acta facultatis educationis physicae universitatis comenianae

ACTA 

FACULTATIS 

EDUCATIONIS 

PHYSICAE 

UNIVERSITATIS 

COMENIANAE 

PUBLICATIO LII/I 

2012

ACTA FACULTATIS EDUCATIONIS PHYSICAE 

UNIVERSITATIS COMENIANAE 

PUBLICATIO LII/I 

Executive Editor 

Editorial Assistant 

Editorial Board 

Scientific Board 

Reviewers 

Language revision 

of the manuscript 

Info 

Assoc. Prof. PaedDr. Oľga Kyselovičová, PhD. 

Mgr. Angela Barineková 

Prof. PhDr. Jela Labudová, PhD. 

Assoc. Prof. MUDr. Jana Lipková, PhD. 

Assoc. Prof. PaedDr. Dušan Kutlík, PhD. 

Prof. PhDr. Josef Oborný, PhD. 

Assoc. Prof. PaedDr. Vladimír Přidal, PhD. 

Assoc. Prof. PaedDr. Jaromír Sedláček, PhD. 

Assoc. Prof. Marián Vanderka, PhD. 

Prof. Dragan Milanovič, PhD. – Faculty of Kineziology, University of Zagreb 

Prof. Dr. József Tihanyi, Ph.D. – Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, 

Semmelweis University, Budapest 

Prof. Kenneth Hardman, PhD. – University of Worcester 

Prof. PhDr. Hana Valková, CSc. – Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University 

in Olomouc 

Prof. PaedDr. Ján Junger, PhD. – Faculty of Sport, University of Prešov in Prešov 

Prof. PaedDr. Ľudmila Jančoková, CSc. – Faculty of Humanities, Matej Bel 

University in Banská Bystrica 

Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Dušan Tomajko, CSc. – Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký 

University in Olomouc 

Prof. PhDr. Michal Charvát, CSc. – Faculty of Spors Studies, Masaryk University 

in Brno 

Mgr. Ján Cvečka, PhD. 

Assoc. Prof. PaedDr. Oľga Kyselovičová, PhD. 

Assoc. Prof. MUDr. Janka Lipková, PhD. 

Mgr. Peter Schickhofer, PhD. 

PaedDr. Igor Tóth 

Assoc. Prof. PaedDr. Ludmila Zapletalová, PhD. 

Mgr. Helena Rychtáriková 

kyselovicova@fsport.uniba.sk; barinekova@fsport.uniba.sk 

© Comenius University in Batislava, 2012 

Požiadavky na výmenu adresujte: 

All correspondence and exchange requests should be addressed: 

ISBN 978-80-223-3229-3 

Knižnica Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu UK 

(Library of Faculty of Physical Education and Sports) 

Nábr. arm. gen. L. Svobodu 9, 

814 69 BRATISLAVA 

Slovakia

Contents 

3 

CONTENTS 

THE SUBJECTIVE EXERCISE EXPERIENCES AND AESTHETIC ACTIVITIES 

Durdica Miletic ................................................................................................................. 5 

ANALYZE OF SPORT TALENT SELECTION SYSTEMS 

Martin Sebera, Jaromír Sedláček ................................................................................... 13 

WEIGHTED SQUAT TRAINING WITH AND WITHOUT COUNTER MOVEMENT 

FOR STRENGTH AND POWER DEVELOPMENT 

Marián Vanderka, Adrián Novosád ............................................................................... 21 

DIFFERENCES IN GAME PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF WINNING 

AND LOSING ICE-HOCKEY TEAMS 

Miroslav Huntata, Ludmila Zapletalová ........................................................................ 29 

ASSESSMENT OF PEDALLING TECHNIQUES ON A BICYCLE DEPENDING 

ON INTENSITY OF TRAINING LOAD 

Juraj Karas ....................................................................................................................... 41 

EFFECTS OF THE QUALITY OF SELECTED KINDS OF GAME SKILLS 

OF AN INDIVIDUAL ON THE SET OUTCOME IN MEN’S TOP-LEVEL 

VOLLEYBALL 

Vladimír Přidal, Jaroslav Hančák .................................................................................. 49 

LIFE SATISFACTION OF SEDENTARY AND PHYSICALLY ACTIVE 

POPULATION 

Dagmar Nemček, Jela Labudová, Stanislav Kraček ..................................................... 61 

BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES SWING 

IN VAULTING RIDING 

Martin Vaváček, Marek Hardoň, Anton Lednický ....................................................... 73 

All content of the articles is also available on the: 

http://www.fsport.uniba.sk/index.php?id=2727 

Celý obsah príspevkov je dostupný na: 

http://www.fsport.uniba.sk/index.php?id=2727 

Acta Facultatis Educationis Physicae Universitatis Comenianae LII/I

The subjective exercise experiences and aesthetic activities 

5 

THE SUBJECTIVE EXERCISE EXPERIENCES 

AND AESTHETIC ACTIVITIES 

Durdica Miletic 

Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Croatia 

Summary: The investigation was conducted in order to provide evidence of reliability and 

validity of the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale (SEES) and identify the differences in 

SEES subscales before and after physical activity in a group of university students involved in 

aesthetic (N = 69) and non-aesthetic (N = 67) activities. The internal consistency (Cronbach 

alpha coefficient) of the items assigned to each of the three SEES subscales were high and 

satisfactory (0.83 to 0.85). According to post-hoc Fisher LSD test, the significant differences 

in SEES subscales among groups were found in Fatigue and Positive Well-Being (PWB) and 

depended t-test showed significant differences before and after physical activity in PWB only in 

aesthetic group. Opposite of the general opinion that male students do not enjoy aesthetic 

movement classes, the results suggested that those classes affect them in a positive way. It is 

possible that music increased emotionally experienced activity and contributed to better physical 

well being. This is the first research that has reported subjective exercise experience effects of 

aesthetic activities on male student population. 

Key words: well being, male students, PE curriculum 

Introduction 

Many studies appoint the psychological benefits of exercise (North, McCullagh & Tran, 

1990; Plante & Rodine, 1990; Petruzzelo, Landers, Hatfield, Kubitz & Salazar, 1991) and 

measures for global psychological responses to the stimulus properties of exercise were 

constructed (Mc Auley & Courneya, 1994). However, the influence of various styles of 

activities, especially effects of aesthetic activities on male student’s population was not 

investigated yet. 

The psychological or mental health is generally acknowledged to comprise affective 

states or psychological distress (e.g., anxiety, depression, stress-related emotions) and psychological 

well being (Stewart & King, 1991; Leight & Tailor, 1990). Well-known measures 

for assessing both negative and positive affective states are Profile and Mood States – POMS 

designed by McNair, Lor, & Droppleman (1971); the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule 

– PANAS, investigated by Watson, Clark, & Tellegan (1988); Feeling Scale – FS, by Rejeski, 

Best, Griffith & Kenney (1987); and Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale – SEES designed 

by Mc Auley & Courneya (1994). The latest measure, Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale 

(SEES), was chosen for current investigation because of relative shortness in final version 

and the way in which the initial construction of this measurement was made. The first 367 


6 


items were taken from POMS, PANAS, MAACL (Zuckerman & Lubin, 1965) and Affect 

dictionary (Whissel et al, 1986). Later, 7 expert judges, all doctoral level researches in the 

area of psychosocial responses to exercise and physical activity, indicated the suitability for 

each item as a subjective experience likely to be positive or negative influenced by exercise 

participation. New 46 chosen items were identified by at least six of the seven judges. After 

that, 46 items were administrated to 454 university students enrolled in 13 physical activity 

classes. Factor analysis emerged three-factor structures: Positive Well-Being (PWB); Psychological 

Distress (PD) and Fatigue (F) aspects of the exercise experience. According to these 

results, authors reduced the final SEES scale on 12 items (four items that had the strongest 

loadings on each factor). 

In aesthetic activities (e. g. rhythmic gymnastics, dances, figure skating, synchronized 

swimming) expression is considered to be an ability of performance in which the idea of the 

choreography is transferred. Successful transfer of artistic values from choreographer to the 

performer is not possible without subjective experience of movement. Emotions are the basis 

of expressive performance and can only be expressed through an inspired body movement. 

Therefore, in aesthetic activities, it is of great importance to analyse the subjective exercise 

experience because it is assumed that the emotionally experienced activity will dominate 

in the expressive performance. Studies of male students involved in aesthetic activities have 

increased lately (Bozanic and Miletic, 2011; Di Cagno et al., 2008; Sebic-Zuhric, Rado & 

Bonacin, 2007) but this is the first research that has reported subjective experience of aesthetic 

activities among male students. 

The aim of the present research was to: (1) provide evidence of reliability and validity 

of the SEES; (2) identify the differences in SEES subscales in group of university students 

involved in aesthetic and non-aesthetic activities; (3) identify possible changes in SEES 

subscale before and after aesthetic and non-aesthetic physical activity. 

Methods 

One hundred and thirty six students of physical education and sport (mean age 21.81; 

range 19 – 24) from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia participated in this study. The subjects 

were divided in two groups according to classes they attended in aesthetic (n = 69) and nonaesthetic 

(n = 67) group. The aesthetic (AES) course was the first level course consisted 

of basis rhythmic gymnastics elements with and without apparatus, rope composition, basic 

steps and simple choreographies of folk and social dances. The participants in non–aesthetic 

(NON-AES) group were involved in track and field activities (running, jumping, throwing, 

etc). At the beginning of the study, the subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire 

where details of their current and previous training experience were collected. Sport-statusquestionnaire 

(Miletic et al., 2007) analyses issues regarding subjects' previous experience 

of (a) type of sport and exercise activities, and (b) number of years of participation. Of the 

69 subjects included in AES group, 4 had prior experience in aesthetic activities (3 in folk 

dances and one in artistic gymnastics, no longer than 4 years). 

Comenius University in Bratislava, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports


7 

SEES is a questionnaire developed by McAuley and Courneya (1994) for the assessment 

of psychological responses to exercise. Final version of the questionnaire has 12 items chosen 

to assess three-aspects of exercise experience: Positive Well-Being (PWB); Psychological 

Distress (PD) and Fatigue (F). Subjects were asked to complete the SEES questionnaire by 

circling the number on a seven-point scale (with 1 I feel not at all; 4 I feel moderate and 7 I 

feel very much so) next to each item (great, awful, drained, positive, crummy, exhausted, 

strong, discouraged, fatigued, terrific, miserable, and tired) to indicate the degree to which 

they are experiencing each feeling at a certain point of time. Scores were collected prior to 

exercise and after a vigorous exercise bout. 

Data analysis 

Several specific analyses were conducted in accordance with the research aims. First, 

factor analysis (principal components) was conducted among 12 questionnaire items to achieve 

latent structure of SEES among university students. Reliability analysis was applied to alpha 

coefficients. Homogeneity for each scale was determined by factor analysis using principal 

components analysis with Varimax rotation and Gutmann-Kaiser's criteria for Eigen-values. 

Next, a multivariate analysis of variance (one-way MANOVA) with the post-hoc Fisher LSD 

test was used to test the differences in three dimensions of SEES between the aesthetic and 

non-aesthetic group of subjects. T-test for dependent samples was used to determine the 

difference between groups before and after physical activity in Fatigue, Positive well being 

and Psychological distress. 

Results 

In accordance with the first aim of investigation, principal factor analysis with varimax 

rotation (Table 1 and Table 2) was conducted. This analysis emerged thee-factor structure. 

These factors explained 69.05 % of the total variance. The first factor corresponded to the 

Fatigue and contained four items, explained 45.27 % of the variance (Table 2). The second 

factor corresponded to the Positive well being and explained 13.76 % of variance. The third 

factor (Psychological distress) explained 10.02 % of variance. All three factors were contained 

of four items. All of the 12 items (Table 1) had notable loadings on one of four factors (greater 

than .62). The internal consistency of the items assigned to each of the three SEES subscales 

was examined by separate reliability analyses on each subscale. An inspection of Table 2 

indicates that internal consistency (Cronbach alpha coefficient) was high (.83 for the first 

and third factor and .85 for the second factor). 

To identify the differences in SEES subscales for aesthetic and non-aesthetic group, 

a multivariate analysis of variance (one-way MANOVA) with the post-hoc Fisher LSD test 

was used (Table 3). There was a significant multivariate effect (F = 8.14; p < 0.00) meaning 

that the set of composites can significantly discriminate the groups. To investigate which 

dependent variables contribute to the significant effect, post-hoc Fisher LSD test was 

performed (Table 3). The results show that aesthetic group had significantly higher values 

in F (10.3) and PWB scale (20.9) than non-aesthetic group for F (9.1) and PWB (18.2) scale. 


8 


Table 1 

Factor Analysis (principal components) of the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale (SEES) 

Fatigue 

Total n = 136 

Positive 

well - being 

Psychological 

distress 

Exhausted -0,22 -0,80 -0,26 

Strong 0,31 0,33 0,74 

Crummy 0,80 0,12 0,13 

Fatigued -0,06 -0,74 -0,28 

Great 0,19 0,15 0,83 

Awful 0,62 0,09 0,42 

Tired -0,10 -0,74 -0,11 

Positive 0,08 0,14 0,74 

Miserable 0,90 0,12 0,10 

Drained -0,17 -0,87 -0,13 

Terrific 0,32 0,31 0,69 

Discouraged 0,74 0,25 0,29 

Table 2 

Summary statistics and reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) for each domain among 

university students ages 19 – 23 

SCALE 

Score 

range 

Mean SD Alpha 

Eigen 

value 

% 

of variance 

Fatigue 8-40 9.75 4.6 .83 5.43 45.27 

Positive well - being 6-24 19.6 5.1 .85 1.65 13.76 

Psychological distress 5-24 6.65 3.8 .83 1.20 10.02 

Table 3 

Descriptive statistics for each group of students and results of MANOVA analysis 

(Post –hoc Fisher LSD test) 

Fatigue* 

Positive 

well – being** 

Psychological 

distress 

Aesthetic group (n = 69) 10.3±4.7 20.9±5.3 7.1±4.2 

Non-aesthetic group (n = 67) 9.1±4.4 18.2±4.5 6.2±3.3 

Data expressed as mean ± SD. 

*Significant differences between aesthetic activity and non-aesthetic activity group; p < 0.05 

*Significant differences between aesthetic activity and non-aesthetic activity group; p < 0.01 



9 

Figure 1 

T-test differences calculated before and after physical activity in fatigue (F), 

Positive well being (PMB) and Psychological distress (PD) for aesthetic and non aesthetic 

group separately 

*Denote significant differences 

T-test for depended samples was calculated before and after physical activity in Fatigue 

(F), Positive well being (PMB) and Psychological distress (PD) for aesthetic and non aesthetic 

group separately and is presented in Figure 1. The results in PWB were significantly higher 

after physical activity (Mean = 22.9) than before physical activity (Mean = 20.9) with aesthetic 

content. Significant differences before and after physical activity for PD and F in both groups 

and for PWB in non-aesthetic group were not found. 

Discussion 

In accordance with the first aim of investigation the evidence of reliability and validity 

of SEES were provided. The four-factor structure of SEES subscales obtained by Mc Auley 

& Courneya (1994) was repeated in this study. If we presume that construct validity 

as an association between the test scores and the prediction of a theoretical trait, the SEES 

questionnaire could be considered validated for stabile four-factor structure. However, any 

threats to the reliability (or consistency) of a test are also threats to its validity because a test 

cannot be said to be any more systematically valid than it is first systematic or consistent. 

According to Cronbach alpha coefficients, the internal consistency of SEES subscale was 

high and satisfactory, similar to those presented by Mc Auley & Courneya (1994). Obtained 

differences in initially collected data were significant for PWB and F in favour of aesthetic 

group. The mean pre-exercise scores (for PWB subscale) in this study for aesthetic group 

were higher than pre-exercise scores in study of Mc Auley & Courneya (1994), and lower 

in non-aesthetic group. The mean pre-exercise scores in aesthetic group for all three subscales 

(PWB, PD and F) were generally higher than in previous investigations. The mean scores 

obtained in non-aesthetic group were more coherent with previously obtained results. Nevertheless, 

the significant differences in PWB before and after exercise were noted in this study 

only in aesthetic group meaning that aesthetic contents in training effect positively on male 

students population. Consequently, the initially obtained differences between groups do not 


10 


influence these changes in positive well-being sensation. Opposed to the general opinion 

that male students do not enjoy aesthetic movement classes, the results obtained suggested 

that those classes affect them in a positive way. The music was implemented in aesthetic group 

training. It is possible that music increased emotionally experienced activity and contributed 

to better physical well being. Previously, different authors already showed evidence that 

carefully selected music improves exercise performance (Atkinson et al., 2004; Elliott et al., 

2004; Zachopoulou & Kostas, 2001; Szabo et al., 1999), elevates mood (Hayakawa et al., 

2000) and reduces ratings of perceived exertion (Nethery, 2002; Potteiger et al., 2000). 

Musical characteristics and motivational response is highly complex, involving an 

interaction between musical, personal and contextual factors (Karageorghis et al. 1999). 

Priest & Karageorghis (2008) pointed out that rhythm, among all other music factors should 

be considered to be the main prerequisite when selecting a piece of music for exercise. The role 

of music in physical activity is commonly positive and complex and should be investigated 

hereafter. It is most likely that rhythm leads exercise participants to exert themselves at 

a higher intensity, causing more intensive sensation of fatigue after exercise followed with 

generally well-being subjective state. At the same time, aesthetic movement classes do not 

contribute to higher sensation of psychological distress. This founding is of great importance 

for aesthetic movement classes among university students while we continue to try to found 

exercise contents with positive effects and less stress as possible. If we accept the fact that 

the primary benefit in the physical education domain is the increase in students’ enjoyment, 

according to these results, aesthetic movement classes are suitable activity with positive 

effects on psychological well being for male students. 

Physical activity in general has always been stereotyped as gender-neutral, feminine or 

masculine, based on concepts of gender differences and opinions about the appropriateness 

of participation (Matteo, 1986; Bale & Goodway, 1987; Classens, Lefevre, Beunen & Malina, 

1999) and sport activities are often chosen because of masculinity and femininity rating. Those 

stereotypes and misconceptions could mislead us to avoid aesthetic activities in physical 

education curricula. As we already know (Bozanic & Miletic, 2011) male students aesthetic 

performance does not differ from that of the females given the same training. Along with 

results obtained in this study, they should be encouraged to participate in aesthetic activities. 

Conclusion 

We were of the opinion that the results obtained had an emphasizing scientific importance 

while the SEES stabile three-factor structure were yielded and subscales (Positive Well-Being; 

Psychological Distress, and Fatigue) were internally consistent, with respective loadings of 

four consisting items. 

Programming in physical education on university level should be socially constructed 

and co-educative designed to shape healthy and respected social environment. In this manner, 

aesthetic movement for male students should not be avoided. According to this investigation, 

male students involved in aesthetic activities showed greater amount of Positive well being 

than students involved in other non- aesthetic activities. 



11 

References 

1. ATKINSON, G., WILSON, D. AND EUBANK, M. 2004. Effects of Music on Work-Rate Distribution 

During a Cycling Time Trial. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 25: 611–15. 

2. BALE, P., GOODWAY, J. 1987. The anthropometric and performance variables of elite and recreational 

female gymnasts. New Zealand Journal of Sports Medicine, 15(3), 63-66. 

3. BOZANIC, A., MILETIC, D. 2011. Differences between the sexes in technical mastery of rhythmic 

gymnastics. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(4), 337-343. 

4. CLASSENS, A. L., LEFEVRE, J., BEUNEN, G., MALINA, R. M. 1999. The contribution of 

anthropometric characteristics to performance scores in elite female gymnasts. Journal of Sports 

Medicine and Physical Fitness, 39, 355-360. 

