until the ankle can withstand regular play
without pain or discomfort.
Home Care for an injured ankle
RICE treatment is the hallmark of home care for an injured ankle. RICE stands for rest, ice, compression and
elevation. Anti-inflammatories are also an important part of the healing process.
Rest, in terms of ankle rehabilitation and management, means avoiding activities that cause pain or discomfort.
With a severe sprain, ankle immobilization may even be necessary. This is done either with a cast or a brace.
Ice helps reduce pain and swelling and promotes healing. Ice should be used in place of heat as long as
239

swelling persists. Ice should be applied for 20 minutes on then 40 minutes off either every hour or several times
a day, depending on the extent of the swelling. Ice should not be applied directly to the skin.
A pillowcase or a T-shirt or over two wraps of the ACE bandage are a good thickness between the ice and the
skin. Compression is used to support and immobilize the ankle. An ACE bandage or an ankle brace works well.
When using either, make sure that at least two fingers can easily be slipped between the compression device
and the ankle.
Elevation: the ankle should be elevated at or above the level of the heart whenever possible as long as swelling
persists to minimize swelling and encourage circulation return to the heart.
Anti-inflammatory and/or analgesic medication can assist in decreasing swelling and pain. Ibuprofen is good for
both pain and swelling, but is hard on the stomach and can cause kidney damage if used in large doses or for
long periods. Make sure you don't exceed 2400 mg/day unless advised to do so by a medical professional, and
it should not be used regularly or for longer than 4-6 weeks. Aspirin, acetaminophen (Tylenol) and naproxen
sodium (Aleve) can also be used for short periods for pain and/or swelling. Aspirin should be avoided for players
under 21 years of age due to the potential risk of Reye's Syndrome.
The amount of time it takes for an ankle injury to heal depends on the severity of the sprain. Ankle sprains are
categorized by three grades of severity.
• Grade 1: the ligament is either stretched or there is a very minor tear without any instability of the ankle.
Characterized by minor swelling and pain. With RICE therapy, a Grade 1 sprain usually resolves within
2 weeks.
• Grade 2: the ligament is partially torn with some resulting instability. Swelling and bruising often occur
immediately. A Grade 2 tear can take from 3-6 weeks to heal and requires RICE therapy and
rehabilitation exercises to strengthen the ankle and ensure full range of motion of the ankle. If the ankle
is not rehabilitated properly, a Grade 2 sprain often leads to a weak ankle with recurrent sprains.
• Grade 3: a complete tear of the ligament with complete instability. There is severe pain and a complete
inability to bear weight. This is a serious injury requiring complete immobilization of the ankle, usually
with a cast, and rarely may even need surgical repair. A Grade 3 sprain can take up to a year to heal
completely.
Ankle Rehabilitation
Strengthening and flexibility exercises are crucial in the treatment of an ankle sprain. Without them, a sprained
ankle has a tendency to become stiff and weak and can sprain again easily. These exercises should be initiated
as soon as they can be done without causing pain or discomfort.
Flexibility exercises are aimed at restoring and maintaining range of motion and should be done at regular
intervals throughout the day.
• Move foot up and down as if pressing on a gas pedal
• Place the heel of the injured ankle on the ground and use the big toe to draw the letters of the alphabet
in the air, making the letters as big as possible.
• Make circles in the air with the toes, both clockwise and counterclockwise.
Strengthening exercises should be done two to three times a day and should continue until you are able to
return to your normal level of play. If any of the exercises cause pain, they should be stopped immediately and
should not be added to the rehabilitation routine until they can be performed without causing any discomfort.
• Stair stepping: Stand facing the stair with the ball of your injured foot on the stair. Rise up on the ball of
your foot. It may help to lean against the wall or hold onto the rail. Repeat 10-20 times.
240

• Walk on your heels for about 20 feet, and then on your toes for about 20 feet.
• Hop up and down with both feet together 10-20 times.
• Hop side to side with both feet together 10-20 times.When the above exercises can be tolerated without
pain, progress to hopping on just the injured foot, without the stability of the other foot.
• If the above exercises can be done without any discomfort, you can begin jogging on the ankle. This
should be done on a flat surface and jogging should be done only in a straight line. Alternate jogging
with walking every 1/4 mile for the first few days and increase jogging time as tolerated. Keep in mind
that these exercises may not hurt at the time, but if your ankle is sore afterwards, you are progressing
too quickly.
