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116 F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu and detecting fine changes in musical structure (e.g., dynamics, intensity, instrumentation, tonal norms). The main limit of this study is related to the rather small sample size. Although this sample is appropriate by traditional statistical standards for comparing between the affect of musicians and non-musicians, it may be too small to support the present arousal and valence scores as affective norms. Although admittedly exploratory, these scores represent the first attempt of mapping the affective space of an entire musical composition. We also speculate that the present observations of positive affective valence reported for all the movements in Vivaldi’s Four Seasons may at least partially explain the high popularity of these concertos. People may look for exposure to such music as a form of selfadministered psychotherapy (Sloboda, 1985), considering that a common reason that people invoke for listening to music is related to its positive effects on emotion regulation and vigilance (DeNora, 1999; Juslin et al., 2008; Sloboda et al., 2001). The present study may also have implications for clinical research. Such activating and pleasant music has been shown to reduce burn-out symptoms and alleviate the quality of life in burnout patients (Brandes et al., 2009), as well as enhance recovery of verbal memory and focused attention, and prevent negative mood in early poststroke stage (Sarkamo et al., 2008). The present results inform the potential use of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons in these interventions. Another limit of this study may be related to the possibility that we underestimated the differences between musicians and non-musicians by using simple linguistic measures of arousal and valence, based on Russell’s circumplex model of affect. Multidimensional measures of music-induced emotions such as the Geneva Emotional Music Scales (Zentner et al., 2008) are increasingly used, and we have used it ourselves in other studies (Baltes et al., 2011; Miu & Baltes, 2012). However, we chose here the simpler measure of affect because it was easy to apply, reliable, and allowed the direct comparison of different emotions based on the representative dimensions of emotional arousal and valence (Bigand et al., 2005; Flores-Gutierrez et al., 2007; Scherer, 2004). Nonetheless, musicians may be trained to identify and express a greater variety of emotions associated with music, and consequently the use of global measures of affect may underestimate differences in music-induced affect between musicians and non-musicians. In conclusion, the present study found that all the movements of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons are perceived as pleasant, with slower movements inducing less emotional arousal than faster movements. In addition, we found discrete differences in the affect that this music induced in musicians and non-musicians, and suggest that these differences are related to the increased focus of musicians on original features of certain movements in relation to the others. This study encourages efforts to map the affective space of entire musical compositions, which would be useful in behavioral interventions aimed at supporting emotion regulation in everyday life, and enhancing cognitive recovery in clinical populations. Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu 117 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Diana Lungu for help with questionnaire scoring. REFERENCES Altenmuller, E., Schurmann, K., Lim, V. K., & Parlitz, D. (2002). Hits to the left, flops to the right: different emotions during listening to music are reflected in cortical lateralisation patterns. Neuropsychologia, 40, 2242-2256. Baltes, F. R., Avram, J., Miclea, M., & Miu, A. C. (2011). Emotions induced by operatic music: psychophysiological effects of music, plot, and acting: a scientist's tribute to Maria Callas. Brain and Cognition, 76, 146-157. Bartlett, J. C., & Dowling, W. J. (1980). The recognition of transposed melodies: A key distance effect in developmental perspective. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 6, 501-515. Bigand, E., Vieillard, S., Madurell, F., Marozeau, J., & Dacquet, A. (2005). Multidimensional scaling of emotional responses to music; the effect of musical expertise and of duration of the excerpts. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 1113-1139. Blood, A. J., & Zatorre, R. J. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 11818-11823. Brandes, V., Terris, D. D., Fischer, C., Schuessler, M. N., Ottowitz, G., Titscher, G., et al. (2009). Music programs designed to remedy burnout symptoms show significant effects after five weeks. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1169, 422- 425. Dalla Bella, S., Peretz, I., & Aronoff, N. (2003). Time course of melody recognition: a gating paradigm study. Perception and Psychophysics, 65, 1019-1028. DeNora, T. (1999). Music as a technology of the self. Poetics, 27, 31-36. Dowling, W. (1978). Scale and contour: Two components of a theory of memory for melodies. Psychological Review, 85, 341-354. Flores-Gutierrez, E. O., Diaz, J. L., Barrios, F. A., Humara, R. F., Guevara, M. A., Rio- Portilla, Y., et al. (2007). Metabolic and electric brain patterns during pleasant and unpleasant emotions induced by music masterpieces. International Journal of Psychology, 65, 69-84. Frances, R. (1988). The perception of music (W. J. Dowling, Trans.). Hillsdale: Erlbaum. Gabrielsson, A. S., & Lindström, E. (1993). On strong experiences of music. Musikpsychologie, 10, 118-139. Grewe, O., Nagel, F., Kopiez, R., & Altenmuller, E. (2007). Listening to music as a recreative process: physiological, psychological, and psychoacoustical correlates of chills and strong emotions. Music Perception, 24, 297-314. Halpern, A. R., Bartlett, J. C., & Dowling, W. J. (1995). Aging and experience in the recognition of musical transpositions. Psychology and Aging, 10, 325-342. Holbrook, M. B. (1990). Effects of Tempo and Situational Arousal on the Listener's Perceptual and Affective Responses to Music. Psychology of Music, 18, 150-162 Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119
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