5. DI CAGNO, A., BALDARI, C., BATTAGLIA, C., MONTEIRO, M. D., PAPPALARDO, A., 

PIAZZA, M., GUIDETTI, L. 2009. Factors influencing performance of competitive and amateur 

rhythmic gymnastics-gender differences. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 12(3), 411-416. 

6. ELLIOTT, D., CARR, S., SAVAGE, D. 2004. Effects of Motivational Music on Work Output and 

Affective Responses During Sub-Maximal Cycling of a Standardized Perceived Intensity. Journal 

of Sport Behavior, 27: 134–47. 

7. HAYAKAWA, Y., MIKI, H., TAKADA, K. AND TANAKA, K. 2000. Effects of Music on Mood 

During Bench Stepping Exercise. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 90: 307–14. 

8. KARAGEORGHIS, C. I., TERRY, P. C., LANE, A. M. 1999. Development and Initial Validation 

of an Instrument to Assess the Motivational Qualities of Music in Exercise and Sport: The Brunel 

Music Rating Inventory. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17: 713–24. 

9. LEITH, L. M., TAYLOR, A. H. 1990. Psychological aspects of exercise: A literature review. 

Journal of Sport Behaviour, 13, 219-239. 

10. MATTEO, S. 1986. The effects of sex and gender-schematic processing on sport participation. 

Sex Roles, 15, 417-432. 

11. McAULEY, E., COURNEYA K. S. 1994. The Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale (SEES): 

Development and Preliminary Validation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 16, 163-177. 

12. McNAIR, D. M., LORR, M., DROPPLEMAN, L. F. 1971. Manual for the profile of mood states. 

San Diego, CA : Educational and Industrial Testing Service. 

13. MILETIC, D., SEKULIC, D., OSTOJIC, L. 2007. Body physique and prior training experience as 

determinants of SEFIP score for university dancers. Medical Problems of Performing Artists; 22: 

110-115. 

14. NETHERY, V. M. 2002. Competition between Internal and External Sources of Information 

During Exercise: Influence on RPE and the Impact of the Exercise Load, Journal of Sports 

Medicine and Physical Fitness, 42: 172–8. 

15. NORTH, T. C., MCCULLAGH, P., I TRAN, Z. V. 1990. Effects of exercise on depression. 

Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 18, 379-415. 

16. PETRUZZELO, S. J., LANDERS, D. M., HATFIELD, B. D., KUBITZ, K. A., SALAZAR, W. 

1991. A meta-analysis on the anxiety – reducing effects of acute and chronic exercise. Sport 

Medicine, 11, 143-182. 

17. PLANTE, T. E., RODIN, J. 1990. Physical fitness and enhanced psychological health. Current 

Psychology: Research and Reviews, 9, 3-24. 

18. POTTEIGER, J. A., SCHROEDER, J. A. AND GOFF, K. L. 2000. Influence of Music on Ratings 

of Perceived Exertion During 20 Minutes of Moderate Intensity Exercise. Perceptual and Motor 

Skills, 91: 848–54. 

19. PRIEST, D. L., KARAGEORGHISM C. I. 2008. A qualitative investigation into the characteristics 

and effects of music accompanying exercise. European physical education review, 14(3):347-366. 


12 


20. REJESKI, W. J., BEST, D., GRIFFITH, P., KENNEY, E. 1987. Sex-role orientation and the responses 

of men to exercise stress. Research Quarterly, 58, 260-264. 

21. STEWART, A. L. KING, A. C. 1991. Evaluating the efficacy of physical activity for influencing 

quality – of – life outcomes in older adults. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 13, 108-116. 

22. SZABO, A., SMALL, A. AND LEIGH, M. 1999. The Effects of Slow- and Fast-Rhythm Classical 

Music on Progressive Cycling to Voluntary Physical Exhaustion. Journal of Sports Medicine and 

Physical Fitness, 39: 220–5. 

23. SEBIC-ZUHRIC, L., RADO, I. & BONACIN, D. 2007. The effects of propriceptive training on 

the results of specific movements in rhythmic gymnastics. Acta Kinesiologica, 1, 30-37. 

24. WATSON, D., CLARK, L. A., TELLEGEN, A. 1988. Development and validation of brief measures 

of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 

54, 1063-1070. 

25. WHISSEL, L. M., FOURNIER, M., PELLAND, R., WEIR, D. 1986. A dictionary of affect in language: 

IV. Reliability, validity, and applications. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63,875-888. 

26. ZACHOPOULOU, E., KOSTAS,M. 2001. The Role of Rhythmic Ability on the Forehand Performance 

in Tennis. Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 6 (2): 117-126. 

27. ZUCKERMAN, M., LUBIN, B. 1965. Manual of the Multiple Affective Checklist revised. San Diego, 

CA : Educational and Industrial Testing Service. 

RESUMÉ 

SUBJEKTÍVNE HODNOTENIE ZÁŽITKU Z CVIČENIA 

V ZÁVISLOSTI OD ESTETIKY AKTIVITY 


Výskum bol zameraný na preukázanie platnosti a spoľahlivosti škály subjektívneho hodnotenia 

zážitku z cvičenia (SEES) a na určenie rozdielov medzi čiastkovými hodnoteniami pred 

a po cvičení v skupine študentov vysokých škôl zapojených v estetických (n = 69) a neestetických 

aktivitách (n = 67). Vnútorná konzistencia hodnotená Cronbachovým alfa koeficientom 

sledovaných ukazovateľov, pridelených ku každej z troch podškál, bola vysoká a uspokojivá 

(0,83 – 0,85). Podľa následného LSD Fisher testu boli nájdené významné rozdiely v podškálach 

(SEES) medzi skupinami v hodnotení únavy a pozitívnej pohody (PWB). T-testom pre 

závislé súbory boli preukázané významné rozdiely medzi vnímaním subjektívnej pohody 

pred a po fyzickej aktivite len v skupine s estetickými prvkami cvičenia. Naproti všeobecného 

názoru, že študenti mužského pohlavia nemajú pozitívne zážitky z estetických pohybových 

aktivít, výsledky naznačujú, že aktivity s estetickým charakterom ovplyvňujú ich 

subjektívne vnímanie pozitívnym spôsobom. Je pravdepodobne možné, že hudba zvýšila emocionálne 

vnímanie aktivity a prispela k lepšiemu vnímaniu fyzickej pohody. Ide o originálny 

pilotný výskum preukazujúci poznatky o subjektívne lepších zážitkoch z cvičenia s esteticky 

výraznejším charakterom na mužskej populácii. 


Analyze of sport talent selection systems 

13 

ANALYZE OF SPORT TALENT SELECTION SYSTEMS 

Martin Sebera 1 , Jaromír Sedláček 2 

1 Faculty of Sport Studies Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic 

2 Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia 

Summary: In the contribution authors deal with review of some sport talent identification and 

selection systems which were applied in some countries that play important role in international 

sport movement during lest decades. There were two main systems of talent selections: USSR and 

GDR ways. Adjusting of any system mainly depended on quantity of countries´ population. 

As a most important seems factor of first talent identification (age precision), that is connected 

with the beginning of training in each sport. Next steps are connected with talent development 

and there are several phases of the process until international level can be reached. In conclusion 

authors suggest main principles of model sport talent selection. 

Key words: sport talent, talent selection, national systems, talent development 

Talent Identification is often regarded as the first step to become an international athlete. 

Common reasons for countries to blame the system of Talent Identification is to reach international 

performance level, gain number of medals, made successful champions. 

Talent detection refers to the discovery of potential performers who are currently not 

involved in the sport, as opposed to talent identification (TID) that refers to the process of 

recognizing current participants with the potential to become elite players (Williams, Reilly, 

2000). This process of talent detection and talent identification has to be followed concomitantly 

with the talent development program in order to direct those potential performers 

towards the sports to which they are most suited (Woodman, 1994). 

Thorough analysis of talent identification approaches from around the world has brought 

out plenty of special features either to follow or to dismiss. Ultimately, besides other important 

factors determining the TID approaches there was always one which kept overweighing all 

others by drastically changing the process, and by giving origin to the two quite opposite 

approaches to talent identification: Availability or absence of human resources talent 

selection. 

In other words, do we have statistically sufficient number of subjects to brush through 

in order to identify substantial number of talented children for the needs of the reserve and 

top performance sports? Accordingly, the choice of Talent Identification system in the first 

approximation could be as summarized in Table 1. 


14 

Martin Sebera – Jaromír Sedláček 

Table 1 

Options of TID system depending on the availability of human resources 

For the countries with unlimited / 

considerable human resources 

‘Bulk and numbers’ – few specific tests 

Natural selection at the early stage 

Coaches – selectors 

Scientists – assistants/observers 

Specific testing and assessment 

TID for one sport/event 

Decentralized, easy initial training 

For the countries with limited 

human resources 

Tailor made TID – comprehensive testing 

Scientific selection from the start 

Scientists – selectors 

Coaches - advisors 

General testing and assessment 

TID for group of sports 

Centralized training, boarding schools 

Historically and geographically number of approaches was developed on the scene of 

talent identification. They emerged in different countries in different times and were determined 

by number of ideological, social, financial and political factors. Talent Identification 

approaches (especially at the initial stage of training) differed from time to time and from 

country to country and can be described by listing brief characteristics and combinations 

of previously mentioned factors in the adopted system of talent identification. All over the 

world there can be described two opposite systems of talent selection approaches, who were 

influencing another countries and were historically introduced as a first at the end of 60-ies 

in last century: USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) and GDR (East Germany – 

German Democratic Republic) systems. 

USSR system was with practically unlimited human resources at hand, talent identification 

system especially at ‘detection’ level was not really scientific but rather relied more 

on ‘natural selection’ phenomenon. Although, there were basic fitness tests and respective 

fitness standards recommended for talent identification procedures, TID used to be specific, 

resembling natural selection, related more to casual ‘circulation’ of talent in and out within 

the group of novices, with new recruits periodically stepping in. Certainly, coaches were at 

lead, quite often combining the responsibilities of a coach and a physical education teacher. 

Well adjusted and governed by numerous normative documents and age vise fitness requirements, 

system of school Physical Education played significant role in the identification and 

development of a talent. Life style was socially relatively passive but there was good basic 

attitude to sport due to bright career opportunities through it. 

GDR system was quite opposite to the USSR one, though led by the same ideological 

motives, plus the unstoppable desire to beat West Germany in every field and especially in 

sports. With very limited human resources, TID system was general and based on scientific 

selection (related more to tests and measurements of basic motor qualities). Scientists were 

surely at lead, with coaches involved as assistants. Other features were well adjusted system 

of school Physical Education, active life style, good traditions of ‘sports for all family’ and 

good attitude to sport with bright career opportunities through achieving top performance in 

sports. It also featured widest possible promotion of the healthy life style, family values and 



15 

family unity in and through sport and physical activities. This system was adjusted and 

followed by some East European countries like Czechoslovakia, or Bulgaria. 

According these two main kinds of talent selection systems were lately introduced 

systems in some other countries with their specific national features and mixtures. Practically 

every other national system of talent selection combined up to certain level these two systems 

that reflected also national specific features and traditions. From the point of the view of 

national centralized systems of talent selections introduced in the world can be mentioned 

some countries like China. Its system was with unlimited human resources, TID in China 

was specific, based largely on natural selection but with consequent comprehensive testing 

of all humanly possible contributing factors further down the line – genetically determined 

and acquired. Scientists played leading role, with coaches actively involved as well (more 

on USSR pattern). There is relatively well-adjusted system of school Physical Education, 

with good attitude to sport and career opportunities available through it. 

Through India national system with unlimited human resources and millions of parents 

willing to place their children in special sports schools and hostels, number of children usually 

reporting to be screened and tested was extremely huge. TID was general, reasonably scientific, 

with scientists and coaches almost equally responsible for the end product – identification 

of true talent. Although with unlimited human resources, it was a mixed GDR/USSR pattern. 

What made Indian system of TID quite sound was parity between coaches and scientists in 

the decision making. India besides well-adjusted system of Talent Identification used to run 

number of unique talent detection and talent development programs. 

Australian national model is based on general, scientific selection, with scientists at lead 

due to limited human resources (more on GDR pattern) on one hand and to well-developed 

segment of sports science on the other. Among other features are: well-adjusted system of 

school Physical Education, active life style and good attitude to sport. There can be also 

mentioned some other national systems like South Africa, Singapore, and Canada in of course 

in some European countries. 

Literature often states that at primary stages of talent identification it is preferable to 

observe harmonious physical development (Sedláček et al, 1994). If comprehensive testing 

is meant, than it is surely preferable, but if the search itself is aimed at ‘harmoniously physically 

developed’ children, another problem should be anticipated: children identified as talented 

would be well overall developed kids, but with no extraordinary qualities available with 

them whatsoever. In case a kid is selected by a coach for particular sports or event, which is 

recommended (Hoare, 1996), then development of the talent (read training) begins with all 

training means available with coach (i.e. general, auxiliary and specific) in certain recommended 

proportions. Leading role especially at the beginning of sports career would certainly 

be played by general and auxiliary exercises with specific training means present in lower 

proportions. 

Age precision 

Talent recognition is a continuous process, and in certain sports various stages of talent 

recognition happen at certain ages. So how accurate time vise should those stages be? East 

European concept of talent recognition operates with three tire TID procedures: initial talent 

identification, intermediate and final selection (Fisher, Borms, 1990; Platonov, 2002). 


16 


Quite obviously most attention in international literature is paid to initial talent identification. 

Intermediate and final selection are neither well developed nor well described in 

the scientific literature. There are many discrepancies in the theory of talent identification. 

One of those discrepancies relates us with the age when athletes need to be exposed to the 

talent identification/talent selection practices. So the question comes: “How strict the age 

requirements should be at mentioned stages of talent identification/selection”? Apparently, 

while intermediate and final selections can well vary age wise, initial talent identification/ 

detection has to happen with certain age precision. In other words, certain sports require 

children to begin training at particular age – neither earlier, nor later, but even here are 

some possibilities and expert different opinions (Table 2). 

Table 2 

Age options for various sports and age of the beginning of training 

(Fisher, Borms, 1990; Platonov, 2002) 

Less than 9 years 9 – 12 years More than 12 years 

Gymnastics, Tennis, Swimming, Football, Athletics, Fencing, Boxing, Rowing, 

Acrobatics , Table Tennis, Squash, Rugby, Cycling, Archery, Wrestling, Weightlifting, 

Diving, Wushu Hockey, Basketball, Badminton Judo 

Volleyball, W. Polo, Fencing 

Practically, it is expressed in reasonably simple logic sequence: Seven to eight years 

old children are only in the sphere of interest of the coaches belonging to gymnastics (artistic 

and rhythmic), acrobatics, diving and few more early specialized sports. Same kids are of 

no interest to coaches from any other game because it is too early for them to begin training 

in other sports. Similarly, ten years old children could be of interest to the games of football, 

volleyball, hockey, badminton etc. And, at this particular age same kids are of no interest to 

boxing, wrestling or weightlifting because training in those starts way later. They are at the 

same time completely gone case for gymnastics, acrobatics and diving because it is too late 

for them to join there. Sport talent must be picked at right age. Traditional age of recruitment 

to various sports differ a lot and being age-late at initial talent identification stage may cost 

a kid and his parents dear: they can well be losing the chance to join especially early age 

specialized sports. 

Initial Talent Identification and Development 

When the field is narrowed and talented children are retained in a sports specific environment, 

they step into the long term training through its first stage – Initial Training with 

certain recommended features, volumes of training and training contents (Table 3). 

Those features later materialize in particular distribution of loads among various components 

of training which have to be arranged in a way to provide selected children with 

multilateral training (Krasilshchikov, 2010) which is preferably implemented within sports 

specific environments. At the same time, they keep getting their portion of multilateral 



17 

Table 3 

Recommended features of the Stage of Initial Training Stage 

Duration 

(years) 

1 – 2 

Age ranges 

(years) 

6 – 8 

9 – 11 

12 – 14 

Sessions per year Hours a week Session Duration 

120 – 130 3.5 – 6 1 – 1.5 hrs 

development, arranged and delivered to them through physical education classes at school. 

Children, who for whatever reason were not selected to practice any sports, keep getting 

their share of multilateral development in school physical education classes and wait for 

another chance to be identified as talent for other sports in another age group. 

And although Talent Development traditionally relates to development of a talent through 

sports, we introduce here for the first time the concept of Pre-Detection Talent Development. 

In which Talent Development begins way before the talent is in fact identified by coaches 

or sports scientists. Naturally, after talent is detected and placed in the chosen sports environment, 

begins what we suggest to term as Post-Detection Talent Development which has 

to result in the improvement of performance in the chosen sport. 

Advanced stages of Talent Identification 

Intermediate Talent Identification 

Next stage of Talent Identification, (which we suggest to term as Talent Confirmation) 

happens further down during the Stage of Basic Training. In different principle models 

available in TID practices, next stages are progressively more specialized in relation to the 

chosen sports. Intermediate Talent Identification, as usually called in East European models 

of TID and development is in fact talent confirmation and placement. Main question to answer 

is: whether potential of a child is sufficient to reach Junior National level. It means if he/she 

has no limiting factors in health, motor qualities, skills, psychological sphere etc.(Havlíček, 

1982; Harsányi, Martin, 1983; Sedláček et al 1994; Platonov, 2002; Moravec et al, 2004; 

Krasilshchikov et al, 2010;). In Western Models it sounds as directing athletes to the sports 

in which they are likely to succeed and pointing out inherent limitations in their capacity 

(Peltola, 1992; Williams, Reilly, 2000; Krasilshchikov et al, 2010; Woodman, 1985). Tests 

and measurements have to reflect both general and specific fitness. Similar to the initial 

talent identification battery of tests (for general fitness) could be retained with induction 

of some additional specific tests reflecting level of skills, gained during acquired training. 

Ratio of general and specific tests must be around 50 : 50. Basic tests along with progress 

assessment will give clear picture of improvement in motor qualities. Specific test results 

should be taken into consideration while clarifying the discipline and event for further training. 

Physiological tests are of great importance because of forthcoming period of increased loads 

& tougher training. Physiological tests - what event a person is inclined to functional systemswise 

(sprints / speed – strength / long distance events / endurance etc.). Rephrasing a bit – inter- 


18 


mediate selection is sort of confirmation of initial talent identification. After intermediate 

selection is over selected children proceed to basic training. 

Final Talent Identification 

Roughly by the end of basic training after about 3 years of training coaches and selectors 

expect some sort of reasonably high performance at Junior State / National level. The age 

would vary depending on the event and will be in the range of 11 – 12 years for ‘young sports’, 

13 – 14 for ‘normal’ and 16 – 17 years for ‘old’ ones. At this age and with above experience 

in sport one should reach certain performance level. This round of Talent Development 

process we suggest to term as Talent Recognition/Orientation. Two major questions need 

to be answered at this stage of selection. The first one is: which event or game role/position 

within chosen sport is to be identified for further deep specialization? Another question is: 

whether an athlete possesses physical, technical, tactical, functional and psychological 

reserves, developed or inherited to reach International level of performance in seniors’ level? 

Thus, thorough examination of motor qualities, specific abilities and skills, physiological, 

psychological reserves as well as actual performance is highly advisable. The decision bares 

serious financial investments as well – especially in the countries where top performance 

sport is funded by the state, meaning, tax payers’ money involved. Tests should be of a very 

specific nature. Some of the tests though, should reflect general physical fitness as well. 

Ratio between general and specific tests reaches about 30:70. Moreover, general tests are 

selected only from among the contributing to the performance of the chosen event. Final 

decision has to be taken after obtaining the opinion of experts in respective events. 