• From jogging, progress to sprinting in a straight line every 1/4 mile or so.
From this point, rehabilitation starts to include cutting and side-to-side actions. You may want to wear a lace-up
ankle brace for the next few months when doing activities that include cutting or side-to-side actions. And wellfitting
shoes!
After a few days to a week of intermittent sprinting, running in figure eights and cutting at 45 and 90 degree
angles can be added.
If all of the above can be done without causing any discomfort during or after the exercises, you can attempt to
return to regular Ultimate play. Make sure substitute players are available and make sure you utilize them if you
experience any discomfort. Trying to speed recovery only ends up prolonging recovery time!
When to Seek Professional Care
Many Ultimate players are either uninsured or underinsured and are reluctant to seek professional care and
advice. Although few ankle injuries will require surgical repair, many may need stabilization. Severe sprains,
some Grade 2 and all Grade 3, require professional medical advice and intervention, as home care may result
in improper healing and a resulting weak or stiff ankle.
You should seek immediate medical care if:
• Severe swelling occurs immediately, especially if accompanied by a loud pop.
• The ankle appears pale, blue, cold and numb.
• The ankle is obviously deformed or bent the wrong way.
Medical care should be sought within 24 hours if:
• You cannot tolerate even the slightest weight on the ankle immediately and several hours after the
injury.
• The skin over the injury is hot, red and swollen and/or you have a fever.
Consult with a provider within 3-5 days if:
• The sprain is not improving after 3 days of home care.
• Pain or swelling increases after 3 days of home care.
• You have questions or concerns about how to care for your injured ankle.
241

Injury Prevention
Like most athletes, you undoubtedly want to lower your chances of incurring an injury while participating in your
favourite sport. Injuries decrease the amount of time you can spend in leisure activities, lower your fitness,
downgrade competitive performance, and can lead to long term health problems such as arthritis.
There are some general rules for injury avoidance which apply to all sports. Sports scientists suggest that injury
rates could be reduced by 25% if athletes took appropriate preventative action.
Common Misconceptions
Coaches and athletes believe that males have higher injury rates than females. Male and female athletes have
about the same injury rate per hour of training. Among runners it is considered that training speed is the cause
of injuries (Speed Kills) but research indicates that there is no link between speed and injury risk.
Do Not Overdo It
The amount of training you you carry out plays a key role in determining your real injury risk Studies have
shown that your best direct injury predictor may be the amount of training you completed last month. Fatigued
muscles do a poor job of protecting their associated connective tissues, increasing the risk of damage to bone,
cartilage, tendons and ligaments. If you are a runner, the link between training quantity and injury means that
the total mileage is an excellent indicator of your injury risk. The more miles you accrue per week, the higher the
chances of injury. One recent investigation found a marked upswing in injury risk above 40 miles of running per
week.
The Two Best Predictors of Injury
If you have been injured before you are much more likely to get hurt than an athlete who has been injury free.
Regular exercises has a way of uncovering the weak areas of the body. If you have knees that are put under
heavy stress, because of your unique biomechanics during exercises, your knees are likely to hurt when you
engage in your sport for a prolonged time. After recovery you re-establish your desired training load without
modification to your biomechanics then your knees are likely to be injured again.
The second predictor of injury is probably the number of consecutive days of training you carry out each week.
Scientific studies strongly suggest that reducing the number of consecutive days of training can lower the risk of
injury Recovery time reduces injury rates by giving muscles and connective tissues an opportunity to restore
and repair themselves between work-outs.
Psychological Factors
Some studies have shown that athletes who are aggressive, tense, and compulsive have a higher risk of injury
than their relaxed peers. Tension may make muscles and tendons taughter, increasing the risk that they will be
harmed during work-outs.
Weak Muscles
Many injuries are caused by weak muscles which simply are not ready to handle the specific demands of your
sport. This is why people who start a running programme for the first time often do well for a few weeks but
then, as they add the mileage on, suddenly develop foot or ankle problems, hamstring soreness or perhaps
lower back pain. Their bodies simply are not strong enough to cope with the demands of the increased training
load. For this reason, it is always wise to couple resistance training with regular training.
242

Make It Specific
Resistance training can fortify muscles and make them less susceptible to damage, especially if the strength
building exercises involve movements that are similar to those associated with the sport. Time should be
devoted to developing the muscle groups, strength training, appropriate to the demands of your sport. If you are
a thrower then lots of time should be spent developing muscles at the front of the shoulder which increases the
force with which you can throw, but you must also work systematically on the muscles at the back of the
shoulder which control and stabilize the shoulder joint.
