Sport and Exercise Psychology Review - Sport Psychology Goes to ...

Jeffrey J. Martin
Self-esteem, self-determinism and self-awareness
are not typically viewed as directly
impacting on performance. However, when
viewing performance enhancement from a
personal development model they are
important considerations. Sport psychologists
may clearly benefit their clients by being
sensitive to the development of such personal
qualities.
Psychological skills and methods
Researchers have suggested that athletes with
disabilities use psychological skills (Martin &
Mushett, 1997), would like to learn about psychological
skills (Kirkby, 1995), mentally prepare
for competition (Watanabe et al., 1992)
and have favorable attitudes towards sport
psychologists (Page et al., 2001). As Hanrahan
(in press) urges, sport psychologists
should help athletes learn to ‘be in control of
their own mental preparation’.
Unique challenges
Optimal levels of confidence and anxiety,
and a clear task oriented focus promote
superior performance (Morris & Thomas,
2004). However, sport can be an anxious
experience and athletes with disabilities face
unique stressors. Campbell and Jones (2002a)
for instance found elite wheelchair athletes
experienced stressors such as pressures sores
and the financial costs of their wheelchairs.
Athletes with CP can have abnormal reflex
activity during competition (Sherrill, 1998).
Reliance on equipment (e.g wheelchairs),
other people (e.g transportation needs) and
medication also present unique challenges.
For example, wheelchair athletes have to
contend with poor road surfaces that impair
performance and pose safety threats (Dattilo
& Guadagnolo, 1988). Awareness of these
challenges by sport psychologists can aid in
helping athletes develop coping responses in
preparation for difficulties.
Goal Setting
Athletes with disabilities can benefit from
setting appropriate goals, and adherence to
effective goal setting principles is recommended.
Watanabe et al. (1992) reported
that although athletes with disabilities used
mental preparation, they could benefit from
setting goals for training, competition, and
dietary behaviours. Hedrick and Morse
(1991) discussed goal setting practices for
wheelchair basketball and provided a
detailed feedback chart for offensive and
defensive goals.
Imagery
Recent research with athletes with visual
impairments indicates that imagery is useful
for motivational and cognitive reasons (Eddy
& Mellalieu, 2003). However, we still know
little about imagery use. Hanrahan (1998,
2004) offers many useful suggestions. Athletes
imaging missing limbs may get frustrated
(Hanrahan, 1998) particularly if, for
instance, an amputee images with the full
use of all of his/her body parts (Hanrahan,
in press). Surburg (1989) suggested that
visuomotor behaviour rehearsal (VMBR)
might be a good technique for athletes with
CP because relaxation may reduce spasticity
which could disrupt imagery. Imagery
should focus on developing a plan for goal
attainment and/or a plan for resolution of
stressful events as opposed to simply imaging
a successful outcome (Taylor et al., 1998).
Finally, depending on whether athletes
became blind later in life or early in life, they
may use different visual and spatial strategies
in their imagery (Vanlierde & Wanet-
Defalque, 2004). However, despite differences
in imagery strategy, likely due to
differences in visual experience, both later
and early life blind participants have been
found to peform equally well to sighted
participants (Vanlierde & Wanet-Defalque,
2004).
Self-talk
Self-talk can be used for arousal moderation,
technical proficiency, and the elimination/
moderation of negative affect. First, self-talk
may help athletes with disabilities moderate
their arousal as, unlike physiologically based
techniques, they may have more control over
34 Sport & Exercise Psychology Review Vol 1 No 2