When the final talent recognition is concluded and decisions approved, comes the time 

for the selected individuals to get into the stage of specialized training. And the main event 

for this specialized training has to be precisely identified at the described stage of talent 

recognition. 

What happens with a talent next is in fact Talent Development with more and more 

special training means and load increase of successfully performing athletes in a rather 

task (performance) oriented manner. It is occurring on periodical basis when best of the best 

need to be selected either to the camp, squad or a team. 

Those actually have nothing to do with talent identification as such, but are rather 

related to picking the right ones from among the best available for preparations to perform 

in particular high standard competitions. 

Conclusion 

Suggesting a new Principle Model of Talent Recognition 

Looking at the process of talent handling in the broader prospective, it looks logic to 

suggest certain changes to the traditional definition of ‘Talent Identification’ as such. And 

since Talent Identification is actually just a part of continuum, corresponding to a very 

particular stage in the much broader process, it seems right not to generalize it but to treat 

as a stage in the Talent Recognition process. Therefore, suggested multistage principle model 

of Talent Recognition may be presented as in Fig. 1. 



19 

Talent 

Detection 

Talent 

Identification 

Talent 

Confirmation 

Talent 

Recognition/ 

Orientation 

Talent 

Development/ 

Special Training 

Talent Development Model 

Figure 1 

Principle model of Talent Recognition 

Comprehensive Talent Development model should address the issues of: 

• Talent development through one sports (straight forward one early sport career) 

• Talent migration/transfer) in case original talent identification wasn’t successful (dual to 

multiple early sport career) 

• Talent retention/recycling (transfer of talent in later stages of sport career) 

References 

1. FISHER, R. J., BORMS, J. 1990. The Search for Sporting Exellence. Scherndorf : Hoffman Verlag. 

146 p. 

2. GLESK, P., HARSANYI, L. 1998. Výber talentov so zameraním na atletiku. Bratislava : SAZ, 

1998. ISBN 80-227-1155-1. 

3. HARSÁNYI, L., MARTIN, M. 1983. Zur Auswahl sportlicher Talente. In Leistungsport, 13(2), 

1983, p. 21-24. 

4. HAVLÍČEK, I. 1982. Systém športovej prípravy talentovanej mládeže. In Tréner (6), 1982, p. 

242-245. 

5. HOARE, D. 1996.Coaching Focus, The National Coaching Foundation. Talent Identification and 

Development: The Australian Talent Search Programme, 1996. 

6. KRASILSHCHIKOV, O, SEBASTIAN, PJ, MANILAL, KP, SAJU JOSEPH, VC. 1995. The 

system of Long-term training and selection of talented sports persons. NIS Scientific Journal. 

Vol. 18, No 2. p. 26-40. 

7. KRASILSHCHIKOV, O. 2010. Talent Identification and Development – International Trends 

and Principle Models. Buletin Kejurulatihan Majlis Sukan Negara Malaysia, 2010, p. 5-15. ISSN 

2180-3773. 

8. MORAVEC et al 2004. Teória a didaktika športu. Bratislava : FTVŠ UK a SVS TVŠ, 2004. 212 p. 

ISBN 80-89075-22-3. 

9. PELTOLA, E. 1992. Talent Identification an Overview. IAAF: 7(3), 7-12. 

10. PLATONOV, VN. 2002. Teoria General del Entrenamiento Deportivo Olimpico. Paidotribo Editorial, 

2002. 686 p. 

11. SEDLÁČEK, J. et al 1994. The Inffluence of the Political Changes on the High Performance Sport 

Organization in Czechoslovakia. In WILCOX, CR Sport in the Global Village. Fitness Information 

Technology, Inc., 1994,p. 341-347. ISBN 0-9627926-4-0. 

12. WILLIAMS, AM, REILLY, T. 2000. Talent identification and development in soccer. Journal of 

Sports Sciences: 18, 657-667. 

13. WOODMAN, L. 1985. Talent identification – Is competition enough. Sports Coach: 9(1), 49-57. 


20 


RESUMÉ 

ANALÝZA SYSTÉMOV VÝBERU TALENTOV NA ŠPORT 

Martin Sebera, Jaromir Sedláček 

V príspevku sa autori venujú vývoju systémov výberu športovo talentovanej mládeže, ktoré 

boli uplatnené v niektorých štátoch, ktoré zohrali v medzinárodnom športovom hnutí v posledných 

desaťročiach dôležitú rolu. Existovali dva hlavné systémy: systém ZSSR a NDR. Využitie 

každého systému sa odvíjalo hlavne od kvantity populačných zdrojov v tom či onom 

štáte. Ako najdôležitejší sa javí faktor prvej identifikácie talentu (vekové spresnenie), ktoré 

sa viaže na počiatočný tréning v každom športe. Ďalšie kroky vo výbere sú spojené s rozvíjaním 

talentu a celý proces má niekoľko fáz až po možné dosiahnutie medzinárodnej úrovne. 

V závere autori navrhujú hlavné princípy modelu výberu športových talentov. 


Weighted squat training with and without counter movement for strength and power development 

21 

WEIGHTED SQUAT TRAINING 

WITH AND WITHOUT COUNTER MOVEMENT 

FOR STRENGTH AND POWER DEVELOPMENT 

Marián Vanderka, Adrián Novosád 

Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia 

Summary: The purpose of the study was to compare the effects of explosive squat training 

with and without counter movement. It was a time two- group parallel pedagogical experiment 

realized in 11 weeks, twice a week focused on frequency training. Thirty male subjects were 

divided into two groups (n = 15 per group). Experimental group (Ex) performed counter movement. 

No counter movement group (Ko) performed two-second stops in the bottom squat position. 

The subjects were physically active, but not highly trained students of the Faculty of PE and 

Sport, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia. The strength training in both groups went 

through progressive from 3 to 6 sets of 6 repetitions of weighted explosive squats, intensities 

ranging variably between 50 – 70 % of 6RM. Six repetition maximum (6RM) of half squat, 

maximum power output (Pmean) in graded diagnostics series, a mean rate of force development 

(RFD) were tested pre- and post- training intervention. Significant pre-post differences in the 

improvements between groups were detected in favour of (Ex) group in the force gradient 

(RFD) measured in the period of 0-50 ms in the isometric mode at 90° squat in the knee joint 

(p < 0.05). Ex group achieved an increase in RFD (0-50) (mean ± SD) of 2.57 ± 2.50 N·s 1 

(60.8%, p < 0.01) from the average initial value of 3.96 to 6.54 N·s 1 . Ko group achieved an 

increase of 2.23 ± 2.40 (50.2 %, p < 0.01) from 4.73 to 7.10 N·s 1 . Pmean was not changed 

in pre- post testing significantly neither in Ko nor in Ex group. 6RM gained significant improvements 

(p < 0.05). Ex of 10.5 ± 5.8 kg (10.5%), Ko of 12.1 ± 5.9 kg (12.5%). It was concluded 

that improvement in maximum force was in both groups similar but non significant in power. 

Force gradient and strength may be accounted for by neural factors during the course of 11 weeks 

intensive strength training in both groups. More pronounce effects in force gradient can be 

reached by counter movement squatting without stopping in lowest position. 

Key words: strength training, power output, rate of force development, counter movement 

Introduction 

Muscular power is an important component of many athletic pursuits. However, there 

is much debate as to the most effective resistance strength training method to develop power. 

The key issues would seem to be which load expressed as a percentage of one repetition 

maximum (% 1RM) and which training technique best facilitates power and force gradient 

development. 

Many authors suggest that the optimal compromise between force and velocity for the 

development of maximum power and gradient is achieved at loads about 50% of maximum 


22 

Marián Vanderka – Adrián Novosád 

force and it is thought that the fast twitch fibres may be selectively activated during high 

velocity movements. When using light loads, high force levels are achieved only through a 

very small range of movement. Some training techniques aim at decreasing the deceleration 

phase by allowing the load to be projected as in a throw or a jump (Cronin et al., 2001). 

It may be important in developing power whether the athlete uses eccentric muscle 

action prior to concentric muscle action. Findings indicate that this type of training leads to 

greater rate of force development, higher peak bar velocities, higher accelerations achieved 

throughout the entire range of movement and increased work and power (Bosco et al., 

1982). 

Previous studies proved the optimal effect of rapid eccentric phase in relative small range 

of motion 4 – 5 %. The elastic properties of activated muscle-tendon system and reflexes 

are useful only in this case for the increasing production of force and power (Bosco et al., 

1982, Häkkinen et al., 1986). 

While studies have examined the effect of load, speed of movement (Newton et al., 1996) 

and contraction type, some of them find out differences of strength parameters at various of 

exercises tempos (Cronin et al., 2001; Pryor et al, 2011). Only a few studies have examined 

the training effects of strengthening with or without eccentric breaking in a single research 

paradigm (Naruhiro et al, 2008). 

Therefore the purpose of our study was to compare the effects of explosive squat training 

with and without counter movement. We hypothesized that performing eccentric phase without 

braking in the lowest position would maximize power output and especially the rate of force 

development in the comparison with training by 2 second break in the lowest position of 

squats. We try to get detailed knowledge about the mechanisms of adaptation to loaded 

explosive squatting and based on these findings propose more effective development of 

strength abilities. 

Methods 

It was a time parallel double group experiment with 11 weeks duration and frequency 

of trainings 2 times a week. Thirty male subjects were divided into two groups (n = 15 per 

group). Experimental group (Ex) performed counter movement. No counter movement group 

(Ko) had two-second stop at bottom squat position. The subjects were physically active, but 

not highly trained students of Faculty of PE and Sport, Comenius University in Bratislava, 

Slovakia. (age 22.1 ± 2.5 years; weight 78.3 ± 16.1 kg; height 178.2 ± 12.2 cm). After pretesting, 

the subjects were divided in the groups with no significant differences in power 

output parameters. Both groups trained with the same volume and manner of implementing 

the active part of the movement (concentric contraction). Then effort of this training was to 

maximize acceleration. The training load was gradually increase in combination from 3 sets 

of 6 reps with dumbbells weighing about 5 % lower than the maximum rating, which was at 

about 50 % of 6RM, then we added a week alternating series and increased weight dumbbells, 

while in the eighth week a volume ceiling was achieved, namely 6 sets of 6 reps with 20 % 

heavier weights than the maximum rating at the beginning of the experiment, which represents 

approximately 70 % of 6RM. Following parameters were tested: the mean rate of force 

development (RFD) in the intervals 0 – 50 ms of maximal isometric contraction at 90° knee 

angle on the dynamometer plate; the highest average power output in the diagnostic series 

measured by Fitrodyne (Pmean) and six repetition maximum in half squat at 90° in the knee 



23 

joint (6RM) for security reasons. We used nonparametric statistical methods on assessing 

the significance of differences in mean values: two-way Mann-Whitney and Wilcox t-test. 

Results 

Increase in the maximum power capabilities were comparable and statistically significant 

(p < 0.05) in both groups. When we do the squat exercises, for safety reasons we added 

6RM testing, and after a period of training we reached changes. The Ex group achieved the 

improvement of 10.5 ± 5.8 kg (10.5 %) (Fig. 1), the Ko group of 12, 1 ± 5.9 kg (12.5 %). 

Figure 1 

Pre (In) and post (Out) 11weeks training period both groups (Ko and Ex) values 

of six repetition maximum 6RM (kg) during the squat exercises 

The highest average power output in the total concentric phase measured in the diagnostic 

series (Pmean) increased modestly after a period of training exercises in both groups (Fig. 2). 

Additions to the average power in concentric phase of movement when squatting were 

comparable in both groups and were statistically insignificant (Fig. 2). Tested subjects in 

Ex group improved an average of 11.94 ± 84.7 W (1.7 %) in group Ko of 14.6 ± 88.4 W 

(1.9 %). 

The average rate of force development - strength gradient (RFD) measured in isometric 

mode is a parameter that showed the most significant changes in both groups during the 11 

weeks training period. The most significant increases (p < 0.01) was noticed mainly in the 

period of 0 – 50 ms of maximal isometric contraction. Significant pre-post differences in 

the improvements between groups were detected in favour of (Ex) group in the force gradient 

(RFD) measured in the period of 0 – 50 ms in the isometric mode at 90° squat in the knee 

joint (p < 0.05). Ex group achieved the improvements of 2.57 ± 2.50 N·s 1 (60.8 %, p < 0.01) 

from the average initial value of 3.96 to 6.54 N·s 1 . Ko group RFD (0 – 50) was improved 

of 2.23 ± 2.40 (50.2 %, p < 0.01) from 4.73 to 7.10 N·s 1 (Fig. 3). 


24 


Figure 2 


of concentric total maximal power output Pmean (W) in the diagnostic series during 

the squat exercises 

Figure 3 


of average rate of force development RFD (N.s -1 ) in the period 0-50 ms during isometric 

squat at 90° in knee joint 

Discussion 

Most of the literature attributes the enhancement to one or a combination of factors that 

have impact to changes in strength-speed abilities. There is the recovery of elastic strain 

energy and a higher active muscle state before the beginning of the concentric muscle action. 

Support for the utilization of 50 – 70 % 1RM loading intensity may be deduced from the 

findings of McDonagh and Davies (1984), who stated that a muscle must be activated on 

the intensity of at least 66 % of maximum before there will be an increase in strength. Our 

stimulus could enhance also 6RM in both groups, especially final part of training period. 

We used not only light weights because it seems that training at the load that maximizes 

individual peak power output for squat exercise was no more effective at improving sprint 



25 

ability than training at heavy loads. The changes in power output were not usefully related 

to changes in sprint ability (Harris et al., 2008). 

Utilization of such loading requires greater force production for a longer duration, thus 

a greater proportion of the motor unit pool is activated with the use of both slow- and fasttwitch 

motor units. Furthermore, as all explosive movements start from zero or slow velocity 

and progress to higher shortening velocity, intermediate training loads and training velocity 

may be the best to optimize adaptation at both ends of the speed-strength continuum (Ewing 

et al., 1990). 

The apparent difference between the results of this research and those proposing that 

lighter loads maximize power output may also be explained by differing force-velocity responses 

according to the training status of subjects. Most of the research cited by Cronin et al. (2001) 

for example used experienced subjects who could lift up to 1.3 times their body weight. The 

force-velocity responses of the weaker, inexperienced subjects of this research may very 

well be different with respect to their more experienced counterparts. There was in our study 

relatively large duration of a repetition, at relatively low speeds of movement (high resistance) 

which probably did not sufficiently stimulate the elastic-spring and reflex mechanisms. 

Although in selected strength predisposed subjects we found out some similarities to previews 

studies. This mechanism of significant differences between groups disappeared. 

Our non-breaking group (Ex) exhibited analogues to Naruhiro et al. (2008), greater 

improvement in rapid force production. More over their breaking group exhibited superior 

adaptations in peak power relative to body mass during weighted jump squat. It appears that 

power output in relatively slow movement (weighted jump squat) was improved more in 

the group that stopped motion in lowest position for 3 seconds; however strength in high 

velocity movements was improved more in non-breaking group. 

There could be also some methodological problem with fixing the speed and range of 

movement of eccentric breaking. Sheppard and Doyle (2008) investigated the occurrence of 

a small amplitude counter-movement (SACM) in SJ (squat jump) trials of elite athletes. They 

determine the efficacy of gross observation and the use of a portable position transducer to 

determine whether or not a SACM occurred. Subjects performed the SJ from a depth that 

allowed for a 90° knee angle, with the subject's instructed to maintain a 3-second isometric 

hold preceding the concentric action of the jump. 99.2 % of these trials also showed a change 

in displacement using the displacement-time graph from the linear position transducer. 

The results of this study indicate that achieving compliance to protocol in the SJ is difficult, 

and that gross observation is inadequate in detecting a SACM in the SJ. From a practical 

perspective, these results suggest that using a force plate or a linear position transducer would 

allow the strength and conditioning coach to ensure compliance to instructions in the SJ and 

also other squat testing and training that seem to be without countermovement. 

Conclusion 

1. More pronounced positive effects were recorded by stimulus with eccentric breaking 

(Ex group) in the field of rapid increasing of force (significantly higher rate of force development 

in the interval 0 – 50 ms of maximal isometric contraction – RFD 0 – 50 ms). 

2. Training of explosive squats brought neither with nor without counter movement do 

no significant changes in power output (Pmean). 


26 


2. There was in both groups the significant increase in maximal strength (6RM) by squatting 

with or without counter movement. 

4. From a practical perspective, based of our results, we note that if to explosive strength 

training preceded long enough strength training focused on hypertrophy and maximal strength, 

later increases in explosiveness may be higher. 

References 

1. BOSCO, C., VIITASALO, J. T., KOMI, P. V., LUTHANEN, P. 1982. Combined effect of elastic 

energy and myoelectrical potentiation during stretch-shortening cycle exercise. Acta physiol. 

Scand., 114, pp. 74-83. 

2. CRONIN, J., MCNAIR, P., MARSHALL, R. 2001. Developing explosive power: A comparison 

of technique and training. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 59-70. 

3. EWING J, WOLFE, D., ROGERS, M., AMUNDSON, M., STUTT, G. 1990. Effects of velocity 

of isokinetic training on strength, power and quadriceps muscle fibre characteristics. European 

Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 61, pp. 159-162. 

4. HÄKKINEN, K., KOMI, P. V., KAUHANEN, H. 1986. Electromyographic and force production 

characteristics of leg extensor muscles of elite weight lifters during isometric, concentric, and 

various stretch-shortening cycle exercises. International journal of Sports Medicine. Vol. 7, No. 

3, pp. 144-151. 

5. HARRIS, N., CRONIN, J., HOPKINS, W., HANSEN, K. 2008. Squat jump training at maximal 

power loads vs. heavy loads: effect on sprint ability. Journal of Strength & Conditioning 

Research, Vol. 22, No. 6, pp. 1742-49. 

6. MCDONAGH, M., DAVIES, C. 1984. Adaptive response of mammalian skeletal muscle to exercise 

with high loads. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 52, pp. 139-155. 

7. NARUHIRO, H., NEWTON, R., KAWAMORI, N., MCGUIGAN, M., ANDREWS, W., CHAPMAN, 

D., NOSAKA, K. 2008. Comparison of Weighted Jump Squat Training With and Without Eccentric 

Braking. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 54-65. 

8. NEWTON, R., KRAEMER, W., HAKKINEN, K., HUMPHRTES, B. J., MURPHY, A. J. 1996. 

Kinematics, kinetics and muscle activation during explosive upper body movements. Journal of 

Applied Biomechanics, Vol. 12, pp. 31-43. 

9. PRYOR, R., SFORZO, G., KING, D. 2011. Optimizing power output by varying repetition 

tempo. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, Vol. 25, No. 11, pp. 3029-3034. ISSN 

1064–8011 

10. SHEPPARD, M., DOYLE, T. 2008. Increasing Compliance to Instructions in the Squat Jump. 

Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 648-651. 

RESUMÉ 

VPLYV TRÉNINGU DREPOV SO ZÁŤAŽOU, 

BEZ A S PROTIPOHYBOM NA ZMENY ÚROVNE 

SILOVÝCH A RÝCHLOSTNO-SILOVÝCH SCHOPNOSTÍ 

Marián Vanderka, Adrián Novosád 

Cieľom výskumu bolo porovnať adaptačné efekty výbušného silového tréningu prostredníctvom 

cvičenia drep s činkou umiestnenou na pleciach za hlavou s protipohybom a bez protipohybu. 