Injury Prevention Tips
• Avoid training when you are tired
• Increase your consumption of carbohydrate during periods of heavy training
• Increase in training should be matched with increases in resting
• Any increase in training load should be preceded by an increase in strengthening
• Treat even seemingly minor injuries very carefully to prevent them becoming a big problem
• If you experience pain when training STOP your training session immediately
• Never train hard if you are stiff from the previous effort
• Introduce new activities very gradually
• Allow lots of time for warming up and cooling off
• Check over training and competition courses beforehand
• Train on different surfaces, using the right footwear
• Shower and change immediately after the cool down
• Aim for maximum comfort when travelling
• Stay away from infectious areas when training or competing very hard
• Be extremely fussy about hygiene in hot weather
• Monitor daily for signs of fatigue, if in doubt ease off.
References
Coaching Focus - No 34 page 3
Peak Performance - February 1994
Peak Performance - Issue 41, 46, 47, 50, 52, 55 and 56
Peak Performance - Issue 65, 66, 71, 84 and 88
Peak Performance - Issue 95, 97, 98
Peak Performance - Issue 99 page 1 & 9
Peak Performance - Issue 102, 104
243

R.I.C.E.
No matter how hard we try, we sometime have to deal with injuries. If the injury is minor, such as a minor strain
(injury to muscles) or a minor sprain (injury to ligaments), it can be treated with RICE--Rest, Ice, Compression,
and Elevation. If the injury is severe, if there is severe pain, if there is persistent pain, or if there is severe
swelling, it's time to see a doctor. Also if there is a major drop in your performance, see a doctor. The rest of
what follows explains RICE and what you need to do.
When you are injured, fluid accumulates in the injured area causing swelling. Swelling limits motion of the
injured area and may contribute to paint if it is severe enough. RICE is important because swelling is hard to
reverse once it's been there awhile. You want to prevent it in the first place.
Rest is necessary to keep an injury from getting worse. This doesn't mean you have to totally stop. You can try
continuing an activity if pain allows. If the pain persists stop the activity.
Ice can effectively decrease pain from an injury. Icing deadens pain and increases blood circulation to the skin
which is OK and decreases circulation to deeper areas where bleeding may be occurring. Apply ice as soon as
possible. Ice for 20 minutes and then remove the ice. Place a thin layer of material between the ice and the bare
skin. Repeat icing for 20 minutes every two hours.
If the skin turns white or blue during icing stop at once.
Compression can prevent fluid from accumulating (prevent swelling). Use an elastic wrap or stocking.
Compression should be applied at once. Compression needs to be firm but not too tight. If the part of the arm or
leg farthest from the heart throbs, the wrap is too tight and should be loosened. Ice over compression. Reapply
compression wraps every four hours.
Elevation of the injured area limits swelling by draining the fluid.
Once the injury is under control, you need to get back in shape. Remember that just because the injured area
doesn't hurt doesn't mean that everything is OK. You need execute a conditioning program to restore motion
and strength to the injured area. Until you do, you risk further injury.
What about heat? Because there is controversy about applying heat, I've looked at several sources on the web
for information on when to use heat and when to use cold. Heat promotes healing because it promotes blood
flow. It also relaxes muscles and eases pain. The disadvantage of heat is that it can increase swelling. That's
why cold is recommended right after an injury. Heat is recommended for later when swelling is gone. Heat can
be useful after about 48 hours.
Remember that this information is not a substitute for medical advise. If the pain is severe or persists see a
doctor.
Once the injured area begins to heal, do M.S.A. techniques. M.S.A. stands for movement, strength, and
alternate activities:
• M --- Movement - Work at establishing a full range of motion as soon as possible after an injury. This
will help maintain flexibility during healing and prevent the scar tissue formed by the injury from limiting
future performance.
• S --- Strength - Gradually strengthen the injured area once the inflammation is controlled and a range of
motion is re-established.
• A --- Alternate Activities - Do regular exercise using activities that do not strain the injured part. This
should be started a few days after the injury, even though the injured part is still healing.
References
http://www.gaia-ultimate.com
244

Shin Splints
Definition
Inflammation of the tendons on the inside of the front of the lower leg. (Sports-medicine specialists don't like to
use the the term "shinsplints" because it commonly refers to several lower-leg injuries. We'll use it anyway but
focus on the specific problem that is the most common: tendinitis of the lower leg.)