Išlo o dvojskupinový časovo súbežný pedagogický experiment v trvaní 11 týždňov 



27 

s frekvenciou podnetov 2-krát týždenne. Súbor tvorilo 30 študentov FTVŠ UK v Bratislave, 

ktorých sme rozdelili náhodným výberom na polovicu. Experimentálna skupina (Ex) vykonávala 

protipohyb, naproti tomu kontrolná skupina (Ko) v spodnej úvrati pohyb na asi 2 sekundy 

zastavila. Tréningový podnet mal postupnú gradáciu od počiatočných 3 sérií s hmotnosťou 

50 % 6RM sa zvyšoval týždenne striedavo o jednu sériu a 5 % prídavnej hmotnosti 

až na 6 sérií s 70 % 6RM. Počet opakovaní bol vždy 6 a interval odpočinku medzi sériami 

2 min. Merali sa vstupné a výstupné hodnoty šesťrazového maxima pri cvičení drep (6RM), 

najvyšší priemerný výkon v aktívnej fáze pohybu v stupňovanej diagnostickej sérii pomocou 

zariadenia Fitrodyne premium pri cvičení podrep do 90° v kolennom kĺbe, výskok (Pmean), 

priemerný silový gradient v intervale 0 – 50 ms od počiatku maximálnej izometrickej kontrakcie 

pri podrepe 90° v kolennom kĺbe na dynamometrickej platni (RFD). Výskum potvrdil vplyv 

výbušného silového tréningu na adaptačné zmeny v oblasti prírastkov maximálnej sily, no 

najmä silového gradientu. Ex skupina sa v RFD (0 – 50) (priemer ± smerodajná odchýlka) 

zlepšila po perióde tréningu o 2.57 ± 2.50 N·s 1 (60.8 %, p < 0.01) z 3.96 na 6.54 N·s 1 ; 

Ko skupina 2.23 ± 2.40 (50.2 %, p < 0.01) z 4.73 na 7.10 N·s 1 . Rozdiel v prírastkoch 

v porovnaní so skupinou trénujúcou bez protipohybu bol štatisticky významný iba v tomto 

parametri (p < 0.05). Pmean sa po perióde tréningu nezmenil významne ani v jednej skupine. 

6RM sa zvýšilo významne v oboch skupinách (p < 0.05), v Ex o 10.5 ± 5.8 kg (10.5 %), 

v Ko o 12.1 ± 5.9 kg (12.5 %), rozdiel v prírastkoch však nebol štatisticky významný. 

Z praktického pohľadu je na základe výsledkov možné konštatovať, že tréning drepov s protipohybom 

je účinnejší na rozvoj silového gradientu. Aj tréning so zastavením v spodnej 

úvrati priniesol zlepšenia v oblasti maximálne silových schopností. 11-týždňový tréning 

s frekvenciou 2-krát týždenne nebol ani v jednej zo skupín účinný na nárast výkonu (Pmean). 


28 



Differences in game performance parameters of winning and losing ice-hockey teams 

29 

DIFFERENCES IN GAME PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS 

OF WINNING AND LOSING ICE-HOCKEY TEAMS 

Miroslav Huntata, Ludmila Zapletalová 


Summary: The purpose of the research was to ascertain game performance parameters in ice 

hockey that make the difference between the winning and losing teams. Game performance 

was assessed based on digital records of matches taken at 2010 Winter Olympic Games in 

Vancouver. Assessed were 24 selected game performance parameters, including shooting, 

saves, power play, penalty kill, effective solution to situations 1v1 and puck carrying. Significance 

of differences in selected game performance parameters of teams was tested by means 

of non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test. As regards the number of shots and effectiveness of 

shooting, save, power play or penalty kill, man-to-man fight and puck carrying in offence, 

especially in the attacking zone, there exist significant differences between the winning and 

losing teams. The research brought results that can be useful for making the training process 

and coaching of teams during a match more effective and enrich the theory of ice-hockey 

performance. 

Key words: ice hockey, game performance parameters, winning teams, losing teams, 2010 

Olympic Games 

Introduction 

Identification of parameters, crucial for the match result, is an important part of the 

game performance analysis. Those parameters are called by Hughes and Bartlett (2002) as 

performance parameters and defined as variables or their combinations, directed to determination 

of effective game performance aspects or result. Identification of performance parameters 

in team sports is rather complex because the game performance of a team is based 

on many strategic, tactical and technical dimensions as well as on time and space aspects 

(Psotta, 2009). Reasonable long-time attention has been paid to search for coherences between 

the game performance parameters and match results, or search for differences in game 

performance parameters of winning and losing teams. This has been processed relatively 

comprehensively in net games thanks to relatively schematic chain of game situations as 

well as resulting game skills and combinations of individuals. However, invasive games, 

where the number and variability of game situations are high, mainly lack a more complex 

sight of the issue and the search for predictors of victory has often only a partial character. 

Out of works dealing with the issue of victory predictors in a more complex way, it is worth 

to mention the work of Hianik (2010). He confirmed that from the aspect of offence a match 

result in top handball significantly depends on effective quick attacks and counter-attacks, 


30 

Miroslav Huntata – Ludmila Zapletalová 

while from the aspect of defence on effective defence against slow advanced attack and 

counter-attack, and from the aspect of goalkeepers on effective catching. The result of a match 

is affected also by the number of faults of field players and effective game skills of goalkeepers. 

In basketball matches (Sampaio, Janeira, 2003) with score difference of more than 8 points, 

the losing team had worse values of all the game performance parameters, while in matches 

with tight score difference (less than 8 points), the result depended on the type (regular 

season – playoff) and environment (home – away) of the match. In the regular season, the 

result of a match was influenced mostly by the free throw effectiveness, while in the playoff 

by the number of offensive rebounds. Home game victories were conditioned by personal 

faults, while effective free throws conditioned the victories at opponent’s courts. Victories 

at the 2007 Basketball Women World Championships U 19 significantly related to assistances, 

percentage of effective 2-point shots and the total number of offensive and defensive rebounds 

(Mačura, Potocký, 2009). Bazanov, Haljand, Võhandu (2005) found significant differences 

between the winning and losing teams in ball control and intensity of team action within the 

attacking zone, calculated from the number of dribbling, passes, screens on the power side, 

screens on the penalty side, shoots and time of the ball possession in the attacking zone. 

As regards partial observations, it is worth to mention confirmation of the meaning of time 

control of the ball or any other object of the game. Van Rooyen and Noakes (2006) ascertained 

that rugby teams scored most often when they had the ball under their control longer than 

80 seconds (in most cases, the ball was under control less than 20 seconds). The importance 

of the ball control time for winning a match in the English Football League was confirmed 

by Jones, James and Mellalieu (2004). Lago (2007) concluded that differences in selected 

parameters of game performance of winning and losing teams at the 2006 Football World 

Championships were in pool games of the Championships, while in the second phase, where 

the elimination system takes place, no significant differences were found. 

In comparison to other games, this issue was dealt with in ice hockey by significantly 

fewer authors and the results are mostly partial. In addition, some works are older and their 

results can be of limited validity or valid only for youth categories. In the only more complex 

work dealing with senior ice hockey, Bukač (1980) found, based on the analysis of matches 

at the 1978 World Championships, that the winning teams shoot more often and more 

effectively and need in average nearly 5 opportunities less to score than the losing ones. 

Their power play was also more effective and more often and they needed one minute less 

time to score in average. They succeeded to score also when shorthanded. They were overall 

more active in offence, more successful in building up the attack from the defensive zone 

and finished more actions with shooting. They tried to attack the rival’s net in particular by 

team actions, while the losing teams only individually. The result of a match was highly 

affected by the goaltender’s performance while, on the other hand, the number of won bullies 

did not affected it so much. Works dealing with the issue in the category of youth include 

the work of Andrejkovič (2008) who found an important correlation between the solution to 

situations 1v1 and the match result. The above relation was not confirmed in solution to 

situations 1v2, 2v2. 2v1. In the category of 10 – 17-year old ice-hockey players, Tóth (2003) 

pointed to the importance of not only quantitative game performance parameters, but also 

the results of expert evaluation of the game skills quality, expressed in summary by absolute 

game performance score and individual game performance index to one period. Jones (2009) 

dealt with the issue of the home game effects on the result of a NHL match following similar 

research in basketball. He concluded that unlike in basketball, the home-game advantage 



31 

in ice hockey is smaller, however still statistically important. The advantage is manifested 

namely by the fact that the home team usually scores the first, which is reflected also in the 

final score. The home-game advantage for the first goal shooting was used in 53 %. In the 

opinion of Dobrý, Semiginovský (1988), the maximum offensive pressure in the first period 

and maximum defensive performance in the third period are very important for both winning 

a match and ranking. The research has proved that teams ranking at the top scored mostly 

in the first period and conceded only few goals in the last period. The low number of goals 

scored against in the last period was linked to the triumph in a match as well. 

As indicated above, parameters of winning an ice-hockey match are investigated 

insufficiently. The purpose of this research is to fill the gap at least partially because the 

importance of their identification is indubitable from the aspect of training practice, coaching 

as well as the game performance theory. The aim is to ascertain in which game performance 

parameters the winning and losing teams differ in a match, specifically in its individual 

periods. 

Methodology 

We monitored 24 selected game performance parameters of eight teams in 11 matches 

of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The analysis included matches in groups B and C 

of teams of Slovakia, Czech Republic, Russia, Latvia (group B) and Sweden, Finland, Germany 

and Belarus (group C). 24 periods won by either of the teams were analysed in total. Selected 

game performance parameters of a team were registered using the method of indirect monitoring, 

DVD records and expert opinions. Power play and penalty kill parameter were taken 

from the official game statistics published on 

. 

Monitored game performance parameters 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Shooting parameters 

– number of shots against the opponent’s cage 

– shooting effectiveness [%] 

Parameters of saves 

– number of saves 

– save effectiveness [%] 

Power play parameters 

– number of power plays 

– time of power plays [sec] 

– goals scored while on power play 

– power play effectiveness 

Penalty kill parameters 

– number of penalties 

– number of penalty minutes 

– goals scored against when shorthanded 

– shorthanded game effectiveness 


32 


5. 

6. 

Effectiveness of solutions to situations 1v1 [number of effective solutions] 

– in offense 

– in defence 

– in offense, separately in offensive, neutral and – defensive zones 

– in defence, separately in offensive, neutral and defensive zones 

Puck carrying parameters [seconds] 

– overall puck carrying 

– puck carrying, separately in offensive, neutral and defensive zones 

Individual variables were characterised with the help of descriptive characteristics of 

non-parametric methods. To assess the differences between the game performance parameters, 

non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test was used. The assessed level of statistical significance 

is 5 %. 

Results 


Significant differences between the winning and losing teams were found both in the 

number (p < 0.01) and effectiveness of shots (p < 0.01). The winning teams shot of 101-times 

more in absolute number than the losers did. As regards the mean value, the difference 

between the winning and losing teams was 4.5 shots per period. Remarkable is also the 

difference in shooting effectiveness. While the mean effectiveness of winning teams was 

14.9 % per period, in losing teams it was zero (Table 1). 

Table 1 

Shooting parameters of winning and losing teams 


number of shots shooting effectiveness [%] 

winner loser winner loser 

∑ 292.0 191.0 

Median 12.5 8.0 14.9 0.0 

Mode 17.0 10.0 11.8 0.0 

Minimum 5.0 2.0 6.2 0.0 

Maximum 19.0 16.0 50.0 40.0 

V R 14.0 14.0 43.8 40.0 

U-test p < 0.01 p < 0.01 



33 

Parameters of saves 

Significant differences between the winning and losing teams were found both in the 

number (p < 0.05) and effectiveness of saves (p < 0.01). The goaltenders of winning teams 

had to save of 62-times less in absolute numbers as the goalies of losing teams, with the mean 

difference of 2.5 saves per period and 14.3% effectiveness. The winning team goaltenders 

saved mostly 10-times per period and did not conceded any goal, while the goaltenders of 

losing teams had to save 15-times and effectiveness of their saves was mostly 88.2 % (Table 2). 

Table 2 

Parameters of winning and losing team goaltenders’ saves 

Parameters of goaltenders’ saves 

number of saves save effectiveness [%] 

winner loser winner loser 

∑ 184.0 246.0 

Median 7.5 10.0 100.0 85.7 

Mode 10 15 100 88.2 

Minimum 2.0 3.0 60.0 50.0 

Maximum 14.0 16.0 100.0 100.0 

V R 12.0 13.0 40.0 50.0 

U-test p < 0.05 p < 0.01 

Power play factors 

Significant differences between the winning and losing teams include the number of 

goals scored in power play (p < 0.01) and power play effectiveness (p < 0.01). The winning 

teams scored as many as 17 goals in power play in total, while the losing teams only one 

goal. As regards the number of power plays and power play duration, no significant differences 

were found. During all the investigated periods, the winning teams were on power 

play only 12-times more than the losing teams and the difference in the total time of power 

play was 541 seconds (9 minutes and 1 second), which is a small difference when counted 

over one period (Table 3). 

Penalty kill factors 

Significant differences between the winning and losing teams playing shorthanded 

include also the number of goals scored against (p < 0.01) and penalty kill effectiveness 

(p < 0.01), where the difference was as many as 16 goals and 41.6 % for the winner’s 

benefit. The winning teams mostly did not conceded any goal per period when shorthanded 

and their game effectiveness was 100 %, while the losing teams conceded a goal in every 

period and their game effectiveness was largely 58.4 %. No significant differences were 

found as regards the number of penalties and the number of penalty minutes (Table 4). 


34 


Table 3 

Power play factors of winning and losing teams 

Power play factors 

number time [sec.] number of goals effectiveness [%] 

winner loser winner loser winner loser winner loser 

∑ 50.0 38.0 4778.0 4237.0 17.0 1.0 

Median 2.0 1.0 189.0 152.0 1.0 0.0 33.0 0.0 

Mode 2.0 1.0 240.0 120.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Minimum 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Maximum 4.0 4.0 360.0 451.0 2.0 1.0 100.0 25.0 

V R 4.0 4.0 360.0 451.0 2.0 1.0 100.0 25.0 

U-test n. s. n. s. p < 0.01 p < 0.01 

Table 4 

Penalty kill factors of winning and losing teams 

Penalty kill factors 

number of penalties 

number of penalty 

minutes 

goals against 

game effectiveness 

[%] 


∑ 39.0 50.0 92.0 133.0 1.0 17.0 

Median 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 0.0 1.0 100.0 58.4 

Mode 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 0.0 1.0 100.0 0.0 

Minimum 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Maximum 5.0 4.0 18.0 27.0 1.0 2.0 100.0 100.0 

V R 5.0 4.0 18.0 27.0 1.0 2.0 100.0 100.0 

U-test n.s. n.s. p < 0.01 p < 0.01 



35 

Effectiveness of solutions to situations 1v1 

During the investigated periods, total 626 situations 1v1 occurred. Significant differences 

between the winning and losing teams were found in the overall effectiveness of solutions 

to situations 1v1 (p < 0.01) and in offence (p < 0.01). The winning teams effectively resolved 

17 situations 1v1 per period in average that is of 8 more that in the losing teams. This difference 

in offence represents four effectively resolved situations per period for the benefit of 

winners (Table 5). As regards effective solutions to situations 1v1 in defence, no significant 

differences were found. The losing teams were surprisingly slightly more successful than 

the winning ones. 

Table 5 

Effectiveness of solutions to situations 1v1 in winning and losing teams 


total offence defence 

winner loser winner loser winner loser 

[number] [number] [number] 

∑ 357 269 237 152 120 117 

Median 14.5 10 9 6 5 5 

Mode 17 9 9 5 4 5 

Minimum 9.0 4.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 

Maximum 25 23 18 17 9 10 

V R 16 19 14 16 7 9 

U-test p < 0.01 p < 0.01 n. s. 

From the aspect of localisation of solutions to situations 1v1 into individual zones, significant 

differences were found only in offence in the attacking zone (p < 0.01) for the benefit 

of winning teams. As regards the mean value per period, they resolved successfully of 2.5 

situations 1v1 more. The winning teams resolved successfully six situations 1v1 in average, 

while the losing teams only two. No significant differences were recorded in other zones, 

both in offence and defence (Table 6). 

Puck carrying factors 

Significant differences between the winning and losing teams were recorded in the overall 

puck control (p < 0.01), puck carrying in neutral (p < 0.05) and attacking zones (p < 0.01). 

The winning teams controlled the puck of 53 minutes and 26 seconds longer than the losing 

ones in total, of 5 minutes and 29 seconds longer in the neutral zone and of 42 minutes and 

20 seconds longer in the attacking zone. No significant differences in puck carrying in the 

defensive zone were recorded between the winning and losing teams (p > 0.05) (Table 7). 


36 


Table 6 

Effectiveness of solutions to situations 1v1 in winning and losing teams 

within individual zones of the hockey rink 


Effectiveness of solutions to situations 1:1 

in offense 


in defence 

DZ NZ AZ DZ NZ AZ 

W L W L W L W L W L W L 

[number] [number] [number] [number] [number] [number] 

∑ 32 29 46 26 159 97 64 64 22 31 34 22 

Median 1 1 2 1 6.5 4 3 3 1 1 1 1 

Mode 2 0 2 0 6 2 4 4 1 0 1 0 

Minimum 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Maximum 4.0 4.0 8.0 4.0 12.0 13.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 

V R 4 4 8 4 11 12 5 5 3 3 3 3 

U-test n. s. n. s. p < 0.01 n. s. n. s. n. s. 

DZ – defensive zone, NZ – neutral zone, AZ – attacking zone, W – winning team, L – losing team 

Table 7 

Puck carrying factors in winning and losing teams 

Puck carrying 

total defensive zone neutral zone attacking zone 


[s] [s] [s] [s] 

∑ 16003 12797 4639 4302 2642 2313 8722 6182 

Median 682.5 517.5 193 180.5 108 100 365 254.5 

Mode 446 328 136 116 83 62 150 93 

Minimum 872 754 257 257 153 134 576 461 

Maximum 426 426 121 141 70 72 426 368 

V R p < 0.01 n.s. p < 0.05 p < 0.01 



37 

Discussion 

In comparison to other sports games, there still exist only few works dealing with parameters 

of match effectiveness of an ice-hockey team, or with differences in game performance 

parameters of winning and losing teams. Our results indicate that the importance of certain 

parameters of effectiveness is generally applicable and does not disappear with the trends of 

the ice hockey development. We clarified even the meaning of man-to-man fights and puck 

carrying. 

By means of comparison of selected game performance parameters between the winning 

and losing teams, we ascertained significant differences. As expected, they were manifested 

in parameters of shooting and saves, considered the final game skills. Teams that are more 

successful were not only more effective in shooting, but also more active in shooting attempts. 

According to our findings, they shot nearly two-times more per period and their shooting 

effectiveness was in most cases of 12 % higher than in losing teams, which would not be a 

significant difference if the shooting effectiveness of losing teams was not mostly 0 %. This 

is perhaps the fact that does not change in spite of various developmental tendencies in ice 

hockey because Bukač et al. at the 1978 World Championships drew similar conclusions 

also. That is why we may state that it is highly probable that one of the conditions of a team’s 

success in a match is both a higher quality and quantity of shooting. As regards the parameters 

of saves, the winning team goaltenders analogously faced fewer shots and frequently 

finished a period without a goal in their net. Naturally, the goaltender’s performance reflects 

also the defensive game of the whole team, however, based on our results and in concordance 

with Bukač et al. (1980), we may state that the result of a match is highly affected by the 

goaltender’s performance. 

The importance of power play was not confirmed clearly. At 2010 Olympics, the winning 

teams profited from power play. However, the question was not the number and duration of 

power plays. Those factors were not significantly different from those of the losing teams. 

Crucial was the shooting success and power play effectiveness. The winning teams scored 

in power play mostly one-time per period and made use of one of three power plays, while 

the power play effectiveness in the losing teams was zero. It is interesting that nearly identical 

values were found more than 30 years ago also by Kostka, Bukač, Dovalil (1979). It also 

appears that not the number and duration of penalty kills are crucial, but the number of goals 

scored against and penalty kill effectiveness, i.e. defence of the whole team and effectiveness 

of saves. 

Significant importance in invasive games has been attributed to solution to situations 

1v1, the so-called man-to-man fights. It appears that they can be crucial from the aspect of 

the result, in particular when resolved in front of the own or opponent’s cage or basket, and 

that an effective solutions to man-to-man fights are even more important than solutions to 

other kinds of game situations (such as 1v2, 2v2, etc.) (Andrejkovič, 2008). Our research, 

focused specifically on situations 1v1, confirmed this statement. It confirmed the differences 

namely in effectiveness of solutions to situations 1v1 in offence and in relation to individual 

zones of the rink during offence in the attacking zone. The aim of each team is to spend 

a considerable part of the game in the attacking zone. A team, able to carry the puck, combine 

at a small space, assert in man-to-man situations in the attacking zone, is also able to create 

goal opportunities and thus to build up its success in a match. The finding that no difference 

between the winning and losing teams was found in effectiveness of solutions to situations 


38 


1v1 in defence and the defensive zone could appear relatively surprisingly. This is perhaps 

caused by relatively low occurrence of effectively resolved man-to-man fights by defensemen 

in that zone. The opponent’s attack disruption occurred frequently perhaps because of other 

faults of the attacking team (bad pass, non-processed pass, zone loss, etc.). Bukač et al. (1980) 

draw up similar conclusions, and ascertained that the winning teams were more effective 

in man-to-man fights in particular in the attacking zone, and this zone has been identified as 

the most important space from the viewpoint of strategy. 

Our analysis of the issue indicates that the control over the object of the game is important 

also from the aspect of the match result (Jones, James, Mellalieu, 2004; Bazanov, Haljand, 

Võhandu, 2005; Van Rooyen, Noakes, 2006). However, the time of puck carrying by a team 

in ice hockey has never been investigated. There exist sporadic attempts to record the active 

time of a selected player on ice, which is in fact the time spent by carrying the puck in a match; 

such statistics however does not exist for the team as a whole as it exists in football. From 

this aspect, we consider our results original. We ascertained that the winning teams carry the 

puck significantly longer in the neutral and attacking zones, but this duration is not different 

from that of the losing teams in the defensive zone. Here, however, it must be noted that the 

time of puck carrying in the neutral zone is very short in both the winning and losing teams. 

It represents about 17 % of the total time of puck carrying. This corresponds to the current 

trend to reach the attacking zone as simply and quickly as possible. The time of puck carrying 

by a team in the neutral zone is really short. The time of puck carrying in the attacking zone 

represents 52 % of the total time of puck carrying in a match. This finding is logical. If a team 

carries the puck, it is in offence and all its effort is directed to the attacking zone. Here, the 

most significant differences between the winning and the losing team are manifested. 

According to our findings, we may consider the time of puck carrying, and especially the 

ability of a team to carry the puck in the attacking zone, one of the important prerequisites 

of success in a match. 

Conclusions 

Differences in game performance parameters between the winning and losing teams 

have been confirmed in various scopes. The winning teams were significantly better in all 

the parameters relating to effectiveness, i.e. in shooting, saves, power play or penalty kill. 

They were significantly better also in effective solutions to situations 1v1 in total as well as 

in offence. As regards localisation of those situations within individual zones, significant 

differences for the benefit of the winning team were manifested only in the attacking zone, 

based on which it can be stated that this zone is the most important for effectiveness of 

solutions to situations 1v1 in offence. We did not find any differences in effective 

solutions to situations 1v1 in defence, neither in total nor from the aspect of individual 

zones of the rink. As regards puck carrying, the winning teams were significantly better 

both in the overall control and in puck carrying within the attacking and neutral zones. 



39 

References 

1. ANDREJKOVIČ, I. 2008 Vzťah úspešnosti riešenia herných situácií v zápasoch a v tréningovom 

procese dorastencov v ľadovom hokeji. Dizertačná práca. Bratislava : Univerzita Komenského, 

2008. 98 pp. 

2. BUKAČ, L. a kol. 1980. Poznatky z analýzy utkání Mistrovství světa a Evropy v ledním hokeji 

v Praze 1978. Praha : Sportpropag, 1980. 127 pp. 

3. BAZANOV, B., HALJAND, R., VÕHANDU, P. 2005. Offensive teamwork intensity as a factor 

influencing the result in basketball. In International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. 

[online]. 2005, vol. 5, no. 2. ISSN 1474-8185 

4. DOBRÝ, L., SEMIGINOVSKÝ, B. 1988. Sportovní hry: výkon a trénink. Praha : Olympia, 1988. 

197 pp. ISBN 27-051-88. 

5. HIANIK, J. 2010. Vzťah ukazovateľov herného výkonu družstva k výsledku zápasu. Bratislava : 

Univerzita Komenského, 2010. 128 pp. ISBN 978-80-8113-019-9. 

6. HUGHES, M. D., BARTLETT, R. M. 2002. The use of performance parameters in performance 

analysis. In J. Sport Science, 2002, 20. no 5, pp.739-754. ISNN 0264-0414. 

7. JONES, D. P., JAMES, N., MELLALIEU, D., S., 2004. Possession as a performance indicator in 

soccer. In International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. [online] 2004, vol. 4, no. 1. 

ISSN 1474-8185. 

8. JONES, B., M., 2009. Scoring First and Home Advantage in the NHL. In International Journal of 

Performance Analysis in Sport. [online] 2009, vol. 9, no. 3. ISSN 1474-8185. 

9. OSTKA, V., BUKAČ, L., DOVALIL, J. 1979. Technicko-taktická příprava : Obrana – útok. In 

Jednotný tréninkový systém v ledním hokeji II : Dospělí, 1979. pp. 26-65. 

10. MAČURA, P., POTOCKÝ, F. 2009. Vplyv herných činností jednotlivca na víťazstvo v basketbalovom 

zápase. In Zborník vedeckých prác katedry hier FTVŠ UK v Bratislave č. 14. Bratislava : 

Peter Mačura PEEM, 2009, pp. 7-13. ISBN 978-80-8113-014-4. 

11. LAGO, C. 2007. Are winners different from losers? Performance and chance in the FIFA World 

Cup Germany 2006. In International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. [online]. 2007, vol. 

7, no. 2, pp. 36-47. ISSN 1474-8185. 

12. PSOTTA, R. 2009. Kategoriální systémy pozorování herního výkonu. In SÜSS, V., BUCHTEL, 

J. et al. Hodnocení herního výkonu ve sportovních hrách. Praha : Karolinum, 2009, pp. 21-27. 

ISBN 978-80-246-1680-3. 

13. SAMPAIO, J., JANEIRA, M. 2003. Statistical analysis of basketball team performance: understanding 

teams´ wins and losses according to a different index of ball possessions. In International 

Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. [online]. 2003, vol. 3, no. 1. ISSN 1474-8185. 

14. TÓTH, I. 2003. Herný výkon 10 až 17 ročných hráčov ľadového hokeja z hľadiska kvantitatívnych 

a kvalitatívnych herných charakteristík. Dizertačná práca. Bratislava : Univerzita Komenského, 

2003. 149 pp. 

15. VAN ROOYEN, M., K., - NOAKES, T., D. 2006. Movement time as a predictor of success in the 

2003 Rugby World Cup Tournament. In International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. 

[online]. 2006, vol. 6, no. 1. ISSN 1474-8185. 


40 


RESUMÉ 

ROZDIELY V UKAZOVATEĽOCH HERNÉHO VÝKONU 

VÍŤAZNÝCH A PORAZENÝCH DRUŽSTIEV V ĽADOVOM HOKEJI 

Miroslav Huntata, Ludmila Zapletalová 

Cieľom práce bolo zistiť, v ktorých ukazovateľoch herného výkonu v ľadovom hokeji sa 

líšia víťazné a porazené družstvá. Herný výkon sa hodnotil zo záznamov zápasov zo zimných 

olympijských hier 2010 vo Vancouveri. Sledovalo sa 24 vybraných ukazovateľov herného 

výkonu, medzi ktoré patrili ukazovatele streľby, zásahy brankára, hra v početnej presile, hra 

v početnom oslabení, úspešnosť riešenia herných situácií 1:1 a kontrola puku. Významnosť 

rozdielov medzi vybranými ukazovateľmi herného výkonu družstiev sa testovala neparametrickým 

Mann-Whitneyho U-testom. Medzi víťaznými a porazenými družstvami sú významné 

rozdiely v početnosti a v úspešnosti streľby a zásahov brankára, ďalej v efektivite hry v početnej 

presile, resp. v početnom oslabení, v úspešnosti riešenia osobných súbojov a v kontrole 

puku v útočnej fáze hry, predovšetkým v útočnom pásme. Práca priniesla výsledky, ktoré môžu 

byť užitočné pri zefektívňovaní tréningového procesu, koučovaní družstva v zápase a môžu 

obohatiť teóriu herného výkonu v ľadovom hokeji. 


Assessment of pedalling techniques on a bicycle depending on intensity of training load 

41 

ASSESSMENT OF PEDALLING TECHNIQUES ON A BICYCLE 

DEPENDING ON INTENSITY OF TRAINING LOAD 

Juraj Karas 


Summary: The aim of the study was to compare the cyclical fluctuations propulsive force 

produced during pedalling as a criterion for the assessment of technique in cyclists, and noncyclist 

at different exercise intensities at frequency of 90 revolutions per minute. Twenty 

competitive road cyclists and 20 fit non-cyclists volunteered to participate in the study. Both 

groups underwent in random order one-minute exercise on the isokinetic cycle ergometer at 

intensity of 100, 200 and 300 watt, and at the end also a 10-second maximum effort bout at 

frequency of 90 revolutions per minute. Propulsive force (the force transmitted through the 

chain to the braked flywheel) was recorded during the tests. From each minute exercise the 

average values of minimum, maximum and average force of 360-degree pedalling cycle were 

obtained. In addition equality coefficient of pedalling as a percent difference between maximum, 

minimum force, and average force was calculated. Results showed significant differences 

(p < 0,05) in equality pedalling coefficient during 200-watt load and in 300-watt load. Differences 

were found for those loads, which cyclists prefer in their training and racing. The results 

proved a specific effect of training on pedalling technique depending on the training intensity 

of preferred pedalling frequencies. 

Key words: equality pedalling coefficient, exercise intensity, pedalling technique 

Introduction 

Good performance in endurance sports depends not only on maximum aerobic power, 

but also sufficiently high mechanical efficiency of muscular work. Its level is determined 

by the efficiency of converting energy sources (fat and sugar) into usable energy in muscle 

cells macroergic phosphates (ATP and CP), as well as the effect of its further conversion into 

mechanical work of muscle contraction itself. An important factor that affects the mechanical 

efficiency is technique. Its significance is the greater; the more technically demanding movement 

is implemented. 

Even though pedalling a bicycle is one of the relatively simple and low-tech physical 

activities, differences between road cyclists and non-cyclists moderately fit in mechanical 

efficiency exist. While individuals of the general population reach the gross mechanical 

efficiency of approximately 20 % (Hamid et al., 2005), for the trained cyclists values up to 

about 25 % are reported (Burke, 2003). 

Under the technique in cycling we understand way in which the force produced by leg 

muscles is transmitted to pedal a bicycle. One of the factors pedalling technique can be 


42 

Juraj Karas 

considered the range of variation of force during the 360-degree turnaround cycle pedals. 

As Hamar et al. (1994) states good pedalling technique in practice may consist of fewer large 

fluctuations in power between the maximum and minimum force (Fig. 1). It is based on 

monitoring of the effective forces in the isokinetic ergometer pedalling. As a criterion of 

technique, is the difference of maximum and minimum force, or their mutual ratio. 

Figure 1 

Difference maximum and minimum force during the 360-degree turn pedal cycle averaged 

from minute load at 300 watts at a frequency of 90 pedalling revolutions per minute 

for cyclists and non-cyclists 

Fluctuation forces during image rotation cranks have long been the focus of biomechanics 

and designers. In the past several manufacturers of crank and converter tried to make 

crank transducer with elliptical transducers to reduce the pedal force at the stage when the 

crank is in the six o'clock position, the so-called deadlock. From 1983 to 1993 Biopace 

Japanese manufacturer Shimano began to construct the crank type. However, the setting of 

the ellipse to the crank paradoxically meant that in overcoming the deadlock the transducers 

showed the greatest resistance. This means that deadlock (pedal crank in a vertical position) 

had a larger radius of the transmitter and active image position (pedal cranks in a horizontal 

position) is smaller (Fig. 2). The result of such a structure was irregular and uncomfortable 

pedalling, which obstructed the smooth and even action of forces during the 360-degree 

traction cycle. Cyclists using the converter type Biopace complained about pain in the knee, 

which was probably a result of spending more efforts to overcome the deadlock. Engineers 

are trying to solve these problems, alleviating ellipse. Such an arrangement, however, did 

not eliminate the problems, so this type of transducers was finally withdrawn from the market. 



43 

Figure 2 

Distribution of teeth on the large chainring Shimano – Biopace 

Currently, several brands, such as the Spanish company Rotor, have begun to deal with 

the production of elliptical transducers again. This time, however, they used the opposite 

distribution ellipse diameters in relation to the transducers cranks. It was based on the fact 

that cyclist around the horizontal plane produces the greatest strength, namely the position 

of the cranks was 20 degrees below the horizontal position. In this position the transmitter 

has the largest radius, and vice versa the smallest in the lowest position of deadlock. In this 

position, due to the lower radius of the transducer it is sufficient to operate with less power, 

so the transition is smoother (Fig. 3). 

Figure 3 

Distribution of teeth on the large chainring Rotor 


44 

Juraj Karas 

The manufacturer claims that the converter Rotor Q-Rings helps increase the driving 

force shifted to the wheels of a bicycle. It has to be due to the fact that it was their elliptic 

shape minimizes resistance stroke to overcome deadlock and maximizes power transfer in 

the position of the active stroke. Furthermore, the product could be used for faster riding at 

reduced production of lactate; the bike is better acceleration, smoother activation of muscles 

during stroke, which should minimize the wear and tear on joints at a desirable increase of 

load on the "driving" muscles and tendons. Products used by some professional cycling teams 

and are available on the market and the general public. 

Carmichael et al. (2003) states mechanical efficiency of pedalling is higher at lower 

drop of power in vertical positions ("top and bottom of image", also known as "deadlock"). 

He believes that mountain bikers have better pedalling technique as cyclists of other disciplines. 

This was justified by the fact that during riding steep mountain they remain in a bicycle 

seat. In order not to lose traction on gravel and loose surfaces they press on pedals evenly. 

The purpose of the study 

The exact scientific studies on this subject in the literature are lacking. The aim of scientific 

study was therefore to compare the range of variation of forces of cyclists and non-cyclists 

at different intensities. We assumed that cyclists will have a smaller difference between the 

maximum and minimum force as non-cyclists, and this will also depend on intensity of load 

speed. 

Methods 

The file consisted of 20 performance and 20 non-cyclists (recreational athletes). To the 

group of cyclists, we included individuals who rode at least 5000 km per year over the past 

5 seasons. Basic data on age, anthropometric characteristics and training history of the two 

files are listed in Table 1. 

Table 1 

Characteristic set of 

Cyclists 

Non-cyclists 

N 20 20 

Age (years) 26,8 ± 9,7 30 ± 8,7 

Weight (kg) 72,6 ± 7,8 82 ± 8,1 

Height (cm) 179,5 ± 6,2 180,2 ± 6,1 

Duration of training (years) 9 ± 3,5 

Training volume (km / years) 10300 ± 5151 



45 

Testing was realized in laboratory conditions on the bicycle ergometer Ergocycle that 

allows monitoring of tangential driving forces at frequency of 100 Hz. In the examinations 

we used isokinetic mode. This regime is characterized by a constant speed ensured by the 

special electromagnetic brake control system, which instantly adjusts resistance force acting 

on the pedals so that the pedalling rate remains, regardless of the pedal force, constant. 

For each individual we set saddle position and handlebars. Proband stood next to the 

saddle, picked up the leg from the ground, so that the leg was in a horizontal position. 

According to the upper edge, we set the seat height. Then he sat on the bike and seat height 

was checked or adjusted to the upper thigh leg outstretched in the position of deadlock pedal 

in a way so that it reached 145 to 155 degree angle (chosen limb slightly bent at the knee 

joint). The handlebars were adjusted to the same height as the saddle; in case of the higher 

subjects it was 2 – 5 cm below. 

Both groups completed tests in sport footwear, which were mounted to the pedal with 

the help of clips and baskets. To ensure standard conditions they performed tests of load in 

saddle. Within the actual testing the probands went through one-minute load at a frequency 

of 90 revolutions per minute gradually in the wattage of 100 watts, 200 watts and 300 watts. 

Since performance in isokinetic mode depends on the subjective effort, selected intensity 

load was maintained by adjusting (increasing or decreasing) of individual effort based on 

immediate information on performance of subjects updated after each rotation on the ergometer 

monitor. Finally, test subjects underwent a 10-second maximum effort load at a 

frequency of 90 revolutions per minute. 

For every one-minute load we used the software Ergocycle and this way we obtained 

average minimum force (N), maximum force (N) and average force (N) of 360-degree cycle 

of pedal revolution. When we subtracted the minimal force from the maximum force we got 

the difference of force (N). When the average force divided the difference we got ratio that 

we expressed in percentage (%) and called it equality pedalling coefficient. We compared 

the differences between the two groups in the equality-pedalling coefficient, with the parametric 

unpaired T-test. 

Results and discussion 

The results showed that the equality-pedalling coefficient of cyclists and non-cyclists 

at load of 100 watts did not show significant differences (Fig. 4). We assume that this could 

be due to too low intensity loads that cyclists hardly every use in training. 

At the 200-watt load, we found significant difference (p < 0.05), where the cyclists 

reached a coefficient of 120 ± 20 % and 138 ± non-cyclists 19 % (Fig. 4). It is this load that 

is essential for cyclist's training. Average performance cyclist aerobic threshold is around 

200 watts and the optimal frequency of revolutions around the 90 th . 

Load at 300 watts confirmed a significant difference (p < 0.05) when the cyclists reached 

the coefficient of 116 ± 17% and non-cyclists 134 ± 24 % (Fig. 4). For this load non-cyclists 

have to spend a huge effort and are not able to maintain it for longer time. However, for the 

performance cyclists this intensity presents anaerobic threshold, in which they spent most 

time when racing or during time trials and training. (Vogt et al., 2006, Smith et al., 2001). 

At 10-second maximum pedalling efforts no significant differences (p < 0.05) between cyclists 

and non-cyclists (Fig. 4) were confirmed. 


46 

Juraj Karas 

Figure 4 

The coefficient of uniformity and cyclists pedalling at cyclists and non-cyclists 

at 100, 200, 300 watts and 10 seconds of maximum effort 

Conclusions 

1. The equality pedalling coefficient of cyclists and non-cyclists confirmed significant 

differences (p < 0.05) in 200-watt and 300-watt load in the frequency of revolutions 90 th . 

2. The equality pedalling coefficient of cyclists and non-cyclists didn't show significant 

differences in 100-watt load for 10-second maximum effort of pedalling frequency rotations 

90th 

3. Differences in equality pedalling coefficient are shown for those loads that cyclists 

use in training and racing. On the other hand, differences weren't shown in loads, in which 

cyclists do not train or train only minimally. 