Symptoms
An aching, throbbing or tenderness along the inside of the shin (though it can radiate to the outside also) about
halfway down, or all along the shin from the ankle to the knee. Pain when you press on the inflamed area. Pain
is most severe at the start of a run, but can go away during a run once the muscles are loosened up (unlike a
stress fracture of the shinbone, which hurts all the time). With tendinitis, pain resumes after the run.
Causes
Tired or inflexible calf muscles put too much stress on tendons, which become strained and torn. Overpronation
aggravates this problem, as does running on hard surfaces, such as concrete sidewalks. Beginning runners are
the most susceptible to shinsplints for a variety of reasons, but the most common is that they're using leg
muscles that haven't been stressed in the same way before. Another common cause of shinsplints among
beginners is poor choice of running shoes, or running in something other than running shoes. Runners who
have started running after a long layoff are also susceptible to shinsplints because they often increase their
mileage too quickly.
Self-Treatment
Many runners experience mild shin soreness, which usually can be tolerated. If shinsplints hits you at the
beginning of a season, a certain amount of running through it will help the body adapt, but if it's a persistent
problem, you shouldn't run through it. If it does persist, ice the inflamed area for 15 minutes three times a day
and take aspirin or ibuprofen. Ice immediately after running. To hasten recovery, cut down on running or stop
altogether. Recovery time: two to four weeks.
Medical Treatment
If the injury doesn't respond to self-treatment and rest in two to four weeks, see a podiatrist, who may prescribe
custom-made orthotics to control overpronation. Ultrasound and anti-inflammatories may also be prescibed.
Surgery is rarely required.
Alternative Exercises
Nonimpact exercises such as swimming, pool running, walking, cycling in low gear. Preventive Measures: To
stretch and strengthen the tendons and muscles in the front of the leg, sit on a table or chair and loop an ankle
weight around your foot. Without bending your knee, move your foot up and down from the ankle. Or have a
partner grasp the foot to provide resistance. You can also strengthen the lower leg with band exercises. Anchor
one end of an exercise band to a heavy object, such as the leg of a sofa. Stretch the band, then loop it around
the end of the foot. Move foot up and down and side to side against the band's resistance to exercise different
muscle groups. The band can be ordered from a doctor or bought at some sporting goods stores. Ask for
"tension tubing."
Finally, make sure to wear motion-control shoes--and orthotics if your doctor says you need them. Don't run in
worn-out shoes. Warm up well and run on soft surfaces. Avoid overstriding, which puts more stress on shins.
References
http://www.runnersworld.com
245

Down But Not Out
Let me clarify something right away: This article isn't going to be a sympathetic, touchy-feely treatise on getting
in tune with the five stages of grief when you're injured and, boo-hoo, unable to run. If you're looking for
compassion, don't talk to me. I don't want to hear it. Don't get me wrong; being hurt stinks. I've been injured
plenty of times-once for about two years-and have been forced to learn how to deal with it. The easiest thing to
do when you're hurt is to get bogged down in funereal gloom and moan about the unfairness of it all. Which, of
course, does you no good at all (just the opposite, in fact). Recovery is your goal, and what you need is an
effective way to bridge that depressing gap between the day you're forced to stop running and the day you can
start again. It's your choice. Wallow in self-pity, lose your aerobic base, put on weight and make yourself and
everyone around you miserable-or get busy!
No Whining
If you love to run, there's no denying that injury downtime can be brutal. But try to keep some perspective. Most
running injuries are relatively minor and will heal in due time. It may seem catastrophic when you can't run, but a
bad case of shinsplints is nothing when you compare it with friends who have real problems, real illnesses and
real pain. Some of those friends may not recover; you will. So don't complain, because no one wants to hear it.
Not your spouse, not your kids, not even your running friends. Besides, complaining is counterproductive to
getting healthy again.
The payoff: You'll stay positive during the layoff, thus speeding your recovery.
Be Patient
Every runner I've known has been injured at one time or another. And every one of those runners-even a 72-
year-old friend who broke his hip-was able to run again. My point is simple: There's a cure for practically every
running injury, and most injuries heal with time. Unfortunately, no magic pill will instantly cure you. Nor is a
simple change of shoes the likely answer. Instead, be confident that regardless how bad your injury may seem,
it's only temporary. You will run again, if you're patient enough to allow the healing process the time it needs.