4. Monitoring fluctuations in effective driving forces depending on the current position 

of the cranks appears to be an appropriate means for assessing specific training contingent 

changes in pedalling technique. 

References 

1. BURKE, E. R. 2003. High-tech cycling. 2nd ed. 2003, s. 282. 

2. CARMICHAEL, CH., ARMSTRONG, L., NYE, P. J. 2003. The Lance Armstrong Performance 

performance program. 2003, s. 150-154. 

3. CARMICHAEL, CH. 2003. Rozhodujúci jízda. Praha : Pragma 2003. 350s. 

4. HAMAR, D. a kol. 1996. Izokinetický bicyklový ergometer vo funkčnej diagnostike cyklistov. 

Telesná výchova a šport, 6, 1996, č. 4, s. 11-14. 

5. HAMAR, D., LIPKOVÁ, J. 2008. Fyziológia telesných cvičení. Bratislava : UK, 2008. 



47 

6. HAMAR, D., GAŽOVIČ, O., SCHICKHOFER, P. 1994. Izokinetický bicyklový ergometer – uplatnenie 

vo funkčnej diagnostike a rehabilitácii. Slovenský lekár, 1994, č. 6-7, s. 41-44. 

7. HAMID, G., SHANNON, J., MARTIN, J. 2005. Physiologic basis of respiratory disease. ch. 65, 

2005, s. 739. 

8. HILL, A. 1992. The maximum work and mechanical efficiency of human muscles, and their most 

economical speed. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 56, 1992, s. 19-41. 

9. KORFF, T., ROMER, L. M., MAYHEW, I., MARTIN, J. C. 2007. Effect of Pedaling Technique 

on Mechanical Effectiveness and Efficiency in Cyclists. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2007, č. 6, s. 

991-995. 

10. SMITTH, M.F., DAVISON, R. C. R., BALMER, J., BIRD, S. R. 2001. Reliability of Mean Power 

Recorded During Indoor and Outdoor Self-Paced 40 km Cycling Time-Trials. Int. J. Sports Med. 

2001, č 22 (4), s. 270-274. 

11. VOGT, S., HEINRICH, L., SCHUMACHER, Y. O., BLUM, A., ROECKER, K., DICKHUTH, H. 

H., SCHMID, A. 2006. Power output during stage racing in Professional road cycling. Med. Sci. 

Sports Exerc. 2006, č. 1, s. 147-151. 

RESUMÉ 

POSUDZOVANIE TECHNIKY ŠLIAPANIA NA BICYKLI 

V ZÁVISLOSTI OD INTENZITY TRÉNINGOVÉHO ZAŤAŽENIA 

Juraj Karas 

Cieľom štúdie bolo porovnať rozsah cyklického kolísania síl (koeficient rovnomernosti šliapania) 

ako základu na posudzovanie techniky šliapania cyklistov a rekreačných športovcov 

(necyklistov) pri rôznych intenzitách zaťaženia vo frekvencii 90 otáčok. Sledovania sa zúčastnilo 

20 výkonnostných cestných cyklistov a 20 necyklistov. Obe skupiny absolvovali v náhodnom 

poradí minútové zaťaženia na izokinetickom bicyklovom ergometri na úrovni 100 watt, 

200 watt a 300 watt a na záver 10-sekundové zaťaženie maximálnym úsilím pri frekvencii 

90 otáčok za minútu. V priebehu testov sa zaznamenávala hnacia sila (sila prenášaná prostredníctvom 

reťaze na brzdený zotrvačník ergometra). Z každého minútového zaťaženia 

sme získali priemerné hodnoty minimálnej, maximálnej a priemernej sily z 360-stupňového 

záberového cyklu. Z nich sme vypočítavali koeficient rovnomernosti šliapania ako percentuálny 

podiel rozdielu medzi maximálnou a minimálnou silou a priemernej sily. Signifikantné 

rozdiely (p < 0,05) v koeficiente rovnomernosti šliapania sa ukázali pri 200-wattovom 

a 300-wattovom zaťažení, t. j. v tých intenzitách, ktoré sú typické pre cyklistický tréning 

a preteky. Výsledky preukázali špecifický efekt tréningu na techniku šliapania v závislosti 

od intenzity tréningového zaťaženia v preferovanej frekvencii šliapania. 


48 

Juraj Karas 


Effects of the quality of selected kinds of game skills of an individual on the set outcome in men’s top-level volleyball 

49 

EFFECTS OF THE QUALITY OF SELECTED KINDS 

OF GAME SKILLS OF AN INDIVIDUAL ON THE SET OUTCOME 

IN MEN’S TOP-LEVEL VOLLEYBALL 

Vladimír Přidal, Jaroslav Hančák 


Summary: The purpose of the submitted study is to find indicators of the set outcome in men's 

top-level volleyball based on investigation into differences in the quality of realisation of individual 

kinds of attack hits, blocks and service between winning and losing teams. In order to find 

dependences between the dependent variable – set outcome, and independent variables – quality 

of realisation of the investigated kinds of attack hit, block and service, χ 2 -test was used. In search 

for relative differences between winning and losing teams in the investigated assessment grades, 

the test of significance of difference in relative values was used. Of total eight investigated game 

performance indicators, we discovered four that can be considered limiting indicators of the set 

outcome. They include the quality of spike (p < 0.01), tip (p < 0.05), double block (p < 0.01) 

and jump serve (p < 0.01). 

Key words: volleyball, men, set outcome, kind of game skills of an individual 

Analysis of the issue 

Search for the reasons why a team won a match is considered one of the key fields of 

investigation into the volleyball game performance. Discovering the reasons for winning or 

losing can bring valuable information allowing coaches to respond correctly within their 

coaching strategy and to identify possible corrections to the training process. Investigation 

into the indicators limiting a team’s success in a set has been undertaken by several authors 

(Eom, Schutz, 1992; Přidal, 2001, 2002; Hairinen, Hoivala, Blomqvist, 2004; Marcelino, 

Mesquita, 2008; Monteiro, 2009; Marcelino, 2010 and others). 

On the other hand, the issue of relations between the used kind of game skills and the 

quality of their realisation or the quality of realisation of individual kinds of game skills by 

an individual in relation to a volleyball team’s success in a set has been investigated by far 

less authors. Out of the above relations, service was analysed most frequently. In evaluation 

of the men’s final at the 2002 World Championships, Ejem (2003) did not ascertain any 

significant differences between the quality of the used kind of service and team’s success in 

a set. On the other hand, Přidal (2012) found significant dependences between the kind and 

the quality of service. He discovered that jump serve is more effective than floater. Causal 

relations between the opponents’ serve and set up for an attack in Greek setters was investigated 

by Papadimitriou et al. (2004). They monitored pass, set and attack hit kinds. They 

ascertained that the quality of pass indirectly determines the attack strategy, although without 


50 

Vladimír Přidal – Jaroslav Hančák 

any effect on the set efficacy and attack hit kind. Tsivika, Papadopoulou (2008) found significant 

differences between the kind and placing of the serve as well as between the kind and 

the zone of the attack-hit realisation. Přidal, Hančák (2010) found significant dependences 

between an exact pass of the opponent’s service and the following kind of block of the serving 

team in both winning and losing teams in top-level men’s volleyball. 

The purpose of our study was to discover indicators of the set outcome based on investigation 

into the relations between the set outcome and the quality of selected kinds of end 

game skills of individuals in top men’s volleyball. We assume different frequency of quality 

assessment grades between the set winning and set losing teams as regards the quality of 

realisation of individual kinds of attack hits, blocks and serves. 

Methodology 

The investigated sample consisted of top-level men’s volleyball national teams assessed 

in matches at the 2009 European Championships. Total 12 matches were assessed that 

included 48 sets. We used the absolute, one-stage ex post facto research. The basic method 

of data collection was indirect monitoring and professional assessment. 

We assessed the following variables: 

– Team’s success in a set – the criterion was a won or lost set; 

– Kind of the attack hit (spike, lob, tip), block (single block, double block, triple block) 

and service (jump serve, floater) realisation; 

– Quality of realisation of the selected kinds of game skills of individuals. 

In assessment of the quality of realisation of the assessed game skills, a four-grade scale 

of assessment was used: 

– Grade 1: the most effective realisation of a game skill resulting in a point for the 

attacking team; 

– Grade 2: effective realisation of a game skill resulting in a playable ball and creating 

advantageous game conditions for the assessed team; 

– Grade 3: ineffective realisation of a game skill resulting in a playable ball, but 

creating disadvantageous conditions for the assessed team; 

– Grade 4: fault resulting in a point for the opponent. 

The methodology of assessment is based on an assumption that the rate of the assessed 

game skill efficacy is reflected in the quality of the following game skill. 

We verified the existence of dependences between the set outcome (won or lost set) 

and the quality of individual attack hits, blocks and serves. Then the most significant 

relative differences between winning and losing teams in individual assessment grades of 

the quality of realisation of individual kinds of the assessed game skills of individuals were 

compared. 

In order to find causal relations between a dependent variable – the set outcome, and 

independent variables – quality of realisation of the investigated kinds of attack hit, block 

and serve in all the assessed grades, χ 2 -test was used. 

In search for relative differences between winning and losing teams in the investigated 

assessment grades, the test of significance of difference in relative values according to 



51 

Hendel (2009) was used. Significance of differences was assessed on the 5 % and 1 % level 

of statistical importance. The kind of a particular game skill, in which significant differences 

in the quality of its realisation between teams winning and losing a set were found, was 

considered an indicator of the team’s success in a set. 

For interpretation of results, logical methods, such as analysis, synthesis, inductive and 

inductive/deductive procedures were used. 


Frequency of occurrence of individual kinds of the assessed game skills 

of an individual 

Total 2 503 attack hits in matches were assessed. From the aspect of individual investigated 

kinds of attack hits, most of them were spikes (84.2 %). When compared to spikes, 

considerably lower was the number of technical hits, such as lobs or tips (6.1 % and 9.7 % 

respectively). 

% 

90 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Spike Lob Tip 

84,2 6,1 9,7 

Figure 1 

Frequency of occurrence of individual kinds of attack hits 

We assessed total 2 273 blocks. In the assessment of frequency of individual kinds of 

blocks from the aspect of blockers, it was found that a match includes mostly double blocks 

(55.7 %) and single blocks (28.4 %). The recorded number of triple blocks was considerably 

lower (12.5 %) and the least of all occurred a situation where the defending team failed to 

set up a block (3.4%). Failure to set up a block was not assessed in game situations where 

the attacking team failed to create conditions for attack termination, but only for pushing 

the ball to the opposite side. This way, only the situations where the defending team was 

unable to block the opponent's attack that could end by any of the above hits were assessed. 

The reason could be a surprising attack, bad evaluation of the game situation, etc. The 

dominancy of group blocks (double block, triple block) is clear and confirms the basic 


52 


strategy of current top teams to field as many blockers against the opponent’s attack as 

allowed by the game situation (Fig. 2). 

% 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Singel block Double block Triple block No block 

28,4 55,7 12,5 3,4 

Figure 2 

Frequency of occurrence of individual kinds of blocks 

As regards the frequency of occurrence of individual kinds of serves, total 2 140 

serves were recorded. In top-level volleyball, most frequently used kinds of serves are jump 

serve and float. In the investigated sample, we recorded 1 121 (52.4 %) jump serves and 1 

019 (47.6%) floats (Fig. 3). 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

% 30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Jump serve 

Floater 

52,4 47,6 

Figure 3 

Frequency of occurrence of individual kinds of serves 



53 

Analysis of relations between the set outcome 

and the quality of individual kinds of attack hits 

Relation between the set outcome and the quality of spike 

Significant dependence was found (χ 2 = 21.31573829, p < 0.01) in relation between 

the set outcome and the quality of spike. Testing of significance of differences in relative 

values of individual assessment grades between winning and losing teams confirmed 

significant differences in both the most effective spike (z = 1.6512479, p < 0.01) and faulty 

spike (z = 1.6512479, p < 0.01). 

It appears that winning teams gain more points in a set by spiking and are able to produce 

fewer faults in comparison to losing teams (Fig. 4). This may result from better selection of 

attack placing, detection of the opponent’s defence weaknesses, opportunity to attack more 

often after an exact set and more appropriate distribution of sets by winning teams. 

The statistical analysis shows that the quality of spike is an indicator of the set outcome. 

65 

60 

55 

21.31573829** 

50 

45 

40 

% 35 

30 

p < 0.01 

25 

20 

15 

10 p < 0.01 

5 

0 

1 2 3 4 

Winning 57,6 17,3 9,8 15,3 

Loss 48,2 20 10,8 21 

Spike quality 

Figure 4 

Relation between the set outcome and the quality of spike 

Relation between the set outcome and the quality of lob 

Testing of statistical importance did not confirm any significant dependence between 

the set outcome and the quality of lob (χ 2 = 4.206516891, p ˃ 0.05). From the aspect of 

significance of differences in relative values of individual quality assessment grades, no 

statistically significant differences between winning and losing teams were found (Fig. 5). 

This result can be explained by the fact that lob as a technical hit is used by attacking players 

of both winning and losing teams most frequently in disadvantageous game situations where 

the purpose of attack is only to hold the ball in and not fault. That is why the distribution of 

individual grades of the lob quality is similar in both winning and losing teams. 

The lob effectiveness is the lowest of all the assessed kinds of attack hits. On the other 

hand, players of both winning and losing teams fault the least with this technique. Lob is 


54 


used by players of both winning and losing teams least of all the assessed kinds of attack 

hits. The statistical analysis shows that the quality of lob does not indicate the set outcome. 

% 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

4.206516891 

0 

1 2 3 4 

Winning 30,1 25,3 37,4 7,2 

Loss 17,8 27,4 41,1 13,7 

Lob quality 

Figure 5 

Relation between the set outcome and the quality of lob 

Relation between the set outcome and the quality of tip 

Significant dependence (χ 2 = 10.00066615, p < 0.05) was confirmed in relation between 

the set outcome and the quality of tip. Testing of significance of differences in two relative 

values of individual assessment grades between winning and losing teams showed significant 

differences only in faulty tip of 9.5 % (z = 2.548772, p < 0.05). It results from the statistical 

analysis that the quality of tip is one of the indicators of the set outcome. 

Both the frequency and effectiveness of tip in both winning and losing teams is, similarly 

to lob, very low (Fig. 6). Tip, as another variant of technical hits, is most often used in case 

of an inaccurate set to the net as an “emergency solution”, or in case of an accurate set to 

surprise defenders in the opposite field. In the latter case, attackers of winning teams were 

able to use tip "advantages” more effectively than attackers of losing teams. A statistically 

significant difference was found in faulty tips where losing teams faulted more and thus lost 

more points than the winning ones. Whether the higher fault rate was caused by the effect 

of inaccurate set or its inaccurate realisation by an attacker, it can be left only as an assumption 

based on our evaluation procedures. 

From the aspect of individual kinds of attack hits, it clearly appears that the most effective 

kind of attack hit is spike, thus it is only logical that this is also the most used hit by attackers. 

Lob and tip serve only as an attack variant after an inaccurate set or as an option of a surprising 

attack putting higher demands on defenders of the opponent as regards their attention 

and "game reading”. 



55 

% 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

1 2 3 4 

Winning 35,8 40,4 18,3 5,5 

Loss 30 28,6 26,4 15 

Tip quality 

10.00066615* 

p < 0.05 

Figure 6 

Relation between the set outcome and the tip quality 

Analysis of relations between the set outcome and the quality 

of individual kinds of blocks 

Relation between the set outcome and the single-block quality 

No significant dependence (χ 2 = 4.587903003, p > 0.05) was found in relation between 

the set outcome and the single block quality. Testing of statistical significance of differences 

in relative values of individual assessment grades between winning and losing teams 

did not show any significant differences (Fig. 7). 

% 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

4.587903003 

1 2 3 4 

Winning 9,7 9,6 19 61,7 

Loss 7,3 6,1 19,9 66,7 

Single block quality 

Figure 7 

Relation between the set outcome and the single block quality 


56 


Relation between the set outcome and the double block quality 

Significant dependence (χ 2 = 25.66360448, p < 0.01) was found between the set outcome 

and the double block quality. Testing of significance of differences in relative values of 

individual assessment grades between winning and losing teams determined statistically 

significant differences in grades 1, 3 and 4 (Fig. 8). It results from the statistical analysis 

that the double block quality is an indicator of the set outcome. 

Winning teams were able to score more and fault less with double block. In an effective 

double block (grade 2), by means of which a team has created optimum conditions for counterattack 

setup and end, differences between winning and losing teams were minimum. Important 

is also the finding that significant differences in block efficacy were found in particular in 

double block, which occurs most of all in the game. This may be caused by a better tactical 

preparation of teams before a match or by better abilities of blockers to "read” the opponent’s 

game. 

65 

60 

55 25.66360448** 

50 

45 

% 

40 

35 

30 

p < 0.01 

25 

20 p < 0.01 

p < 0.01 

15 

10 

5 

0 

1 2 3 4 

Winning 14,3 15,3 25,1 45,3 

Loss 8,8 14,4 18,5 58,3 

Double block quality 

Figure 8 

Relation between the set outcome and the double block quality 

Relation between the set outcome and the triple block quality 

In this relation, significant dependence was not confirmed (χ 2 = 3.782230542, p > 0.05). 

Neither have we found any significant differences in relative values of individual assessment 

grades between winning and losing teams (Fig. 9). It can be stated that the triple block quality 

is not an indicator of the set outcome. 

The group triple block is a frequently used defensive game combination in disadvantageous 

game situations facing the opponent’s attack. In spite of the fact that no significant 

dependences were found, the results indicate that winning teams reached higher relative 

values of positive quality assessment grades (grade 1 and 2) in the assessed matches when 

they were able to gain more points by triple blocks and create more optimum conditions for 

a counter-attack in comparison to losing teams. On the other had, higher values of negative 

assessment grades (grades 3 and 4) were reached by losing teams having higher fault rate 



57 

and creating higher number of disadvantageous situations for their own team game. Triple 

block is the most effective kind of block, and the basic strategy of defending teams must 

build on the tactics based on setting up a triple block, if permitted by game situation. 

% 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

3.782230542 

0 

1 2 3 4 

Winning 17,7 26,9 24,6 30,8 

Loss 11,8 22,3 30 35,9 

Triple block quality 

Figure 9 

Relation between the set outcome and the triple block quality 

Analysis of relations between the set outcome and the quality 

of individual kinds of service 

Relation between the set outcome and the jump serve quality 

Testing of statistical significance showed significant dependences between the set 

outcome and the jump serve quality (χ 2 = 10.66933065, p < 0.01). Testing of significance 

of differences in individual assessment grades between winning and losing teams showed 

significant differences in grades 1 (z = 2.4239447, p < 0.01) and 4 (z = 2.30896, p < 0.01). 

The statistical analysis shows that the quality of jump serve is an indicator of the set outcome. 

Winning teams gained more points by jump serve and were able to do fewer faults in 

comparison to losing ones (Fig. 10). High share of ineffective serves (more than 50 %) points 

to high accuracy of jump serve receiving in men’s top volleyball. 

Relation between the set outcome and the floater quality 

No significant difference was found in relation between the set outcome and the floater 

quality (χ 2 = 3.652798941, p > 0.05). Neither was found any significant difference in all the 

assessment grades of the float serve quality by testing of significance of differences between 

the winning and losing teams (Fig. 11). It results from statistical analysis that the quality of 

float is not an indicator of the set outcome. 


58 


60 

55 

50 

10.66933065** 

45 

40 

35 

p < 0,01 

% 30 

25 

20 

p < 0.01 

15 

10 

5 

0 

1 2 3 4 

Winning 8,3 14,6 55,7 21,4 

Loss 4,7 16,1 51,8 27,4 

Jump serve quality 

Figure 10 

Relation between the set outcome and the jump serve quality 

85 

80 

75 3.652798941 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

% 45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

1 2 3 4 

Winning 2,9 12,8 78,2 6,1 

Loss 1,2 12,2 79,8 6,8 

Floater quality 

Figure 11 

Relation between the set outcome and the floater quality 

Differences found in all the quality assessment grades between winning and losing teams 

were very small. The speed of a floating ball flight is slower, that is why teams do not achieve 

as high effectiveness and score as with the jump serve. On the other hand, the fault rate in 

float is much lower than with the jump serve. Floater fulfils more a tactical intention of 

a team to lower the fault rate and to place the serve exactly into a space of a weaker receiving 

player or front-row player, making his following attack more difficult. 



59 

Conclusion 

The purpose of our study was to discover indicators of the set outcome based on investigation 

into the relations between the set outcome and the quality of realisation of selected 

kinds of end game skills of an individual in men’s top-level volleyball. 

It was ascertained that winning teams were able to achieve relatively more points in 

a set by spiking and their fault rate was significantly lower than that of losing teams. Fault 

rate was crucial in evaluation of the tip quality where winning teams produced far less faults 

than the losing ones. On the other hand, we did not find any significant differences between 

winning and losing teams in the lob quality. It appears that the quality of spike and tip are 

the indicators of the set outcome. 

By investigation of relations between the set outcome and the quality of individual 

evaluated kinds of blocks, it was found that only the quality of a double block could be 

considered an indicator of the set outcome. The most important fact is that teams winning 

a set use more double blocks than losing teams. No significant differences were found in 

the single and triple block quality between winning and losing teams. 

We found dependences between the set outcome and the quality of jump serve as well. 

Players of teams winning a set achieve by jump serve more points and produce fewer faults. 

This way, jump serve can be considered an indicator of the set outcome. On the other hand, 

no significant differences between winning and losing teams were found in the quality of 

floater. 

Of total eight investigated game performance indicators, we discovered four that can 

be considered limiting indicators of the set outcome. They include the quality of spike, tip, 

double block and jump serve. 

The results apply to the category of top men’s volleyball teams. Verification of these 

results application to other age or performance categories will need special investigations. 

References 

1. EOM, H. J., SCHUTZ, R. V. 1992. Statistical Analysis of Volleyball Team Performance. Res. Quart. 

Exerc. Sport. 63, 1992, No. 1, pp. 11-18. 

2. HAIRINEN, M., HOIVALA, T., BLOMQVIST, M. 2004. Differences between winning and losing 

teams in men’s European top-level volleyball. in KIHU – Research Institute for Olympic Sports. 

Jyväskylä, Finland : Finnish Volleyball Association, 2004. 

3. HENDL, J. 2009. Přehled statistických metod : analýza a metaanalýza dat. Praha : Portál, 2009. 

696 pp. ISBN 978-80-7367-482-3. 

4. EJEM, M. 2003. Servis v současném vrcholovém volejbale. Zpravodaj Českého volejbalového svazu, 

2003, č. 1, pp. 19-20. 

5. MARCELINO, R., MESQUITA, I. 2008. Associations between performance indicators and set 

results in male volleyball, In 5 th international scientific conference on kinesiology, „Kinesiology 

research trends and applications“. September, 10-14, 2008. Zagreb Croatia: Faculty of Kinesiology, 

2008, pp. 955- 958. 

6. MARCELINO, R. et al. 2010. Study of performance indicators in male volleyball according to 

the set results. In Revista Brasileira de Educaçăo Física e Esporte, Vol. 24, No. 1 Săo Paulo : Jan, 

2010. 


60 


7. MONTEIRO,R. et al. 2009. Relationship between the set outcome and the dig and attack efficacy 

in elite male Volleyball game. In International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. Volume 

9, Number 3, 2009, pp. 294-305. 

8. PAPADIMITRIOU, K. et al. 2004. The effect of the opponents' serve on the offensive actions of 

Greek setters in volleyball games. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 2004, 

1, pp. 23-33. 

9. PŘIDAL, V. 2002. Závislosť úspešnosti družstva od kvantitatívných a kvalitatívnych charakteristík 

herných činností jednotlivca vo volejbale. In Acta Facultatis Educationis Physicae Universitatis 

Comenianae XLII, Bratislava : UK, 2002. ISBN 80-223-1694-6. 

10. PŘIDAL, V. 2002. Závislosť úspešnosti družstva od kvality herných činností jednotlivca pri zakladaní 

a zakončení útoku vo volejbale. In Česká kinantropologie, 2002, No.1. 

11. PŘIDAL, V. 2012.Vzťah medzi vybranými parametrami podania vo vrcholovom volejbale mužov. 

Česká kinantropologie, 2012, č.1.s. 58-69.ISSN 1211-9261. 

13. PŘIDAL, V., HANČÁK, J. 2010. Vplyv presnosti príjmu podania na vytvorenie výhodnejších 

herných situácií v útoku vo vrcholovom volejbale mužov. In Zborník vedeckých prác. Bratislava : 

Katedra hier FTVŠ UK, 2010, č. 15, pp. 85-95. ISBN 978-80-8113-021-2. 

14. TSIVIKA, M., PAPADOPOULOU, S.D. 2008. Evaluation of the Technical and Tactical Offensive 

Elements of the Men’s European Volleyball Championship. [on-line]. In Physical Training, December 

2008, [quoted on 20.8.2011]. available at z http://ejmas.com/2008/pt/ptart_tsivika_0812.html 

RESUMÉ 

VPLYV KVALITY VYBRANÝCH DRUHOV 

HERNÝCH ČINNOSTÍ JEDNOTLIVCA NA ÚSPEŠNOSŤ DRUŽSTVA 

V SETE VO VRCHOLOVOM VOLEJBALE MUŽOV 

Vladimír Přidal, Jaroslav Hančák 

V predloženej štúdii zisťujeme indikátory úspešnosti družstva v sete vo vrcholovom volejbale 

mužov na základe skúmania rozdielov v kvalite realizácie jednotlivých druhov útočných 

úderov, blokov a podania medzi víťaznými a porazenými družstvami. Na zistenie súvislostí 

medzi závisle premennou – úspešnosťou družstva v sete a nezávisle premennými – kvalitou 

realizácie skúmaných druhov útočného úderu, bloku a podania sme použili χ 2 -test. Pri hľadaní 

relatívnych rozdielov medzi víťaznými a porazenými družstvami v skúmaných stupňoch 

hodnotenia sme použili test významnosti rozdielu relatívnych hodnôt. Z ôsmich skúmaných 

ukazovateľov herného výkonu družstva sme odhalili štyri, ktoré môžeme považovať za 

indikátory limitujúce úspešnosť družstva v sete. Konkrétne ide o kvalitu smeča (p < 0,01), 

ulievky (p < 0,05), dvojbloku (p < 0,01) a smečovaného podania (p < 0,01). 


Life satisfaction of sedentary and physically active population 

61 

LIFE SATISFACTION OF SEDENTARY 

AND PHYSICALLY ACTIVE POPULATION 

Dagmar Nemček, Jela Labudová, Stanislav Kraček 


Summary: Life satisfaction of a man is closely related to the assessment of quality of life, but 

it also reflects the life-style, which should include the regular participation in physical activity. 

Therefore, this research contributes to knowledge of the life satisfaction of the population in 

relation to sport. The largest percentage of our group (n = 452) consisted of recreational athletes 

(59.5 %), 25.7 % of all respondents were elite athletes and 14.8 %, sedentary people. To collect 

an empirical data we used a standardized questionnaire SWLS. We evaluated the significance 

of differences between the level of life satisfaction and groups of respondents, by the Chi – square. 

The results showed notable differences in levels of life satisfaction in terms of sports, where 

a significantly higher satisfaction with life, showed the group of people regularly performing 

sport activity (elite and recreational levels) compared to the population favouring a sedentary 

lifestyle. Sport and active lifestyles are important resources that contribute to increase life 

satisfaction of citizens. 

Keywords: life satisfaction, sedentary living population, leisure time athletes, elite athletes 

Introduction 

Post modern culture is reflected by its effort lo lead a quality life, the subtext of which 

is a health care, fear of illness, self awareness, your inner desire for liberation from the 

common way of life, finding fulfilment and life satisfaction. It is very important to become 

an element of evaluation, for example: how one influences and is able to prove his/her 

existence at a certain age period, such as his/her value orientation, household management, 

type of family life, education, leisure time activities, participation in social life (Horák, 1996). 

Jansa (2005) stated that the dynamic form of being an individual is determined genetically 

(inherited disposition), ethnically (cultural adaptation to gender), socially (family life, human 

characteristics such as adolescent, adult, pensioner), culturally (traditions, customs, sports 

activities), professionally (selected occupation), generation determination (relationships 

between adults and youth). 

According to Slepičková (2005), the variety of different human activities in life can be 

found, from thinking, through the addictive behaviour to the permanent activities taking 

place in the lives. These activities depend on the biological and social components of life. 

They are associated with important factors, such as sports activities, as well as other important 

activities and relationships and practices aimed at achieving full and harmonious state between 

physical and mental aspects of a man. Life satisfaction of a man is closely related to the 


62 

Dagmar Nemček – Jela Labudová – Stanislav Kraček 

evaluation of a life quality, but it also reflects the lifestyle of a man. Hartl and Hartlová (2010) 

perceive this as an expression of feeling of happiness in life where the key features are: selfsufficiency, 

mobility, self-realization, his mood, and thus the level of their life satisfaction 

or dissatisfaction. To express the feelings of happiness in life and subjective well-being, 

one should consider: 

– Emotional component, consisting of positive and negative emotions 

– Cognitive component, consisting of satisfaction with my life. 

Variety of individual assessment of a person by Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener 

et al., 1985), Meaning in Life range (Halama, 2002) and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 

1965) were used in this research. In general, we can suggest that the quality of life 

illustrates many aspects of the reflection of real life. It is fact, how individuals perceive their 

position in the context of cultural and value systems of the society in which he lives, in relation 

to its objectives, expectations, interests and lifestyle. Although the basis remains the subjective 

experience of human health and self-evaluation, objective, the measurable factors, aspects 

of meaning and value at the individual level are still very important. Subjective experience 

is a reflection of objective reality and it is more important than objective. People perceive 

their position in life in the context of values of the society they live in and in relation to its 

objectives, expectations, fulfilment of their interests and lifestyle determinants. These can 

be expressed by: objective measurement of social indicators, subjective estimation of the 

overall life satisfaction, and subjective estimation of satisfaction in various areas of life. 

The optimal life satisfaction is the balance between life goals and objective conditions, their 

impact, prospects of experience. What is needed is confidence as belief in own abilities to 

organize, and solve the tasks necessary to cope with the situation, control of one’s lives and 

overcome the pitfalls of the environment, as well as expectations of his/her own efficiency 

and consequences of the actions, and conviction that the action leads to his/her satisfaction. 

Life satisfaction of growing age is strongly influenced by life experience and relationships, 

especially family relationships and health status. The questionnaire survey of 11, 13 

and 15 year olds from Slovakia (HBSC-Slovakia, 2011) presented that 80% of respondents 

in all age groups rated their life satisfaction positively (at 6 points or more). The evaluation 

of girls was worse than the evaluation of boys. There is also statistically significant difference 

among girls in ratings of life satisfaction among 11 years and 15 years of age. This research 

was based on the question: “In general, where do you feel your life is on the scale from 0 

(worst possible life) to 10 points (best possible life)?” 

Bardiovský (2010) published an opinion of people in wheelchairs (n = 40) on the meaning 

of their lives. The respondents with disabilities, who were in a wheelchair after an accident, 

have responded to 18 questions. It was found out that 68% of them ranked in the average 

range of life meaningfulness. The most common motive for their action was: "There are things 

in which I am engaged," "I have goals in life, I would like to meet." Peráčková (2011) stated 

that life satisfaction and quality of life depends on the value orientation of understanding 

the meaning of life in biodromal development of personality. Nemček (2011) focused on 

the relationship of sports and quality of life of older people (n = 144), where she found out 

that sport does not play a significant role in the life of a senior and it does not participate in 

increasing life satisfaction. 

The contribution of our research work is to present the importance of the life satisfaction 

of the population in relation to sport. Research is conducted within the grant project MŠVVŠ 



63 

SR titled "Sport in the lives of specific groups of people as an instrument of social inclusion" 

registered under 1/0099/12. 

Aim 

Our aim is to enhance knowledge of life satisfaction of sedentary and sporty-active 

population in order to highlight the differentiation between them. We expect significant 

differences in different levels of life satisfaction among sedentary and sporty-active population, 

where elite athletes will have the highest level of life satisfaction, expressed in all five 

statements. 

Tasks 

1. To analyse the level of satisfaction with five statements, relating to the life satisfaction 

differentially in three population groups (leisure time athletes, elite athletes and population 

with a sedentary lifestyle). 

2. To compare the differences in the level of life satisfaction among the three evaluated 

groups of respondents. 

3. Global assessment of the extent of life satisfaction of the population with a sedentary 

lifestyle, leisure time athletes and elite athletes and appraisal of the differences between the 

groups. 

Methods 

The group consisted of a total of 452 respondents who were mostly aged 15 – 29 years 

(59.3 %), nearly half of them were students (48.3 %), childless (63.9 %) and unmarried 

(63.1 %). The largest percentages of respondents were leisure time athletes (59.5 %) at 

a frequency of three (31.3 %) and four times (28.5 %) a week. Respondents were randomly 

selected mainly from Bratislava and its surroundings (Table 1). 

Empirical data was obtained using a standardized questionnaire SWLS (Satisfaction 

with Life Scale) – A range of life satisfaction (Diener et al., 1985). The range was designed 

to determine the personal, comprehensive judgment of life satisfaction, which is theoretically 

predictable, depending on the circumstances of life compared with some of the individual 

standards. SWLS consists of five items. Items of this scale are global rather than specific 

nature, which is the respondent in the process of forming an overall judgment of life satisfaction 

to consider possible areas of your life in accordance with their own values. The authors 

emanate from the opinion that each individual has different standards for success in the 

corresponding areas of his life. It is therefore necessary for the assessment of the overall 

level of life satisfaction rather work with complex statements relating to life as a whole than 

those which are always oriented to only one specific area. For each item respondents expressed 

their agreement or disagreement with the statement given by a seven-point Likert scale 

(Diener, et al., 1997). The points on a scale expressed the following views: 1 – strongly 

disagree with the statement, 2 – disagree, 3 – slightly disagree, 4 – both agree and disagree, 

5 – slightly agree 6 – agree, 7 – strongly agree with the statement. The point value 1 was 

a poor measure of the construct, the value of 7 strongly construct. The answers can be obtained 

for each item from 1 to 7 points. Assigning a value score of 7 – 5 points means a higher 


64 


level of life satisfaction, by assigning 4 – neutral and assigning 3 – 1 point’s satisfaction means 

lower levels of life satisfaction. 

Table 1 

Percentage of respondents from different perspectives 

SAMPLE REPRESENTATION [%] 

Sex 

Age 

Work status 

Marital Status 

Children 

Sport 

Men 

Women 

41.59 58.41 

15 – 29 30 – 44 over 45 

59.3 22.1 18.6 

Employed Unemployed Students 

44.9 6.8 48.3 

Single Married Divorced Widowed 

63.1 31.4 4.6 0.9 

Having children 

Childless 

36.1 63.9 

Elite athletes Leisure time athletes Sedentary living population 

25.7 59.5 14.8 

The overall dimension of life satisfaction can have values from 5 to 35. The scores 

obtained through this range can be interpreted in absolute as well as the relative life satisfaction. 

Point scores falling below the interval from 5 to 9 representing extreme dissatisfaction, 

interval from 10 to 14 – dissatisfaction, the score between 15 and 19 points to slightly disgruntled 

individuals, the range from 20 to 24 represents a partial life satisfaction, the interval 

from 25 to 29 includes individuals who are living very happy, and achieving a score above 

30 indicates the extremely high life satisfaction (Diener et al., 1985). In the Questionnaire 

SWLS were added the personal details of respondents and information about their participation, 

respectively absence of physical activity and sport. 

For the statistical evaluation of data, we used the percentage of respondents' answers, 

the mean of the responses expressed by respondents and the standard deviation. The significance 

of differences between the levels of life satisfaction among groups of respondents 

were evaluated by Chi-square (qualitative assessment values) to 1 %, 5 % and 10 % level 

of statistical significance. Comparison of life satisfaction in the result section is performed 

in terms of participation in sport and physical activity of respondents. 


In the evaluation of the percentage representation of the respondents´ answers on the 

first statement we found out, that the highest level of life satisfaction showed elite athletes, 

whose lives were in many aspects as close to their ideal, when 6.9 % of the elite athletes 

expressed the highest satisfaction with life (score of 7) in the first statement, in comparison 



65 

with others evaluated groups. The lowest level of satisfaction expressed the respondents 

currently living a sedentary lifestyle (Table 2). Likewise, talking about the total number of 

the respondents with point score 7 – 5, we found out that the highest levels of life satisfaction 

showed the clear elite athletes (64.7 %) compared to the leisure time athletes (59.6 %) and 

also compared to the population with a sedentary lifestyle (40.5 %), who opted to the greatest 

extent (32 %) for a neutral expression of life satisfaction (score of 4), and also showed the 

highest (27.1 %) dissatisfaction with their lives (score of 3 – 1) compared to the other 

groups (17.9 % and 14.7 %), although not one respondent with a sedentary lifestyle did not 

complete disagree with the statement. 

Table 2 

In most ways my life is close to my ideal 

scale of assessment/ 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 

respondents % 

A 2,7 18,9 18,9 32,4 21,6 5,5 0 

B 6,1 19,7 33,8 22,5 9,4 6,1 2,4 

C 6,9 19,0 38,8 20,6 7,8 5,2 1,7 

Legend to Tables 2 – 6: 

7 – Strongly agree A – sedentary living population 

6 – I agree B – leisure time athletes 

4 – Neither agrees nor disagrees C – elite athletes 

5 – Rather agree 

3 – Disagree 

2 – I disagree 

1 – Strongly disagree 

The best living conditions expressed the leisure time athletes, when complete agreement 

with the statement was expressed by 15 % of respondents and the group with sedentary lifestyle 

expressed the lowest level of satisfaction with their living conditions again, when 2.7 % 

with the statement did not agree at all (Table 3). In the evaluation of the total point score of 

7 – 5 answers, we find the highest level of satisfaction with the living conditions with elite 

athletes (79.9 %), slightly lower for leisure time athletes (75.6 %) and lowest in the sedentary 

living population, when 56.7 % of respondents opted for a positive response to the statement. 

On the other hand, they also showed the highest rate of disagreement with the statement of 

the excellent living conditions, while 18.9 % rated the statement score from 3 to 1 and also 

took the highest number of neutral opinion on the statement in comparison with the leisure 

time and the elite athletes. In this case we can confirm the highest level of satisfaction with 

living conditions for the elite athlete who mostly expressed a positive opinion and only the 

fewest (8 %) were negative. 


66 


Table 3 

The conditions of my life are excellent 


respondents % 

A 8,1 18,9 29,7 24,4 10,8 5,4 2,7 

B 15,0 31,5 29,1 11,7 8,4 3,3 1,0 

C 11,2 41,2 27,5 12,1 6,0 1,0 1,0 

Interesting was also the finding, that the population living a sedentary lifestyle in either 

case did not express their full satisfaction with their own lives, but on the other hand, none 

of this group of respondents did not feel complete dissatisfaction with their lives (Table 4). 