The payoff: You'll give the injury adequate time to heal.
If You Have a Routine, Stick To It
That is, if you normally run at lunch, continue to get some sort of exercise at lunch. If you're an early-morning
runner, go for a walk early in the morning.
I'm so anal about my routine that I try to maintain the same daily pattern even when I can't run. Particularly on
Sundays. No one enjoys a long run more than I do. I love to get up early, hit the trail at dawn and cruise for 2
hours.
When I'm injured, I still head to the same trail and hike for a couple of hours (being more attentive to the hawks,
deer and occasional wild turkeys). I follow this with my postrun ritual: some stretching, a session with the ice
pack, a shower, warm bagels and the Sunday paper. From a psychological standpoint, this ritual is almost as
important to me as the run itself.
Is this walk as satisfying as my long run? No way. But maintaining my routine is a whole lot better for my mind
and body than doing nothing.
The payoff: By sticking with some semblance of your exercise ritual, you'll reap many of its mood-boosting
benefits.
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Do It Outdoors
Especially when you're injured, you need fresh air. You can scoop up a lot of it on a bike ride. If it's winter, or if
the weather's too lousy to cycle, I walk. Or go for a hike. Or grab cross-country ski poles and pole-walk up and
down some hills. Processing lungfuls of oxygen is one of the things that makes you feel good when running,
and you'll get a similar effect by doing just about any other vigorous outdoor activity.
The payoff: Checking out the world around you will take your mind off your injury, and you'll get your
accustomed dosage of fresh breezes and sunlight.
Sweat
If you normally run 45 minutes a day, make sure you do some activity vigorous enough to keep you aerobic for
45 minutes a day. This is critical for hanging on to your sanity, not to mention your aerobic fitness. It doesn't
matter too much what you do as long as it doesn't aggravate the existing injury.
The only problem with things like fast-paced walking or even hard hiking is I don't sweat. Working up a big
sweat is so ingrained in me that I desperately need the feel of a wet T-shirt after a workout. If only from an
emotional standpoint, I must do something to jack up my heart rate and work up a lather every day. If I do, I've
accomplished something. If I don't, I can feel myself slipping into that dark, gloomy abyss of worthlessness.
Swimming doesn't do it for me. Neither does running in a pool. Inline skating looks too dangerous. If I could play
tennis without aggravating my strained hamstring, I'd do that. But I can't. So I'll hit the stationary bike or, better
still, use a new device called an "elliptical trainer."
An indoor exercise machine, the elliptical trainer is something of a hybrid: part cross-country ski machine, part
treadmill, part stairclimber. There's virtually no technique involved in using it properly, and it simulates the
running motion to some degree, without any jarring. Therefore, it doesn't seem to irritate any of the common
overuse running injuries.
I guarantee that if you put in 45 minutes on an elliptical trainer, stationary bike, stairclimber or rowing machine,
you will be drenched in sweat. More important, several studies suggest that if you do these aerobic alternatives
properly and with high enough intensity, they can maintain and even increase your fitness level.
Even so, it's mindless, boring stuff, so treat your cross-training activity like you do your running. For instance, I
know every flat section, hill and pebble on my favorite 6-mile loop, so I try to simulate each section of this run on
whatever machine I'm using. I start with an easy 10 minutes on the "flats," then pick it up over a series of three
"hills." I'll recover for a bit, then go really hard at the point when I'd be hitting that steep hill on my run. You get
the idea.
The payoff: You'll end up with a puddle of sweat and a saturated shirt-tangible evidence that you've done
something to burn calories and maintain your aerobic base.
Strength Train
I don't know about you, but when I'm gearing up for a marathon, the last thing I want to do is throw lead around
in the gym. I barely have enough time to do all the running and stretching I need, much less mix in weight lifting.
But when I'm hurt, weight lifting can be a real buzz. Since I'm often at the gym anyway riding a stationary bike or
working the elliptical trainer, it's not a big deal to spend another 20 minutes with weights. And because I'm not
running, I'll do more legwork than usual, along with some abdominal and upper-body stuff.
The payoff: You'll burn calories and maintain overall fitness and muscle tone.
Stay Connected
For me, one of the worst aspects of being injured is not being able to run with my friends. The only time I ever
see some of them is when we run together. So when I'm out of action, I make an effort to stay in touch and at
least feel like I'm still part of the running scene. A good way to do this is to volunteer at races or go to club
meetings.