On the other hand, this group showed the greatest number (21.6 %) in a neutral stance in 

satisfaction with their lives compared to other groups evaluated. Taking into account the sum 

of positive responses (score of 7 – 5) across the groups in this statement, we can confirm 

the highest level of satisfaction with their own lives in the group of elite athletes (74.2 %), 

followed by leisure time athletes (67.2 %) and the last place people with a sedentary lifestyle 

who are satisfied with their lives at 54.1 %. This clearly indicates the negative percentage 

of responses (score of 3 – 1), when sedentary living population showed the highest percentage 

(24.3 %) compared to the leisure time athletes (15 %) and the elite athletes (7.7 %). 

Table 4 

I am satisfied with life 

scale of assessments/ 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 

respondents % 

A 0 18,9 35,2 21,6 16,2 8,1 0 

B 9,9 24,4 32,9 17,8 9,4 4,2 1,4 

C 7,8 27,6 38,8 18,1 3,4 2,6 1,7 

Leisure time athletes have gotten important things in life in the greatest number (11.7 %) 

and this group of respondents’ expressed complete disagreement with this statement in the 

fewest (0.5 %) of all three groups evaluated (Table 5). It was interesting that one respondent 

with a sedentary lifestyle has not reached the important things in life fully, and vice versa, 

2.8 % of the respondents did not agree with statement completely, which meant that they 

have not achieved what they want in life so far. But when we consider the positive percentage 

of this statement (7 – 5 score points), we find out, that the sedentary population expressed 

the highest rate (72.9 %) of satisfaction with their lives in this statement, and conversely the 

performance athletes expressed the lowest rate, when 12.6 % of the respondents in this group 

were less satisfied. This may be due to the fact, that in the perception of the elite athletes, 

the "important things" are their own performance, which is mainly in the competitions, they 

have high aspirations and dreams to achieve better performances, constantly improve the 



67 

performance and thus express more disagreement with this statement and the lower level 

of life satisfaction than sedentary population for whom "important things" have completely 

different meaning in life. The rate of disagreement with this statement (3 – 1 score points) 

was same in the active and sedentary population (19 %), and the lowest with the leisure 

time athletes (12.7 %). The most neutral opinion on this statement took elite athletes (20.7 %). 

Table 5 

So far I have gotten the important things I want in life 


respondents % 

A 0 29,7 43,2 8,1 16,2 0 2,8 

B 11,7 29,1 26,8 19,7 8,4 3,8 0,5 

C 10,3 23,3 26,7 20,7 9,5 6,9 2,6 

The last statement expressing the degree of life satisfaction speaks in favour of leisure 

time population, when this group of respondents expressed the greatest degree of “strongly 

agree” with this statement (13.1 %), i.e.: the most of the leisure time athletes would not 

change absolutely anything, if they could live again (Table 6). Likewise, only one percent 

of respondents did not agree with this statement at all, so only one percent of respondents 

would lead their life in a completely different way, if they could live again. The sum of 

positive responses (score of 7 – 5) across the evaluated groups speaks in favour of the leisure 

time athletes, where the highest percentage (46.4 %) agrees with the statement. The lowest 

level of satisfaction with life (3 – 1 score points) expressed sedentary group of respondents, 

when only 59.4 % of people would change their lives, compared to 34.5 % elite athletes and 

26.3 % leisure time athletes. The neutral position is the most favoured among the elite athletes 

(24.1 %) and least among sedentary respondents (8.2 %). 

Table 6 

If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing 


respondents % 

A 5,4 0 27,0 8,2 27,0 21,6 10,8 

B 13,1 13,6 19,7 18,3 13,1 12,2 1,0 

C 6,9 12,9 21,6 24,1 12,1 16,4 6,0 

The average value of the responses, demonstrated the highest level of satisfaction with 

life of active populations, when the highest average level of responses in the three statements 

(1, 2, 3) was recorded with the elite athletes and the remaining two statements were rated 

most positively among leisure time athletes (4, 5). On the other hand, the lowest level of 

life satisfaction was observed in populations with a sedentary lifestyle, which showed the 


68 


lowest average level in four out of five statements (1, 2, 3, 5) and as already mentioned above, 

elite athletes were mostly in conflict with the fourth statement which meant that they have 

not reached the important things in life yet, like achieving better performance in sports 

disciplines they compete in. (Table 7). 

Statements 

Table 7 

Assessment of the statements in terms of sports 

Sedentary population Recreational athletes Elite athletes 

x st. deviation x st. deviation x st. deviation 

1. 4,324 1,248 4,629 1,356 4,741 1,293 

2. 4,622 1,421 5,192 1,337 5,336 1,157 

3. 4,405 1,212 4,892 1,340 5,034 1,194 

4. 4,784 1,205 5,028 1,310 4,733 1,488 

5. 3,405 1,607 4,192 1,847 4,052 1,641 

Legend: 

1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal. 

2. The conditions of my life are excellent. 

3. I am satisfied with life. 

4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. 

5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. 

Through percentages of the respondents falling into each interval point score, we can 

conclude, that most respondents from the population living a sedentary lifestyle is only 

partially satisfied with their lives (20 to 24 points), the largest percentage of the population 

from the elite athletes shows a high degree of satisfaction with their lives (25 – 29 points) 

and leisure time athletes falls into each interval point score (partial satisfaction and high 

satisfaction) with the same number of respondents (31 %) (Fig. 1). 10 % and 5 % level of 

statistical significance of differences in the point score intervals between groups of respondents 

were recorded in all five intervals between sedentary population and elite athletes 

and in two cases it was observed significance level (p < 0.05) between leisure time athletes 

and sedentary population. We can state significant differences in levels of life satisfaction 

in terms of sports, where a significantly higher satisfaction with life has regularly sporting 

population (on the elite and leisure time levels) compared to the population favouring 

a sedentary lifestyle. Statistically significant differences in levels of life satisfaction among 

the leisure time and elite athletes have not been established. 

Although we noted significant differences in levels of life satisfaction among sedentary 

and active population, we could not confirm hypotheses we have set, where we assumed the 

highest level of satisfaction with life in all five statements with elite athletes because the 

percentage of respondents and the average responses speaks in benefit only of the first three 

statements where elite athletes achieve the highest level of satisfaction. With the fourth 

statement agreed in the greatest extent sedentary living population and with the fifth one 

agreed mostly leisure time athletes. Despite this finding, we can confidently say that sport 



69 

and active lifestyles are important elements that contribute to increased life satisfaction of 

citizens. 

50 

45 

40 

leisure time athletes sedentary living population elite athletes 

35 

30 

% 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

p

70 


Based on these results, we recommend to inactive public, which prefers a sedentary 

lifestyle, to realize that active participation in sports does not contribute only to increasing 

physical performance and fitness of the individual, possibly leading to changes in somatic 

variables. An active lifestyle, which includes regular physical activity significantly, affects 

the psyche of the individual by increasing his positive view of himself and his overall 

contribution to higher life satisfaction. 

References 

BARDIOVSKÝ, M. 2010. Šport – zmysluplný spôsob života vozíčkara po traume. In Kolektív: 

Pohyb a zdravie. Bratislava : PEEM, 2010, s. 6-9. 

DIENER, E., EMMONS, R. A., LARSEN, R. J. and GRIFFIN, S. 1985. The satisfaction with life 

scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 1985, č. 49, s. 71-75. 

DIENER, E., SUH, E., OISHI, S. 1997. Recent Findings on subjective well – being. Citované 

[2012-04-01]. Dostupné na internete: 

http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/%7Eediener/hottopic/hottopic.htm. 

HALAMA, P. 2002. Vývin a konštrukcia škály životnej zmysluplnosti. In Československá psychologia, 

46, 2002, č. 3, s. 265-276. 

HARTL, P., HARTLOVÁ, H. 2010. Velký psychologický slovník. Praha : Portál, s.r.o., 2010. 800 s. 

HBSC-Slovensko. 2011. Sociálne determinanty zdravia školákov. HBSC-Slovensko – 2009/2010. 

Záverečná správa. Citované [2011-10-02]. Dostupné na internete: 

http://www.hbsc.org/countries/downloads_countries/Slovakia/HBSC_Internet_mensisubor_0910. 

pdf. 

HORÁK, S. 1996. Podíl tělocvičných aktivít na životním stylu pracujících. In Celostátní studentská 

vědecká konference s mezinárodní účastí z oboru Kinantropologie. Sborník referatů. Olomouc : 

FTK PU, 1996, s. 44-47. 

JANSA, P. 2005. Sport a pohybové aktivity v životním stylu českobudějovické populace (18 – 61 

a více let). In Sport a pohybové aktivity v životě české populace. Praha : FTVS UK, 2005, s. 7-82. 

NEMČEK, D. a kol. 2011. Kvalita života seniorov a pohybová aktivita ako jej súčasť. Bratislava : 

Michal Vaško – Vydavateľstvo, Prešov, 2011, s. 6-74. 

PERÁČKOVÁ, J. 2011. Manažment osobného rozvoja v staršom veku pre zlepšenie kvality života 

prostredníctvom pohybových aktivít. In NEMČEK, D. a kol. Kvalita seniorov a pohybová aktivita 

ako jej súčasť. Bratislava : Michal Vaško – Vydavateľstvo, Prešov, 2011, s. 96-118. 

ROSENBERG, M. 1965. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton : Princeton University 

Press, 1965. 

SLEPIČKOVÁ, I. 2005. Sport a volný čas. Praha : UK FTVS, 2005. 

RESUMÉ 

ŽIVOTNÁ SPOKOJNOSŤ NEŠPORTUJÚCEJ A ŠPORTUJÚCEJ 

POPULÁCIE 

Dagmar Nemček, Jela Labudová, Stanislav Kraček 

Životná spokojnosť človeka je v úzkom vzťahu k posúdeniu jeho kvality života, ale je aj 

odrazom realizovaného životného štýlu, ktorého súčasťou by mala byť aj pravidelná účasť 

na pohybovej aktivite. Preto výskumom prispievame k rozšíreniu poznatkov o životnej spo- 



71 

kojnosti populácie vo vzťahu k športovaniu. Najväčšie percento nášho súboru (n = 452) športovalo 

rekreačne (59,5 %), 25,7 % bolo výkonnostných športovcov a 14,8 % nešportovalo 

vôbec. Na zisťovanie empirických údajov sme použili štandardizovaný dotazník SWLS. 

Významnosť rozdielov medzi úrovňou životnej spokojnosti a skupinami respondentov sme 

hodnotili Chí-kvadrátom. Výsledky ukázali signifikantné rozdiely v úrovni životnej spokojnosti 

z hľadiska športovania, kde výrazne vyššiu spokojnosť so životom vykazovala pravidelne 

športujúca časť populácie (na výkonnostnej i rekreačnej úrovni) oproti populácii preferujúcej 

sedavý spôsob života. Šport a aktívny spôsob života sú významnými prostriedkami, 

ktoré prispievajú k v zvyšovaniu životnej spokojnosti občanov. 


72 



Biomechanical analysis of introductory exercises swing in vaulting riding 

73 

BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES 

SWING IN VAULTING RIDING 

Martin Vaváček, Marek Hardoň, Anton Lednický 


Summary: Our work focuses on comparing kinematic indices of an exercise figure – a swing, 

being applied as an introductory exercise in the training of compulsory set of exercises in 

vaulting. We compared selected kinematic indices, their performance on a horse and on 

a barrel simulator. 

Via ex post facto research with the help of substantially logical methods and computer technique 

we tried to find differences and connections in kinematic indices. Exercises were carried out 

on a barrel simulator and thereafter on a horse. The follow-up file was formed by 9 top riders 

from various clubs in the Czech and Slovak Republic. 

During the research we managed to support more significant dependence between the indices 

– angular dimension between vertical axis and lower limbs in maximum upper position, in hand 

stand and distance between hips and a wrist on a horse in motion – where r = 0,833 (p < 0,01). 

Key words: biomechanical analysis, vaulting riding, 3D analysis, software Qualysis 

Introduction 

Problems and plenty of publications pursuing scientific research in riding sports are 

not extensive and mainly in vaulting very rare, though despite it the importance of scientific 

research starts to be underlined as necessity for the sake of more accurate and better understanding 

the nodal points of optimal technique when performing exercise figures or training 

certain motion stereotypes. More detailed was analysed the technique of exercise figures 

at compulsory set of exercises in the graduation thesis of KLOUDA (2010) who explored 

impact of premature tipping of upper body upon performance quality of introductory exercise 

– a swing. The research was executed with the help of biomechanical motion analysis using 

video analyser of SIMI MOTION software. The author ascertained that according to actual 

experience and in comparison with acquired data, a fault in the timing technique of exercise 

figures, s. c. premature „lying down,“ is the prime cause of unsuccessful attempt, in case 

of slight fault – less successful attempt. It is namely the matter of deviation from optimal 

technique and exercise performance, which further influences the whole exercise figure 

and can have fatal consequences upon exercise performance itself. The author claims at the 

same time that it expressly results from acquired facts that the main factor in the researched 

issue is primarily the correspondence of a rider with horse motion along with proper motion 

timing of particular physical segments, and not just maximal fixation and speed of lower 

limbs. On the other hand we can say that without sufficient accelerating of lower limbs 


74 

Martin Vaváček – Marek Hardoň – Anton Lednický 

the hand stand from sitting position cannot be reached. Acceleration value seems to be 

individual according to acquired information and undoubtedly dependent on constitutive 

properties of a sportsman body. 

Aims 

The aim of our work was to monitor and compare selected biomechanical parameters 

of introductory exercise technique – a swing, which is an inevitable prerequisite to master 

compulsory set of exercises by using 3D biomechanical analysis of motion in a group of 

top vaulting sportsmen. Concurrently we wanted to pursue dependent relation between 

kinematic indices when exercises are performed on a horse and on a barrel simulator and 

to compare each other. Quality of exercise figure - the hand stand, expressed by angular 

dimension (an angle between vertical axis and lower limbs), as a final position of exercise 

figure – a swing, shall more significantly depend on distance between sportsman’s hips and 

wrist in initial phase of an exercise figure riding on a horseback than on a barrel simulator. 

The team of experiments was formed by 9 gymnasts of the jockey clubs: Jockey Club 

Nitra Kynek, Secondary Vocational School of Agriculture Šaľa, National Stud-farm Toľčianky, 

University of Veterinary Medicine Košice, Lucky Drásov (Czech Republic), Tlumačov 

(Czech Republic). The experiments were at the age from 20 to 30, who actively devote 

themselves to vaulting and represent their countries at the greatest vaulting events in Europe 

and worldwide (Table 1). 

Table 1 

Basic characteristics of follow-up file 

No. Age Sport age BM [kg] BH [cm] BMI (I) 

1 16 9 54 163 20.32 

2 27 17 85 175 27.75 

3 26 17 76 178 23.98 

4 31 17 75 180 23.14 

5 28 17 66 185 19.28 

6 30 20 60 168 21.25 

7 22 12 70 183 20.90 

8 26 14 66 178 20.83 

9 23 9 78 178 24.61 

Methods 

To acquire kinematic indices of motion activity we used video recording enabling to 

use 3-dimensial analysis of kinograms. 

Taking into account that specific exercise is performed on a horse moving in a circle, 

it is to a great extent problematic to reach upright position of scanning devices. Therefore 



75 

we decided for a fixed position of cameras in assured distance from exactly set zone on a 

circle, in which exercises will be performed. 

Figure 1 

Sketch diagram of cameras layout and of other material equipment 

Herewith we minimize inaccuracy caused by track bending of horse motion (Soumar, 

2009). Performing this experiment we applied optoelectronic analyser of Swedish company 

Qualisys, using high frequency cameras with coincidental usage of passive and active markers 

for monitoring motion of a measured object. 

The acquired empirical data were exposed to be processed by mathematic statistics using 

computer programme Excel and programme software at the Faculty of Physical Education 

and Sport, Comenius University in Bratislava. Particularly monitored indices were characterized 

by a median (M), maximum value (x max ), minimal value (x min ) and extent of variation 

(Vr). 

Beside analysis of mathematic statistics we used also following non-parametric assessment 

methods: Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient to express dependent relations among 

indices. 

Statistical significance of relations was assessed at 1 %, 5 % a 10 % significance level. 


76 

Martin Vaváček – Marek Hardoň – Anton Lednický 

Results 

Index 1 Index 2 

Our hypothesis was supported, since angular dimension between vertical axis and lower 

limbs in maximum upper position, in hand stand – as a final position of exercise figure – 

a swing, depended more significantly on distance between hips and a wrist of a gymnast in 

initial phase of exercise figure when riding on a horseback than on a barrel simulator. More 

significant dependent relation between these indices was recorded in the case of exercise on 

a horseback, where r = 0,833 (p < 0,01). More significant dependent relation was not recorded 

on a barrel simulator. (p = n.s.) We interpret this fact so, that the static barrel simulator is 

not able to positively or negatively influence motion of a gymnast in the course of exercise 

in contrast to exercise performance in motion on a horseback. We deem that when a gymnast 

retracts pelvis from the wrists (from grasp) in motion on a horseback it comes to counterproductive 

motion actuated by horse gallop, which negatively influences motions of a gymnast 

in the course of exercise performance. 

Conclusions 

Following our results we recommend trainers and gymnasts to concentrate on eliminating 

the faults, which are caused by premature retraction of pelvis of a gymnast to tail part 

of the horse, mainly upon conditions in motion on a horseback. The reasons are those that 

we recorded non-significant statistic dependent relation between the quality of exercise 

figure – hand stand, expressed by angular dimension (angle between vertical axis and lower 

limbs), as a final position of exercise figure – a swing and distance between hips and a wrist 

of a gymnast in initial phase of exercise figure on a barrel simulator. 

References 

1. KLOUDA, L. 2010. Využití kinematické analýzy pro nácvik zášvihu do stoje na rukou ve voltiži. 

Diplomová práce. Brno : MU FTVS, 2010. 

2. SOUMAR, L. 2009. Intraindividuální variabilita opakovaného pohybu a její indikátory při řízení 

motorového vozidla. Disertační práce. Praha : UK FTVS, 2009. 



77 

RESUMÉ 

BIOMECHANICKÁ ANALÝZA PRÍPRAVÉHO CVIČENIA 

ZÁŠVIH VO VOLTÍŽNOM JAZDENÍ 

Martin Vaváček, Marek Hardoň, Anton Lednický 

V našej práci sme sa zaoberali porovnávaním kinematických ukazovateľov cvičebného tvaru 

zášvih, ktorý sa využíva ako prípravné cvičenie v tréningu povinnej zostavy vo voltíži. Porovnávali 

sme vybrané kinematické ukazovatele, ich realizáciu na koni a na sudovom trenažéri. 

Prostredníctvom ex post facto výskumu za pomoci využitia vecne-logických metód 

a výpočtovej techniky sme hľadali rozdiely a súvislosti v kinematických ukazovateľoch. 

Cvičenia boli vykonávané na sudovom trenažéri a následne na koni. Sledovaný súbor tvorilo 

9 vrcholových cvičencov z rôznych jazdeckých klubov z Čiech i Slovenska. V priebehu 

výskumu sa nám významnejšiu závislosť podarilo potvrdiť medzi ukazovateľmi – veľkosť 

uhla medzi vertikálnou osou a dolnými končatinami v maximálnej pozícii hore, v stojke na 

rukách a vo vzdialenosti medzi bedrami a zápästím na koni v pohybe, kde r = 0,833 (p < 0,01). 


ACTA FACULTATIS EDUCATIONIS PHYSICAE 

UNIVERSITATIS COMENIANAE 

Publicatio LII/I 

Vydala Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave 

Vytlačilo Polygrafické stredisko UK v Bratislave 

ISBN 978-80-223-3229-3

acta facultatis educationis physicae universitatis comenianae

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?