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I also try to hang with my family in better ways. Normally, they make all sorts of concessions to my running
idiosyncrasies, so when I'm injured I do the activities they want to do. During layoffs, I no longer have
convenient running excuses ("I'm too tired, I'm resting for a long run tomorrow") for begging out of things like
playing soccer with the kids, going to a late party or visiting the aquarium.
The payoff: Instead of becoming too self-absorbed, you'll keep lines of communication open with friends, family
and the running community.
Do Something Every Day To Get Your Running Health Back
While injuries can be markedly different, most of them respond extremely well to rest and self-treatment. If there
are things I can do-see a chiropractor or podiatrist, get a massage-I do them, even if they seem like a hassle. If
all I need to do is ice the injury or take anti-inflammatories, I do it religiously. If muscle inflexibility or imbalance
may have contributed to the problem, I make a point of stretching carefully twice a day.
The payoff: By taking action, you'll speed recovery and achieve peace of mind.
Eat Properly
When I'm running, I tend to eat large quantities of anything that gets in the way of my face. When I'm not
running, I can gain an extra 10 pounds in a hurry. A layoff calls for exerting a little more control over what I eat.
That's not to say I recommend going on a crash diet; reduced nutrition lessens the body's ability to repair itself.
It's inevitable that I'm going to gain weight during an enforced layoff, but by focusing more on low-fat goodies
and fruits and reducing my intake of a few staples (namely, beer, chips and salsa), I can exercise some control
and keep from blimping out. When I start running again, the few pounds I put on will come off quickly.
The payoff: Staying lean will keep you out of a self-image slump.
Focus On Today
Don't set an arbitrary deadline for when you'll be ready to run again, and then start, whether you're healthy or
not. With any luck, you'll only be out of action a few weeks, but you never know how quickly you'll heal.
Simply because an injury took four days to heal last time doesn't mean that same injury will take four days to
heal this time. The older you get, the longer it takes your body to heal. You may also have to forget about that
upcoming race (particularly if it's a marathon) you'd planned on running. Just because you signed up for it
doesn't mean you'll recover by then. And if your injury does heal before the race, be prepared to lower your
expectations on race day. Be happy you're on the starting line and in one piece, and enjoy the race.
The payoff: By not setting strict deadlines, you won't get frustrated when you miss them. More important, you
won't start running before you're ready.
Back in Action
Keep the following in mind when you're ready to start running again:
• If a serious injury prevented you from running for more than a few weeks, start like a beginner. That is,
intersperse slow running with walking, and, as weeks go by, gradually reduce the walking breaks. Run
every other day for the first two weeks.
• If the injured area hurts or you're limping, stop. You're doing further damage and are not ready to
resume running.
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• Avoid downhills. If that's not possible, then just walk down the hills, since they pound the legs more than
level or uphill surfaces.
• Be careful running with your buddies. After your layoff, they're probably much fitter than you and may
pull you along faster or farther than you should go.
• Try to run on soft surfaces, such as dirt trails or flat, grassy fields. A treadmill works well, too; the
surface is relatively easy on your legs, and if you start to hurt, you aren't miles from home. Avoid
sidewalks and cambered roads.
• Wear your heaviest, most protective training shoes. (Make certain you aren't wearing a worn-out pair. If
your shoes are shot, buy new ones.)
• If you're returning from an overuse or muscle-inflammation injury (shinsplints, Achilles tendinitis or
plantar fasciitis, for example), ice the trouble spot after every run.
• Stretch gently but thoroughly after each run.
• Troubleshoot the injury you just suffered. Why were you injured in the first place? Did you run too
much? Too fast? Was it due to a change in shoes? Consult your training log for clues. Whatever caused
the injury, avoid it next time.
References
http://www.runnersworld.com
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Links
ULTILINKS - This is your first stop in finding web sites related to the sport of ultimate. In addition, there are
interviews with players from around the world, photos, a search engine to help you find what you're looking for
and much more, http://www.ultilinks.com
UPA - The Ultimate Players Association serves to promote and support the sport of Ultimate and to serve the
needs of members, http://www.upa.org
Women's Ultimate - The Women's Ultimate web site was created by Cindy Fisher. The web site was created
because there was no "forum for women players to share ideas, exchange information, promote the women's
side of the sport, and just plain old focus on women's ultimate", http://www.upa.org/women
Stephen Chiang - The best site I've seen for Ultimate photography. Check it out! http://www.stephenchiang.com
Ultimate Web Sites Referenced
George Ferguson's Ultimate Page, http://www.cs.rochester.edu/u/ferguson/ultimate/
Virginia Dynamics, http://www.virginiadynamics.com/ultimate.htm
The Vancouver Ultimate League, http://www.vul.bc.ca
Scientific American - Flight of the Frisbee, http://www.scientificamerican.com/1999/0499issue/0499working.html
Hong Kong Ultimate, http://www.nunan.com/ultimate/
Learn2.com - Throwing a Flying Disc, http://www.learn2.com/04/0469/0469.asp
Georgia Tech Ultimate, http://cyberbuzz.gatech.edu/ultimate/
University of Iowa Ultimate, http://www.cs.uiowa.edu/%7Ewillemsn/ultimate/
Ultimatum Online, http://www.ultimatum.demon.co.uk/
Ebb & Flow, http://www.menalto.com/EbbAndFlow/
Frisbee Australia, http://www.afda.com/
Jim Parinella's Home Page, http://www.tiac.net/users/parinell/disc.htm
Goz's Page on Ultimate "Frisbee", http://www.sunnybrook.utoronto.ca:8080/%7Eliu/ultimate/
The Ultimate Playbook for Conjugal Visits, http://www.iam.ubc.ca/%7Espiros/playbook/
Aaron's Tips on Starting or Improving Ultimate Teams,
http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/public/ca/ad943925/bufscot1.htm
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A Glossary of Ultimate Jargon
Descriptions presuppose a right-handed thrower!
• air bounce: a backhand or forehand throw that is aimed slightly downward, but is buoyed by a cushion of
air
• backhand: a standard throw; right-handed player places thumb on top of disc, curls fingers underneath,
extends arm to left side of body
• bid: an impressive (but failing) diving attempt to catch the frisbee. Often used in a positive way, ex. "Nice
bid"
• blade: a forehand throw that goes high in the air and curves left; an extreme version of the reverse curve
• chilly: slow it down, be patient, wait a moment for the game to get reorganized again
• clog: to prevent good cuts by standing in the way of your teammates
• corkscrew: (see "hammer") like a hammer throw but the frisbee is held in a backhand grip rather than a
forehand grip, so the frisbee flattens out and curves the opposite way from the hammer
• cut: a run by a receiver to shake his defender
• D: defense
• deep: a receiver who cuts for hucks
• disk in: signals that the disk is in play
• force: guarding on only on one side of the thrower to make them throw to the other side. The direction you
want them to throw is the direction of the force. Types of force:
- force in: force to the middle of the field
- force out: force to the outside of the field
- force sidelines: force to the near sidelines
- force home/away: force to the home or away side
- force forehand: force the thrower to use a forehand throw
- force backhand: force the thrower to use a backhand throw
• forehand: a difficult but useful throw; thrower leads with middle finger along rim, with index finger
supporting disc; looks similar to a sidearm pitch in baseball; also called a flick
• hack: a foul
• hammer: an overhead throw with a forehand grip in which the frisbee is relesed at an angle so that it
flattens out and flies upside down
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• handler: one of a team's primary throwers
• high release: a backhand throw held and released over the thrower's head; very difficult to block
• huck: a long throw; equivalent to a bomb in football
• inside out: as a backhand, a throw to the right that curves left; as a forehand, a throw to the left that curves
right
• layout dive: "If you didn't catch it, you should have laid out"
• mid: a receiver who cuts for shorter passes than a deep
• O: offense
• pick: an intentional or unintentional block (like basketball) where a player gets between you and the plyer
you are covering
• pull: like a kickoff in football, the throw that begins the possesion.
• reverse curve: as a backhand, a throw to the left that curves right; as a forehand, a throw to the right that
curves left
• run: through what you shout to tell another player to run past the disc without picking it up
• scoober: a fast, difficult-to-intercept throw; similar to a hammer, a scoober is held overhead, but with a
backhand grip.
• sky: jumping to catch the disc
• stack: offensive strategy in which all the players line up down the middle of the field and alternately make
cuts to the side.
• stall count: The defensive player counts up to 10 while defending the offensive player: The offensive player
must throw the disc before the 't' of ten otherwise it's a turnover
• swill: a bad throw
• up: what you shout to alert players that the disk is in the air
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